Algorithmic and advanced

Programming in Python

Eric Benhamou eric.benhamou@dauphine.eu

Remy Belmonte remy.belmonte@dauphine.eu
Masterclass 5
1
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Outline
1. What is a tree?
2. Binary trees
3. Order traversal

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Reminder of the objective of this course
• People often learn about data structures out of context
• But in this course you will learn foundational concepts by building a
real application with python and Flask

• To learn the ins and outs of the essential data structure, experiencing in
practice has proved to be a much more powerful way to learn data
structures

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Reminder of previous session
• In Master class 4, we discuss about hashing
• Question: can you summarize what hashing is and how it works?

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What is a Tree?
• A 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 is a data structure similar to a linked list but instead of each node
pointing simply to the next node in a linear fashion, each node points to a
number of nodes.

• Tree is an example of a non-linear data structure. A 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 structure is a way

of representing the hierarchical nature of a structure in a graphical form.

• Question: is the order important? can you cite some linear data structures?

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Is the order important?
• In trees ADT (Abstract Data Type), the order of the elements is not
important. If we need ordering information, linear data structures like
linked lists, stacks, queues, etc. can be used.

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Glossary
Root node

• The 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 of a tree is the node with no parents. There can be at most
one root node in a tree (node 𝐴 in the above example).
• An 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 refers to the link from parent to child (all links in the figure).

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Glossary

• A node with no children is called 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 node.

• Question: can you cite all of them?

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Glossary

• A node with no children is called 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 node.

• Question: can you cite all of them?
• (𝐸, 𝐽, 𝐾, 𝐻 and 𝐼).

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Glossary

• A node with no children is called 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 node Children of same parent

are called 𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
• Question: can you cite some?

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Glossary

• A node with no children is called 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 node Children of same parent

are called 𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
• Question: can you cite some?
• (𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are siblings of 𝐴, and 𝐸, 𝐹 are the siblings of 𝐵).

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Glossary

• A node 𝑝 is an 𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 of node 𝑞 if there exists a path from 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 to

𝑞 and 𝑝 appears on the path. The node 𝑞 is called a 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡 of 𝑝.
Question: what are the ancestors of K?

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Glossary

• A node 𝑝 is an 𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 of node 𝑞 if there exists a path from 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 to

𝑞 and 𝑝 appears on the path. The node 𝑞 is called a 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑡 of 𝑝.
Question: what are the ancestors of K?
• 𝐴, 𝐶 and 𝐺 are the ancestors of 𝐾.

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Glossary

• The set of all nodes at a given depth is called the 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 of the tree (𝐵,
𝐶 and 𝐷 are the same level). The root node is at level zero.
• The 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ of a node is the length of the path from the root to the node

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Glossary

• The set of all nodes at a given depth is called the 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 of the tree (𝐵,
𝐶 and 𝐷 are the same level). The root node is at level zero.
• The 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ of a node is the length of the path from the root to the node
• Question: what is the depth of G?

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Glossary

• The set of all nodes at a given depth is called the 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 of the tree (𝐵,
𝐶 and 𝐷 are the same level). The root node is at level zero.
• The 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ of a node is the length of the path from the root to the node
• Question: what is the depth of G?
• The depth of 𝐺 is 2, 𝐴 − 𝐶 − 𝐺

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Glossary

• The ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 of a node is the length of the path from that node to the
deepest node. The height of a tree is the length of the path from the
root to the deepest node in the tree. A (rooted) tree with only one node
(the root) has a height of zero.
• Question: what is the height of 𝐵 ?

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Glossary

• The ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 of a node is the length of the path from that node to the
deepest node. The height of a tree is the length of the path from the
root to the deepest node in the tree. A (rooted) tree with only one node
(the root) has a height of zero.
• Question: what is the height of 𝐵 ?
• The height of 𝐵 is 2 (𝐵 − 𝐹 − 𝐽).

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Glossary

• 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the maximum height among all the nodes in the
tree and 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the maximum depth among all the
nodes in the tree.
• For a given tree, depth and height returns the same value. But for
individual nodes we may get different results.

• Question: give height and depth of B?

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Glossary

• 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the maximum height among all the nodes in the
tree and 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the maximum depth among all the
nodes in the tree.
• For a given tree, depth and height returns the same value. But for
individual nodes we may get different results.

• Question: give height and depth of B? height of B 2, depth 1

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Glossary

• Question: what is the relationship between height and depth of a node

and the depth/height of a tree?

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Glossary

• Question: what is the relationship between height and depth of a node

and the depth/height of a tree?
• height + depth of a node = height/depth of the tree

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Glossary

• The size of a node is the number of descendants it has including itself

(the size of the subtree 𝐶 is 3).

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Glossary
• If every node in a tree has only one child (except leaf nodes) then we
call such trees 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠. If every node has only left child then we
call them 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠. Similarly, if every node has only right
child then we call them 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠.

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Binary trees
• A tree is called 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 if each node has zero child, one child or
two children. Empty tree is also a valid binary tree. We can visualize a
binary tree as consisting of a root and two disjoint binary trees, called
the left and right subtrees of the root.

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Generic binary trees
• A binary is balanced if it has symmetric right and left subtree

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Type of Binary trees
• Strict Binary Tree: A binary tree is called 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 if each
node has exactly two children or no children.

• Full Binary Tree: A binary tree is called 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 if each node
has exactly two children and all leaf nodes are at the same level.
• Question: can you draw a full binary tree of depth 3?

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Full Binary Tree
• Question: can you draw a full binary tree of depth 3?
• Yes, here we go!

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Complete binary tree
• Before defining the 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒, let us assume that the
height of the binary tree is ℎ. In complete binary trees, if we give
numbering for the nodes by starting at the root (let us say the root
node has 1) then we get a complete sequence from 1 to the number of
nodes in the tree. While traversing we should give numbering for nil
pointers also. A binary tree is called 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 if all leaf
nodes are at height ℎ or ℎ − 1 and also without any missing number in
the sequence.

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Please complete?

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Please complete?

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Properties of binary trees
• For the following properties, let us assume that the height of the tree is
ℎ. Also, assume that root node is at height zero.

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Properties
• It is easy to get the number of nodes in a full binary tree of depth n
• Question: what is it?

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Properties
• It is easy to get the number of nodes in a full binary tree of depth n
• Question: what is it?
• 20 + 21 + 22 + … + 2n = 2n+1 − 1

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Properties
• From the diagram we can infer the following properties:
• The number of nodes 𝑛 in a full binary tree is 2h+1 – 1
• The number of nodes 𝑛 in a complete binary tree is between 2h (minimum) and
2h+1 – 1 (maximum).
• The number of leaf nodes in a full binary tree is 2h
• The number of None links (wasted pointers) in a complete binary tree of 𝑛
nodes is 𝑛 + 1.

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Structure of Binary Trees
• Now let us define structure of the binary tree. For simplicity, assume
that the data of the nodes are integers. One way to represent a node
(which contains data) is to have two links which point to left and right
children along with data fields as shown below:

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Structure

• Note: In trees, the default flow is from parent to children and it is not mandatory to show
directed branches. For our discussion, we assume both the representations shown below
are the same.

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Operations on Binary Trees
• Basic Operations
• Inserting an element into a tree
• Deleting an element from a tree
• Searching for an element
• Traversing the tree
• Auxiliary Operations
• Finding the size of the tree, node
• Finding the height of a tree, node
• Finding the level which has maximum sum
• Finding the least common ancestor (LCA) for a given pair of nodes, and many
more.

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Applications of Binary Trees
• Following are the some of the applications where 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 play
an important role:
• Expression trees are used in compilers.
• XML, json, etc.. Parsing
• Huffman coding trees that are used in data compression algorithms.
• Binary Search Tree (BST), which supports search, insertion and deletion on a
collection of items in O(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛) (average).
• Priority Queue (PQ), which supports search and deletion of minimum (or
maximum) on a collection of items in logarithmic time (in worst case).

• In machine learning, GBDT

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Binary Tree Traversals
• In order to process trees, we need a mechanism for traversing them,
and that forms the subject of this section. The process of visiting all
nodes of a tree is called 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙.
• Each node is processed only once but it may be visited more than
once.
• As we have already seen in linear data structures (like linked lists,
stacks, queues, etc.), the elements are visited in sequential order.

• But, in tree structures there are many different ways.

• Question: can you imagine some traversal possibilities?

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Binary Tree Traversals
• Tree traversal is like searching the tree, except that in traversal the
goal is to move through the tree in a particular order.
• In addition, all nodes are processed in the 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
stops when the required node is found.

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Traversal Possibilities
• Starting at the root of a binary tree, there are three main steps that can
be performed and the order in which they are performed defines the
traversal type. These steps are: performing an action on the current
node (referred to as "visiting" the node and denoted with “𝐷”),
traversing to the left child node (denoted with “𝐿”), and traversing to
the right child node (denoted with “𝑅”). This process can be easily
described through recursion. Based on the above definition there are 6
possibilities:

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Traversal Possibilities
1. 𝐿𝐷𝑅: Process left subtree, process the current node data and then
process right subtree
2. 𝐿𝑅𝐷: Process left subtree, process right subtree and then process the
current node data
3. 𝐷𝐿𝑅: Process the current node data, process left subtree and then
process right subtree
4. 𝐷𝑅𝐿: Process the current node data, process right subtree and then
process left subtree
5. 𝑅𝐷𝐿: Process right subtree, process the current node data and then
process left subtree
6. 𝑅𝐿𝐷: Process right subtree, process left subtree and then process the
current node data
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 Classifying the Traversals
• The sequence in which these entities (nodes) are processed defines a
particular traversal method. The classification is based on the order in
which current node is processed. That means, if we are classifying
based on current node (𝐷) and if 𝐷 comes in the middle then it does
not matter whether 𝐿 is on left side of 𝐷 or 𝑅 is on left side of 𝐷.
• Similarly, it does not matter whether 𝐿 is on right side of 𝐷 or 𝑅 is on
right side of 𝐷. Due to this, the total 6 possibilities are reduced to 3
and these are:
• PreOrder (𝐷𝐿𝑅) Traversal
• InOrder (𝐿𝐷𝑅) Traversal
• PostOrder (𝐿𝑅𝐷) Traversal

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Classifying the Traversals
• There is another traversal method which does not depend on the
above orders and it is:
• Level Order Traversal: This method is inspired from Breadth First Traversal
(BFS of Graph algorithms).
• Let us use the diagram below for the remaining discussion.

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 PreOrder Traversal
• In preorder traversal, each node is processed before (pre) either of its
subtrees. This is the simplest traversal to understand. However, even
though each node is processed before the subtrees, it still requires that
some information must be maintained while moving down the tree. In
the example above, 1 is processed first, then the left subtree, and this is
followed by the right subtree.

• Therefore, processing must return to the right subtree after finishing

the processing of the left subtree. To move to the right subtree after
processing the left subtree, we must maintain the root information.

• Question: what is the obvious ADT for such an information?

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 PreOrder Traversal
• The obvious ADT for such information is a stack. Because of its LIFO
structure, it is possible to get the information about the right subtrees
back in the reverse order. Preorder traversal is defined as follows:
• Visit the root.
• Traverse the left subtree in Preorder.
• Traverse the right subtree in Preorder.

• The nodes of tree would be visited in the order: 1 2 4 5 3 6 7

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PreOrder Traversal

• Question: What is the time and space complexity?

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PreOrder Traversal

• Question: What is the time and space complexity?

• Time complexity O(n) and space complexity O(n)

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Non-Recursive PreOrder Traversal
• In the recursive version, a stack is required as we need to remember
the current node so that after completing the left subtree we can go to
the right subtree. To simulate the same, first we process the current
node and before going to the left subtree, we store the current node on
stack. After completing the left subtree processing, 𝑝𝑜𝑝 the element
and go to its right subtree. Continue this process until stack is
nonempty.

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Non-Recursive PreOrder Traversal

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In order traversal
• In Inorder Traversal the root is visited between the subtrees. Inorder
traversal is defined as follows:
• Traverse the left subtree in Inorder.
• Visit the root.
• Traverse the right subtree in Inorder.

• The nodes of tree would be visited in the order: 4 2 5 1 6 3 7

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Code

• Question: What is the time and space complexity?

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Code

• Question: What is the time and space complexity?

• Time complexity O(n) and space complexity O(n)

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 Non-Recursive Inorder Traversal
• The Non-recursive version of Inorder traversal is similar to Preorder.
The only change is, instead of processing the node before going to left
subtree, process it after popping (which is indicated after completion
of left subtree processing).

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 PostOrder Traversal
• In post order traversal, the root is visited after both subtrees. PostOrder
traversal is defined as follows:
• Traverse the left subtree in PostOrder.
• Traverse the right subtree in PostOrder.
• Visit the root.

• The nodes of the tree would be visited in the order: 4 5 2 6 7 3 1

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Code recursive

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Code iterative

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Analysis
• In preorder and inorder traversals, after popping the stack element we
do not need to visit the same vertex again. But in post order traversal,
each node is visited twice. That means, after processing the left subtree
we will visit the current node and after processing the right subtree we
will visit the same current node. But we should be processing the node
during the second visit. Here the problem is how to differentiate
whether we are returning from the left subtree or the right subtree.

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Analysis
• We use a 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 variable to keep track of the earlier traversed node.
Let’s assume 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 is the current node that is on top of the stack. When 𝑝
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 is 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 parent, we are traversing down the tree. In this case,
we try to traverse to 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 left child if available (i.e., push left child to
the stack). If it is not available, we look at 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 right child. If both left
and right child do not exist (ie, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 is a leaf node), we print 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠
value and pop it off the stack.

• If prev is 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 left child, we are traversing up the tree from the left.
We look at 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 right child. If it is available, then traverse down the
right child (i.e., push right child to the stack); otherwise print 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠
value and pop it off the stack. If 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 is 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 right child, we are
traversing up the tree from the right. In this case, we print 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡′𝑠 value
and pop it off the stack.
Algorithmic and advanced Programming in Python 60
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Level Order Traversal
• Level order traversal is defined as follows:
• Visit the root.
• While traversing level 𝑙, keep all the elements at level 𝑙 + 1 in queue.
• Go to the next level and visit all the nodes at that level.
• Repeat this until all levels are completed.

• The nodes of the tree are visited in the order: [1] [2 3] [ 4 5 6 7]

• Time Complexity: O(𝑛). Space Complexity: O(𝑛). In the worst case,

all the nodes on the entire last level could be in the queue.

Algorithmic and advanced Programming in Python 61

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In Lab session
• You will play with the concepts and starts getting more and more
familiar with trees
• This can be useful for your project

• Lab is done by Remy Belmonte

Algorithmic and advanced Programming in Python 62

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3955447