BASICS OF RADIO PROGRAMMING AND

PRODUCTION

Unit-1

Introduction

Communicators use several media to transmit a message (a thought, idea, opinion, and
attitude) to the readers, listeners and or viewers. These media: film, print, broadcasting, are
used differently by people for various purposes. Each mass medium has its own distinct nature
and characteristics. For example, print medium (newspapers, magazines, etc.) provide detailed
information which can be kept for a longer period; accessed whenever needed and used by
many persons at a convenient time. Films can be watched and enjoyed at one single place
(cinema hall) by many people in large or small groups, or at homes through television sets.
Broadcasting on radio and television can bring voices and pictures to a large number of listeners
and viewers from long distance.

Thus, we see every medium of mass communication works in its own unique way and carries
the message far and wide. Each medium has its advantages and limitations in the areas of
operation, influence and impact. For instance, print depends on the ability to read. For
communicating a message to a child or an illiterate person, television, film or radio would be
effective while the print medium will not be relevant. Every medium uses its strengths to
provide information, education and entertainment to the public.

1.2 Meaning and Definition

In order to appreciate the role of radio as a medium of mass communication, we need to

understand what is the concept of communication, what are the various functions and types of
communication.

The word 'Communication' is derived from the Latin word "cornmunis", which means, to make
common or to share. There are numerous definitions of communication, and there is yet no
agreement on any single definition. Some of the more functional definitions of communication
describe it as "the transfer or conveying of meaning" (Oxford dictionary)", transrnission of
stimuli" (Colin Cherry), "one mind affecting another" (Claude Shannon); "one system influences
another" (Charles E. Osgood), "the mechanism through which human relations exist and
develop," or "sharing of experience on the basis of commonness" (Wilbur Schramm).

“Thus, communication is, a process of sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge,

attitude or feeling among two or more persons through certain signs and symbols”.
1.3 Functions of Communication

Communication is vital for human existence, and for the progress of humanity. No person,
group or society can exist without interaction with others. Think for a moment what would
happen to us if we did not talk with anyone at home; didn't listen to lectures at School or
college; didn't speak to friends and co-workers; or didn't play games or watch TV or films?

Essentially, the primary function of communication is to inform, instruct/educate, entertain

influence and persuade people to make them function smoothly and effectively. Besides,
communication has a secondary function to perform as well: through debate and discussion it
promotes cultural integration, it fosters consensus, creativity, and understanding among
people, groups and societies enabling them to live in peace and harmony.

1.4 Types of Communication

Human beings are engaged in a variety of communication acts. Although each type of
Communication appears-to have distinctive features, they are all much alike in the senses that
are enters into a meaningful relationship with one or more persons by means of signs and
symbols. These are:

 Intrapersonal Communication
 Interpersonal Communication
 Group Communication
 Mass Communication.

1.4.1 Intrapersonal Communication refers to communication that leaks inside a person; and

this happens all the time. It is like conversation to oneself, listening to oneself and linking with
oneself. It is important in anticipating, abstracting and communicating our thoughts or ideas
before we actually treat in open communication.

1.4.2 Interpersonal Communication is the world-wide form of communication that takes place
between two people. In interpersonal communication, there is face-to-face interaction
between two persons, that is, both are sending and receiving messages. This is an ideal and
effective communication situation because you can elucidate and highlight many points
through your expressions, nods and voice can get instant feedback.

1.4.3 Group Communication is an addition of interpersonal communication where more than

two individuals are involved in discussion of ideas. Communication in a group helps many goals
including collective decision making, self-expression, increasing one's effect, uplifting one's
status, and relaxation. Group communication provides a chance for direct interface among the
members of the group; it helps in bringing about changes in attitudes and opinions.

1.4.4 Mass Communication outside the realm of interpersonal communication exists another

form of communication which involves communication with mass audiences and hence the
nomenclature "mass communication." The channels through which this kind of communication
takes place are referred to as mass media. Mass communication and mass media, are generally
considered synonymous. Mass communication is unique and different from interpersonal
communication as is evident from the following definition: Any mechanical device that
multiplies messages and takes them to a large number of people simultaneously is called mass
communication. The media through which messages are being transmitted include: radio, TV,
newspapers, magazines, films, records, tape recorders, video cassette recorders, etc., and
require large organizations and electronic devices to put across the messages.

5. Radio as a Mass Medium

Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies

below those of visible light. In electronics, modulation is the process of varying one or more
properties of high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a
modulating signal. This is done in a similar fashion as a musician may modulate the tone from a
musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. The three key parameters of a
periodic waveform are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its frequency ("pitch"),
all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the modulated
signal.

During the 1930s, radio was considered an intimate and credible medium. The public used it as
a news source and expected it to provide factual information. Radio was the first truly mass
medium of communication, reaching millions of people instantly and altering social attitudes,
family relationships, and how people related to their environment.

Radio is an attractive medium among the various mass communication media because of its
special characteristics. It continues to be as relevant and potent as it was in the early years
despite the emergence of more glamorous media. It is a truism that in the first phase of
broadcasting spanning three decades from the early twenties, radio reigned alone or was the
dominant player. However, over a period of time, the media scene has changed drastically.
Television with its inherent strength of audio-visual component has captured the imagination of
the people. The advent of satellite television, the Internet and the convergence of technology
have added further dimensions in media utilization patterns. However, despite the presence of
a plethora of media, there is room and scope for each medium. Experience has revealed that
'new technologies add things on but they don't replace'. One medium is not displaced by
another - each medium reinvents itself in the context of changes in the communication
environment. In the changed media scenario, radio is reorienting itself with more innovative
programmes and formats.
Radio Broadcasting in India (pre and post-independence)

Radio as a communication medium has played a very important role in the economic, political and
cultural development of nations. It has the unique advantage of being receivable through low cost,
battery operated, and mobile receiving sets, affordable for almost everyone, even in the rural areas. For
the average “Argumentative Indian” who loves “baatein” (talking), radio is an easy and effective medium
to bond with and hence its continuing popularity in India.

It is interesting to know that Radio broadcasting in India was pioneered in the early 1920s by some
young enthusiasts through their amateur radio clubs. The successful growth of radio in Europe and the
United States gave impetus to a young group of Indian entrepreneurs, who established the Indian
Broadcasting Company on 23rd July, 1927. However, their efforts to launch privately owned radio could
not fructify. The colonial government seeing the potential danger of using this medium for the
nationalist movement bought this company and renamed it the Indian State Broadcasting Service. In
1935, the British Government invited the BBC to help develop radio. One of the senior BBC producers is
credited with the change of the name of the organisation to All India Radio later known as “Akashwani”
(voice from the sky) from 1957.

The growth of All India Radio over the years has been phenomenal and today, AIR’s network provides
radio coverage to 97.3 per cent of the population and reaches 90 per cent of the total area. Till 1995, the
radio sector remained the monopoly of the Public Broadcaster, AIR though the seed was sown by young
entrepreneurs. It is after the Supreme Court ruling in 1995 that India’s airwaves became “public
property” and the need for utilising this medium for promoting the public good and ventilating plurality
of views, opinions and ideas was strongly felt.

The resurgence of Radio actually took place in India in 1995 with the commencement of FM broadcast
by AIR, where some slots were given to private producers. FM stations of AIR have also grown over the
years. At the start of VIIth Plan, there were only 4 AIR FM stations in the country. At the end of VIIIth
Plan, 98 FM stations were in operation which was further increased to 130 at the end of IXth Plan and
161 at the end of the Xth Plan. As on date, there are 170 AIR FM stations all over the country.

In 1999, the Government announced a liberalised policy for Expansion of FM Radio broadcasting
through private agencies (Phase I), allowing fully owned Indian companies to set up private FM radio
stations on a licence fee basis. The main objectives of the policy were to make quality programmes with
a localised flavour in terms of content and relevance and to encourage new talent and generate
employment opportunities directly and indirectly. This would supplement the services of AIR and more
importantly, promote rapid expansion of the broadcast network in the country for the benefit of the
Indian population.

In May 2000, the Government auctioned 108 frequencies in the FM Spectrum across 40 cities in the
country to the Private Agencies. However, the results were not very encouraging as only 21 channels
(about 20 per cent) could be operationalised. Even those licensees who operationalised reported that
their operation was unviable and suggested a system of revenue share regime instead of existing licence
regime of upfront licence fee with annual increase of 15 per cent. Subsequently, a new policy of
expansion of FM Radio Broadcasting through private agencies (Phase II) was notified on 13.7.2005. The
new policy provides for grant of Permission on the basis of One Time Entry Fee (OTEF) and annual fees
as revenue share in contrast with earlier fixed Annual Licence fee regime. Other important provisions
included allowing 20 per cent FDI, networking of channels in C&D category cities etc. A total of 337
channels were put on bid under the new scheme and finally permission was granted for
operationalisation of 245 channels. Out of this, 184 channels are already operational and the remaining
are likely to be operational shortly.

FM Policy Phase II has been well accepted by all stakeholders and has resulted in huge growth not only
in the FM Radio Industry but also in employment opportunities. It has also created a demand for FM
Radio in category C&D cities and even in rural areas. Keeping this in mind, and to accelerate the growth
of FM Industry, it has been decided by the Government to expand FM Radio broadcasting to other cities
through private agencies under FM Policy Phase III. The Telecom Regulatory Authority has submitted its
recommendation on Phase III of the Policy, which include allowing additional channels in the same city,
allowing broadcasting of news and current affairs taking content from AIR/Doordarshan, authorised
news channels etc., allotment of FM channels for a district instead of single city, enhancing FDI limit,
relaxation of fee structure for North-East and J&K, allowing networking of FM Radio programmes across
entities, auto renewal of permission to district level permission holder etc. The Policy is under
finalisation after which about 690 more channels are likely to be put on bid.

Community Radio is the emerging new sector, which has tremendous potential in India. While a
commercial radio station is mainly market driven, the public service broadcasting on the other hand
concentrates on content for education, information and entertainment. The medium of Community
Radio, as distinct from commercial radio or public service broadcasting serves to bring small
communities together, focuses on the common man’s day-to-day concerns and helps in realising local
aspirations. In this sense, it aims to contribute to the lives of the local people of that community. Since
Community Radio focuses on issues relating to education, health, environment, agriculture, rural and
community development, the advantage of this medium as an effective tool for empowerment of
weaker section is enormous.

Recognising the huge potential of the medium of Community Radio, the Government of India
announced in December 2002 a policy for the grant of permission to well establish educational
institutions to set up Community Radio. The Government subsequently, liberalised the policy guidelines
on Community Radio in December 2006 by bringing in “Non-Profit” organisations like civil society and
voluntary organisations etc. under its ambit in addition to the educational institutions. As per the
guidelines, community based organisations, which satisfy the following basic principles are eligible to
apply for Community Radio:

 It should be explicitly constituted as a ‘non-profit’ organisation and should have a proven record
of at least three years of service to the local community.
 The CRS to be operated by it should be designed to serve a specific well-defined local
community.
  It should have an ownership and management structure that is reflective of the community
that the CRS seeks to serve.
 Programmes for broadcast should be relevant to the educational, developmental, social and
cultural needs of the community.
 It must be a legal entity.

Annual licence fee is not charged for a Community Radio Station. Only a bank guarantee of Rs. 25,000 is
required. However, spectrum fees of approximately Rs. 20,000 is to be paid to Wireless Planning &
Coordination (WPC) annually. The cost of setting up a station ranges between Rs. 600,000 to 1.2 million
and it can serve an area of 10-15 KM with the maximum permitted ERP (effective radiated power) of 100
watt. Five minutes advertisement time per hour is also permitted on the channel (Details can be seen at
www.mib.nic.in).

The Policy emphasis the need for involving the community not only in the production of the
programmes but also in the overall management of the Community Radio station. As visualised in the
Policy, Community Radio is a radio, which is of the community, by the community and for the
community. Even so, a trend has been noticed for the CRS to copy the commercial FM channels and to
even call themselves “FM Radio”. Accordingly, through a recent advisory issued to all CRS including
those allotted to educational institutions, they have been advised to take necessar y steps in this regard
for involvement of the community and to invariably air the name of the CRS as “Community Radio” or
“Samudayik Radio” or equivalent name for community in the local language.

Presently, 34 community Radio stations are operational in the country. The Government has so far
received 208 applications under the new guidelines and permission has been granted so for to 36. This
includes educational institutions (8), NGOs (18), Agricultural Universities (7) and KVKs (3). The
government has decided to give wide publicity to the new policy in order to create awareness about the
scheme and its potential for being used as a medium for the upliftment of the masses particularly in the
rural areas.

There are many global examples which have demonstrated the viability of Community Radio in the field
of social development. However, even in India, there are examples which show the tremendous benefit
to be derived from this medium in transforming the lives of the masses and in particular the rural
masses. In one such case, the villagers used to go every year to work in brick kilns in neighbouring States
as they did not have any source of earning, especially in the winter months. They were not aware of the
selfemployment schemes of the Government. One of the organisations working in the area took up this
social issue and decided to broadcast in November–December 2006 a series of programmes on labour
exploitation and information on government schemes for selfemployment in villages. Some villagers
contacted the radio team of the organisation, who explained about the various schemes to them. Many
such villagers are now gainfully engaged in forest agriculture and have become part of the radio team as
well. In 2007, the radio team took a survey and found a significant drop in migration from many villages
of Daltangunj in Bihar from where the programmes were broadcast.
 In another example, Radio has been effectively used in conjunction with ICT to empower villagers by
generating and broadcasting locally relevant information through community-based audio and internet
technologies. The multi-media centre has a cable audio station, with an accompanying computer centre.
The local community produces and cablecast their radio programmes every day, which has had a
marked improvement in the quality of life of the villagers. In April 2000, 28 volunteers were selected by
community-based organisations and trained in radio programming and production in collaboration with
All India Radio, Indira Gandhi National Open University and a local institute of communication. These
programmes were broadcast on All India Radio and were also narrow cast at community meetings. The
interest that these programmes generated in the community encouraged further work in the area. Self-
help groups of uneducated women formed a management committee who took up local topics and
organised daily programme schedules on panchayats, agricultural schemes and self-awareness groups.

“We may fall in the ‘suicide belt’ but we have never seen a farmer kill himself ” says a 25 year old Dalit
woman with pride and a sense of achievement. She researches, scripts, produces and anchors a weekly
radio magazine which reaches out to about 5000 fellow (Dalit) village women each week. With the help
of UNESCO, an NGO has given the young women in an arid region of Andhra Pradesh, school education
and training to plan, produce and ‘narrow cast” (or talk) to their fellow sisters about local problems,
health issues, social problems, and most importantly, tips on agriculture. It is our radio, and programmes
made by us are for our benefit. We talk about seeds, crop diversity, organic farming, health, hygiene,
women’s problems and sending children to school, virtually everything that touches the community, say
the people in the area proudly.

The above examples show that radio is indeed a potential medium in the country particularly in rural
areas and can effectively be used for empowerment of the society especially the underprivileged. The
new guidelines of the Government provide a great opportunity to effectively use this medium of
Community Radio for empowerment of the societies and it is encouraging that a number of good NGOs
are coming forward to work in this sector.

Difference between AM & FM Radio Broadcasting Technology

Back when people still used radios (instead of smartphones and tablets) to tune in to the latest news
and music on their AM radios, the introduction of FM radio for commercial broadcasting was a big deal.
It was so important, in fact, that the term ‘FM’ became synonymous with something that plays music;
people still sometimes confuse the term “FM” with a device that plays music via radio waves.

Although both AM and FM are two very popular methods of transmitting information through radio
signals, there are a few key differences that result in distinct advantages and drawbacks to both of them.
However, before we get to that, let’s work on understanding a few basics.
What is modulation?

In radio communication, a radio signal is ‘modulated’ so that it can be transmitted over long distances.
In the simplest terms, this means that the radio signal (or input signal), i.e. the signal carrying audio
information, is added with a carrier signal.

Unlike a radio signal (which usually has a very low frequency), a carrier signal has a constant amplitude
and frequency, i.e. a constant waveform, which helps to carry the radio signal over long distances. The
process of ‘mounting’ the original signal to a carrier wave is called modulation.

Analog modulation comes in three types: amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase
modulation. In this article, we’re going to talk about the former two, due to their immense popularity in
radio communication.
What is AM?

Amplitude Modulation, commonly abbreviated as AM, is a common method of broadcasting radio

signals. This method dates back to the 1870s, i.e. the time when we first discovered that information in
the form of audio production can be broadcast over long distances through radio waves.

In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in order to transmit the input signal (the one that
carries information).

The amplitude of the carrier wave varies proportionally according to the input signal, so when the input
signal has a low amplitude, the amplitude of the carrier wave is decreased and vice-versa.

What is FM?

Frequency Modulation, often referred to as FM, is another, relatively newer method of modulation
where the carrier wave is modified proportionally according to the input signal. In FM, the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is altered according to the amplitude of the input signal.

AM versus FM

Mode of modulation

As mentioned earlier, AM involves the alteration of the amplitude of the carrier wave, whereas FM
involves changes in the frequency of the carrier wave.

Frequency range

The typical frequency range in which AM works is 535 to 1705 Kilohertz, whereas the frequency range is
around 88-108 Megahertz for FM.

Area of reception

Have you ever wondered why you can’t listen to some of your favorite music stations after you leave the
city’s boundaries?

This is because FM waves have a small range in terms of the geographical regions they can cover,
whereas AM waves have a much larger range and can therefore be received even in hinterlands! This is
the reason most news stations use AM over FM, because they want the information to reach as many
people as possible, even if the sound quality isn’t top-notch, which brings us to the next point.

Complexity and cost

The equipment requirements of an FM system are costly, whereas AM, with its relatively older
technology, relies on less complex and thus cheaper equipment to transmit signals.
Bandwidth

AM signals take up 30 kHz, while FM signals take up 80 kHz of bandwidth for each signal. This means
that AM can send more signals than FM in a limited range of bandwidth.

Sound quality

The one aspect that’s undoubtedly the most relevant to users, i.e. the sound quality of the transmission,
is where FM clearly trumps AM. You see, noise affects amplitude more readily, and since information is
stored in the amplitude itself, AM becomes vulnerable to interference. FM, on other hand, relies on
changing frequency, and is therefore less susceptible to noise, allowing it to provide a superior quality of
sound. It’s no wonder all music stations count on FM to run their business!
 Unit-2

Programme Formats

Radio Announcement and Links

1.Announcements : These are specifically written clear messages to inform. They can be of different
types. For example station/programme identification. These mention the station you are tuned into, the
frequency, the time and the programme/song you are going to listen to. As mentioned already you find
in today’s commercial radio channels, these announcements have become informal and resemble
ordinary conversation. There can be more than one presenter in some programmes like magazines.

2. Radio talk : The radio talk probably is the oldest format on radio. There has been a tradition in India
and Britain to invite experts or prominent persons to speak for 10 or 15 minutes on a specific topic.
These talks have to go through a process of being changed into radio’s spoken word style. Over the
years these long radio talks have become unpopular. Instead, today, shorter duration talks are
broadcast. Of course, you can listen to these talks only on public service broadcasting stations.

3. Radio interviews: Have you ever interviewed anyone? Probably yes. In the media, be it the
newspaper, magazine, radio or television, journalists use this technique of asking questions to get
information. There can be different types of interviews in terms of their duration, content and purpose.
Firstly, there are full fledged interview programmes. The duration of these may vary from 10 minutes to
30 minutes or even 60 minutes depending up on the topic, and the person being interviewed. Most of
such interviews are personality based. You might have heard of long interviews with well known people
in the field of public life, literature, science, sports, films etc. Secondly, there are interviews which are
used in various radio programmes like documentaries. Here the interviews are short, questions specific
and not many. The purpose is to get a very brief, to the point answer. Thirdly there are a lot of
interviews or interview based programmes in news and current affairs programmes. Have you heard
such interviews on radio? With phone-in-programmes becoming popular, you might have heard live
interviews with listeners. These interviews have been made interactive. There is another type of
interview based programme. Here generally just one or two questions are put across to ordinary people
or people with knowledge on some current topic to measure public opinion. For example when the
general budget or the railway budget is presented in the parliament, people representing radio go out
and ask the general public about their opinion. Their names and identity may not be asked. Such
programmes are called ‘vox pop’ which is a Latin phrase meaning‘ voice of people’. You have to be very
inquisitive and hard working to be a radio interviewer with good general awareness and communication
skills.
4. Radio discussions :- When you have a problem in your family or with your friends, don’t you say “let
us discuss?” Yes we do. Through a discussion we can find out a solution to problems. In any discussion
there are more than 2 or 3 people and then ideas can be pooled to come to some conclusion. In radio,
this technique is used to let people have different points of view on matters of public concern. Radio
discussions are produced when there are social or economic issues which may be controversial. So when
different experts meet and discuss such issues, people understand various points of view. Generally,
these discussions on radio are of longer duration-say 15 to 30 minutes. Two or three people who are
known for their views and a well informed senior person or journalist who acts as a moderator take part

and discuss a particular topic for about 30 minutes. The moderator conducts the discussion, introduces
the topic and the participants and ensures that every one gets enough time to speak and all issues are
discussed.

5. Radio documentaries/features: If you see a film in a movie hall, it is generally a feature film, which is
story based and not real. But there are also documentary films which are based on real people and
issues. A lot of programmes you see on television are educational and public service documentaries.
Radio also has this format. Unlike documentary films, radio documentaries have only sound – i.e. the
human voice, music and sound effects. So a radio documentary is a programme based on real sounds
and real people and their views and experiences. Radio documentaries are based on facts presented in
an attractive manner or dramatically. Radio documentaries are radio’s own creative format. The
producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use human voice, script, music and sound
effects very effectively. Radio documentaries are also called radio features.

6. Radio drama: A Radio drama or a radio play is like any other play staged in a theatre or a hall. The
only difference is that while a stage play has actors, stage, sets, curtains, properties movement and live
action, a radio play has only 3 components. They are the human voice, music and sound effects. Radio of
course uses its greatest strength for producing radio plays and that is the power of imagination and
suggestivity. For example, if you want to have a scene in a radio play of a north Indian marriage, you
don’t have all physical arrangements made. All that you have to do is to use a bright tune on the shehnai
and excited voices of people to create in a listeners’ imagination, a wedding scene. The voice of the
actors, music and sound effects can create any situation in a radio play.

7. Running commentaries : If you can’t go to see a football or cricket match in a stadium, you may watch
it on television. But for that you have to be at home or at some place where there is a television. But if
you are travelling or outside, then you may listen to radio for a running commentary of the match. A
commentator would give you all the details of the match such as the number of players, the score,
position of the players in the field etc. So by listening to the running commentary, you get a feeling of
being in the stadium and watching the match. The commentator needs good communication skills, a
good voice and knowledge about what is going on. Running commentaries on radio can be on various

sports events or on ceremonial occasions like the Republic Day Parade or events like festivals, melas,
rath yatras, swearing in ceremony of ministers, last journey (funeral procession) of national leaders etc.
Today radio running commentaries especially of cricket and other sports can be heard on your mobile
phones.

8. Magazine programmes : You are familiar with magazines which are a form of print media. They are
published weekly, bi-weekly, fortnightly or monthly. There are general magazines and magazines for

specific readers. These magazines could be for children, women, youth or on health, sports, science or
music. If you open any one of these magazines, you will find articles, reviews, features, photo features
etc. Radio also has magazine programmes like those in the print media. A radio magazine is broadcast at
a particular time on a particular day of a week or a month. That means it has periodicity. Similarly it has
plenty of variety in contents. Some or many formats of radio are included in a radio magazine. These
may be talks, discussions, interviews, reviews, music etc. Likewise, the duration of each programme or
item in a magazine programme also vary. Another characteristic of a radio magazine is that it has a
signature tune. A signature tune is an attractive piece of music which is specific to a programme. It can
be like the masthead (title) of a magazine. A magazine programme also has a name and one or two
presenters or anchor persons who link the whole programme. In the beginning, the titles of the day’s
programme will be given by the presenters after the signature tune. They also give continuity and link
the whole magazine. Magazine programmes are generally broadcast for a special or specific audience.
As the name suggests, a specific audience refers to listeners with specific needs as mentioned in the
beginning.

Elements of Radio Programme

A radio show is any type of program broadcast on the radio, or on the Internet in the case of Internet
radio. Radio programmes can be spoken word programmes or music programmes. In spite of the type of
programme aired on the radio, the elements of the different programmes remain the same; such as – 
Sound effects    Script, and   Music,   Voice,  
                      Whether music or speech based, radio relies on the human voice to connect with its
audience. It is the voices of presenters and RJ’s that we respond to on a radio. They are the
personification of a radio providing a personality with which we identify and connect.
                     The style of music each station plays is a crucial aspect of the station’s identity. In any event,
the music played on most radio stations is not randomly selected by individual presenters or producers,
but it is governed by a music policy that has been developed to appeal to the station’s target audience.
                      A radio show script is a norm in the stations across the nation. While it may seem that
things are flowing naturally on your favorite radio station you can bet that a radio show script is being
used. Most radio shows are live, and to avoid catastrophe they will utilize a radio show script for the
guests and the personalities alike. 
                      In short, Good audio content is anything that keeps your listener through the next minute.
Audio quality is determined by two main factors – the quality of the microphone and the proximity of
the microphone to the person speaking. 
THE ROLE OF VOICE IN RADIO

                       For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a microphone. They amplify or in other
words, increase the volume of your voice. When you speak before a microphone, you don’t have to
shout. You speak normally and it will be made louder if you use a loudspeaker to listen to.
Voice is important in the following ways: 
It stimulates our visual imagination: it creates visual images in our minds.   Voice conveys meaning.  
When we think of radio, the microphone is the most important element using which you present your
programme. The main stay in any radio programme is the human voice. Think of the voice of an
announcer or newsreader on radio. You often find them very pleasant and nice to listen to. That is
because of the quality of their voice and the proper use of it. There are two aspects of the use of human
voice in radio production:
Secondly, someone has to speak or read it before a microphone in a studio. Firstly, there has to be a
well written script to be spoken and   

SOUND EFFECTS IN RADIO PROGRAMME

                               Sound effects in a radio programme give meaning and sense of location. It adds realism
to a programme and helps a listener to use imagination. Sound effects describe the circumstances of a
dramatic audio situation. They can be used for such things as setting and place, conveying action, solving
certain narrative problems and evoking characteristics. Effects should sound as though they were being
heard by the character. Dubbing adds extra sound effects or bring disparate sounds together. 
Sound effects can be used in two ways:
(a) Spot effects or effects that are created as we speak and
(b) Recorded sound effects.
Categories of Sound Effects:
a) Ambiences: It provide a sense of place, “where”, and perhaps of time “when”, events occur. b)
Discrete Effects: Indicates individual events; “what”, “how”, and “how much”. c) Crowds: Sounds of
many people in a crowded situation, without specific voices or words being distinguishable.  d) Dialogue:
Dialogue is sound too. The character of the voice indicates a lot about who the character is. Give
importance to vocal contrast. e) Silence: A dramatic element.  

MUSIC IN RADIO PROGRAMMES

Music is the soul of radio. Film songs and classical music programmes are independent programmes on
radio. Music is also used as signature tunes or theme music of various radio programmes. It enhances
the programme in the following ways:
a. Music adds colour and life to any spoken word programme. b. Music can break monotony. c. Music is
used to give the desired effect of happy or unhappy situations, fear or joy. d. Music can suggest scenes
and locations. For example, you have to create a bright early morning situation. This can be done by
playing a pleasing note on the flute along with the sound of chirping birds.
Most music based stations operate a playlist that is updated every week. The playlist determines what
will be played and how often it will be played. The selection of music is not done on personal taste but is
a professional judgement that takes into account a variety of factors including the stations target
audience, how appropriate a track is to certain times of the day, and increasingly how well it has scored
in audience research. 

THE ROLE OF SCRIPT IN RADIO PROGRAMMES

A radio script is a writing which gives the detail of how an entire programme should be. A script takes
some of the pressure off presenters doing live broadcasts. It provides them with the reassurance that
they know what they
are going to say next so that they can concentrate on how they say it. Scripts also ensures that an item is
covered fully, in a logical manner and to set time. A radio script for a presenter is largely a safety
measure but it needs to contain certain characteristics to make it effective.
While referring to more than one person, avoid using ‘he’ or ‘she’. It can confuse the listeners.  
Abbreviations or short forms should be avoided. If an abbreviation is used, then its full form should be
given.  The words should make pictures in the minds of the listeners.  The words chosen should
denote the exact meaning and not be vague.  Though there are thousands of listeners, what is written
should be meant for just one listener.  There should be only one idea in a sentence and not many ideas.
 The sentences should be short and simple and not complex.  It should be simply worded without any
difficult or unfamiliar words.  It is conversational.  It is heard only once. The listener normally does not
get a second chance to listen.  It is written for the ear not the eye.  Though it is written, it is spoken  

Process of Radio Program production

Now let us learn about the different stages of radio programme production. Whatever we do, there has
to be a clear plan. In the case of radio production also, there is a well accepted process of production
which is carried out in three stages. Let us list them out.

a) Pre-production

b) Production and

c) Post-production

a) Pre-production

As the title suggests, this is the first stage before the actual production.
 i) An idea is born : This phase includes how a programme is born as an idea and its
conceptualization. The topic or subject matter is decided.
ii) ii) Plan of action : After the topic is decided, a plan of action is worked out. Here the format
of the progamme is determined i.e whether the programme is a talk, discussion, interview,
drama, documentary etc.Once that is clear, the right person for writing the script and the
performers are decided. The plan of action would also determine the equipment for outside
recordings that are required. The time and venue of the recording are also worked out.
iii) The script is examined to make it suitable for broadcast. It is examined according to the
principles of writing for radio or in other words ‘for the ear’. We will discuss this is detail in
the next section.
iv) Paper work : If people who are not working in the radio station are involved for writing or
providing voice for the programmes, they have to be invited with an agreement to accept
the job or assignment. This type of agreement is referred to as a contract. Similarly,
permission is often required to interview certain people if the programme is based on such
interviews. Therefore, as you can see, there is a lot of paper work at the pre-prodution
stage.
v) Rehearsing the voices of speakers is also part of this stage.

b) Production : This is the actual process of recording and editing a radio programme. Proper
studios, microphones and computers are required to record and edit the programme.

c) Post production : Writing to inform people involved in the production is a major activity during
this phase. The progamme has to be given publicity both on radio and in other media. This is done to
ensure that people know about the programmes and also listen to them. The announcements for
the presentation of the programme are also written and provided for the actual broadcast of the
programme.

Microphones

• Microphones are transducers that convert acoustical energy into electrical energy.

• The three main types of microphones (according to their principles of operation) are: Dynamic
(moving-coil) Ribbon Condenser Dynamic microphones

• Dynamic mics consist of a diaphragm suspended in front of a magnet to which a coil of wire is
attached.

• The coil sits in the gaps of the magnet. Vibrations of the diaphragm make the coil move in the gap
causing an AC to flow

• Coils of wire are used to increase the magnitude of the induced voltage and current
• The mass of the coil-diaphragm structure impedes its rapid movement at high frequencies (where
there is usually low response).

• A resonant peak is usually found at around 5kHz, making it a favorite with vocalists.

• Very robust (extensively used for kick-drums) Coil Diaphragm S S N N Magnet Coil of wire (front view)
Magnetic field Current flow Ribbon microphones

• It consists of a thin strip of conductive corrugated metal (ribbon) between magnetic plates.

• Vibration of the ribbon according to the acoustic wave induces a current

• Its electrical output is very small and needs to be stepped up by a transformer

• The lightness of the ribbon guarantees a flat frequency response for mid and high frequencies up to
14kHz. It resonates at very low frequencies (around 40Hz)

• It is very delicate and well suited fo Condenser microphones

(1) • A capacitor is an electrical device able to store electrical charge between two closely-spaced
conductors (plates)
(2) • Capacitance (C) measures how much charge (Q) is stored for a given voltage (V), such that C =
Q/V
(3) • Capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance (d) between plates
(4) • In condenser mics, the front plate is the diaphragm which vibrates with the sound. The charge
(Q) is fixed, thus changes in the distance d between plates result on changes of voltage (V)

Condenser microphones

• Condenser mics can be extremely high quality

• The diaphragm can be very light, rendering a flat frequency response (with a small resonance peak at
above 12kHz)

• Output of condenser mics is much higher than for dynamic mics

• High output makes it more robust to noise

• To charge the capacitor a source of power is needed (usually phantom power - to be discussed later in
the course)

• An alternative to using a power source is to introduce a permanent electrostatic charge during

manufacture, resulting on the “electret” mic.

• Electret microphones can be very small, high quality (back electrets) and cheap, e.g. Tie-clip TV
microphones
Directional Response (1)

• Microphones are designed to have a directional response pattern

• This pattern is characterized by a polar diagram showing magnitude of the output (in dB) vs angle of
incidence

• An omnidirectional microphone picks up sound equally in all directions

• This is achieved by opening the diaphragm at the front and completely enclosing it at the back

• At high frequencies the wavelength is comparable to the size of the capsule, resulting in a loss of gain
off front center

• Smaller capsules result in better high frequency performance

• TV tie-clip microphones are usually omni electrets

Directional Response (2)

• Figure eight or bidirectional microphones have an output close to cos(θ), where θ = angle of incidence
• This directional pattern is mostly associated with ribbon microphones (open both at the front and
rear)

• The response is thus the result of the pressure difference between diaphragm front and rear (which is
why response is null at 90/270°)

• The long wavelengths at low frequencies (resulting in small phase differences) cause a reduction of the
output

• Because of the ribbon’s shape, ribbon mics have a better polar response when upright or upside down,
than when positioned horizontally

Directional Response (3)

• Cardiod microphones result from the combination of omnidirectional and bidirectional patterns

• Their output is close to 1 + cos(θ)

• They are unidirectional

• The response is obtained by leaving the diaphragm open at the front while using acoustic labyrinths in
the rear to cause differences of phase and amplitude in the incoming sound

• Mid frequency response is usually very good

• At low-frequencies it tends to omni

• At high frequencies it becomes too directional

• This is common to dynamic cardioids

• Top range condenser cardioids behave much more ideally

Directional Response (4)

• There are a number of specialized microphones such as so-called shotgun microphones or parabolic
microphones which are highly directional

• A shotgun mic, for example, is cardiod with a long barrel with openings aimed at causing canceling
phase differences Characteristics of microphones

• Professional microphones have a low-impedance usually around of 200 ohms - this enables the use of
long leads

• Another important characteristic is sensitivity, i.e. a measure of the electrical output (in volts) per
incoming SPL

• Sensitivity is usually given in terms of a reference SPL, e.g. 94 dB or 1 Pascal (Pa).

• Condenser microphones (5-15 mV/Pa) are more sensitive than moving coils (1.5-3 mV/Pa) and ribbons
(1-2 mV/Pa)

• More amplification is needed for moving-coils and ribbons (which are thus more susceptible to
interference). Also, low-sensitivity mics need high-quality (low noise) amps and mixers.

• All microphones generate some noise. This is usually expressed in “A-weighted” self-noise (given in
dBA).

• High-quality condenser and moving-coil mics achieve self-noise of 17-18dBA. Ribbon mics’ noise can
be of the order of 23dBA, which means that for quite signals low-noise amps need to be used. A self-
noise in the region of 25dBA results in poor performance.

Recording Sound

Studio Sound production has high standards. The final product has to be of the highest quality
in terms of sound and production values. The requirement is to have a really good sound with
good frequency response a good dynamic range, good signal to noise ratio (SNR), etc. Basically,
the end product has to be of industry/ professional standards. Such a sound can be only
obtained in a controlled environment (a studio is built as a controlled environment to avoid
unnecessary reverberations and noise).
This production type is used for recording different audio contents such as music albums,
speech, dialogues, film scores, etc. If you notice these contents, when usually heard, are
recorded in high quality. The usage of these contents is usually for commercial purposes and
also for community services as well. For example, the film score as the name suggests is used as
the background music for an entire movie. This production will involve a mixture of acoustic or
“real” instruments and digital instruments. Usually these productions are done on a high scale,
which requires a controlled environment. Thus a studio is used. For community uses special non
- profit based, fully equipped studios are used to produce content Based on the studio’s size and
its amenities, the studio will be limited to one or several production types. For example, if the studio is
20ft x 30ft, the resulting area is not big enough for a 20 piece orchestra. Hence, recording a film score in
such a small studio is very difficult. The studio, however, can be used for mixing the recordings done
involving the 20 piece orchestra. The studio with the above mentioned measurements can be easily
used to record a music album or dialogues for a film or television.

This particular production type involves three stages:

1. Recording

2. Mixing

3. Mastering

1. Recording: In this stage only the recording is done. The main point that is to be kept in mind is to have
an optimum level from the microphones without any distortion or “clipping”. This is the most critical
stage of the production process since without a good recording the next two stages will not be very
effective. If a certain effect is to be recorded permanently during the recording process then it should be
applied or included in the signal path at this stage.

2. Mixing: In this stage, the recorded material is mixed according to the requirements of the production.
During this process, the final product is achieved partially with room for modifications. Any or every
effect unit is applied during this stage. The program producer works closely with the editor and the final
product starts to take shape. Until the mixing is finalised, the product cannot be forwarded to the third
stage which is mastering.

3. Mastering: In this stage, the mixed product is “sweetened” in other words finalised without any
further changes to be made. The only effects applied here will be for enhancing the final product for the
target audience to hear. The audible “power” which is heard in commercial songs or film scores is
achieved in this stage. The finalised product or “master” is further sent for multiple copy making or any
other purpose (broadcasting, etc.).

Outdoor Recording

1. Assembling
2. Performance

3. Pack up

1. Assembling: This process includes the planning of the setup, determining the requirements of the
event and then the assembling of all the necessary equipment. This is the most time consuming stage of
the production process since the production team will face a lot of problems and they have to
troubleshoot them as well in order to carry out the event successfully. This stage requires the maximum
man power to do all the setup process. This is also a stage requiring due care as the equipment handled
will be very heavy and has to be set up /wired. If proper care is not observed then the results can be
harmful (due to use of high power supply).Due care therefore is required to be taken as per safety
precaution detailed in Chapter on Health and Safety considerations

2. Performance: This process is the most crucial stage of the entire production process. Since the event
is live, there is next to no room for any errors. This stage relatively is simpler than the setting up stage.
Only a few people are required to carry out this stage of production. The people usually involved are the
sound engineer, the sound assistants and the stage technicians. This is the most challenging and the
most entertaining stage in this production.

3. Pack Up: This is the final stage where the event is over and the equipment that was used has to be
packed up. This stage also requires more man power.

It is also a stage requiring due care and attention since any equipment can fall and hurt someone. Most
of the equipment used for live sound is very heavy and needs to be handled carefully.

Features

The features of the live sound production type are:

1. Realtime performance

2. No room for error

3. Time limit

1. Realtime performance: The program will be performed in real time, this means that all processing and
decisions will be done or taken at the moment while also trying to achieving the best sound quality
possible.

2. No room for Error: As the production is live, there is no scope for errors during this production. Any
errors committed during the production will not be correctable in comparison to the other two
production types.
3. Time Limit: The production has to be finished within a time limit. There is no freedom to make later
changes to the content that was performed. All the processing has to be done simultaneously with the
production.

Recording

Recording outdoors is a challenge in its own. There are a lot of matters to be taken into account. There
are a few parameters to be kept in mind while recording outdoors. These are as follows:

1. The Location: Always keep the location in mind. Every location will have its own limitations for
recording sound. For example, every restaurant can vary one to another in its loudness. Every room will
have its own reverberation time. The time taken for a sound to die in a room is called reverberation
time. Do select an appropriate location as per the recording to be made.

2. The natural circumstances: These might not be suitable for a recording but the location could be
perfect. This situation demands the use of certain equipment to neutralize these natural circumstances.
For example, if the location is too windy, then a cover/wind shield can be placed on the microphone to
take care of this problem.

3. Equipment: The equipment used for outdoor recording will be different than the ones used in a
studio. They have to be rugged and sturdy for transportation and functioning. Always keep in mind to
choose the right equipment while recording outdoors.

4. Multiple Recordings: Always record the same part at least twice like standby recording. This will help
to have a choice when using the recording elsewhere.

Recording Process

In the previous sections you have learned the different types of productions and you must have a
obtained a simple understanding of the sound requirements for all of these production types.

In this section you will learn the most basic recording process which will slightly vary according to the
various production processes. The recording process is as follows:
 Know the Production Type

Equipment Selection

Assembling Microphone Placement or Miking

Rehearsal

Recording

Let us take a look at these steps one after the other.

1. Know the Production Type: The first step in the recording process is to know the production type of
the program to be recorded. This will help significantly in the next step of equipment selection. Every
production type will change the list of equipment that will be required during the recording process.
Knowing the production type is the first and the most important step in the recording process. Every
decision taken afterwards will be on this step’s basis.

2. Equipment selection: The next step in the recording process is to select the equipment required for
the recording. Here, you will select your equipment keeping the production type in mind. For example,
there will be a requirement of one or two microphones during a speech based program but a
significantly larger number of microphones will be required for a music based program.

3. Assembling: The next step in this process is to assemble the equipment in a proper chain as
mentioned in lesson on Assembling and disassembling of equipment. This process is very critical as you
will have to decide which equipment comes after another. The audio chain has to be decided in this
step. The most basic chain is as follows:

Microphone or Source>Mixer>Compressors, Reverbs Etc.>Amplifier >Cross Faders >Equalizer>Speakers

4. Microphone placement or “Miking”: This process is a very important step. The concept behind this
step is that the microphone captures certain frequencies of the same source at different positions which
then results in the source sounding different with every microphone placement. The aim to be achieved
in this step is to attain a natural sound of the sound source. Try several microphone placements and
experiment with the placement of the sound source itself!

You have learned different “miking” techniques in the lesson discussing microphones. There are a lot of
ways you can “mike up” a sound source; and every time the source will sound a bit different. Do not be
afraid to try new miking techniques here.

5. Rehearsal: It is always important to have a rehearsal before the actual recording starts. If the different
microphone placements did not work to attain the desired sound, then this can be achieved using the
other equipment. This step will enable you to tweak the sound source through the mixer and other
outboard equipment to achieve the required sound. This process will also allow the sound source to
practice with the new modifications around them. It is always helpful to request the artist to perform as
if the recording is going on. This will help in setting up of the headroom for the recording process.
Headroom is required to avoid sudden peaks in the recording signal. This is achieved by observing the
loud parts of the program and then reducing the master fader to a comfortable level where these peaks
will not distort even if they occur during the recording.

6. Recording: Once the rehearsal is complete, you will be ready to record the sound source. In the
previous steps have been followed accurately, then the recording will be high quality and there will
hardly be any requirement to tweak the equipment during the recording process. There are a few points
to be kept in mind during recording. The studio has to be silent and the artistes have to be told not to
make unnecessary sounds during the recording process. The headroom has to be constantly monitored
as to avoid peaks. At the same time the audio signal should not become very weak as to not be audible.

Once these steps are carried out accordingly, the resulting sound or recording will be of a high quality
and of professional standards.