Ukrainian Americans

the new immigrants
Filipino Americans
Indian Americans
Jamaican Americans
Korean Americans
Mexican Americans
Ukrainian Americans
Vietnamese Americans
the new immigrants
ukrainian
Americans
John Radzilowski
Series Editor: Robert D. Johnston
Associate Professor of History,
University of Illinois at Chicago
Frontis: Located in eastern Europe, Ukraine is the continent’s second-largest
country. According to the 2000 U.S. census, 862,762 people of Ukrainian
descent called the United States home.
Ukrainian Americans
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Radzilowski, John, 1965–
Ukrainian Americans / John Radzilowski.
p. cm. — (The new immigrants)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8789-1 (hardcover)
1. Ukrainian Americans—History—Juvenile literature. 2. Immigrants—Unit-
ed States—History—Juvenile literature. 3. Ukraine—Emigration and immigra-
tion—Juvenile literature. 4. United States—Emigration and immigration—
Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. New immigrants (Chelsea House)
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Contents
Introduction 6
1 Ukrainians in North America 11
2 Ukraine: Land of Promise and Tragedy 21
3 Coming to North America 37
4 Building a New World 53
5 Making a New Home 64
6 Bringing Ukrainian Traditions to
North America 81
7 The Newest Ukrainians in
North America 94

Chronology 111
Timeline 112
Notes 115
Glossary 116
Bibliography 118
Further Reading 119
Index 121
Introduction
Robert D. Johnston
At the time of the publication of this series, there are few more
pressing political issues in the country than immigration. Hun-
dreds of thousands of immigrants are filling the streets of major
U.S. cities to protect immigrant rights. And conflict in Congress
has reached a boiling point, with members of the Senate and
House fighting over the proper policy toward immigrants who
have lived in the United States for years but who entered the
country illegally.
Generally, Republicans and Democrats are split down parti-
san lines in a conflict of this sort. However, in this dispute, some
otherwise conservative Republicans are taking a more liberal
position on the immigration issue—precisely because of their
own immigrant connections. For example, Pete Domenici, the
longest-serving senator in the history of the state of New Mex-
ico, recently told his colleagues about one of the most chilling
days of his life.

Introduction
In 1943, during World War II, the Federal Bureau of Inves-

tigation (FBI) set out to monitor U.S. citizens who had ties with
Italy, Germany, and Japan. At the time, Domenici was 10 or 11
years old and living in Albuquerque, with his parents—Alda,
the president of the local PTA, and Cherubino, an Italian-born
grocer who already had become a U.S. citizen. Alda, who had ar-
rived in the United States with her parents when she was three,
thought she had her papers in order, but she found out other-
wise when federal agents swept in and whisked her away—leav-
ing young Pete in tears.
It turned out that Alda was an illegal immigrant. She was,
however, clearly not a security threat, and the government re-
leased her on bond. Alda then quickly prepared the necessary
paperwork and became a citizen. More than six decades later,
her son decided to tell his influential colleagues Alda’s story, be-
cause, he says, he wanted them to remember that “the sons and
daughters of this century’s illegal immigrants could end up in
the Senate one day, too.”1
Given the increasing ease of global travel, immigration is
becoming a significant political issue throughout the world. Yet
the United States remains in many ways the most receptive coun-
try toward immigrants that history has ever seen. The Statue of
Liberty is still one of our nation’s most important symbols.
A complex look at history, however, reveals that, despite the
many success stories, there are many more sobering accounts
like that of Pete Domenici. The United States has offered unpar-
alleled opportunities to immigrants from Greece to Cuba, Thai-
land to Poland. Yet immigrants have consistently also suffered
from persistent—and sometimes murderous—discrimination.
This series is designed to inform students of both the achieve-
ments and the hardships faced by some of the immigrant groups
that have arrived in the United States since Congress passed the
Immigration and Naturalization Services Act in 1965. The Unit-
ed States was built on the ingenuity and hard work of its nation’s
immigrants, and these new immigrants—primarily from Asia
Ukrainian Americans
and Latin America—have, over the last several decades, added

their unique attributes to American culture.
Immigrants from the following countries are featured in
The New Immigrants series: India, Jamaica, Korea, Mexico,
the Philippines, Ukraine, and Vietnam. Each book focuses on
the present-day life of these ethnic groups—and not just in the
United States, but in Canada as well. The books explore their
culture, their success in various occupations, the economic
hardships they face, and their political struggles. Yet all the au-
thors in the series recognize that we cannot understand any of
these groups without also coming to terms with their history—
a history that involves not just their time in the United States,
but also the lasting legacy of their homelands.
Mexican immigrants, along with their relatives and allies,
have been the driving force behind the recent public defense of
immigrant rights. Michael Schroeder explains how distinctive
the situation of Mexican immigrants is, particularly given the
fluid border between the United States and its southern neigh-
bor. Indeed, not only is the border difficult to defend, but some
Mexicans (and scholars) see it as an artificial barrier—the result
of nineteenth-century imperialist conquest.
Vietnam is perhaps the one country outside of Mexico with
the most visible recent connection to the history of the United
States. One of the most significant consequences of our tragic
war there was a flood of immigrants, most of whom had backed
the losing side. Liz Sonneborn demonstrates how the historic
conflicts over Communism in the Vietnamese homeland con-
tinue to play a role in the United States, more than three de-
cades after the end of the “American” war.
In turn, Filipinos have also been forced out of their na-
tive land, but for them economic distress has been the prima-
ry cause. Jon Sterngass points out how immigration from the
Philippines—as is the case with many Asian countries—reaches
back much further in American history than is generally known,
with the search for jobs a constant factor.
Introduction
Koreans who have come to this country also demonstrate

just how connected recent immigrants are to their “homelands”
while forging a permanent new life in the United States. As
Anne Soon Choi reveals, the history of twentieth-century Ko-
rea—due to Japanese occupation, division of the country after
World War II, and the troubling power of dictators for much of
postwar history—has played a crucial role in shaping the cul-
ture of Korean Americans.
South Asians are, arguably, the greatest source of change in
immigration to the United States since 1965. Padma Rangas-
wamy, an Indian-American scholar and activist, explores how
the recent flow of Indians to this country has brought not only
delicious food and colorful clothes, but also great technical
expertise, as well as success in areas ranging from business to
spelling bees.
Jamaican Americans are often best known for their music,
as well as for other distinctive cultural traditions. Heather Horst
and Andrew Garner show how these traditions can, in part, be
traced to the complex and often bitter political rivalries within
Jamaica—conflicts that continue to shape the lives of Jamaican
immigrants.
Finally, the story of Ukrainian Americans helps us un-
derstand that even “white” immigrants suffered considerable
hardship, and even discrimination in this land of opportunity.
Still, the story that John Radzilowski portrays is largely one of
achievement, particularly with the building of successful ethnic
communities.
I would like to conclude by mentioning how proud I am to
be the editor of this very important series. When I grew up in
small-town Oregon during the 1970s, it was difficult to see that
immigrants played much of a role in my “white bread” life. Even
worse than that ignorance, however, were the lessons I learned
from my relatives. They were, unfortunately, quite suspicious
of all those they defined as “outsiders.” Throughout his life my
grandfather believed that, Japanese who immigrated to his rural
10 Ukrainian Americans
valley in central Oregon were helping Japan during World War

II by collecting scrap from gum wrappers to make weapons. My
uncles, who were also fruit growers, were openly hostile toward
the Mexican immigrants without whom they could not have
harvested their apples and pears.
Fortunately, like so many other Americans, the great waves
of immigration since 1965 have taught me to completely re-
think my conception of America. I live in Chicago, a block from
Devon Avenue, one of the primary magnets of Indian and Paki-
stani immigrations in this country (Padma Rangaswamy men-
tions Devon in her fine book in this series on Indian Ameri-
cans). Conversely, when my family and I lived in Storm Lake,
Iowa, in the early 1990s, immigrants from Laos, Mexico, and
Somalia were also decisively reshaping the face of that small
town. Throughout America, we live in a new country—one not
without problems, but one that is incredibly exciting and vi-
brant. I hope that this series helps you appreciate even more
one of the most special qualities of the American heritage.
Note
1. Rachel L. Swarns, “An Immigration Debate Framed by Family
Ties,” New York Times, April 4, 2006.
Robert D. Johnston
Chicago, Illinois
April 2006
1
Ukrainians in
North America
I magine you are walking down the street in any American or
Canadian city. You pass a shop with unfamiliar Cyrillic let-
tering. From inside come intriguing, tantalizing smells. You step
inside and see a white tile floor and glass cases all around.
On one side, there is a long case of meats. A pile of sausages
labeled kovbasa gives off a smoky, garlicky smell. On the other
side, a shop assistant is pulling warm loaves of dark rye bread
from a tray and wrapping them for customers. In the middle,
the shopkeeper is preparing lunch in anticipation of the com-
ing noon hour. You see a kettle of dark red beet soup. A platter
of dumplings filled with potato and cheese is labeled varenyky.
Plump rolls made of cabbage leaves stuffed with rice and meat
are nearby. Next to these are sweet breads and pastries with
names like babka and kolachi.
The shopkeeper turns, and, seeing you there, smiles and
says, “Dobry den! How can I help you?”
11
Where are you? There is only one place you can be: a
Ukrainian deli! A shop like this can be found in nearly every
Ukrainian community. It is a place to gather, share a meal (or
perhaps a cup of tea and a slice of babka), and meet friends
and neighbors.
Ukrainian immigrants and their children and grandchil-
dren can be found throughtout North America, from big cities
to farms and small towns. According to the 2000 U.S. census,
862,762 people claimed Ukrainian ancestry, while the 2001 Ca-
nadian census listed 1,071,060 residents with Ukrainian ances-
try. These citizens work in wheat fields and skyscrapers, as well
as in neighborhood delis. They share pride in their ancient heri-
tage and in their newly independent homeland. Some Ukrai-
nian families came to these shores generations ago, whereas
others arrived in the past few years. Together, they make up the
fabric of Ukrainian life in North America, adding their special
contribution to the multicultural nations of the United States
and Canada.
Early Roots
The first Ukrainians to arrive in North America may have come
as early as the 1770s. Several individuals with Ukrainian-sound-
ing names settled in Pennsylvania before the American Revolu-
tion. During the Civil War, General John Basil Turchin, whose
Ukrainian name was Ivan Vasilevitch Turchininoff, served in
the Union Army and won fame for his gallantry at the Battle of
Chickamauga in Tennessee.
In 1865, Reverend Agapius Honcharenko arrived in the
United States. In Europe, Reverend Honcharenko had criti-
cized the Russian emperor who then ruled most of Ukraine.
He had to escape to America to avoid being persecuted for his
beliefs. In America, Reverend Honcharenko worked as a Greek-
language teacher and an editor. At that time, the United States
had just purchased Alaska from Russia and was looking for a
way to communicate with the inhabitants of this vast new land.
Ukrainians in North America 13
In 1868, the U.S. government hired Reverend Honcharenko to

found a newspaper titled the Alaska Herald. It was published
in Russian and English and later was independently owned by
Reverend Honcharenko. He published information about the
United States, selections from Ukrainian literature, and articles
that promoted the rights of native Alaskans.
Surging Immigration
The first large groups of immigrants from Ukraine came to the
United States in the 1870s. They were called Ruthenians or Car-
patho-Rusyns and lived in the Carpathian Mountains, a region
that was then ruled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The exact
The Ruthenians were the first large group of people from Ukraine to
immigrate to the United States when they left Ukraine in the 1870s.
Composed of three groups—Lemkos, Hutsuls, and Bojkos—Ruthenians
lived in the Carpathian Mountains of western Ukraine and were
primarily shepherds and farmers. Pictured here are two Hutsul men
and women dressed in traditional clothing.
number of these early immigrants is not known. Immigration

statistics before 1899 often recorded these new arrivals as “Rus-
sian” or “Austrian,” because Ukrainian lands were ruled by Rus-
sia and Austria at that time.
After 1899, about 250,000 Ukrainians entered the United
States. Some of these immigrants came only as temporary
workers and returned to Ukraine after a period of time, but
many stayed to work in mines and factories and establish farms
and communities.
The first Ukrainians to arrive in Canada were Wasyl Ele-
niak and Ivan Pylypiw, who landed in Montreal on September
7, 1891. Their enthusiastic reports about the large farms avail-
able in the western provinces convinced many other Ukrainians
to follow in their footsteps. By 1914, about 100,000 Ukrainians
had settled in Canada.
Another wave of Ukrainians came to North America in
the 1920s, after World War I and the Russian Revolution.
Even more Ukrainians arrived after World War II. Most were
refugees fleeing war and devastation in Europe. A small number
of Ukrainians came in the period from 1954 to 1991. In 1991,
after Ukraine declared its independence, Ukrainians had more

Ukrainian Immigration to Canada
Year of Entry Number Admitted
1891–1914 100,000
1922–1929 70,000
1945–1954 32,000
1955–1960 4,500
1961–1991 5,600
1992–2000 20,000
*These periods mark the time when the largest number of

Ukrainian immigrants entered Canada.
Ukrainian Immigration to the United States

Year of Entry Number Admitted
1899–1914 254,376
1920–1939 40,000
1948–1952 85,000
1991–2004 200,000
* These periods mark the time when the largest number of

Ukrainian immigrants entered the United States.
freedom to emigrate. Some came to the United States or Canada

in search of work. Others came to join family that was already
here. Today, there are about one million Ukrainian Americans
and nearly 600,000 Ukrainian Canadians.
Ukrainian immigrants settled across all of North America.
They can be found on farms on the Great Plains. They worked
in mines and factories of the East and Midwest. They opened
businesses, established churches, served in the armed forces,
contributed to science and the arts, and built communities that
are an important part of North America.
Rise From Humble Beginnings

One immigrant claimed that he came to North America with
“nothing but my ten fingers,” which was true of many of the
first Ukrainian immigrants. The Ukrainian homeland was
under Russian and Austrian rule, and most people had little
opportunity to go to college. Without education and unable
to speak English, Ukrainian immigrants were often given the
most difficult and dangerous jobs. They worked in factories
and coal mines, where the accident rate was often very high
and the hard work was exhausting. Many in Canadian and
American society looked down on Ukrainians and other new
(continues on page 18)
Notable Individuals
famous Ukrainian americans

and ukrainian canadians
Alexander Archipenko (1887–1964)
By the time he immigrated to the United States in 1923, Alex-
ander Archipenko was on his way to becoming a world-famous
painter and sculptor. Born in Ukraine in 1887, he spent several
years in Paris, where he was influenced by the works of Pablo
Picasso. While in Europe, he had numerous exhibits and even
opened two art schools. His work bridged many styles, from ab-
stract expressionism to cubism. After World War II, Archipenko
created the concept of “modeling light” that makes space itself a
form of sculpture.
Roberta Bondar (1945– )

In 1992, Roberta Bondar joined the crew of the U.S. Space Shut-
tle Discovery and became the first Canadian woman in space. An
eminent scientist who specialized in agriculture, zoology, neurol-
ogy, and space medicine, she has received 24 honorary degrees
from universities around the world. She is also a well-known pho-
tographer whose work has documented the natural beauty of Can-
ada. In 2003, Dr. Bondar became chancellor of Trent University,
in Peterborough, Ontario. She has been named to the Women’s
Forum Hall of Fame, named one of Canada’s top explorers, and
honored with a Canadian postage stamp.
Ramon Hnatyshyn (1934–2002)

The son of Ukrainian immigrants to Canada, Ramon Hnatyshyn
served as Canada’s governor general (the official representative
of Queen Elizabeth II and the highest-ranking official in Canada)
from 1990 to 1995. He was the first Ukrainian Canadian to hold
such a high government office. He brought his signature open-
ness and friendly smile to the office, insisting that people call him
Ray and reopening the historic grounds of the governor’s mansion
to the public. During his time as governor general, he created the

Governor General’s Performing Arts Awards, the Fight for Free-
dom Literacy Award, the Canadian Bar Association’s Hnatyshyn
Award, and scholarships in environmental engineering and sci-
ence. He also served as Canada’s justice minister. In that office,
he successfully introduced legislation that dealt with child abuse,
gave police the right to seize the proceeds of suspected crimes,
gave judges the power to order convicted criminals to compensate
their victims, and enabled suspected Nazi war criminals to be
tried in Canada. Despite his many honors, Hnatyshyn never forgot
his Ukrainian heritage and was active in Ukrainian organizations
throughout his life.
Jack Palance (1919– )

Perhaps the most famous North American actor of Ukrainian
descent, Jack Palance was born Vladimir Palahniuk in Lattimer,
Pennsylvania, the son of a Ukrainian immigrant miner. After serv-
ing in the U.S. Army and becoming a professional boxer, Palance
pursued a career in acting. His film debut was in Panic in the
Streets (1950), and he then went on to star in numerous films.
He specialized in cowboy movies and films in which his rugged
features helped him land “tough guy” roles. In addition to fea-
ture films, he starred in Broadway plays and on several television
shows. He was twice nominated for Best Supporting Actor—in
1952 for Sudden Fear and in 1953 for Shane—but he didn’t win
an Oscar until 1992, when he was named Best Supporting Actor
in the comedy City Slickers.
Terry Sawchuk (1929–1970)

Terry Sawchuk was one of the greatest goalies in professional
hockey history. Born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Sawchuk lost his
brother to a heart ailment when he was 10 years old. Sawchuk
won Rookie of the Year honors in the United States Hockey League
and American Hockey League before landing with the Detroit Red
(continued)
Wings of the NHL in 1950. He continued his superb play by re-
cording a 1.99 goals-against average in his NHL rookie year, ap-
pearing in the All-Star Game and winning the Calder Memorial
Trophy as the league’s best first-year player. He was an All Star in
the next four seasons and won three Vezina Trophies. Terry Saw-
chuck was a true reflex goalie. He did not pay as much attention
to angles and technique, instead focusing on his quickness and
explosive movement within the crease. During his 21-year NHL
career, he played with the Los Angeles Kings, Detroit Red Wings,
Boston Bruins, and New York Rangers. He finished with a record
447 wins and 103 shutouts and was inducted into the Hockey
Hall of Fame in 1971.
William Teron (1932– )

Outstanding North American businessman and architect William
Teron began his career in 1951 as an architectural designer and
in 1955 established a company to design and build real estate
developments. Over the next 18 years, the Teron organization de-
signed and built thousands of housing units, many hotels, office
buildings, and shopping centers. His best-known work is the new
town of Kanata, which is just outside Ottawa and referred to as
Canada’s Silicon Valley. Teron assembled and bought the land,
planned the town as a “garden city,” and built homes, industrial
high-tech buildings, and community facilities. Teron’s companies
have built more than 4-million-square feet of buildings in Canada,
the United States, and Europe.
(continued from page 15)
immigrants as inferior. They were often treated as second-

class citizens.
Ukrainians had a tremendous will to endure such hardships
and an unshakable desire to build a better life for their children.
Through their hardships, they pulled themselves up by their
bootstraps in the hope that their children and grandchildren
would have new opportunities that they themselves would not

enjoy. They believed in the promises of freedom and equal
rights offered by their new homelands, even when some in
those societies would have denied such rights and freedoms to
their new Ukrainian neighbors.
At the same time, Ukrainians in North America did not
forget their homeland. Ukraine did not enjoy independence
until 1991. Before then, it was frequently invaded and fought
over. It was also subject to harsh and terrible dictatorial rule
Ukrainian immigrants settled throughout the United States and

established churches in many cities, including Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Pictured here is St. John the Baptist Ukrainian Catholic Church, which
was built in 1895 and is considered the oldest Catholic church of the
Byzantine Rite in the United States.
during the Soviet period of 1918 to 1990. During these years,

many Ukrainians had to flee their homes. Some came to North
America to escape persecution. Ukrainian communities in the
United States and Canada worked hard to send help to their fel-
low Ukrainians in Europe. They raised money and supplies and
used their new opportunity to vote to urge political leaders in
the United States and Canada to act on Ukraine’s behalf. When
Ukraine gained independence in 1991, many Ukrainian Ameri-
cans and Ukrainian Canadians helped their ancestral homeland
toward a better future.
Along the way, Ukrainian immigrants and their children
and grandchildren became a vital part of Canadian and Ameri-
can society. They became citizens and helped build farms and
industry. They enriched the culture of both countries with new
ideas, music, art, dance, and food. Over the years, as Ukraini-
ans have continued to arrive in the New World, this history has
been repeated. Without losing touch with their roots, Ukraini-
ans in North America continue to play an important part in the
future of Canada and the United States.
• Study Questions •
1. Who were some of the first Ukrainians in North
America?
2. How many people of Ukrainian descent are there in
North America?
2
Ukraine: Land of
Promise and Tragedy
Land and People
U kraine is located in eastern Europe, just north of the Black

Sea. It borders Russia on the east, Poland and Romania in
the west, and Belarus in the north. Ukraine is the second-largest
country in Europe. It is slightly smaller than the state of Texas
or the province of Manitoba. Kiev, the capital of Ukraine, is lo-
cated in the middle of the country.
Much of Ukraine is flat, fertile plains. Ukraine’s thick top-
soil makes it one of the best farming regions in Europe, and it
has long been known as the “breadbasket” of eastern Europe.
Southern Ukraine and the Crimean Peninsula are warm, sunny
areas where grapes and fruit have been cultivated for centuries.
The northern areas are cold and snowy in the winter and hot
in the summer. The eastern section of Ukraine is known as the
Donbas and is rich in natural resources such as coal and iron
ore.
21
Ukraine is home to approximately 47 million people. Most

Ukrainians speak the Ukrainian language. Ukrainian is a Slavic
language related to Russian, Czech, and Polish. Most Ukraini-
ans also speak Russian. In some areas of eastern Ukraine, the
people speak only Russian. In addition to Ukrainians, Ukraine
is home to many other peoples. Many Russians live in eastern
and central Ukraine. In the south, Tatars live in the Crimea.
Polish people live in the western areas of Ukraine, and Jewish
Ukrainians can be found throughout the country. In the moun-
tainous areas of western Ukraine live the Carpatho-Rusyns, a
Slavic people closely related to Ukrainians.
Early History
Ukraine’s flat, fertile fields have made it a kind of highway for
people traveling from Asia to Europe. Over the centuries, many
different nomadic people traveled across Ukraine. Some stayed,
and others moved farther west. These ancient people were
skilled hunters who knew how to survive Ukraine’s harsh win-
ters. Archeologists have discovered the oldest home ever made
in Ukraine, a shelter made from the bones and hides of woolly
mammoths. Later, Ukraine was home to many tribes of no-
madic horsemen. The most famous were the Scythians.
During ancient times, Greek merchants founded cities
along the Black Sea coast of Ukraine to trade with the Scythians
and other people in the region. The Greeks brought grapes and
made wine. Today, many areas of the Crimea still make wine.
The ancestors of Ukrainians were part of the Slavic group.
The Slavs resided in central Asia and spoke a common language.
About 2,000 years ago, the Slavic people left home and migrated
west to settle in Ukraine and other parts of eastern and central
Europe. About 1,500 years ago, the Slavs divided into many dif-
ferent tribes and groups. One of these groups became known
as Ukrainians.
The first princes of Ukraine were Viking warriors from
Scandinavia in the ninth century a.d. These warriors married
Ukraine: Land of Promise and Tragedy 23
Slavic women and soon learned their language and culture.

They began to unite many tribes in the region into a pow-
erful force. Together, this small group of Vikings joined with
the Slavic people of Ukraine to establish the first independent
kingdom, called Kievan Rus. Its capital was Kiev, located on
the Dnieper River. Kiev has remained the capital of Ukraine
to this day.
The first ruler whose name is recorded by chronicles was
Vladimir I, who ruled from approximately 980 to 1015. After
Vladimir came Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), who wrote the
first-known code of laws for Ukraine. He ruled Kiev with the
help of powerful nobles (boyars) and an assembly of free farm-
ers and townsfolk.
The people of Kievan Rus were powerful warriors but also
skillful merchants and craftsmen. They traded with many other
countries, including the mighty Byzantine Empire. This em-
pire was a major center of eastern Christianity. In the year 988,
the rulers and people of Kievan Rus converted to Christianity
thanks to the influence of the Byzantines.
Under its ruling princes, the city of Kiev became rich
and famous. During this period, it was known as the “Gold-
Domed” city for its many churches, whose gold-colored domes
reflected the sunlight and dazzled travelers. Mighty rulers such
as Yaroslav the Wise built churches and monasteries. In addi-
tion to Kiev, many smaller cities also flourished under local
princes.
In the year 1239, however, disaster fell on Ukraine. The
Mongol hordes of Batu Khan turned their eyes to the riches
of Ukraine. If they conquered Ukraine, they could also at-
tack Europe. The Mongol armies attacked in the winter.
The people of Kiev put up a valiant fight but the Mongols
stormed the great city. They burned Kiev and killed many
of its people; others were sold into slavery. For more than
100 years, Ukraine was under the harsh rule of the Golden
Horde.
Kiev is sometimes referred to as the “Gold-Domed” city due to its large

number of Orthodox churches with gold-colored domes. Pictured here
is Pecherska Lavra Monastery, or the Kiev Monastery of the Caves,
which was founded in the mid-eleventh century and today serves as
the residence of the head of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church.
Lithuanian and Polish Rule

In the 1300s, the power of the Golden Horde began to wane.
In the west, two rising powers began to challenge Mongol con-
trol. The first was the Lithuanians, distant cousins to the Slavic
Ukrainians. The other was the Kingdom of Poland. The Poles
were fellow Slavs but belonged to the Roman Catholic Church
instead of the Orthodox Church familiar to most Ukrainians.
In 1362, the Lithuanians smashed Mongol forces at the decisive
Battle of Blue Waters. Much of western and central Ukraine fell
under Lithuanian influence. The western region of Lviv, how-
ever, became part of the Kingdom of Poland in 1341. Faced
with strong outside threats, these two countries joined together,
forming a single powerful kingdom. They pushed the Tatars,

descendents of the Mongols, back to the Crimea. Ukraine again
knew peace.
Under Polish-Lithuanian rule, the local Ukrainians
were able to govern themselves, and Ukrainian princes
and nobles had the right to elect deputies to the country’s
parliament. The life of ordinary Ukrainian peasants who
farmed the land changed little, however: Most remained
poor. Some Ukrainians felt that they were second-class citi-
zens in Poland, because Catholics sometimes looked down
on Orthodox believers. In 1596, a large group of Orthodox
Ukrainians joined the Catholic Church. This caused dis-
putes to break out over religion, because people were di-
vided on the issue of whether it was right to join the more
unified Catholic Church of the West or remain under the
looser authority of the Orthodox Church.
In the 1500s, the Polish kings and the parliament encour-
aged Cossacks to protect the Ukrainian border with the Crimea.
Cossacks were free warriors. Some were former peasants who
escaped to the borderlands seeking freedom. Others were im-
poverished nobles seeking to make their fortune on booty. They
came from Ukraine but also from other countries. Together,
they forged a powerful brotherhood of warriors. Fiercely in-
dependent, they kept invaders from raiding Ukraine and Po-
land—yet many felt that they were not well rewarded for their
services. They wanted more political rights, such as the right to
vote, and resented the power of Polish nobles whose clout was
increasing in Ukraine.
In 1654, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Cossacks rose up
in a great rebellion. Many peasants joined the rebellion. The
rebels massacred many Poles and Jews whom they considered
exploiters. Khmelnytsky’s revolt weakened Poland but failed to
help the Ukrainian people. Ukraine now fell under the power of
a new neighbor: Russia.
Under the Russian Tsar and

the Austrian Emperor
Russia gained control over Ukraine in the 1700s, and its influ-
ence was cemented in 1709, when Russian armies under Peter
the Great defeated a Swedish invasion of east-central Europe at
the Battle of Poltava. Western parts of Ukraine fell under the
rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Russian rule was far harsher than Polish rule. The Rus-
sian tsar (emperor) sought to crush all ideas of independence.
Ukrainians who disagreed were put in prison or sent to Sibe-
ria, where they had to perform hard labor. The life of ordinary
Ukrainians was little different than that of slaves. Ukrainians
who had joined the Catholic Church suffered special perse-
cution. Jews in Ukraine were also treated harshly, and their
right to move freely was restricted. The Ukrainian language
was often replaced with Russian in the government and even
in churches.
In western Ukraine, Austrian rule was slightly better. There,
Ukrainians had a few rights and were not persecuted for reli-
gious reasons. The Ukrainian Catholic Church was able to exist
without repression. Still, Ukrainians in Austria remained des-
perately poor.
Despite the repression suffered by Ukrainians, new ideas
about freedom and justice began to spread. Educated Ukrai-
nians began to work on behalf of the peasants. During this
time, the first great poet of the Ukrainian language arose. He
was Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861). Born a virtual slave, young
Taras showed a talent for learning and was later set free. He
composed epic poems that expressed the hopes for freedom
and independence of the Ukrainian people. He used the lan-
guage of the regular people of Ukraine and drew on their folk
tales, songs, and history. Under Shevchenko’s influence, new
cultural and political movements arose. In many cases, Ukraini-
ans formed secret societies (hromada) to teach their culture and
spread the dream of a free Ukraine. Shevchenko helped inspire

another important writer, Ivan Franko (1857–1916). Franko’s
poems and stories encouraged many Ukrainians to dream of a
free Ukraine. As a result, the poet was often in trouble with the
authorities.
It was during this period of Ukraine’s history that many
Ukrainians began to immigrate to North America in search of
new opportunities. “America fever” began in the Austrian-con-
trolled regions and later spread to the Russian-controlled areas.
In North America, Ukrainians would have the opportunity to
be free and make a better life for their children. Tens of thou-
sands left, and in the years that followed, they were joined by
family, friends, and neighbors.
Dashed Hopes
At the end of World War I, Communist revolutionaries led by
V.I. Lenin overthrew the Russian tsar and established the Soviet
Union. At first, the Soviet government promised independence
for all peoples who had been denied their freedom by the tsar.
Ukraine was rich in resources, however, and the Communists
desired to possess it. In the west, Poland had regained its inde-
pendence as well.
Many Ukrainians wanted to establish their own indepen-
dent country, but they were caught between Poland and the
Soviet Union. The Soviets also wanted to destroy Poland, and
war broke out. The two sides fought over Ukraine. Lenin’s ef-
fort to conquer Poland failed, but the peace agreement between
the two sides partitioned Ukraine between them. Ukrainians
in western Ukraine became part of Poland. The center of the
country, including the capital, and the eastern regions became
part of the Soviet Union.
With their hopes for independence dashed and their coun-
try wrecked by war, many Ukrainians immigrated to Canada
or the United States. They were joined by immigrants from
smaller Ukrainian communities in Czechoslovakia, Germany,

and elsewhere.
The First Soviet Period, 1919–1939

Ukrainians who lived in Poland were often treated as second-
class citizens, but those who lived in the Soviet Union suffered
a good deal more. The Soviet government was a dictatorship
far worse than that of the tsar. After the death of Lenin in 1924,
Joseph Stalin became ruler of the Soviet Union. Stalin was de-
termined to crush the Ukrainians so that Ukraine would always
remain part of the Soviet Union.
Stalin’s police and soldiers unleashed a reign of terror on
Ukraine. Community leaders were arrested, tortured, and killed
or sent to prison camps. Prosperous peasants were killed and
their farms taken by the government. Beginning in 1931, the
Soviet government took most of Ukraine’s crops and food,
leaving the people to starve. Millions of Ukrainians died in the
Soviet Terror-Famine.
Ukrainian culture was also attacked. The Soviets tried to re-
place the Ukrainian language with Russian. Anyone who sought
a free Ukraine could be arrested and imprisoned. Throughout
the 1930s, Ukrainians suffered under a regime of tyranny.
World War II
In 1939, Stalin joined Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Nazi Ger-
many, in an alliance. Together, they attacked Poland and started
World War II. For helping Hitler, Stalin received the western
part of Ukraine, which had been under Polish rule. The Soviets
encouraged conflict among the Ukrainians, the Poles, and the
Jews in that territory. By encouraging people of different lan-
guages and religions to hate each other, they could take control
more easily. During this period, Ukrainian Catholics in particu-
lar suffered greatly. The Soviets viewed the Ukrainian Catholic
Church as a threat to their total control. Many churches were
closed, and believers faced deportation to Siberia.
During the Soviet-implemented Terror-Famine of 1932–1933,

millions of Ukrainians starved to death. The Terror-Famine is
the largest national catastrophe in Ukraine’s history and is
also known as the Holodomor, which in Ukrainian means “to
inflict death by hunger.” Pictured here is a Ukrainian man
holding a photo of his father during a commemorative rally in
Kiev in 2005.
In June 1941, Hitler betrayed Stalin and attacked the Soviet

Union. German armies quickly captured much of Ukraine,
including Kiev. At first, many Ukrainians welcomed the invaders
as liberators from the terrible regime of Stalin. Some Ukrainians
even joined Hitler’s armies. The Nazis encouraged Ukrainians
to turn on Jews and Poles. As a result of the severe repression

Ukrainians had endured, there was a rise of extremist Ukrainian
The terror-famine
T he most tragic event in Ukrainian history is the Holodomor, or

Terror-Famine, of 1932–1933. During these years, the Soviet
government, led by Joseph Stalin, tried to destroy the Ukrainian
people. Stalin’s method was to take the food of Ukrainian farmers
so that the people would starve.
The Soviet government wanted to control all Ukrainian land,
and Stalin wanted all farming done collectively. That meant that
the government would make all decisions about farming. The
Ukrainian farmers, however, did not want to give up their small
farms. Their way of farming produced more food than the Soviet
way. They wanted to make their own decisions and not be con-
trolled by the government.
The independent attitude of the Ukrainians enraged Stalin.
He ordered his army and secret police to take the crops and ani-
mals from Ukraine. Food was taken from the people by force and
stored under armed guard. Some people tried to fight the Soviet
army with pitchforks. Those who resisted were killed or sent to
labor camps.
While the warehouses bulged with food, the Ukrainians
starved. Within three years, 3 to 4 million people died in Ukraine
because of starvation or execution. As this was going on, Stalin
was selling grain from Ukraine to other countries.
Soviet leaders looked on with indifference as people perished.
They made a special effort to hide what was happening from the
rest of the world and sent false reports that everything was fine.
Those who tried to tell the truth were called liars and enemies of
the Soviet people. Some newspaper reporters from Europe and
North America believed Stalin and wrote articles that supported
the Soviet Union. Despite the cover-up by the Soviet government,
some visitors noticed what was going on in Ukraine. Author and
groups dedicated to driving out all people considered different

or alien, especially Jews and Poles.
radio commentator Carveth Wells was traveling through Ukraine

and noted the dire conditions within the country:
The extraordinary thing was that the farther we penetrated into

the Ukraine, which used to be the “Granary of Russia,” the less
food there was and the more starvation to be seen on every side.
. . . We ourselves happened to be passing through the Ukraine
and the Caucasus in the very midst of the famine in July, 1932.
From the train windows children could be seen eating grass.*
Ukrainian immigrants who lived in other countries tried to

inform the world about this terrible event for a long time. Only
since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 has the world
slowly come to recognize the full horrors of what happened to the
Ukrainians under Soviet rule. One Ukrainian girl, Zina, recounted
her situation to her uncle, shortly before she died of starvation:
We have neither bread nor anything else to eat. Dad is com-

pletely exhausted from hunger and is lying on the bench, un-
able to get on his feet. Mother is blind from the hunger and
cannot see in the least. So I have to guide her when she has to
go outside. Please Uncle, do take me to Kharkiv, because I, too,
will die from hunger. Please do take me, please. I’m still young
and I want so much to live a while. Here I will surely die, for
every one else is dying.**
* Carveth Wells, Kapoot (London: Jarrolds, 1933), 133. Available on-

line at http://209.82.14.226/history/famine/gregorovich/
** Stephane Courtois, Nicholas Werth, Jean-Louis Panne, Andrzej Pacz-
kowski, Karel Bartosek, and Jean-Louis Margolin, Black Book of Com-
munism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999). Available
online at http://www.faminegenocide.com/resources/genocide/index.html
Ukrainians soon discovered that Germans were just as bad as

the Soviets. Germans treated Ukrainians like slaves and sought
to take the grain and other products of Ukraine for their own.
Many Ukrainians perished because of repression and hunger
during this period.
The Germans worked to kill all of Ukraine’s Jews as part
of their plan to destroy Jews everywhere, an event known as
the Holocaust. Throughout the country, they tried to kill every
Jewish man, woman, and child. Jewish synagogues, schools, and
seminaries were burned, and the homes and businesses of Jews
looted. The most infamous place was Babi Yar, a deep ravine
where many of Kiev’s Jews were shot to death. Some Ukraini-
ans helped the Germans, but others risked their lives to save
their Jewish neighbors. Among the most famous was the Ukrai-
nian Catholic metropolitan of Lviv, Bishop Andrei Sheptytsky.
Bishop Sheptytsky risked his life to protest the killing of Jews
and helped hide hundreds of Jews during the war. In western
Ukraine, Ukrainian extremists also targeted the Polish minority
of that area, killing many and driving others from their homes.
After Germany’s defeat, all of Ukraine again came under
Stalin’s rule. Many Ukrainians fled to Western Europe rather
than endure life under the Soviet dictator. Some of these refu-
gees made their way to North America to join fellow Ukrainians
already there.
Soviet Rule, 1945–1991

Soviet repression in Ukraine continued after the war. Many
Ukrainians were uprooted from their homes and sent to Sibe-
ria or the barren regions of southern Russia. After the death
of Stalin in 1956, conditions eased—but only a little. Most
Ukrainians lived in fear, and only a few were able to leave their
homeland for a better life in North America. Ukrainians in the
United States and Canada kept the world informed about how
the Soviets were treating Ukrainians.
In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and captured

much of Ukraine. As they did throughout much of Europe
during the Holocaust, the Nazis attempted to eradicate
Ukraine’s Jewish citizens. Pictured here is a monument at
Babi Yar, where more than 30,000 Jews from Kiev were shot to
death during a two-day period in September 1941.
In the 1980s, Soviet control began to weaken. In neighbor-

ing Poland, people began to defy the Soviet government. This
spirit of independence began to spread to Ukraine. In 1986, a
terrible accident occurred at the nuclear plant at Chernobyl in
northern Ukraine. Many people died or were poisoned by ra-
diation. Hundreds of thousands of people had to be evacuated
from their homes. The Soviet authorities tried to cover up this
accident, but soon people across Ukraine learned the truth from
friends and neighbors. There was widespread outrage both in
Ukraine and around the world.
Within a few years, the influence of the Soviet Union be-
gan to wane. In the late 1980s, Ukraine’s neighbors to the west
began their move toward freedom. The whole system of Soviet
control began to falter. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed.
From Independence to
the Orange Revolution
On August 24, 1991, Ukraine declared itself an independent na-
tion. For the first time in hundreds of years, there was again an
independent Ukraine. People rejoiced in the streets. The gold
and blue Ukrainian flag could be seen flying from buildings and
homes.
For the first time, Ukrainians from the United States and
Canada could visit their relatives in Ukraine freely and without
fear. Many Ukrainians began to immigrate to the United States
and Canada to reunite with families that had been divided by
war and politics.
Ukraine also suffered many problems, however. The Commu-
nist Party of Ukraine kept much of the power. Former Soviet of-
ficials in Ukraine divided up the businesses, factories, and mines
for themselves. The end of the Soviet Union left ordinary people
in Ukraine very poor and without hope for jobs or a decent life.
Many Russian people in eastern Ukraine did not want to speak
Ukrainian and wanted Ukraine to once again be part of Russia.
During the first years of independence, life in Ukraine was

difficult. Under the former Communists, the economy per-
formed poorly and the government failed to enact the reforms
needed to change the situation. President Leonid Kuchma con-
trolled the country and began to act like a dictator. In 2004,
a new election for president was to be held. Many Ukrainians
placed their hopes in Victor Yushchenko, who promised re-
form, good government, and an end to the power of the old
leadership. He was opposed by President Kuchma’s handpicked
candidate. The government controlled the media, including all
the television stations. These television stations were used to try
to make people distrust Yushchenko. When the results came in,
it seemed as if Yushchenko had lost, but people soon found out
that the election had been fixed. Kuchma’s friends had falsified
the results so that their side could win.
Many Ukrainians began to protest against the crooked
election. On television, a brave sign-language interpreter,
Natalia Dmytruk, defied the orders of her bosses and began
to use sign language to inform the Ukrainian people that
the election had been rigged. The protests grew and spread
to almost every corner of Ukraine. Many of the protesters
were students and young people who wore orange scarves
and hats to show their support for reform. The Ukrainian
government was paralyzed. Faced with peaceful protests for
change, they finally agreed to a new election. The new vote
would be watched by observers from other countries to make
sure it was fair.
In December 2004, the new election was held. Victor Yush-
chenko and his “orange” supporters won by a wide margin. The
new government faced many problems, but it sought to solve
them for the benefit of all Ukrainian people. For many Ukrai-
nians, the peaceful Orange Revolution marked the true birth of
a free Ukraine. It was an event many had hoped for all their
lives.
1. Find Ukraine on a world map. Which countries are
Ukraine’s largest neighbors?
2. How did the Cossack brotherhood affect Ukraine’s
history?
3. Why did the Soviet Union seek to destroy Ukrainian
culture?
4. What was the Terror-Famine?
3
Coming to
North America
G etting to their new homes in North America was not al-
ways easy for Ukrainian immigrants. They faced many
obstacles, two of which were poverty and lack of opportunity
in their homeland that sometimes made it hard to pay for their
travels. The journey itself was also hard and sometimes danger-
ous. Ukrainians had to endure loneliness and the pain of being
separated from their family, friends, and homeland.
Each step of the journey brought new experiences for the
immigrants; some were difficult, others joyful or fascinating.
At each point in their journey, Ukrainians had to respond with
creativity and perseverance.
Village and Family Life

Before coming to North America, most Ukrainians were
peasants. Peasants were farmers whose rights and freedoms were
often limited. As in many countries, peasant farmers in Ukraine
37
lived in villages. Villages ranged in size from a few families to as

many as 1,000 or more inhabitants.
Larger villages had a market square, where farmers would
gather to trade and sell their products or buy what they needed.
Businesses and shops in many villages were owned by Jewish
families who worked as middlemen, buying the farm goods
from the peasants and taking them to larger towns to sell. Jew-
ish merchants and craftsmen often sold, made, or repaired the
few finished or imported goods that the peasants needed, in-
cluding matches, sugar, tobacco, liquor, shoes, and cloth.
Another important part of the village was the church, and
important towns sometimes had more than one (in addition
to a Jewish synagogue). The church was the center of cultural
life for the peasants. It gave them spiritual comfort in their of-
ten-difficult lives. Church feast days and holidays provided an
opportunity for cultural expression, a chance to socialize with
friends and neighbors, and a break from work. Priests were im-
portant leaders in the village, providing advice and help as well
as moral guidance. They blessed the peasants’ fields, animals,
and homes and led the community in prayers for good har-
vests, mild weather, and protection against sickness or natural
disaster.
The passing of each year in the life of the village was
marked by a regular series of festivals and rituals that gave
meaning and structure to the peasants. One special custom
observed throughout Ukraine was the blessing of the water.
Each January, after Christmas, the priest would lead the villag-
ers to a local stream or river and break a small hole in the ice
to bless the water in remembrance of Jesus’s baptism. Peasants
would splash a little water on themselves and then take some
of the water in pails or bowls to be used for blessing the home
and the farm animals.
Another popular custom was Christmas caroling. Young
men would go through the village and sing songs. In return,
villagers, especially wealthier ones, were expected to provide
Coming to North America 39
Caroling is one of the most popular Christmas customs among

Ukrainians. This 1860 rendition of a group of carolers, called
Christmas Carols in the Ukraine, is by Konstantin Trutovsky and is on
display at the State Russian Museum in St. Petersburg.
food and drink. One account recalled, “For the host it is a point
of honor to organize hospitality on the most lavish scale to
keep the goodwill of the volunteers.” Wealthier members of the
village were expected to be generous to the carolers to ensure
that they kept a good reputation. In each village, especially in
the mountains of western Ukraine, villagers formed companies
(kumpanii) for caroling, each led by a head caroler. Known
as the birch tree, the head caroler was chosen on the basis of
his knowledge of carols and other songs and for his ability to
make toasts that would honor the head of each household the
carolers were to visit. The leader would often tailor the songs
to fit each family they visited, uplifting the poorer members
of the community and praising the generosity of the wealthier
ones. Each company had a few musicians, such as a fiddler, and
assigned one member to act as the “horse” to carry gifts received

at each household.1
These celebrations helped enliven the lives of Ukrainian
peasants, for their work was hard and unending. They worked
from dawn to dusk every day, except Sunday and church holi-
days. In the summer, they worked outside in the broiling sun,
cutting hay or grain. In the winter, they froze in Ukraine’s icy
cold weather. Their homes were small and modest, usually made
of logs and covered with mud plaster. The floors were dirt, cov-
ered with straw or rushes, and roofs were made of thatch or
tight bundles of grass. Food and fuel were often scarce, espe-
cially in the winter.
Droughts, floods, and sickness were feared by the peas-
ants. Each of these could wreck their harvests and result in
hunger during the coming year. Families kept a variety of
animals—horses for work, cows for milk to make butter
and cheese, chickens for eggs and meat, and pigs for meat.
These animals were vital to the Ukrainian peasant: They of-
ten meant the difference between having enough to eat and
going hungry. Because of this, peasants took special care of
their animals. If a late spring snowstorm threatened new-
born piglets or calves, peasant families might take the baby
animals into their homes.
The family was the bedrock of Ukrainian life. It provided
love and security and was vital to survive the hard living con-
ditions peasants faced. Children were expected to work, even
from a young age. Children as young as five or six would tend
flocks of geese or help feed chickens or pigs. As they got older,
they would be given more responsibility. Older children worked
right alongside their parents—the boys with their fathers in the
barns and fields and the girls with their mothers in the house
and around the farm. Both men and women were essential to
the family’s survival. Each family member was vital, and the loss
of one because of illness or to being drafted into the army was
a serious blow.
Children were also expected to care for their parents in old

age. There was no social security or pension plan, so families
had to care for their own. Older boys might be sent out to work
on a neighboring farm or girls to work as servants for wealthier
families. The wages would help the family build a small retire-
ment fund for the parents.
Why Did They Come?

At the end of the nineteenth century, Ukrainian lands were the
scene of great social and economic changes. For centuries, most
Ukrainians had been subject to the system of serfdom. Under
this system, Ukrainian peasants had little freedom. They had
few chances to move or take a job other than farming and little
opportunity to make a better life for themselves. Under serf-
dom, each peasant family was forced to provide the landlord or
the government with a certain amount of farm produce, such as
grain, milk, or eggs, or was required to work a certain number
of days each month or year for the master. How much the fam-
ily had to give or work each year varied from family to family
and village to village. In return, peasants had the right to use a
small amount of land, graze their animals in the village’s pas-
tures, collect a certain amount of wood from local forests, and
use the village mill to grind their grain.
Serfdom was a very poor system of farming. In the late
nineteenth century, governments sought a more modern sys-
tem of farming that produced more food for expanding cit-
ies. Serfdom was eliminated and peasants gained freedom of
movement. Instead of having to work for the government or
their landlord, under the new laws peasants had to pay rent.
They were now free from their old duties, but they had to
come up with money. This was often very difficult for peas-
ants. They had gained new freedom, but this freedom seemed
to make them poorer.
Peasants sought to sell the products of their farms in the
market place, but this did not bring in much money. Others
hired themselves out to work for others—richer farmers, noble-

men, or perhaps the government.
In many areas, peasants discovered that, by traveling to ar-
eas where workers were needed, they could earn higher wages.
In some areas, very large farms that needed many workers were
being created. In other places, there were new mines and fac-
tories looking for people to come and work. In these places,
Ukrainian peasants could finally earn enough to pay their rents
and perhaps a little bit extra. The extra money could be used to
improve their farms or buy some extra food to make the winter
months more pleasant.
These early migrants inspired others to think about trav-
eling to earn money. The problem was that, in Ukraine and
in neighboring countries, only a limited number of jobs were
available. Because there were many former peasants looking for
work, employers did not have to pay much to attract the labor-
ers they needed.
The peasants began to hear of countries far away where
wages were good, work was plentiful, and there was land for
farming. These countries were the United States and Canada.
Stories in newspapers and tales from early pioneers in these
countries inspired many Ukrainians, especially young people,
to dream of going to America. Only in America could peasants
from simple villages earn enough money to make better lives
for their families so that their children would no longer have to
toil as they had toiled.
Mary Skoropat Hruby, daughter of Ukrainian immigrants
to North Dakota, recalled her father’s reason for emigrating:
“Dad had a few acres. His idea was to come here, earn money,
return to Ukraine and buy a farm. Five acres was a rich man in
Ukraine.”2
Speaking about his parents’ decision to leave the village
of Trubchyn, Peter Basaraba said, “There was 10 of us in the
family and we had 24 morga—four and a half acres. Father
thought to himself, when the kids take part of it, the kids
won’t have anything and I won’t have anything. He sell out

and came here.”3
The Journey
Ukrainian immigrants tried to learn as much as they could
before setting off on their journey to America. They talked
to family and neighbors who had traveled beyond the village.
They sought out articles in newspapers. (If they could not read,
others might read the article to them.) Through letters, they
also learned about what they would face from others who had
traveled to the United States. Ukrainians might also learn about
America from people of other ethnic groups who had family
members in the United States. “When a letter came from Amer-
ica, whoever could read, read—and many came to listen,”4 said
Pearl Basaraba, whose parents eventually settled in North Da-
kota in 1906.
Many immigrants knew what part of North America they
would go to. For example, many knew there were jobs to be had
in the coal-mining region of Pennsylvania. If they had friends
or relatives in America, they would write down that person’s
address on a piece of paper that they would take with them.
Sometimes, their friends or relatives might send them a prepaid
steamship ticket.
Leaving home was often the most difficult part of the jour-
ney. “The trains were filled with the weeping of people from
the villages in Galicia, who were leaving their relatives, their
birthplaces and their homes forever,”5 remembered George
Klym of his train ride from Lviv to the port city of Hamburg,
Germany.
Because the journey was long and money was tight, Ukrai-
nian immigrants would often bring as much food as they could,
along with some extra clothing. Most took at least a little bit of
money they had saved up or borrowed from others.
The first step was travel to a train station, usually by foot or,
if the emigrant was lucky, by horse-drawn cart. This part could
sometimes take days if the village was in a remote area. Once

on the train, Ukrainian immigrants had to negotiate a new and
unfamiliar world at each step of the way. The farther they got
from home, the fewer people knew their language and the more
they had to rely on one another and the assistance of friendly
people they met along the way.
Their destination was one of the major ports in northern
Germany, such as Bremen or Hamburg. These cities were brim-
ming with immigrants from throughout Europe seeking to go
to America aboard one of the steamships that sailed daily from
these ports.
This part of the journey to the New World was exciting,
confusing, and sometimes dangerous. For the first time, the im-
migrants were seeing new places. Cities were expanding and be-
ing transformed by new technology. The modern world opened
up to the immigrants as they traveled. The journey was also
confusing. There were new experiences, people speaking differ-
ent languages, and many things to learn.
The journey to North America could also be dangerous.
Many criminals preyed on immigrants. They knew that the im-
migrants were carrying money and tickets. Ukrainian villagers
arriving in a big city like Bremen might seem lost and fearful,
and it was easy for a criminal to pretend to be a helpful new
friend while trying to swindle them. There were also kidnap-
pers who looked for young women who seemed vulnerable or
alone. Some immigrants disappeared, got lost, or were way-
laid by criminals, and in many immigrant newspapers, wor-
ried families would take out classified ads seeking information
about their missing loved ones.
From Bremen or Hamburg, most of the Ukrainian immi-
grants would board their ship for North America. Nearly all
Ukrainians sailed in steerage, the lowest section of the ship in
which passengers were allowed. The sea journey could also be
difficult. Many immigrants had never been on the ocean and
suffered seasickness. They also had to watch out for criminals

who might be on board the ship.
In 1911, the U.S. government sent undercover investigators
to check on the conditions for young women traveling from
Europe on steamships. One investigator reported:
One steward who had business in our compartment was

as annoying a visitor as we had and he began his offenses
soon after we left port. . . . Not one day passed but I saw
him annoying some women, especially in the wash rooms
. . . . The manner in which the sailors, stewards, firemen,
and others mingled with the women passengers was thor-
oughly revolting. Their language and the topics of their
conversations were vile. . . . The atmosphere was one of
general lawlessness and total disrespect for women.6
Most Ukrainians who came during the first wave of Ukrai-

nian immigration arrived at Ellis Island in New York City. As
their ship approached the harbor, they would pass the Statue
of Liberty. The first image of this monument to freedom was
remembered by many Ukrainians their entire lives.
After disembarking at Ellis Island, the new arrivals would
show their papers and have a brief interview with a customs
agent. They would also be inspected for any known diseases.
Once they had passed these tests, they were free to enter Amer-
ica and begin their new lives.
In the late 1920s and 1930s, immigration to North Amer-
ica declined among Ukrainians and most other groups from
Europe. As a result, few newcomers came through Ellis Island.
Ukraine had become part of the Soviet Union after World War
I, and the new government refused to allow most Ukrainians
the chance to go to North America. The conditions only got
worse during World War II, when it was almost impossible to
leave Europe. It wasn’t until after the war ended that Ukrainians
were able to immigrate to North America once again.
During the first wave of immigration to the United States, most

Ukrainians passed through the main registry building on Ellis Island
in New York Harbor, which is pictured here in 1905. Once these
immigrants were legally and medically cleared to enter the United
States, they were free to settle wherever they chose.
Immigration After World War II

During World War II, many Ukrainians fled their homes to
escape war, hunger, and repression. Others were forced to be-
come slave laborers for the Nazis. When the war ended, many
Ukrainians were living in refugee camps in Germany and other
countries.
The Soviet Union wanted these refugees to return, but many
feared to go home. Years of living under Soviet repression had
taught them that anyone who had lived in the West was a sus-
pect in the eyes of the secret police. They did not believe Soviet
promises. In some cases, British and American soldiers forced
the refugees to return against their will. Those who did return
often were arrested and sent to Siberia or mistreated by Soviet

officials.
These refugees were people without a country. They were
called displaced persons, or DPs. Because of the widespread
destruction caused by the war, Ukrainian DPs, along with
DPs of many nationalities, relied on assistance from the
United Nations or from friends and compatriots who lived
in North America. Most lived in refugee camps, where
conditions were often difficult. Because of the problems
caused by the war, many countries did not want to accept
more immigrants.
In the early 1950s, however, the United States and Canada
agreed to accept a large group of DPs, including many Ukraini-
ans. This gave the displaced Ukrainians a chance for a new life
and, if they were lucky, to reunite with family they had not seen
in many years.
Like earlier Ukrainian immigrants, the DPs sailed to North
America on ships, but after World War II, these ships often
were U.S. Navy transport ships rather than ocean liners. These
Ukrainian immigrants arrived at Ellis Island and were among
some of the last immigrants to be processed there. Ellis Island
closed in 1954.
The Newest Immigrants

In recent years, Ukrainian immigrants who have come to the
United States and Canada have used a more modern means
of transportation: the airplane. Today, there are regular flights
between Kiev and western Europe. Most immigrants fly from
Kiev on a Ukrainian airline to Frankfurt, Germany, or Amster-
dam, the Netherlands; then they catch a second flight to North
America.
Immigrants seeking a new life must get a proper visa that
will allow them to enter the United States or Canada. To do this,
potential immigrants must fill out a visa application and send it
to the American or Canadian embassy in Ukraine.
In the early 1950s, the United States and Canada agreed

to accept many displaced persons, or DPs, after they fled
the Soviet Union. Pictured here are a brother and sister
who emigrated from Ukraine aboard the U.S. Navy transport
General Black in 1950.
Ukrainians can come to the United States to join other

family members who are already living there as citizens or le-
gal immigrants. They may also come if offered jobs by Ameri-
can employers or if they marry American citizens. In addition,
Ukrainians may apply for a visa under a special program where
the U.S. government holds a lottery for potential immigrants
from many countries. Those whose names are chosen may
come to the United States.
Currently, to immigrate legally to the United States, Ukrai-
nians must file a petition with the U.S. government (or have
one filed for them by a friend or family member). Once the
petitions have been approved, Ukrainians must apply for visas
that will allow them to come to the United States. The most
common type of immigrant from Ukraine is someone who has
a family member in the United States and is coming to join that
family member.
Immigrants to Canada may come if they help the coun-
try’s economy, have relatives in Canada, or are victims of
persecution in their homeland. Most immigrants to Canada
from Ukraine come to join relatives or to work. Ukrainians
who want to come to Canada must be in good health, be law-
abiding, and have enough money to support themselves and
their dependants during their stay. Just as in the United States,
Ukrainians coming to Canada must first apply to the Cana-
dian government and then get a visa that will allow them to
come. Immigrants who plan to stay in Canada for more than
six months may be required to undergo an immigration med-
ical examination.
Finding Their Way

Whether they came to North America yesterday or came 100
years ago, the first step for Ukrainian immigrants was to find
their way in new and unfamiliar circumstances. Early immi-
grants had the most difficult time, because there were few ser-
vices to help them once they arrived.
ukrainians around the world
C anada and the United States are not the only countries
where Ukrainian people live. Around the world, there are
5 to 10 million people of Ukrainian descent living outside
of Ukraine. They reside on every inhabited continent. Many
Ukrainians in North America have friends and relatives in these
communities.
The largest group of Ukrainians living abroad is in Russia,
where about 4 million reside. Because of centuries of Russian
rule and because the Russian and Ukrainian languages are quite
similar, many Ukrainians have migrated to Russia for work. Others
have married Russians and live with their spouses. Over the cen-
turies, Russian rulers also sought to resettle Ukrainian farmers in
deserted areas of southern Russia and Siberia. About half of the
Ukrainians in Russia live in the Kuban region, but Ukrainians can
be found throughout Russia in both small towns and major cities
like Moscow.
About 300,000 Ukrainians also live in neighboring Poland,
especially in the southeastern part of the country. There are also
Ukrainians living in southwestern Poland, where they were re-
settled during the Communist era. Along the Polish-Slovak border
live the Carpatho-Rusyns, close cousins of the Ukrainians.
Ukrainian communities can also be found throughout Europe.
Over the past 15 years, many Ukrainians have moved to countries
in Europe to work. Some have done so for only a short period of
time. They earn some money and then return to their families in
Ukraine. Others have stayed longer and have started to put down
Many early immigrants came with only a piece of paper

that showed the address and city in America where they want-
ed to go. If they could not find a friendly fellow Ukrainian
who knew English, they would have to rely on the kindness
of strangers. They would show the paper with the address to
roots. Today, there are 200,000 Ukrainians working in Italy and

100,000 in Spain! Ukrainians can be found in nearly every coun-
try of the European Union.
Ukrainian immigrants can also be found in Argentina, Cyprus,
Liberia, and the United Arab Emirates. Many Ukrainians live in
Australia and New Zealand, as well.
Countries with Large Ukrainian Populations

Argentina and Brazil 400,000
Australia 40,000
Belarus 400,000
France 40,000
Germany 25,000
Great Britain 30,000
Italy 200,000
Kazakhstan 900,000
Kyrgyzstan 100,000
Moldova 600,000
Poland 300,000
Portugal 150,000
Romania 100,000
Russia 4,000,000
Slovakia 40,000
Spain 100,000
Uzbekistan 150,000
train conductors, ticket agents, or porters who would help

them get on the right train at the right time. Once they ar-
rived at their final stop, they would have to find the address of
their friends or relatives, again relying on helpful people they
met along the way.
More recent immigrants are able to contact their friends

and relatives using phones or e-mail. There are also many agen-
cies that will help immigrants find their way, interpret for them,
and make sure that they don’t get lost.
No matter when they come, when Ukrainian newcomers
reach their destination, it is always with a sense of great relief,
especially if they are reuniting with family and friends. Still, for
the new arrivals, the immigrant journey is just beginning. Hav-
ing arrived in North America, they must make this new place
home.
1. What were some of the festivals that Ukrainian
villagers celebrated?
2. How did families help Ukrainian peasants survive
hard times?
3. Why did Ukrainians decide to immigrate to North
America?
4. What challenges did Ukrainians have to overcome
when they journeyed to America?
4
Building a
New World
O nce they arrived in North America, Ukrainian immigrants
had to work hard to establish themselves. Most came to
better their lives and the lives of their families and had known
only poverty and lack of opportunity. Now they would have a
chance to change that.
The first and most important step for the newly arrived
Ukrainians has always been to find work. A job would provide
security and a passport to a better life. Ukrainian immigrants
have never been afraid to work hard, regardless of where or
when they arrived in North America.
Where Did They Settle?

When the first Ukrainians came to the United States, many
sought out jobs as coal miners. At first, a few Ukrainians
from Austria-Hungary probably learned about mining
jobs from Slovak, Hungarian, or Polish neighbors. Once a
53
few Ukrainians had established themselves as miners, they

told friends and relatives about the opportunities they
had found. Because of this, some of the largest Ukrainian
communities first emerged in the coal-mining regions of
Pennsylvania. Towns like Shenandoah and Shamokin and
cities like Pittsburgh and Scranton had strong Ukrainian
communities by the 1880s. Ukrainians also found plenty
of opportunity in the states of New York and New Jersey,
where they often worked in the growing manufacturing
and chemical industries.
In the Midwest, Ukrainian immigrants settled in South
Chicago. They found jobs in meatpacking factories and steel
mills. In Ohio and Michigan, they also worked in the steel and
After they immigrated to the United States, many Ukrainians tried

their hand at coal mining and settled in the coal region of northeastern
Pennsylvania. Today, many of these communities still have sizeable
Ukrainian populations, especially around the town of Pottsville.
Building a New World 55
automotive industries. In Minnesota, Ukrainians found work

in flour milling, railroads, and breweries.
Early Ukrainian immigrants in Canada looked for farm-
land and sought out homesteads on the western prairies in the
provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Other im-
migrants found homes in Ontario in cities such as Toronto and
Windsor.
Although most Ukrainian immigrants to North America
settled in Ukrainian communities, many individuals traveled
throughout the country to look for work or a place to call
home. At least a few Ukrainians went to almost every state and
province in North America, including Hawaii, Alaska, and the
Yukon and Northwest Territories.
The Life of a Coal Miner

The earliest large Ukrainian communities formed in the
coal country of Pennsylvania, where many Ukrainians found
their first jobs as miners. Compared to wages in Ukraine,
pay for a coal miner was good. During the 1890s and in the
years that followed, coal mining in the United States was a
vital industry. America’s economy was expanding, and the
fuel that made the country run was coal. Along with many
other immigrant groups from central, eastern, and southern
Europe, Ukrainians were a vital part of this great industrial
growth.
This growth came with a price. Coal mining was hard and
dangerous work. For Ukrainian immigrants, going into the
deep, dark coal mines was a big change from the green hills and
fertile fields they had known in their homeland.
Miners worked 10 or more hours per day and came home
covered with black coal dust. Mines were dangerous places.
Coal gave off many gases that were poisonous or explosive.
Miners wore helmets with lanterns that used an open flame;
often, this flame could ignite the underground gases and coal
dust. The result would be an explosion, as flames swept through
the mine, killing everyone in their path. Miners also had to use
dynamite to blast the coal, and this could also set off a dangerous
explosion.
Mines sometimes filled with water, and in many mines, min-
ers removed as much water as coal! Water could flood mines or
cause them to collapse, trapping the miners inside, where they
would suffocate. Mining equipment was also dangerous. Coal
cars ran through mine shafts on railroad tracks and could kill
or injure miners if the cars struck them. Accidents were com-
mon and could permanently cripple victims who survived. If
they survived these disasters and accidents, miners faced an-
other killer, black lung disease, which was caused by breathing
coal dust. Over time, the coal dust would ruin a miner’s lungs,
with fatal results.
Ukrainian and other immigrant miners were treated very
poorly by the mining companies. Companies saw the miners as
expendable and were not interested in improving the mines to
make them safer. If a miner was killed or injured, they would
simply hire another. A miner who was injured and could not
work received no compensation from the company or the
government. He and his family could only rely on the help of
friends and relatives.
In these difficult circumstances, Ukrainian immigrants
had to find creative solutions to survive and make life less
difficult. One response was to form fraternal societies. These
organizations were often based in Ukrainian churches. Mem-
bers would contribute a certain amount of money to a cen-
tral fund each month. If a member died or was injured and
unable to work, the fraternal society would help the family
with its expenses. Over time, these societies grew and band-
ed together into large, national organizations that promoted
Ukrainian culture, as well as providing insurance to mem-
bers. The largest of these is the Ukrainian National Associa-
tion (UNA). The UNA was founded in 1894 in Shamokin,
Pennsylvania.
Miners also tried to protest the working conditions by go-

ing on strike and forming unions. Early coal miners’ unions
faced violence and intimidation. Coal companies did not want
strikes and feared that they would lose money if they had to
pay higher wages or spend more to improve safety in the mines.
Coal mine owners banded together to form the Coal and Iron
Police, whose job was to keep miners from protesting and to
protect the companies.
In September 1897, a sheriff ’s posse shot and killed almost
20 striking immigrant coal miners in Lattimer, Pennsylvania.
The miners were unarmed and marching peacefully behind an
American flag when they were attacked. The Lattimer Massacre
was one of the worst examples of labor violence in American
history, but there were many smaller incidents, as well. Because
of this, conditions for Ukrainian and other immigrant miners
remained difficult and dangerous.
Back to the Land

Many other Ukrainian immigrants turned their backs on the
hardships of life in factories and coal mines and sought a place
on the land. They looked to the wide prairies of western Cana-
da and North Dakota and saw land that resembled their native
Ukraine. Governments and railroad companies owned much
of the land and were eager for settlers to come and develop it.
This land was often remote and not very suitable for farming.
They encouraged Ukrainian settlement and tried to make the
land as affordable as possible. Sometimes the railroads contact-
ed Ukrainian priests and bishops to spread the word to poten-
tial immigrants and agreed to provide settlers with land for a
church, a cemetery, and a school.
Beginning in the 1890s, thousands of Ukrainian families
came to the northern Great Plains to establish farms. They of-
ten settled in isolated areas far from large cities. In many places,
Ukrainians were the only settlers, so everyone spoke Ukrainian
and the new arrivals could live almost as they had in the old
country. What few neighbors they had were Native Americans

or people of mixed Indian and French heritage called Métis.
Most farm families’ first homes were dugouts with a dirt
floor, covered with tree branches and roofed with sod. Their
first meals were often made of wild onions, mushrooms, herbs,
and a rabbit or bird they caught and roasted over an open fire.
When they set about building a permanent home, they often
tried to build their houses in the same patterns that they had
known back in Ukraine.
The first years of settlement were the hardest for the Ukrai-
nian farmers. Land for farming had to be cleared of brush and
trees. Tough prairie sod had to be broken. Ukrainian immi-
grants often had to go to cities to work to earn enough to pay
for the tools, seed, animals, and supplies they needed for their
farms. In some cases, a husband would leave his wife and chil-
dren to work the farm while he went to the city to earn extra
money. One account of a Ukrainian family in Canada recalled:
With two oxen, Magdalena plowed and cultivated a bit

more land; the seeding she did by hand. That summer
[her husband] Alexander sent her some money and she
bought a cow. . . . Her experience of harvesting was done
entirely by hand, and the help from the boys enabled her
to cut, thresh, bag the wheat, stack the straw and cut some
hay that was plentiful in low meadow and excellent fodder
for the oxen and cow.7
The son of one Ukrainian immigrant to Canada remem-

bered how his father came to his new home with little more
than his strong work ethic: “He took a homestead and he was
using a pick and an axe and tore it up a little at a time. That was
a lot of hard work.”8
Once trees were cut, oxen were used to pull out stumps.
Rocks had to be dug up by hand. Fields were cleared bit by bit,
with backbreaking work performed amid clouds of mosquitoes
and biting flies.
There were other hardships to face, as well. Winter was a

time of great suffering for many Ukrainian settlers. Some fami-
lies barely had enough food to survive. Fierce blizzards and sub-
zero temperatures kept the settlers isolated in their homes for
days or weeks. In some families, the husbands went away during
the winter to work in factories or logging camps. Their wives
and children had to fend for themselves and became experts at
surviving winter’s worst.
Summer brought its own perils. Fires were the worst. Dur-
ing the dry months of summer, a careless campfire or a light-
ning strike could start a raging prairie fire. Driven by the wind,
it could race across the land, destroying everything in its path:
crops, homes, animals, and people. If the settlers spotted the
fire coming—it would appear as a cloud of smoke above a thin
red line on the horizon—they would quickly try to plow a circle
around their house and barn to act as a firebreak. Families in
dugout or sod houses would wrap themselves in wet blankets
and hope the fire passed quickly. If the fire came suddenly, their
only hope of survival was to run to the nearest creek or pond
and get in the water as deep as possible.
The Ukrainian pioneers also faced diseases such as scarlet
fever or diphtheria. These illnesses struck many early settlers,
especially children. In many communities, a walk through the
local cemetery reveals that many families lost children to the
hardships of pioneer life.
Bad weather could destroy a whole year’s worth of work
and ruin a family. Even with good weather, the first crops of
wheat were small and had to be hauled for miles to the nearest
town or railroad depot before they could be sold or ground into
flour. During their first years on the land, few farmers made any
profit. Much of what they grew in their gardens and fields was
used to feed their own families and their farm animals.
It took tremendous faith, hard work, and perseverance to
merely survive the early years of settlement. Many Ukrainians
had what it took. Year in and year out, Ukrainian farmers on
Ukraine is primarily made up of flat, fertile plains; consequently, many

Ukrainians had been farmers prior to immigrating to the United States.
Pictured here is an 18-year-old Ukrainian boy who is feeding cows on a
farm, shortly after arriving in the United States in 1949.
the Great Plains overcame each challenge and made their com-
munities a success.
Blazing New Trails

Not all Ukrainian immigrants to North America wanted to be
farmers, factory workers, or miners. Some who started out in
these jobs had dreams of opening their own businesses.
In the early Ukrainian communities, one of the first busi-
nesses to open was the saloon. Saloons were places for workers to
gather after work, enjoy a glass of beer, get an inexpensive meal,
and meet friends. It was especially important for men who had
come to America without their families and had no loved ones
to go home to at night. Many saloons provided newspapers in
Ukrainian and English to their customers. Patrons could learn

the news of the day, and papers were often read aloud for the
benefit of those who were illiterate.
Saloonkeepers were also important figures in their com-
munities. Opening a saloon required some political con-
nections with local officials, and owners could use these to
help their patrons. Many soon expanded their businesses to
include other services that the immigrants needed: Some
helped find jobs for new arrivals and others helped immi-
grants make travel arrangements and get steamship and
train tickets for relatives who they wanted to bring over from
Europe.
Ukrainian women also operated businesses in North Amer-
ica. The most common was the boardinghouse. While her hus-
band worked at his job in a factory or mine, the wife would
cook, clean, and keep house for workers who did not yet have
families in America. This brought in extra income that helped
the family make it through tough times, but the work was very
demanding. One Ukrainian writer described how hard a board-
ing housekeeper worked every day:
From early in the morning to late in the evening, she is

always on her feet, always working in miserable, perpetual,
and monotonous boredom. She awakens in the morning
and prepares breakfast for her boarders; then she washes
the dishes and cleans the house; later she cooks supper
and again she washes the dishes and cleans the house; in
her spare moments she washes the boarders’ clothes. . . .
And so it goes, day after day. All that and children too!9
In cities with large garment factories, such as New York City,

Ukrainian women also worked as seamstresses. Sometimes, they
worked in sweatshop factories, but whenever possible they used
their sewing skills to supplement their family’s income. Some
simply began to work from home and later expanded into small
businesses.
Ukrainian immigrants soon discovered that their favorite

foods weren’t available in the stores in North America. In cities,
as Ukrainian communities grew, many working families did not
have the time or money to prepare delicacies such as Ukrainian
sausage. Some enterprising immigrants began to open Ukrai-
nian restaurants, delis, bakeries, and even small companies to
produce the foods that their fellow immigrants wanted.
Because Ukrainians had often been denied education and
knowledge of their history and culture in Europe, printing and
publishing was also an important activity in larger Ukrainian
communities. Ukrainian publishers produced books, magazines,
and newspapers. These covered every topic imaginable. They re-
printed the works of Ukrainian authors such as Shevchenko and
Franko, as well as translations of American and British writers.
There were also practical works, such as “how-to” guides, and
histories of Ukraine, the United States, and Canada.
A New Wave
Immigrants who have come from Ukraine in the past 25 years
have not followed in the footsteps of earlier Ukrainian immi-
grants. Few of these recent immigrants became farmers or coal
miners. They arrived in North America with more education
than the first wave of Ukrainians, and, as a result, they tried to
look for jobs that fit their educational background. Like the ear-
lier immigrants, however, not being able to speak English lim-
ited the jobs that some could take. Some new arrivals became
construction workers, maids, janitors, and taxicab drivers.
Still, they sought to better themselves. Once they learned Eng-
lish, they began to move more quickly into their old professions or
they went to school to learn new professions. They became nurses,
doctors, dentists, salespeople, real estate agents, travel agents, and
designers, just to name a few of the professions in which recent
immigrants have excelled. Others began to open small businesses.
Since Ukraine gained independence, some have used their contacts
with Ukraine to open businesses that import Ukrainian goods.
In recent years, one small but important group of immi-

grants has been students and professors. Since Ukraine gained
independence, college students and teachers have been able to
come to the United States or Canada to attend school. Profes-
sors have come to teach or as part of an exchange program in
which North American professors trade places with a Ukrai-
nian colleague for a year. These temporary immigrants gain
new knowledge and learn new skills that they can take back to
Ukraine in order to help their country build a brighter future.
Regardless of where they settled, whether on farms in west-
ern Canada, in the coal-mining regions of Pennsylvania, or in
industrial cities like New York, Chicago, Cleveland, or Detroit,
Ukrainian immigrants came to North America and rolled up
their sleeves and went to work. Jobs and businesses provided
a living that made it possible to escape the poverty they had
known in the old country and a way to bring their families to
America and build a better life for their children.
Still, finding a job and getting settled was just the beginning
of their new lives. To preserve their heritage and faith, they also
needed strong communities that would ensure that their values
would live on for generations to come.
1. List some of the major locations in North America
where Ukrainian immigrants settled.
2. What was life like for a Ukrainian coal miner in
Pennsylvania?
3. What were some of the hardships that Ukrainian
pioneers faced in western Canada?
4. What jobs did more recent Ukrainian immigrants
take compared to the earlier generation?
5
Making a
New Home
U krainian life in North America has always revolved around
the home and the community. After they immigrated, the
new arrivals had to find a place to settle and look for jobs. At the
same time, they looked for ways to make their new lives easier.
They faced the loneliness of being far from family and friends,
and language barriers had to be overcome. Life on the farm and
in the coal mines and factories was hard. Although more recent
arrivals from Ukraine had it a little easier, they, too, faced a dif-
ficult adjustment.
Ukrainians came to North America for a better life. They
wanted to keep their culture, faith, and traditions while
enjoying the freedom their adopted homelands offered.
To do all these things and to make their new surroundings
seem more like home, Ukrainian immigrants needed to form
communities.
64
Making a New Home 65
Finding Home
The building block of the Ukrainian community was the fam-
ily. In the family home, the culture and traditions of immigrant
life were transmitted to a new generation. Those who came
to America as children and those children who were born to
Ukrainian immigrant parents had no personal memories of life
in Ukraine. Their ideas of what it meant to be Ukrainian were
created in North America.
In the old country, families could rely on a network of
grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, and neighbors to
help teach their children cultural traditions. In North America,
families were on their own. In many cases, immigrants to
North America were young people who had not had the
opportunity to fully absorb the traditions of their parents and
grandparents.
Keeping Ukrainian traditions alive was a struggle, especially
during important holidays such as Easter and Christmas. How
did mother and grandmother make the delicious Easter bread
called pashka? What were the words to the songs father used
to sing at Christmastime? How can we find the ingredients to
make the foods we remember from childhood? What were the
recipes? All of these questions had to be answered.
In many families, keeping Ukrainian culture alive was the
job of wives and mothers. Husbands and fathers were often
working long hours on the farm or in factories or mines. At
home, women worked just as hard as men did outside the home
(if not harder). Because so many traditions occurred in and
around the family home, it fell to these women to teach their
children Ukrainian customs.
Some traditions had to be adjusted to fit the new Ameri-
can realities. Others could be preserved “just as in the old
country.” Parents did not have their own parents to turn to for
advice, so they had to depend on friends and neighbors and
they had to work more closely with their children. Children
had new roles and responsibilities in helping the family main-

tain its traditions.
One example was the date for Christmas. In the Eastern Chris-
tian tradition, Christmas is celebrated on January 7 rather than
on December 25, as in the Western Christian tradition. Early im-
migrants to North America faced a difficult choice. Public schools
and many employers refused to allow January 7 as a day off for
Ukrainians. Some Ukrainians switched the date of their celebra-
tion of Christmas to December, but others kept it in January.
In some cases, Ukrainian immigrants discovered modern
conveniences that made it easier for them to preserve their
culture. According to one author, on farms in Canada “the
Ukrainian women no longer gather plants, barks, and mosses
to make their dyes [for clothing]. They find they can produce
the colours they want by using commercial dyes—and who can
blame them for so lightening their labours?”10
Other traditions could be preserved from Ukraine. The
custom of decorating Easter eggs—called pysanky—was one
example. One woman, the daughter of Ukrainian immigrants
from Canada, recalled:
Mother taught us girls how to decorate Easter eggs. She

didn’t make them too fancy, just simple. As long as there
was a line around and some leaf. You see, they believed
very much in all that from the old country. The line that
encircles the egg has no beginning and no end so it sym-
bolizes eternity. And a pine tree, she always made a pine
tree to signify eternal youth and health. She made roost-
ers, eternity and fulfillment of wishes and always a fish
for Christianity. Mother never made reindeers, but other
people did. They must have come from a different village.
The dyes were all from the old country, beautiful dyes.11
In more recent years, popular customs associated with the

Ukrainian Christmas Eve were streamlined: The traditional im-
portance of barn animals was dropped, and hay strewn under
Like Christmas, Easter is one of the primary holidays celebrated by

Ukrainians. Decorated Easter eggs—known as pysanky—are among the
most important traditions of this holiday and are colorfully decorated
using the wax-resistant method known as batik.
the table disappeared. Because most Ukrainians in North Amer-

ica no longer live in separate Ukrainian colonies, impromptu
house-to-house caroling has become less common and is now
sometimes used as a fund-raiser for churches or organizations.
Easter
The most important religious holiday in Ukraine has always
been Easter. Easter commemorates and honors the death and
resurrection of Jesus Christ. Because it occurs during the spring,
Easter is also a time to look forward to the rebirth of nature af-
ter the winter. It is preceded by Lent, a 40-day period of fasting,
repentance, and reflection. During this time, Ukrainians did not
eat meat on Fridays and did not have parties, dances, or wed-
dings. They tried to make amends to friends, family, or neigh-
bors with whom they had had arguments or hard feelings.
Palm Sunday (Shutkova Nedilia) began the Holy Week of
Easter. To commemorate Christ’s entry into Jerusalem, Ukrai-
nian immigrants would carry pussy willow branches to church
to be blessed. (These were used because palm fronds were rare
and hard to get in Ukraine and the early immigrant commu-
nities in North America.) Sometimes, Ukrainian immigrants
would tap each other with the branches and recite poems that
reminded themselves that Easter would soon arrive.
For Ukrainian immigrants in North America, the week be-
fore Easter was a time of intense preparation. There was special
food to be made, and the house had to be completely cleaned.
Extra care went into making Easter bread, or pashka. Cooks had
to think only positive thoughts while baking this bread, and
strangers were not allowed into the house during the cooking
because they might hex the pashka. It was said that only pash-
kas made in this way could turn out light, airy, and delicious.
This was the time when Ukrainian families colored beau-
tiful pysanky. The symbols inscribed on the eggs reflected the
themes of Easter—eternal life, rebirth, and the renewal of na-
ture. The most popular method of decorating pysanky is the use
of the wax-resistant method, or batik. A specialized instrument
called the kistka, or ryl’tse, is used to draw the design with hot
wax. The dyes used in the process also had a symbolic meaning.
Red symbolized the sun, life, and joy; yellow stood for wealth
and fertility; and green was the symbol of spring and plant life.
In the past, artists prepared their own dyes using the bark of
oak or ash trees, twigs of sour apple trees, saffron, or willow tree
leaves. In more recent times, chemical dyes have been used.
Good Friday was the most solemn day of Holy Week. Like
Christians around the world, Ukrainian immigrants fasted and
went to church to remember Christ’s death. Ukrainian Catholic
and Orthodox churches would have a plashchenytsia, a model
of Christ’s tomb, set up in the church, where the faithful would
go to pray. The next day, Holy Saturday, there were more prepa-
rations for Easter. Ukrainian families would fill a special bas-
ket full of Easter foods—eggs, sweet bread (pashka), kovbasa,
cheese, and spicy horseradish. They would go to church, which
would fill with fellow immigrants, and the priest would bless
the food. Many children recall how the church would fill up
with the delicious smells of Easter as the priest sprinkled each
basket with holy water—but the food couldn’t be eaten yet!
Early on Easter morning, families would rise, put on their
best clothes, and go to church to celebrate the Mass of the Res-
urrection. Afterward, they would greet friends and neighbors
with hugs and three kisses each and then would hurry home
to the Easter breakfast that consisted of all the dishes prepared
during Holy Week. The centerpiece of each table would be the
Easter pashka, which was covered with symbols made of dough
such as a cross, solar signs, rosettes, leaves, pine cones, birds,
or bees. After the meal, time was spent singing, dancing, and
enjoying being with one’s family and friends.
Christmas
Although Easter was the most important holiday, Christmas
was often the favorite holiday of Ukrainians in Ukraine and in
North America. The Christmas season began with the Feast of
St. Nicholas (December 6 or December 19, depending on which
calendar they used), when someone dressed up as the famous
saint, sometimes accompanied by helper “angels” who would
visit families and quiz the children on their knowledge of reli-

gion. Children would receive small gifts, perhaps pieces of fruit
or candy. In Ukraine and in early Ukrainian immigrant com-
munities in North America, the main day for gift giving was
St. Nicholas Day rather than Christmas Day itself.
In more recent times, as Ukrainian communities have be-
come more modernized, this custom has been replaced with
St. Nicholas parties. Instead of having the saint visit each child’s
home, the children of the Ukrainian community gather at their
local churches and Ukrainian halls and meet St. Nicholas there.
In most families, gift giving is now most common on Christmas
Day.
Ukrainian Christmas celebrations begin on Christmas Eve
(December 24 or January 6, depending on the calendar) and
continue through the Feast of the Three Kings, 12 days later.
On Christmas Eve, there is intense preparation and excite-
ment as a special evening meal is prepared. On farms, children
gather a little hay from the manger to place under the table-
cloth at the dinner table. (Even families that live in the city
usually manage to find a little hay or straw for this custom.)
The younger children are usually distracted from excitement
by being given the important task of going outside to watch
for the first star.
When the first star is visible in the night sky, Christmas Eve
begins and the family gathers around the table. In addition to
place settings for the family, it is customary to set out an extra
place to remember family members who have passed away or
for any guest who might arrive unannounced. The head of the
family—traditionally the father—breaks a piece of bread and
gives a piece dipped in honey to each member of the family.
The bread is eaten, and everyone wishes each other a merry
Christmas.
The Christmas Eve meal consists of 12 dishes, all of which
are meatless. In the middle of the table is an elaborately braided
sweet bread called kolach, with a candle placed in the center.
Other symbolic foods include kutia (wheat porridge mixed with

poppy seeds and honey) and uzvar, a drink made from stewed
fruit. After these, more dishes are served: borscht (beet soup)
with vushka (dumplings filled with chopped mushrooms), fol-
lowed by a variety of fish—baked, broiled, fried, cold in aspic
(a clear jelly), fish balls, and pickled herring—then varenyky
(pierogi filled with cabbage, potatoes, or prunes) and holubtsi
(stuffed cabbage).
After dinner, it is time for Christmas carols. In early im-
migrant communities, it was common for people to go door to
door singing traditional Ukrainian Christmas songs just as they
had in the old country. Then, the family changed for church
and, bundled against the cold, would go to midnight Mass. Af-
terward, a second meal was eaten, small gifts were distributed,
and more Christmas songs were sung, sometimes until the next
morning! This joyful time of song and good food would con-
tinue for 12 days. This tradition was carried on mostly in rural
communities, where the winter season provided a little more
free time. Many of the immigrants who worked in factories or
mines had to go back to work, although they kept the spirit of
the season alive by singing and enjoying themselves when they
came home after a day of hard work.
Churches
Like many immigrants, early Ukrainian immigrants were
deeply religious, and most significant customs and traditions
involved religion. Strong faith helped Ukrainian peasants over-
come their hardships with patience and good cheer and helped
them make sense of a world that often seemed hostile toward
them. Churches provided a sense of identity and purpose. They
helped preserve Ukrainian traditions, culture, and language in
North America.
For early Ukrainian immigrants, building a church was the
first big community effort in which they became involved. It
would provide a place of worship, a place to socialize and meet
neighbors, a location to gather, and, later, a place to establish

other community groups. The first churches built by the new
arrivals were often very simple wooden chapels. One Ukrainian
Canadian remembered:
Our church was just a small wooden one. There were no

pews. You stood for the two and a half hours of the mass.
how to make ukrainian-style borscht
S oup holds a special place in Ukrainian cuisine, and it often

seems as if no proper meal can be complete with at least a
cup of soup. In the summer, soups can be chilled and refreshing.
In the winter, they are warm and filling.
Borscht is one of the favorite soups of Ukraine. It is eaten
in many countries of eastern and central Europe. Borscht (or
barshch) is named after its main ingredient, beets.
There are endless varieties of borscht, ranging from a simple broth
to a hearty stewlike dish that can be served with fresh bread as a meal.
Ukrainian borscht is usually a hearty soup filled with meat and veg-
etables. It goes best with a good crusty rye or pumpernickel bread.
This recipe calls for about a pound of beets. You can use
canned beets with their juice or fresh beets. If you use fresh beets,
try roasting them in a 300-degree oven until they are slightly
caramelized and then peel and dice them. Roasting brings out the
natural sweetness of the beets.
Borscht
Ingredients
1 carrot, diced
1 celery stalk, sliced
1 /4 small head of cabbage, shredded
2 potatoes, diced
6 cups beef, chicken, or vegetable broth
1 lb. beets
No choir, just a dyak [cantor] and some singers. There

were religious pictures with paper flowers around them. A
group of girls would get together before Easter and scrub
the floors and make these flowers. It was so cold in there
during the winter! There was just a wood burning heater
that they would start up on Saturday but even so your feet
froze during the service.12
1 /2 cup plain baked beans, rinsed

4 tomatoes, chopped
1 tbsp. instant flour
2 tbsp. cold water
Garlic powder
1 tbsp. lemon juice
1 /2 tsp. sugar
1 /8 tsp. pepper
Salt
1 /2 cup sour cream (optional)
Simmer carrots, celery, cabbage, and potatoes in the broth for

20 minutes. Add beets (with juice if using canned beets), beans,
and tomatoes. Cook for five minutes. Add the flour mixed with the
cold water. Cook for five minutes.
Remove from heat and season with garlic powder, lemon

juice, sugar, pepper, and salt. If desired, add a spoonful of sour
cream in the bowl just before serving.
Hint: Borscht often tastes even better a day after it is made,

so it can be made and then stored overnight in the refrigerator
and reheated. If you make it ahead of time, leave out the sour
cream until just before serving.
From these humble origins, Ukrainian communities gradu-

ally enlarged and expanded their churches. In urban communi-
ties, where there were more people to support a large parish
church, impressive structures of brick began to rise in Ukrai-
nian neighborhoods, decorated inside with glorious icons and
stained-glass windows. Despite coming from intense poverty,
Ukrainian immigrants built their churches to last, hiring the best
architects and builders. They often sought out renowned icon
painters to make holy pictures for their sanctuary. By building
such beautiful churches, they were telling everyone who passed
by that they were putting down roots in North America and
were putting their stamp on the community.
Because the church was the first and usually most important
place in the Ukrainian community, the priest was often among
the most respected leaders. His advice on spiritual, family, and
legal matters was often sought. In poor communities, the priest
lived alongside the people, sharing their daily toils. One immi-
grant from Canada remembered:
The priests in those days had a hard time. They worked

hard for us and were poor, God bless them. The roads
were bad, the parishes didn’t have much money, they had
to get around in a wagon even in bad weather. Our priest
would play the violin for us at christenings, drop in for a
visit and a drink of whiskey, help out with the shocking or
shoveling grain. What can I say? A good man.13
Divided Traditions
The early waves of Ukrainian immigrants did not always view
themselves as Ukrainians. Their main loyalties were to their fam-
ilies, churches, and home villages. Ukraine did not exist as a na-
tion, and there were few opportunities to learn about Ukrainian
history or literature. Aside from the language, stories, and tradi-
tions they learned at home, when they arrived in North America
few Ukrainians were aware of what it meant to be Ukrainian.
The church is an integral part of Ukrainian communities

in the United States, and priests are the most important
figures in the Ukrainian Catholic Church. Pictured here is
Stefan Soroka, who was installed as the sixth metropolitan-
archbishop of the Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of
Philadelphia—the highest position in the United States—
in 2001.
For the first time in their adopted homelands, the immi-

grants had the freedom to learn about where they came from.
As their status slowly improved, they had a little extra money to
spend on Ukrainian cultural items, especially books, newspa-
pers, and music. Many communities opened their own schools
to teach their American-born children their ancestral language,
history, and culture.
The journey to North America forced immigrants to an-
swer new questions. In North America, they encountered many
other ethnic and racial groups from throughout the world.
Ukrainians had to ask themselves, “What does it mean to be
Ukrainian?” Not all immigrants from Ukraine came up with the
same answer. How they responded had a lot to do with where
they came from in Ukraine and what church they belonged to.
Carpatho-Rusyns
Among the first immigrants from Ukraine in North America
were Carpatho-Rusyns (also called Ruthenians). They came
from the Carpathian Mountains of far western Ukraine, where
they lived as shepherds and farmers. They came from three
groups: Lemkos, Hutsuls, and Bojkos. Each group spoke a
slightly different dialect, although they could all understand
each other. Because they lived in the mountains and far from
any major city, Carpatho-Rusyns were separated from the sur-
rounding Ukrainian, Polish, and Slovak cultures. They consider
themselves a unique and separate group.
Most Carpatho-Rusyns belong to the Eastern-rite Catholic
Church. This church is part of the Roman Catholic Church but
uses Orthodox-style religious services and its priests are per-
mitted to marry. (It is also known as the Greek or Byzantine
Catholic Church.) When the Carpatho-Rusyns first arrived in
North America, there were few Eastern-rite Catholic churches
to which they could belong. Some joined Slovak, Hungarian,
or Polish Roman Catholic churches. Others formed their own
churches.
The Ruthenian Catholics, who largely come from the Carpathian

Mountain region of western Ukraine, are part of the Eastern-rite
Catholic Church and thus are not part of the Ukrainian Catholic
Church. Pictured here are Pope John Paul II and Judson M. Procyk,
who served as metropolitan of the Byzantine Catholic Archdiocese of
Pittsburgh from 1995 to 2001.
Many of the early immigrants came from a part of the Car-

pathian Mountains ruled by the Kingdom of Hungary. These
immigrants called themselves Uhro-Rusyn, which means “Hun-
garian-Rusyn,” and formed their own Catholic churches. Immi-
grants from the north side of the mountains, ruled by Austria,
called themselves either Carpatho-Rusyn or Ukrainian. Those

who came from the highland regions were the most likely to call
themselves “Rusyns.” Those from the lowlands and valleys were
more likely to call themselves “Ukrainian.”
The early immigrants to North America could not agree on
what to call themselves. They separated according to where they
came from, what church they belonged to, and what type of
government they thought should eventually rule their home-
land. This confusion was made more acute by the actions of
some American Catholic bishops, many of whom were Irish
Americans. Often, these bishops did not want to provide sepa-
rate churches for these newcomers. They also felt that it would
be better if the immigrants spoke English and stopped prac-
ticing customs from the old country. The bishops wanted the
Catholic Church to be accepted by other Americans and were
afraid of seeming too “foreign” or “different.”
Russian Orthodoxy
In 1890, a more serious conflict arose in Minnesota. A small
community of Eastern Catholic Ukrainian/Rusyn immigrants
had built a church in Minneapolis. Their first pastor was Fa-
ther Alexis Toth. On arriving in Minneapolis, Father Toth went
to introduce himself to the local Catholic bishop. Bishop John
Ireland was one of the most influential bishops in the United
States and was against immigrants who wanted to keep their
own language and culture. He treated Father Toth very rudely.
The two priests began to argue; the archbishop ordered Fa-
ther Toth to leave and refused to grant permission for his new
church to operate.
Disgusted with his treatment, Father Toth soon made con-
tact with the Russian Orthodox bishop of San Francisco. At that
time, there was no separate Ukrainian Orthodox Church in the
United States. He and his parish then converted to the Russian
Orthodox faith. Soon, Father Toth convinced Rusyns in other
cities to leave the Catholic Church and join the Russian Ortho-
dox Church.
Those who followed Father Toth’s movement began to
worship in Russian. They spoke Russian and began to identify
with Russian culture. In time, most stopped calling themselves
Ukrainian or Rusyn and simply referred to themselves as Rus-
sian, even though their ancestors had never lived in Russia!
Ukrainian Orthodox Church

The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church in North
America was founded during the second wave of immigration
from Ukraine in the 1920s. The Ukrainians who joined this
church were both new immigrants and children of the earlier
wave of immigrants. This Orthodox Church had to overcome
many obstacles to gain acceptance from other churches, includ-
ing fellow Orthodox Churches in Europe. Alternative Ukraini-
an Orthodox Churches were founded in the United States and
Canada.
These churches had a hard time cooperating with one an-
other. Each had its own leaders, and their goals and person-
alities often clashed. The most influential Orthodox Church,
based in Constantinople, Turkey, also failed to assist by recog-
nizing these churches. Because of this, the Ukrainian Orthodox
faith in America remained weak and divided.
Ukrainian Protestants
Most Ukrainians were either Orthodox or Catholic. Small
groups of Ukrainian Protestants also made their home in North
America, however. Among the first to immigrate were a group
of Stundists (also called Pavlovtsy), who were pacifists from
north-central Ukraine. They came to North America to escape
persecution. Because they opposed all forms of violence, they
would not join the army. This angered the leaders of the Russian
Orthodox Church and the government who saw the Stundists
as disloyal to Russia. In 1899, many began to immigrate to the

United States and Canada, settling as farmers in North Dakota,
Saskatchewan, and other areas. Groups of Baptists and Presby-
terians from Ukraine also made their way to the United States
during these years.
For Ukrainian immigrants, the family and the church were
the building blocks of community life. Ukraine’s turbulent
history was echoed in the divide among the many different
churches that strove to serve the community. Although they did
not bring all Ukrainians together, they did help the immigrants
find a common community in North America.
1. How did Ukrainian immigrants keep some of their
traditions alive?
2. How did some of their customs change in North
America?
3. Why were churches a vital part of Ukrainian
immigrant life?
4. Who are Carpatho-Rusyns?
6
Bringing Ukrainian
Traditions to
North America
U krainians in the United States and Canada created many
community organizations. These groups were founded
because immigrants wanted to preserve their culture and also
because they needed services that other organizations could not
or would not provide.
Discrimination
Ukrainian immigrants in both Canada and the United States
suffered from discrimination. As new immigrants, they could
not speak English and were often forced to take the tough-
est, dirtiest jobs—such as working in coal mines. Native-born
Americans and Canadians sometimes saw Ukrainians as too
“different” or strange. Many believed that Ukrainians were so
different that they would never be good citizens, and many also
opposed allowing Ukrainians to teach public school or gain
positions of public trust. In many instances, Ukrainians were
81
called “Russians” and described as lesser than people of white

English stock.
One newspaper in Canada printed the following, which
objected to the appointment of Ukrainians as local district
officials:
It is quite possible that English-speaking generations yet

unborn will come to look upon the descendants of Gali-
cian [Ukrainian] immigrants as their equals and friends;
at the present time we do not so consider them. In view
of their education, ideas, moral standards, and way of life,
we justly regard them as inferiors. We are prepared to treat
them with fairness and civility; we are not prepared to be
bossed by them. . . . When it comes to investing a Russian
yokel with authority to dictate, in the Government’s name,
to English-speaking British subjects, we think this is going
too far. . . . We resent it as a humiliation; and it is unlikely
that white men in this Province will stand for it.14
Although nonwhite immigrant groups such as the Chinese

usually suffered even worse discrimination, feelings against im-
migrants from eastern and southern Europe were very strong.
At the same time, there were also many in the United States and
Canada who welcomed Ukrainians as willing workers and new
neighbors.
The Internment, 1914–1920

Prejudice against Ukrainians sometimes led to serious injus-
tice. The worst example was the imprisonment of Ukrainians in
Canada during World War I. When the war broke out in 1914,
Canada joined Great Britain on the side of the Allied powers.
Ukrainians who came from Galicia had been subjects of Aus-
tria-Hungary, which was one of Canada’s and Great Britain’s en-
emies. Few Ukrainians were loyal to Austria-Hungary and had
come to North America to be free of Austrian or Russian rule,
but this did not matter to the Canadian government. Prejudice
Bringing Ukrainian Traditions to North America 83
against Ukrainians and wartime tensions led many Canadians

to view their new Ukrainian neighbors with fear and mistrust.
In 1914, the Canadian government passed a decree that al-
lowed authorities to imprison citizens of Austria-Hungary as
enemies in 26 special camps located throughout the country.
More than 5,000 Ukrainians, including some who were Cana-
dian citizens, were imprisoned by this order. Most of those de-
tained were men, but there were also women and children in
the camps. The Ukrainian prisoners often had their homes and
other property taken away for no reason. Approximately 80,000
more Ukrainians were subject to special government restric-
tions and had to register with local police wherever they went.
While in the camps, the Ukrainians caught up in these in-
ternment operations were transported to Canada’s remotest
areas, where they were forced to work on heavy labor projects
such as road building, clearing land, and drainage projects, of-
ten under very difficult conditions. One of the areas where they
worked was the famous Banff National Park. Prisoners were de-
nied access to newspapers, and their correspondence was cen-
sored and limited. They were forced not only to maintain the
camps but to work for the government and private concerns,
and they were sometimes mistreated by the guards. About 69
Ukrainians died of mistreatment and poor conditions while in
the camps.
There was never any evidence of disloyalty on the part of
Ukrainian Canadians. Many served in the Canadian armed
forces, often with great courage. One such example was Ser-
geant Philip Konowal. He joined the 47th Canadian Infantry
Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force and fought with
exceptional valor in combat in August 1917. For his actions,
Konowal was awarded the Victoria Cross—the highest decora-
tion of the British Empire—by King George V in London on
October 15, 1917. Ironically, at the same time that Canada was
being honored by Konowal’s achievements, it was treating other
Ukrainians with great injustice.
Making a Community
Faced with many challenges in North America, Ukrainian im-
migrants responded with creativity and hard work. The result
was the formation of many organizations that together made
up strong Ukrainian communities. Many of these organizations
have survived successfully for decades and have been joined by
new organizations.
The first institution in most communities was the church
(discussed in Chapter 5). Once a church had been built, other
groups soon followed. The first to be founded were usually par-
ish church societies. There were groups for men, women, and
young people. Many of the early church societies were founded
to assist the parish or for prayer and religious observances. They
also provided a place to meet and socialize.
During holidays and festivals, these societies would often
march in processions around the church or in the immediate
area. These processions were very colorful and popular activi-
ties. Members of each society would dress in their best clothes
and usually had a pin or sash to identify their group. Each group
had a banner, usually with a picture of a saint embroidered on
it. With the priest, cantors, and choir, the societies would march
in honor of the holiday.
Church societies also took on another important task—
helping members who were facing some personal or family
crisis, such as an injury, death in the family, or loss of a job.
As these societies took on more and more of these problems,
Ukrainian immigrants started to realize the need for some form
of fraternal insurance to help members in time of need. From
this idea, the Ukrainian fraternal movement in North America
was born.
Fraternal Societies
Fraternal insurance was created by people who could not afford
standard life insurance. Immigrants and others who worked
in dangerous industries such as coal mining were considered
too great a risk for insurance, so most companies would not

sell them policies. Because of this, Ukrainian immigrants who
were injured or killed on the job left their families in poverty. In
the early days of industry, there were no pensions, sick days, or
worker’s compensation. If you could not work, you did not get
paid. Like many immigrant groups, Ukrainians began to band
together to create their own low-cost insurance societies.
The first fraternal societies grew from churches. Members
would pay a small fee every month, and the money was placed
in a special account. If a member died or was injured, this mon-
ey was used to help the member’s family pay bills, buy food, or
even pay for a proper funeral. Societies also made sure that all
of their members were good citizens, behaved themselves, and
supported the Ukrainian community in its activities. As an ear-
ly Ukrainian activist said, “One person cannot help everyone,
but everyone can help one person.”
Soon, these small societies started to band together to form
larger federations. These larger fraternal federations allowed a
member who moved from one community to another to retain
his insurance. Because more people could join, the larger frater-
nal societies were more stable and could provide more benefits.
Fraternal societies became nationwide Ukrainian organizations
and were able to represent the needs and wishes of many Ukrai-
nians in politics or the media.
The first and largest Ukrainian fraternal society was the
aforementioned Ukrainian National Association, or UNA. Dur-
ing its first year—1894—the organization had just 439 members.
Ten years later, that number had grown to 5,878. By 1974, UNA
had more than 89,000 members, making it the largest Ukrainian
organization in the free world. The UNA began in the United
States, but in 1901 it also began to accept Canadian citizens as
members. In addition to caring for its members, the goals of the
UNA are to unite all Ukrainians in the United States and Cana-
da, and to promote the culture and well-being of the Ukrainian
community in North America.
Like many fraternal societies, the UNA is divided into lo-

cal branches in each area where there are Ukrainians. All the
branches in a particular area are grouped into districts. The na-
tional headquarters is in Newark, New Jersey.
Other organizations soon followed the UNA, many of them
oriented toward young people or women. The Ukrainian Na-
tional Women’s League of America (UNWLA) was founded in
1925. The UNWLA later founded the Ukrainian Museum in
New York as a center for Ukrainian culture. In the 1930s, the
Ukrainian Youth League of North America was established to
promote Ukrainian culture and heritage among the children of
the original immigrants.
The Ukrainian Museum in New York City was founded by the

Ukrainian National Women’s League of America (UNWLA) in 1976
and is home to an extensive collection of Ukrainian costumes,
ceramics, art, and photographs. The museum was designed to
preserve Ukraine’s rich cultural heritage through interpretive and
educational programs.
Education
Schools and learning have always been important to Ukrainian
immigrants. North America provided them with an opportu-
nity to teach their culture and faith to their children, an op-
portunity that most did not have before. The first education
efforts began in the 1890s, when many Ukrainian churches set
up reading rooms for immigrants. These were small libraries
with books and newspapers that people could come to read for
free or for a small fee.
Later, many churches organized grade schools for children.
These offered classes in both Ukrainian and English. Students
learned both American and Ukrainian history and literature
along with subjects such as math, religion, and music. Ukraini-
ans also founded night schools and Saturday schools for workers
and others who could not attend schools during the day but still
wanted to learn. In the 1930s and 1940s, Ukrainians success-
fully convinced some American universities to offer Ukrainian
language courses and, later, classes on history and literature for
college students. In the 1960s, Ukrainian organizations helped
to start a program of Ukrainian studies at Harvard University.
Newspapers and Books

Ukrainian immigrants in Canada and the United States
founded many newspapers. As mentioned previously, the first
newspaper published by a Ukrainian immigrant was founded
by Reverend Agapius Honcharenko in 1868. It was titled the
Alaska Herald and, in addition to being one of Alaska’s first
newspapers, was also the first North American newspaper to
publish articles about Ukrainian history and literature. The first
newspaper entirely in Ukrainian was Amerika, founded in 1886
by Father Ivan Wolansky. The largest and most influential pa-
per was called Svoboda (“Freedom”). It has been published in
Ukrainian by the UNA since 1894. Since 1933, the UNA has also
published the Ukrainian Weekly in English.
Many Ukrainian organizations sponsored their own news-

papers. Some were meant to support a political viewpoint such
as Communism, Socialism, or Nationalism; others were pub-
lished by a particular church for its members.
There were also children’s and youth newspapers and maga-
zines in both Ukrainian and English. Some had text in both lan-
guages so young people could practice their language skills. The
best-known Ukrainian-American children’s magazine is Veselka
(“Rainbow”), which was first published in 1954. It contains poet-
ry, stories, legends, factual articles, memoirs, puzzles, and jokes.
To promote Ukrainian education, many organizations and
newspapers also started to publish books about Ukrainian
topics for immigrants and their children, as well as for non-
Ukrainians in Canada and the United States. Some were how-to
pamphlets, such as instructions to help immigrants get their
citizenship papers or learn basic English. Many organizations
promoted citizenship and printed histories of the United States
and Canada, as well as copies of the U.S. Constitution and Dec-
laration of Independence in Ukrainian. In the 1940s, many
Ukrainian organizations started to publish books of Ukrai-
nian history and literature that would not have been available
in North America otherwise. In 1963, the UNA sponsored the
publication of a two-volume encyclopedia of Ukraine.
Dance, Theater, and Music Groups

The first Ukrainian folk dance troupes were founded around
the time of World War II. Since then, Ukrainian dance has
continued to grow in popularity. Canada alone is home to
dozens of Ukrainian dance groups. Groups perform vibrant,
acrobatic dances such as the hopak—called the most exciting
folk dance in the world—to graceful, stylized, romantic move-
ments in kokhanochka. The first Ukrainian dance groups per-
formed for local audiences. Since the 1970s, however, many
have adopted professional choreography and tour North
America every summer.
Theater was another way for Ukrainians in North America

to express their culture. Early theater groups were based in local
Ukrainian churches. Members often wrote their own plays, de-
signed costumes and sets, and promoted the plays themselves.
They dealt with themes from immigrant life and Ukrainian his-
tory and legend.
Music has always played a special role in Ukrainian life
in North America. From the first immigrants to the present,
Ukrainians expressed their culture in songs and instrumental
performances. Church choirs were the first organized musical
groups, but they were soon followed by bands, ensembles, and
folk choirs. In addition to these expressions of Ukrainian cul-
ture, there have also been Ukrainian recording studios, radio
programs, and, more recently, television programs.
Festivals
In the years after World War II, Ukrainians became more a part
of the mainstream culture of Canada and the United States.
Many stopped living in Ukrainian neighborhoods. Because of
this, daily contact with fellow Ukrainians was not as common.
Parents worried that their children would not learn or appreci-
ate their cultural roots.
To fill this gap, many Ukrainian communities in North
America started yearly cultural festivals. Some of these began in
the years after the war, but as new immigrants have come from
Ukraine, new festivals have sprung up across the United States
and Canada. Festivals often feature music, folk dance, Ukrai-
nian food, contests, and pageants.
Many of the festivals are very successful. The Montreal
Ukrainian Festival, held every September since 1999, is the larg-
est Ukrainian event of its kind in Quebec and attracts more
than 12,000 people. The festival showcases Ukrainian culture
to the general population, and it is also an opportunity to learn
more about Ukrainian heritage. Another example is Michigan’s
Ukrainian Sunflower Festival, which started in 1986. It is among
ukrainian music in north america
T here is an old Ukrainian saying: “Bring together two Ukraini-

ans, and you have the beginnings of another choir.”
Music has played a significant role in Ukrainian culture. Be-
cause instrumental music is not used in Orthodox Church ser-
vices, a chorus of singers provides music for the liturgy. Choral
music in the Eastern Christian world became a powerful form of
cultural and religious expression. Ukrainian choruses are espe-
cially well known around the world for their skill and tonal rich-
ness. Most Ukrainian communities have at least one church choir,
and many have several choirs and choruses that perform popular
and folk music.
In traditional Ukrainian music, the same melody is distrib-
uted among different voice parts, with one leading voice. The lead
singer (zaspivoovach) determines the melody and the other voices
come in later. This form of singing is often embellished by an
independent voice in a very high register (vyvodtshyk). Ukrainian
singing allows the principal voice much space for creativity and
variation in both words and music.
One of the best-known Ukrainian choruses is Vesnivka, founded in
Toronto in 1965. This choir has performed throughout North America
and in Europe. It has won many awards in Canada and Europe.
Ukrainian music has helped influence the history of American
music as well. The Christmas carol “Carol of the Bells,” performed
by many choruses during the holidays, is of Ukrainian origin. Di-
nah Shore’s 1940 hit “Yes, My Darling Daughter,” which sold
more than one million copies, is based on a Ukrainian folk tune.
Ukrainian musicians were among the first to popularize record-
ings of polka music. One of the most famous Ukrainian-Ameri-
can musicians was Pawlo Humeniuk. He was born in Ukraine
and immigrated to the United States as a boy. Humeniuk was a
self-taught fiddler who helped create modern polka music as a
popular dance form. He was among the first recording stars of
polka. In the 1920s, some of his albums may have sold as many
as 100,000 copies!
Outside of the church, another form of Ukrainian music was

provided by bandurists. The bandura is a stringed instrument with
an ancient history. Early forms of the bandura existed as far back
as the sixth century. Modern banduras come in several forms with
20 to 65 strings. The classical bandura is tuned diatonically and
has 20 strings and wooden pegs; the Kharkiv bandura is tuned
diatonically or chromatically and has a single string mechanism
and 34 to 65 strings; and the Kyiv bandura, which has 55 to
64 strings, is tuned chromatically. The bandura has long been
known as the national instrument of Ukraine. Early bandurists
were often blind and traveled around the country singing heroic
epics of Ukrainian history and folklore. During the Soviet period,
many bandurists were executed or imprisoned for helping to keep
Ukrainian culture alive.
When Ukrainian immigrants came to North America, they
brought these musical traditions. During the Soviet era, Ukrainians
were more able to perform and teach their music in North America
than in their homeland. Traditions that were banned by the Soviet
government in Ukraine were preserved by Ukrainian immigrants.
In 1949, a group of Ukrainian Americans and Canadians and
recent refugees from Ukraine formed the Ukrainian Bandurist
Chorus in Detroit. (It was originally founded in Ukraine in 1918,
but Soviet authorities disbanded the chorus.) Many of the early
members worked in auto factories during the day and practiced
and performed their music in evenings and on weekends. The cho-
rus performed for noted personalities such as former presidents
Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan, movie star Jack Palance, and
the former president of Ukraine, Leonid Kravchuk.
Today, as new generations of Ukrainian immigrants arrive
in North America to join the descendants of earlier waves of
immigration, music provides a common bond that brings to-
gether the newcomers and the established Ukrainian Ameri-
cans and Canadians.
The Pysanka festival in Vegreville, Alberta, has been held each July
since 1973 and celebrates Ukrainian culture through music, dance,
and food. Pictured here are Ukrainian dancers performing in front of
the world’s largest pysanka, or Easter egg, at the festival.
(continued from page 89)
the most popular and largest ethnic summer festivals in Michi-

gan, attracting 25,000 people every year. The festival features
Ukrainian food, ethnic dancing in traditional costumes, and
exhibitions and demonstrations of Ukrainian folk crafts such
as embroidery and ceramics.
Ukrainians in the United States and Canada have created
a unique culture within their home countries. This culture
has survived discrimination, changed, and grown during the
past 130 years. This culture is not just the culture immigrants
brought from Ukraine to North America. Ukrainian immigrants
adapted their native culture to fit in their adopted countries.
This took creativity and perseverance. Over time, Ukrainian
culture has become a recognized part of life in North America.
Today, Ukrainian culture is enjoyed not merely by Ukrainians,

but also by a countless number of their non-Ukrainian neigh-
bors. This is especially true in western Canada, where Ukraini-
ans make up a high proportion of the population. Ukrainian
dance groups, musicians, and choirs perform throughout the
world, and Ukrainian festivals are enjoyed by everyone. This is
a sign that the cultural contribution of Ukrainians is becoming
an accepted part of the multicultural nations of Canada and the
United States.
1. Why were Ukrainians interned in Canada during
World War I?
2. What are fraternal societies, and why were they
important to early Ukrainian immigrants?
3. Why were education and newspapers important to
Ukrainians in North America?
4. What is the hopak?
7
The Newest
Ukrainians in
North America
S ince the end of World War II in 1945, new waves of Ukraini-
ans have come to the United States and Canada. These new-
er Ukrainian immigrants shared some things in common with
the Ukrainians who had come in the years before and just after
World War I. They wanted a better life for their families while
preserving their love of Ukrainian heritage. They have also been
quite different. Many have been political refugees who did not
want to return to Ukraine. Some were well educated and came
with a strong love of Ukrainian culture that they developed in
Europe rather than in North America.
The new arrivals have had mixed relations with the already-
established Ukrainian community: There has been both con-
flict and cooperation. Ukrainian organizations in the United
States and Canada welcomed the newcomers and sometimes
lobbied the government to allow more Ukrainians to come to
94
The Newest Ukrainians in North America 95
North America. The newcomers did not always feel comfort-

able with the existing Ukrainian community, however. Many
did not know English and had a hard time communicating with
the Ukrainians in North America.
The experiences of the newcomers and existing groups were
very different. The new arrivals were going through the hard
process of adjustment to a country and had many problems to
overcome, just like earlier immigrants did. They often did not
have time to repay the older Ukrainian community by taking
an active role in community affairs and joining organizations.
The existing Ukrainian community viewed this with dismay
because they counted on the new arrivals to help build their
community and provide “new blood.” Some saw the newcom-
ers as aloof, cold, and ungrateful for the help they had received.
Some new arrivals from Communist-controlled Ukraine had
a strong dislike for joining organizations that they associated
with government control.
As time went by, the two groups found more and more
common ground. Ukrainians who immigrated after World War
II adjusted to life in North America and either joined existing
Ukrainian community organizations or formed new groups on
their own. Later arrivals in the 1990s had a similar experience
and are still in the process of adjusting and finding their place
among the Ukrainian communities of North America.
Post–World War II Immigrants

After World War II, the fate of Ukrainian refugees was espe-
cially tragic. Many had been taken as slave laborers by the Na-
zis. They worked for years in the German war industry and for
large companies such as Volkswagen. They were horribly mis-
treated and abused. Some Ukrainian refugees fled the fighting
between the Germans and the Soviets that raged in their home-
land. Others had no desire to live under Soviet rule again, and
a few had actively fought against the Soviet Union in the ranks
of the German forces. These refugees were known as displaced

persons, or DPs, for short.
At the end of the war, the Soviets demanded the return of
all Ukrainians who were in refugee camps in Western Europe,
about 2 million people. Most of the Ukrainians refused to go
back. In some places, British and American troops forcibly re-
moved the refugees and put them in trucks to be sent back to
the Soviet Union. All those who returned were persecuted by
the Soviets as “enemies of the Soviet Union.” Many were sent to
Siberia, and many died.
As the British and Americans began to realize the horror that
awaited those who were sent back to the Soviet Union, the forced
deportations stopped. This meant that there were about 220,000
Ukrainian refugees who needed to find a place to call home.
Life in the camps was difficult even if it was an improve-
ment over what the prisoners had experienced during the war.
Many of the DPs were sick or malnourished because of their
mistreatment. The hardest part of being a refugee was the un-
certainty—not knowing what would happen to them. They
were kept in the camps and could work in the nearby commu-
nities but could not leave the area. Until a country was willing
to take the DPs in, they had to stay in the camps.
In the camps, however, the Ukrainian DPs had a chance to
rebuild their lives. Quite a few of them were educated, and they
soon began to organize schools and groups to maintain their
language and culture and to make life easier. This became more
important as people in the camps began to marry and have
children. In the camps, there were 1,500 Ukrainian teachers
who organized 70 kindergartens, 102 elementary schools, 30
high schools, 43 trade schools, and 2 universities. Cultural life
in the camps thrived. In the first year after the war in the part
of Germany occupied by American troops, Ukrainian refugees
staged 1,820 plays, 1,315 concerts, and 2,044 lectures. There
were 49 choirs and 34 drama groups. Each camp had two or
three events staged every week. Refugees who came from poorer
backgrounds had a chance to experience cultural activities for

the first time.
Between 1945 and 1954, both the United States and Can-
ada opened their doors to the Ukrainian DPs. About 40,000
immigrated to Canada and 85,000 to the United States. They
were later joined by Ukrainians who had immigrated to other
countries, such as Argentina, and later made their way to North
America.
Although they had to start life over again in a new land,
they also had a chance to create better lives for themselves.
One song written by a Ukrainian immigrant to Canada after
the war went as follows: “My Ukrainian song,/Oh, so sweet
and strong,/Because my mother taught me/To sing this song./
Ukrainian mother, do you hear,/Though you are here in Cana-
da,/Teach your children your songs,/They’ll be happy./Ameri-
ca’s a sister,/Canada—my mother/Here in Canada it’s good/To
earn money.”15
Still, the separation from their homes was difficult. Another
song expressed this feeling: “When I had earned a little cash,/
The thought occurred to me,/To return to Ukraine,/But I have
no country./For Ukraine has been taken,/by various occupiers,/
So work on in Canada,/You poor immigrant./Because Canada
is a free land,/Good, like a mother,/Believe in God, work well,/
And you’ll have it all.”16
The postwar immigrants preferred cities to farms. Although
many joined existing Ukrainian centers, they also formed new
communities. In Canada, many postwar immigrants chose to
settle in cities such as Toronto and Winnipeg rather than on the
farms of the western prairies. In the United States, cities such as
Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Newark, and New York were com-
mon destinations.
The new arrivals found whatever jobs they could to begin
with, but many gradually worked their way up. Some opened
successful businesses. Others had the opportunity to get an ed-
ucation or start a professional career.
Post-World War II Ukrainian immigrants often chose not to live in

the country and instead settled in cities such as Cleveland, Chicago,
and New York, where they opened small businesses and restaurants.
One such Ukrainian restaurant is Veselka, which is located in New
York City’s East Village and serves such traditional Ukrainian fare as
borscht and pierogi.
The new arrivals were much more interested in politics

than the first wave of Ukrainians. Because of their experiences
in the DP camps, they were also familiar with forming organi-
zations. They were very active in groups that lobbied on behalf
of Ukraine’s independence and for human rights for Ukrai-
nians. Among the most important groups was the Ukrainian
Congress Committee of America (UCCA). During the height
of the cold war, the UCCA spoke out against Soviet human
rights violations, initiated a U.S. Congressional resolution on
the Soviet destruction of Ukrainian churches, supported a U.S.
Congressional resolution to commemorate the victims of the
1932–1933 Ukrainian Terror-Famine, and was instrumental in
promoting the Captive Nations Week Resolution in 1959. The
UCCA was a founding organization of the National Captive
Nations Committee (NCNC), which united various ethnic or-
ganizations with the goal of promoting democracy worldwide.
(The Captive Nations program was an effort to raise awareness
of the plight of countries that were denied freedom. It encour-
aged Americans and others to remember those countries and
work for democracy and human rights.)
The UCCA’s activities created awareness about Ukraine,
Ukrainian Americans, and Soviet repression in Ukraine. By
supporting organizations such as the NCNC and individuals
who stand for freedom of conscience and freedom of speech, as
well as by organizing campaigns to free imprisoned dissidents
in Ukraine, the UCCA took an active role in Ukraine’s struggle
for liberation from Communist oppression. Ukrainians worked
actively with many other ethnic groups in this effort, putting
aside differences for the common goal of freedom.
Immigrants From Soviet Ukraine

From the late 1950s to the 1980s, a small number of Ukrainians
arrived in North America. These immigrants came from Sovi-
et-controlled Ukraine or sometimes from Ukrainian minorities
in other Communist-dominated countries. Exactly how many
came during this period is unknown, because the U.S. and Ca-
nadian governments lumped Ukrainians with other citizens of
the Soviet Union. About 10,000 went to Canada and more to
the United States.
The Ukrainians in this wave were sometimes dissenters who
left because of repression by the Soviet government. Many were
Jewish, because the Soviet government began to treat its Jew-
ish citizens more harshly after 1968. Some were just ordinary
immigrants who managed to win permission to leave to rejoin
family who already lived in the West. Most of the Ukrainian im-
migrants during this period were well-educated professionals.
On arriving in North America, these immigrants did not often
join existing Ukrainian communities. They followed jobs and
education to different parts of North America.
In the 1980s, Soviet power began to weaken and it was in-
creasingly possible for Ukrainians to leave their country. Some
were able to go to neighboring countries such as Poland, which
threw off Communist rule in 1989. From there, they were able
to make their way to Western Europe or North America.
Newcomers From a Free Ukraine

In 1991, as the Soviet Union collapsed, Ukraine achieved in-
dependence at long last. Ukrainians in North America were
jubilant that their dream of seeing an independent Ukraine
had at last come true. A new Ukraine also meant a new wave
of immigration. Ukrainians were at last free to travel abroad to
work, visit, or reunite their scattered families. Of course, immi-
grating to Canada or the United States was not always possible
because of restrictions on the number of legal immigrants in
both countries.
Yet, since 1991, a large number of Ukrainian immigrants
have arrived in North America—as many as 200,000 in the
United States and 40,000 in Canada. These immigrants came
from all parts of Ukraine. Among them were Ukrainian Jews
and Poles and ethnic Russians from eastern Ukraine.
This most recent wave of immigrants is made up of many

educated professionals, including doctors, professors, scientists,
and engineers. More than 70 percent of these Ukrainian immi-
grants had a degree from a college or a university.
Because they often do not know English well or are unfa-
miliar with American and Canadian culture, the newest wave
of Ukrainians have begun by taking simple jobs. These jobs
are often at lower levels than they were used to in Ukraine. For
example, a professor might work as a cab driver, a chemist as
a construction worker, or an engineer as a home health aide.
These jobs allow the new immigrants to pay their bills and save
a little money.
Most aspire to raise their status and learn new skills. One
example is that many new Ukrainian immigrants are learning
computer skills and seeking work with high-tech companies.
Others are learning about business with the goal of perhaps
starting their own companies.
The new arrivals are not yet joining the existing Ukrainian
communities in large numbers. Some are too busy adjusting
to life in a new country. Others feel culturally different from
Ukrainians who have lived in North America for many years or
whose families have been here for generations. The newcomers
often prefer to speak Russian rather than Ukrainian, and this
also creates some tension with the established Ukrainian com-
munities who conduct their affairs in English or Ukrainian. The
new immigrants remain very interested in Ukraine and its cul-
ture, however. Through the Internet and telephone, they keep
in close contact with friends and family back home in Ukraine
and often read Ukrainian newspapers on the Internet.
Helping Ukraine
After Ukraine won independence, many Ukrainian Americans
and Canadians were eager to assist their newly independent
homeland. The transition to democracy and free markets in
Ukraine was very difficult (and continues to be as this book

goes to press), and Ukrainian culture and the sense of self-
reliance had been damaged by Soviet rule. Use of the Ukrainian
language declined because of efforts to make people speak
Russian.
Many individual Ukrainians from North America were able
to visit their ancestral homeland and renew ties with relatives
jewish immigrants from ukraine
U kraine’s Jewish community has an ancient history. The first

Jewish travelers came to Ukraine during the period of Kievan
Rus (from the late 900s to the mid-1100s), but large-scale
Jewish immigration began during the period of Polish-Lithuanian
rule (1300 to 1600). During that time, Jews came to central and
eastern Europe to escape persecution in other regions of Europe.
Jewish people were welcomed because they brought need-
ed skills. Many were craftsmen, tailors, shoemakers, jewelers,
scribes, doctors, and scholars. Others were merchants. They
helped develop the economy. In return, Jews were given religious
freedom and could govern their own affairs. Jewish communi-
ties were protected by the king. Although some people disliked
Jews because their religion was different or because they had
skills others did not, most of the time Jews and their non-Jewish
neighbors got along with each other. In the 1650s, though, there
was violence against Jews during Chmielnicki’s Uprising, because
many peasants started to blame Jews for their poverty.
When the Russian Empire took control of Ukraine in the mid-
1600s, the special freedoms Jews had enjoyed were taken away. Both
Jews and Christians in Ukraine suffered under the harsh regime. In
the 1890s, a new form of prejudice came to Ukraine. Anti-Semitism
was a belief that Jews were not just adherents to a different religion,
but were members of a different, inferior race. Many in the Russian
Empire believed this, and this resulted in violence against Jews in
Ukraine. These violent outbursts were known as pogroms.
for the first time. For many, aiding Ukraine first meant helping
their relatives avoid poverty. People sent money and packages
of clothes and other needed items.
Others used their business and professional ties to help
businesses and organizations in Ukraine. North American uni-
versities were active in bringing Ukrainian professors and stu-
dents to Canada and the United States for research and study.
Poverty and the threat of violence encouraged many Jewish

people to leave Ukraine and move to North America. These immi-
grants settled throughout the country, but especially on the East
Coast of the United States. They formed large and vibrant com-
munities where they spoke Yiddish (a language that is a mixture
of German and Hebrew, as well as Ukrainian and Polish).
During World War II, many Jews who had remained in Ukraine
fell victim to the Nazi Holocaust. Many ancient Jewish communi-
ties, especially in western and central Ukraine, were destroyed
forever. Other Jews survived. Some left Europe and came to North
America, and others traveled to the new Jewish state of Israel.
Under Soviet rule, Jews were also mistreated. Many sought
to leave and go to Israel or the United States. There was an in-
ternational campaign on their behalf that convinced the Soviet
government to let many emigrate. Other Jews remained and were
active in protesting Soviet repression. These people were some-
times called “refuseniks,” because they did not want to serve in
the Soviet Army.
Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, more Jews have left
Ukraine for Israel and North America. At the same time, the Jewish
community in Ukraine has slowly begun to revive—many schools,
synagogues, and organizations have been created in recent years.
Today, there are 5 to 6 million Jewish Americans and Jewish
Canadians. Many of them have roots in Ukraine.
On August 24, 1991, Ukraine won its independence from the Soviet
Union, which touched off celebrations in both Ukraine and abroad.
Here, Ukrainians celebrate outside the capitol building in Kiev on
August 24, which is today celebrated by Ukrainians as a national
holiday.
New textbooks and teaching methods in economics and busi-

ness were translated from English as part of an effort to develop
a more modern educational system in Ukraine. This effort was
often led by faculty of Ukrainian descent or from other central
and eastern European countries who wanted to help Ukraine
get back on its feet.
The UCCA redirected its efforts toward supporting
Ukraine’s democratic development and economic rebirth. The
UCCA also began to institute programs to help restore Ukraini-
ans’ national consciousness and pride, develop a national edu-
cation system, and promote the use of the Ukrainian language.
In addition to its continued work in conducting charitable
and educational programs, the UCCA began to implement
various comprehensive civic education programs, including

“get out the vote” preelection campaigns, U.S. study tours for
Ukrainian freedom activists and journalist, and “Rock the Vote”
youth concerts. UCCA also educates children and students about
Ukraine’s history and culture by producing audiocassettes and
CD-ROMs that are sent free of charge to schools, libraries, and
orphanages throughout Ukraine.
One of the most interesting efforts to aid Ukraine oc-
curred in Canada. In 1992, when the Ukrainian government
needed to create a new currency system, it did not have the
ability to print the money it needed. There was also the prob-
lem of possible corruption and counterfeiting. Because of the
strong Ukrainian presence in Canada, the Ukrainian govern-
ment turned to Canada for help. In 1996, the bills of the new
Ukrainian currency, the hryvnia—printed in Canada—were
introduced with great success. This helped the Ukrainian
economy take a big step toward independence. Since that
time, the National Bank of Ukraine has been able to print its
own money. The original bills printed in Canada with the date
“1992” (when Ukraine’s National Bank was established) will
soon become collectors’ items!
The Orange Revolution

In 2004, Ukraine held a presidential election to replace outgoing
President Leonid Kuchma. During his presidency, Kuchma had
become increasingly powerful and had tried to restrict the
practice of democracy. Free newspapers and television stations
had a hard time surviving because of government interference.
The president and many of his associates ran Ukraine like it was
a private corporation. Corruption and shady business practices
were common, which made it difficult for the Ukrainian
economy to recover from Soviet rule. Kuchma’s rule made
many Ukrainians depressed and apathetic about the future. In
addition, the president developed closer and closer links with
Russia, raising fears that Russia might eventually try to gain

control of Ukraine and once again extinguish independence.
The election featured two candidates: Viktor Yanukovych
and Viktor Yushchenko. Yanukovych was President Kuchma’s
handpicked candidate. He had the backing of the government,
including most of the television stations and newspapers, which
were under government control. Yushchenko was the opposi-
tion candidate. He vowed to clean up corruption and bring
greater democracy to Ukraine. During the campaign, many
members of the opposition were attacked or harassed by the
government’s police and security forces. Yushchenko himself
survived a mysterious attempt to assassinate him using poison.
The effects of the poison ravaged his face.
On Election Day, November 21, large numbers of Ukraini-
ans turned out to vote. Despite the intimidation by the govern-
ment, most voted for Yushchenko—but the government secret-
ly tried to change the results to make it look as if Yanukovych
had won. When Ukrainians realized this, they staged peaceful,
nonviolent protests to demand a new and fair election. Tens of
thousands, then hundreds of thousands, of people, young and
old, flowed into the streets. The protesters, wearing the orange
color of the opposition, paralyzed the government. The world’s
media began to follow the events in Ukraine.
In Canada and the United States, the dramatic events in
Ukraine electrified the Ukrainian community. Almost every
community organized demonstrations in support of democracy
in Ukraine. New immigrants joined third- and fourth-genera-
tion Ukrainian Americans and Canadians in a common goal.
They contacted the American media and local elected leaders as
well as churches and other ethnic groups. Many raised money
to help the protesters.
In December 2004, the government of Ukraine gave in to the
protesters and agreed to hold a new election under international
supervision. Many Ukrainians from North America traveled
Three Ukrainian-American girls show their support for

Ukrainian presidential candidate Viktor Yushchenko at a rally
near Rochester, New York, in December 2004. Yushchenko
initially lost the 2004 presidential election, but after it was
determined that the standing government had committed
election fraud, the Ukrainian Supreme Court called for a
revote, and Yushchenko was elected on December 26.
to Ukraine to be observers at voting places across Ukraine to

ensure that people could vote without fear or corruption. This
election had a very different result: Reform candidate Victor
Yushchenko won an overwhelming victory.
For Ukrainians in North America, it was a moment of great
triumph. Since the first immigrants had arrived from Ukraine,
their homeland had never been truly free. Freedom for Ukraine
had been a goal for generations. At last they had finally been
able to play an important role in helping Ukraine take a big
step toward real freedom. For the Ukrainian community, it was
a dream come true.
Starting a New Century

More than 125 years have passed since the first large groups of
Ukrainian immigrants arrived in North America. An observer
who saw these first immigrants might have thought that they
had little future in North America. They came without know-
ing English and with almost no money. Most of the early im-
migrants had little education; they came with “only their 10
fingers.”
With those fingers, they built homes, farms, churches,
schools, and businesses. With those fingers, they played music,
created sculptures and paintings, composed songs, and wrote
books. They found a North America of windswept prairies and
smoky industries. With work and ingenuity, they transformed
the prairies into fertile farms and turned the factories and coal-
mining towns into places of life and song.
The new Ukrainian immigrants who have arrived in recent
years will not face as many hardships; nor will they face the dis-
crimination many of the early Ukrainian immigrants experi-
enced. They still must struggle to make themselves at home in
North America, however, and they, too, must learn to combine
their Ukrainian heritage with the experiences of life in a new
country into something unique and lasting.
As the Ukrainian communities in North America begin

the new century, many older organizations are gradually losing
members. Fraternal insurance societies have experienced a
slow decline in membership—yet they remain financially
strong and still have much potential. At the same time, new
organizations have appeared. There has been a growth of
Ukrainian cultural and dance groups in both Canada and the
United States. As the latest wave of immigrants finds its place
in North America, it will bring new ideas and new vitality to
the Ukrainian community.
The future of the Ukrainian community in North America
also depends on the future of Ukraine. Ukraine has its freedom,
but many serious problems remain. During the Kuchma years,
Ukraine fell behind many of the other former Communist-con-
trolled countries that embraced free markets and democracy
much sooner. It has a long way to go to catch up. New eco-
nomic and political reforms are needed. Ukraine also faces en-
vironmental problems, some of them a result of the Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in 1986.
The United States, Canada, and many European countries,
including Poland, are friendly toward Ukraine. Old feelings of
resentment between Poles and Ukrainians were put aside when
Poles enthusiastically supported the Orange Revolution. Many
problems remain between Ukraine and Russia, however. Rus-
sia’s leaders and many ordinary Russians still feel that Ukraine
belongs to Russia, and Russia still has strong influence in many
parts of Ukraine. Nevertheless, freedom has provided Ukraine
an opportunity for the first time in its history. Today, the Ukrai-
nians have a say in how their country will be run.
For the Ukrainian community of North America, this
means a time of change. Older generations of immigrants came
from a Ukraine that is very different from the Ukraine of today.
They will need to see Ukraine in a new way. It will be less of a
place to send help and more of a partner.
Cultural and family ties will remain important to Ukrai-

nian Americans and Canadians, but new relationships are also
beginning to form. Many now see Ukraine as a place to do
business. There are new ties being established, as immigrants
are helping to start businesses in Ukraine or working to build
trade with Ukraine. Others are interested in educational and
student exchanges with Ukraine that will help educate the
next generation of Ukrainian leaders while building cultural
understanding.
The values that helped the Ukrainian community survive
and thrive in North America—hard work, perseverance, and
creativity—will surely be needed as Ukrainian immigrants and
their children and grandchildren begin this new era. The Ukrai-
nian immigrants overcame many obstacles in North America,
and their descendants have inherited much. New challenges
and opportunities await them. As Ukraine grows closer to the
United States and Canada, the Ukrainian community of North
America will remain an enduring part of all three countries.
1. What does “DP” stand for and who are DPs?
2. Why did Ukrainians wish to come to North America
after World War II?
3. How have Ukrainians in North America assisted
Ukraine?
4. How did Ukrainians in North America feel about
the Orange Revolution?
Chronology
1600s– Early Ukrainian pioneers may have come to
1700s America as early as the 1600s; in the 1700s,
some Ukrainians served in the American
Revolutionary War.
1784 The first Russian outpost is established in Alaska;
among the early settlers are Ukrainian Cossacks.
1812 The Russian colony at Fort Ross, near present-
day San Francisco, is established, with many
Ukrainians participating in its founding.
1814 Taras Shevchenko, the national poet of Ukraine, is
born.
1868 Father Agapius Honcharenko, a Ukrainian priest,
writer, and translator, establishes the bilin-
gual paper the Alaska Herald, one of the new
American territory’s first newspapers.
1870s Small groups of Ukrainian immigrants from
Austria-Hungary begin to arrive in America.
1885 The first Ukrainian church in North America,
St. Michael the Archangel in Shenandoah,
Pennsylvania, is completed.
1886 Father Ivan Wolansky founds Amerika, the world’s
first Ukrainian newspaper, in Shenandoah,
Pennsylvania.
1887 The first Ukrainian-American choir is founded in
Shenandoah, Pennsylvania.
1890 The first group of Ukrainian Protestant immigrants
arrives in the United States; they eventually
settle on farms in North Dakota.
1891 Wasyl Eleniak and Ivan Pylypiw arrive in Canada
as the first permanent Ukrainian settlers in that
111
112 Chronology
country; Father Alexis Toth converts to the

Russian Orthodox Church after a dispute with
the bishop of St. Paul, Minnesota; Father Toth
actively works to convert other Ukrainian immi-
grants to the Russian Church.
1892 The Union of Greek Catholic Brotherhoods in
North America is founded as the first national
fraternal organization for Ukrainians and
Carpatho-Rusyns.
1893 The first Ukrainian school in North America is
established in Pennsylvania.
1894 The Ukrainian National Association is founded in
Shamokin, Pennsylvania; UNA later becomes
the largest Ukrainian organization in North
America.
Timeline 1870s
Ukrainian
immigrants 1894
1700s Ukrainian
begin to arrive
Ukrainians serve in
in America National
the Revolutionary
Association
War
founded
1700 1894
1886
1784 Amerika, the world’s
Ukrainian first Ukrainian
Cossacks among newspaper, founded
first settlers of in Shenandoah,
Russian outpost in Pennsylvania
Alaska
Chronology 113
1897 The Sisterhood of St. Olga, the first Ukrainian

women’s organization in North America, is
founded in Jersey City, New Jersey.
1907 Soter Stephen Ortynsky is appointed as the first
Ukrainian Catholic bishop in North America.
1913 The Ukrainian Catholic exarchate is established in
North America with more than 200 parishes.
1918 Efforts to establish an independent Ukraine begin
in Kiev and other cities.
1920 The Soviet Union extinguishes efforts to form an
independent Ukraine; after this, about 40,000
Ukrainian immigrants come to the United States
and another 70,000 to Canada.
1924 The first Ukrainian theater in the United States is
founded.
1950s
Many Ukrainians
immigrate to
1907 North America
Soter Stephen Ortynsky 2004
becomes first Ukrainian The “Orange
Catholic bishop in North Revolution”
America occurs in Ukraine
1960
1907 2004
1991
Ukraine declares
independence
1932
Terror-Famine in
Ukraine begins
114 Chronology
1930 The first Ukrainian radio program is broadcast in

North America.
1932 The Soviet Terror-Famine in Ukraine begins.
1939 Ukrainian immigrant Igor Sikorsky pioneers the
first successful helicopter in America; World
War II begins in Europe—Canada enters the war
on the side of the Allies, and many Ukrainian
Canadians serve in the armed forces.
1941 Ukraine falls under the rule of Nazi Germany;
the United States enters World War II—many
Ukrainian Americans serve in the armed forces.
1945 World War II ends.
1950 Jack Palance makes his movie debut in Panic in the
Streets.
1950s Many new Ukrainian immigrants come to the
United States and Canada.
1986 Disaster occurs at the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant in Ukraine.
1991 The Soviet Union collapses, and Ukraine declares
independence.
2004 The “Orange Revolution” occurs in Ukraine.
Notes
Chapter 3 9. Q
uoted in Myron B. Kuropas,
1. A nthony J. Amato, In the Wild Ukrainian Citadel: The First One
Mountains: Idiom, Economy, and Hundred Years of the Ukrainian
Ideology among the Hutsuls, 1849 National Association (Boulder,
to 1939, Ph.D. diss. Department Colo.: East European Mono-
of History (Bloomington: Indi- graphs, 1996), 31.
ana University, 1998), 230–65.
2. “ N.D. Marks 100 Years of Ukrai- Chapter 5
nian settlement,” Ukrainian 10. Kostash, All of Baba’s Children,
Weekly, July 21, 1996, available 177.
online at http://www.ukrweekly. 11. Ibid., 178.
com/Archive/1996/299616.shtml 12. Ibid., 115.
3. I bid. 13. Ibid., 122.
4. I bid.
5. I bid. Chapter 6
6. “ Steerage Conditions,” Reports 14. Quote from the Vegreville Ob-
of the U.S. Immigration Com- server, July 28, 1908, in Kostash, All
mission, 61st Cong., 3rd sess. of Baba’s Children, 32.
Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1911. Chapter 7
15. Thomas M. Prymak, “Ukrai-
Chapter 4 nian DP Folklore: A Neglected
7. M yrna Kostash, All of Baba’s Legacy,” Ukrainian Weekly, April
Children (Edmonton, Alberta, 18, 2004, available online at
Canada: NeWest Press, 1992), http://www.ukrweekly.com/Ar-
13. Reprint of 1977 edition. chive/2004/160423.shtml
8. Ibid., 14. 16. I bid.
115
Glossary
babka A sweet bread often eaten around Easter time.
borscht Beet soup.
Carpatho-Rusyns Mountaineers who live in western Ukraine,
southern Poland, and Slovakia who are very closely related to
Ukrainians; sometimes called “Ruthenians.”
Chernobyl A Soviet nuclear plant and the site of the world’s
worst nuclear accident in 1986.
Cossacks A brotherhood of free warriors established to guard
the southern border of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Many Ukrainians view the Cossacks as the forefathers of
modern Ukrainians.
displaced persons (DPs) A term for refugees after World War II.
Donbas The basin of the River Don, the industrial and mining
region of eastern Ukraine.
Ellis Island The U.S. immigration station in New York, where
many Ukrainian immigrants first arrived in America.
fraternal insurance A type of inexpensive insurance developed
by many immigrants, including Ukrainians.
Galicia A region of southeastern Poland and western Ukraine
from which many Ukrainians came.
Holodomor The Ukrainian word for the Terror-Famine in the
1930s, when Ukraine’s Soviet rulers deliberately starved millions
of people to death.
hopak A type of Ukrainian folk dance.
hryvnia The currency of independent Ukraine.
Kievan Rus The first Ukrainian kingdom, which existed from the
900s to the 1200s.
kokhanochka A type of Ukrainian folk dance.
kolachi A pastry.
kovbasa Ukrainian sausage.
116
Glossary 117
kutia Christmas wheat porridge mixed with poppy seeds and

honey.
National Captive Nations Committee A group formed by
ethnic groups whose homelands were invaded by the Soviet
Union.
Orange Revolution A peaceful movement to secure Ukrainian
independence that occurred in 2004 and 2005.
pashka A type of Ukrainian bread eaten at Easter.
pysanky Colored Ukrainian Easter eggs.
Slavic A large ethnic and language group that lives in eastern,
central, and southern Europe. Ukrainians are one of many Slavic
peoples.
Stundists A Ukrainian Protestant group.
Ukrainian National Association (UNA) The oldest and
largest Ukrainian-American organization.
varenyky Dumplings filled with cheese or other fillings; better
known as pierogi.
Bibliography
Halich, Wasyl. Ukrainians in the United States. New York: Arno Press
and the New York Times, 1970.
Isajiw, Wsevolod W., Yury Boshyk, and Roman Senkus, eds. The
Refugee Experience: Ukrainian Displaced Persons after World War
II. Toronto: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 2004.
Kostash, Myrna. All of Baba’s Children. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada:
NeWest Press, 1992.
Kuropas, Myron. The Ukrainian Americans: Roots and Aspirations.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991.
––––. Ukrainian-American Citadel: The First One Hundred Years of
the Ukrainian National Association. New York: EEM/Columbia
University Press, 1997.
Osborn, Kevin. The Ukrainian Americans. New York: Chelsea House,
1989.
Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History, 2nd ed. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1994.
Wertsman, Vladimir. The Ukrainians in America, 1608–1975. Dobbs
Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana Publishers, 1976.
Woloch Vaughn, Mary Ann. Ukrainian Christmas: Traditions, Folk
Customs, and Recipes. New York: Ukrainian Heritage Co., 1983.
––––. Ukrainian Easter: Traditions, Folk Customs, and Recipes. New
York: Communications Print, 1982.
118
Further Reading
Books
Kostash, Myrna. All of Baba’s Children. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada:
NeWest Press, 1992.
Osborn, Kevin. The Ukrainian Americans. New York: Chelsea House,
1989.
Web sites
Ukrainian Bandurist Chorus

www.bandura.org
Ukrainian Displaced Persons

www.brama.com/news/press/030311subtelny_DPcamps.html
John Radzilowski, “Ukraine: Freedom Cannot Be Stopped”

www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=16193
Internment of Ukrainians in Canada, 1914–1920

www.infoukes.com/history/internment/
Ukrainian Museum of New York

www.ukrainianmuseum.org/index.html
Ukrainian Weekly
www.ukrweekly.com
Vesnivka Chorus
www.vesnivka.com/
119
Picture Credits
page: 54: Associated Press, AP
2: © Infobase Publishing 60: © Bettmann/CORBIS
13: © Scheufler Collection/CORBIS 67: www.shutterstock.com
19: Associated Press, AP 75: Associated Press, AP
24: www.shutterstock.com 77: Associated Press, AP
29: Associated Press, AP 86: Associated Press, AP
33: Associated Press, UKRINFORM 92: © Natalie Forbes/CORBIS
39: © The State Russian Museum/ 98: Associated Press, AP
CORBIS 104: Associated Press, AP
46: Associated Press, AP 107: Associated Press, THE DAILY
48: © Bettmann/CORBIS MESSENGER
Cover: © Craig Aurness/CORBIS
120
Index
A Basaraba, Pearl, 43
Alaska Basaraba, Peter, 42
native rights, 13 Battle of Blue Waters, 24
purchase of, 12 Batu Khan, 23
Ukrainian communities in, 55 Belarus, 21
Alaska Herald (newspaper), 13, 87 Black Sea, 21–22
American Civil War Bondar, Roberta, 16
Ukrainian soldiers, 12 Bremen, Germany
American Revolutionary War, 12 port city, 44
Amerika (newspaper), 87 business, 63
Archipenko, Alexander boardinghouse, 61
painting and sculpting, 16 food service and industry, 62
Argentina saloons, 60–61
Ukrainian communities in, seamstress, 61
51, 97 Byzantine Empire, 23
arts and sciences, 15
architecture, 18
folk crafts, 92 C
music and dance, 20, 26, 76, Canada
88–93, 97, 108–109 cities, 11
painting, 16, 20, 108 culture, 89, 101
sculpting, 16, 108 economy, 49
theater, 88–89 famous immigrants, 16–18
Asia farming in, 55, 57–58, 62–63,
ancient, 22 80
Australia future, 20
Ukrainian communities in, 51 government, 49, 82–83, 94, 100,
Austria-Hungary 105, 109
immigrants, 13, 53 history, 62, 88
rule of Ukraine, 13–15, 26–27, military, 83
77, 82–83 multicultural nation, 12
Captive Nations Week Resolution,
99
B Carpathian Mountains, 13, 76–77
Babi Yar, 32 Carpatho-Rusyns (Ruthenians), 22
Bandurists, 91 immigration, 13, 50, 76
Banff National Park, 83 Catholic, Ukrainian
121
122 Index
American bishops, 78 rural, 11–12, 14, 20, 53–59,

divisions, 76–79 63, 71
early, 24–26, 77 urban, 11–12, 14, 20, 58, 60,
persecution, 28, 32 62–63, 74, 97
tradition, 69 Constantinople, Turkey, 79
Chernobyl nuclear power plant Cossacks, Ukrainian
disaster at, 34, 109 rebellion, 25
Chicago Crimean Peninsula
Ukrainian communities in, 54, attacks on, 28, 30–32
63, 97 early settlements on, 21–22,
Chickamauga, Battle of, 12 25
Chmielnicki’s Uprising, 102 desire for better life, 18–19, 27,
Christianity, 102 32, 41–42, 47, 53, 63–64, 94
early, 23 holidays, 64–71
traditions, 66, 69, 90 love of homeland, 19–20, 94,
Christmas 97, 110
caroling, 38–40, 65, 67, 71 promotion and preservation of,
date of, 66 56, 63, 65–66, 78, 81, 85–94,
food, 70 96, 101, 105, 109
traditions, 65, 69–70 and secret societies, 26–27
churches, 15, 99 spiritual, 38, 64
divided traditions, 74, 76–80 and traditions, 64–66, 71, 74,
early, 71–74, 84, 108 76
and fraternal societies, 56, Cyprus
84–86 Ukrainian communities in, 51
fundraisers, 67 Cyrillic lettering, 11
publications, 88 Czechoslovakia, 22
rituals and holidays, 38, 40, Ukrainian communities in, 28
67–71, 84
sense of identity, 71–74, 87, 89
Coal and Iron Police, 57 D
coal mining discrimination, 15
communities, 14–15, 20, 42–43, in Canada, 81–83, 92
53–57, 60–65, 71 in Europe, 28
dangers of, 55–57, 81, 84–85 in United States, 81–82, 92
illnesses and injuries from, 56 Dmytruk, Natalia, 35
treatment of workers, 56 Dnieper River, 23
unions, 57
cold war, 99
Communism, 88, 99 E
revolutionaries, 27–28 Easter
in Ukraine, 34–35, 95, 100, 109 egg coloring (pysanky), 66,
communities, 15, 28 68–69
early, 60, 64, 70–72, 80, 95 foods, 65, 68–69
making of, 81, 84–89, 108–109 Good Friday, 69
and new arrivals, 94–110 Lent, 68
Index 123
Palm Sunday, 68 vushka, 71

traditions, 65, 68–69 Franko, Ivan, 27, 62
education, 15 fraternal organizations, 15
denial of, 62, 82, 108 insurance, 84–86, 109
improvements in, 62–63, 76, and new immigrants, 94–95,
87, 96–97, 100–101, 104– 99
105, 110 promotion of Ukrainian
promotion of, 88 culture, 56, 81, 85–86, 88,
Eleniak, Wasyl 92–93
settles in Canada, 14
Ellis Island
arrival to, 45, 47 G
closing, 47 George V, King of England, 83
Europe Germany
ancient, 22–23, 26 armies, 29, 32, 96
countries, 21, 50–51, 104, 109 refugee camps in, 46, 95–96
immigration, 44–45, 50–51, 55, Ukrainian communities in,
61, 82, 102–103 28–32
war and devastation in, 14, 30, Golden Horde, 23–24
32 Great Britain
European Union, 51 government, 82–83
military, 46, 96
Greece
F ancient, 22
farming, 12, 20, 108 religion, 76
in Canada, 55, 57–58, 62–63, 80
on the Great Plains, 15, 57–60,
80 H
hardships, 58–60, 64–65 Hamburg, Germany
land for, 58 port city, 43–44
Feast of St. Nicholas. See Christmas Hawaii
festivals and rituals Ukrainian communities in,
blessing of water, 38 55
Christmas, 65–67, 69–71 Hitler, Adolf
Easter, 65–69 and World War II, 28–29
and societies, 84, 89, 92–93 Hnatyshyn, Ramon,
food, favorite, 20, 62, 89, 92 politics, 16–17
babka, 11–12 Holocaust, 32, 103
borscht, 71–73 Honcharenko Agapius
holubtsi, 71 Alaska Herald, 13, 87
kolachi, 11, 70 criticism of Russian emperor,
kovbasa, 11, 69 12
kutia, 71 occupations, 12–13
pashka, 65, 68–69 Hopak, 88
uzvar, 71 Hruby, Mary Skoropat, 42
varenyky, 11, 71 Humeniuk, Pawlo, 90
124 Index
Hungary K
kingdom, 77 Khmelnytsky, Bohdan
religion, 76 rebellion, 25
Kiev, 47
attacks of, 23, 29
I capital, 21, 23
immigration hardships Kievan Rus, 23
air travel, 47 Klym, George, 43
criminals, 44–45 Konowal, Philip, 83
finding their way, 49–52 Kravchuk, Leonid, 91
language barriers, 44, 49–51, Kuchma, Leonid
64, 81, 95, 108 government of, 35, 105–106,
leaving home, 43 109
loneliness, 64, 97 Kumpanii, 39
sea journey, 43–44, 47
train, 43–44
visas and restrictions, 47, 49, L
100 languages
immigration statistics English, 13, 15, 61–62, 81,
early, 14–15, 43–45, 49–50, 87–88, 95, 101, 104, 108
71–74, 76–78, 95, 99, 108 Russian, 13, 22, 26, 28, 34, 50,
from 1954–1991, 14, 99 79, 101–102
after Russian Revolution, 14, Ukrainian, 22, 26, 28, 34, 50,
27 57, 61, 71, 74, 76, 78, 87–88,
today, 15, 47, 49–52, 94, 100– 96, 101–102, 104
101, 108–110 Yiddish, 103
Ukrainian ancestry, 12 Lattimer Massacre, 57
after Ukrainian independence, Lenin, V.I., 27
14–15, 34, 101–105 death, 28
after World War I, 14, 27, 45, 94 Liberia
after World War II, 14, 32, Ukrainian communities in, 51
45–47, 94–99 literature, Ukrainian, 13, 74
internment (1914–1920) newspaper, 13, 60, 76, 87–88,
events of, 82–83 101
Ireland, John, 78 writers, 26–27, 62, 76, 87–88,
Italy 108
Ukrainian communities in, 51 Lithuanian
rule of Ukraine, 24–25, 102
Lviv, 24, 32, 43
J
Judaism
immigration, 102–103 M
persecution, 25, 28, 30–32, 100, Michigan
102–103 Ukrainian communities in,
in Ukraine, 22, 25–26, 38, 100, 54–55, 63, 89, 92, 97
102–103 Minnesota
Index 125
Ukrainian communities in, 55, Orthodox Church

78–79 early, 24–25, 76, 79
Montreal Ukrainian Festival, 89 traditions, 69, 78, 90
N P
National Bank of Ukraine, 105 Palance, Jack (Vladimir Palahniuk),
National Captive Nations 91
Committee (NCNC), 99 actor, 17
Nazi Germany City Slickers, 17
rule of Ukraine, 29–32, 46 Panic in the Streets, 17
war criminals, 17 Shane, 17
and World War II, 28–32, 103 Sudden Fear, 17
NCNC. See National Captive Pennsylvania
Nations Committee coal mining in, 43, 54–57, 63
New Jersey Ukrainian settlements in, 12,
Ukrainian communities in, 43, 53–57
54, 97 People of Ukraine, 21
New York around the world, 49–52
Ukrainian communities in, 54, droughts, floods and sickness,
63, 97 40
New Zealand family life, 37–41, 58, 65–66,
Ukrainian communities in, 51 68, 74, 80, 110
Nixon, Richard, 91 immigration reasons, 37, 41–49
North Dakota language, 22
farming in, 57–60 peasants, 25, 37–38, 40–42, 50,
Ukrainian communities in, 51, 63, 71, 74
57–60 refugees, 46–47, 91, 94–97, 99
treatment of, 25–26, 30, 46–47,
95–96
O village life, 37–41, 44, 74
occupations Peter the Great, 26
businesses, 12, 15, 60–63, 97, Picasso, Pablo, 16
101, 108 Poland, 53, 109
farming, 12, 15, 20, 41, 57–60, borders, 21
62–65, 80, 108 culture, 76
mines and factories, 14–15, 20, independence, 27, 34, 100
42–43, 53–57, 59–65, 71, 81, invasion, 28
84–85, 91, 108 massacres, 25, 30–32
new wave, 62–63 people, 22
temporary, 14, 63 religion, 76
Ohio rule of Ukraine, 24–26, 28,
Ukrainian communities in, 102
54–55, 63, 97 Ukrainian communities in, 28,
Orange Revolution 50, 100
events of, 34–35, 105–109 Poltava, Battle of, 26
126 Index
Protestant (Stundists) Soviet Terror-Famine

immigrants, 79–80 victims of, 28, 30–31, 99
Pylypiw, Ivan Soviet Union
settles in Canada, 14 armies, 30
collapse of, 31, 34, 100, 103
government, 27–31, 34, 45–47,
R 91, 99–100
railroad companies, 58 rule of Ukraine, 20, 28, 30–32,
Reagan, Ronald, 91 34, 45–47, 91, 95–96, 99–
Roman Catholic Church, 76 100, 102–103, 105
Romania Spain
borders, 21 Ukrainian communities in, 51
Russia, 32, 34, 82 sports
armies, 26 hockey, 17–18
borders, 21 Stalin, Joseph
culture, 79 death, 32
government, 80, 106, 109 and the Soviet Union, 28, 30,
rule of Ukraine, 12, 14–15, 32
25–27, 50, 102 Statue of Liberty, 45
Ukrainian communities in, 50, Svoboda (newspaper), 87
100 Sweden, 26
Russian Orthodox Church
founding, 78–79
and Toth, 78–79 T
Russian Revolution, 14 Tatars, 22, 25
Ruthenians. See Carpatho-Rusyns Teron, William
architecture, 18
Toth, Alexis
S converts, 78–79
Sawchuk, Terry and the Russian Orthodox
hockey, 17–18 Church, 78–79
Scandinavia Turchin, John Basil (Ivan Vasilevitch
Viking troops, 22–23 Turchininoff)
Scythian Empire, 22 and the Civil War, 12
serfdom system, 41
Sheptytsky, Andrei, 32
Shevchenko, Taras U
birth, 26 UCCA. See Ukrainian Congress
poetry, 26–27, 62 Committee of America
Shore, Dinah, 90 Ukraine
Siberia early history, 22–23
exiles to, 28, 32, 47, 50, 96 economy, 35, 37, 50, 55, 63,
Slavic tribes 102, 104–105, 109
in Ukraine, 22–23 extremists, 30, 32
Slovak foreign aid to, 101–105, 109
culture, 76 foreign reign of, 12–15, 19,
Index 127
24–32, 34, 45–47, 50, 82–83, Union Army, 12

91, 95–96, 99–100, 102–103, United Nations
105 aid to Ukrainians, 47
future, 20, 63, 109 United States
government, 41, 45, 78–79, 94– cities, 11
95, 101, 104–106, 108–109 culture, 89–90, 101
history, 62, 74, 76, 80, 87, 89, economy, 55
91, 105 famous immigrants, 16–18
independence, 12, 14–15, 19– future, 20
20, 34–35, 62–63, 100–101, government, 13, 45, 49, 57, 94,
104–106, 108 99–100, 109
independence attempts, 25–28, history, 62, 87–88
30, 34, 99 military, 46, 96
land and people, 21–22, 25–26, multicultural nation, 12
30
location, 21
natural resources, 21, 27–28 V
protests, 35, 106 Veselka (magazine), 88
Terror-Famine in, 28, 30–31, 99 Vesnivka, 90
Ukrainian Autocephalos Orthodox Vladimir I, 23
Church
founding, 79
Ukrainian Congress Committee of W
America (UCCA) Wells, Carveth, 31
activities, 99, 104–105 Wolansky, Ivan
Ukrainian Museum, 86 Amerika, 87
Ukrainian National Association women’s organizations, 86
(UNA) World War I, 14
branches, 86 aftermath, 27, 94
founded, 56, 85 events of, 82
newspapers, 87 immigration after, 45
publications, 87–88 World War II, 16
Ukrainian National Women’s aftermath, 32, 45, 89, 94–99
League of America (UNWLA) events of, 28–32, 88, 103
founding, 86 immigration after, 14, 46–47
Ukrainian Sunflower Festival, 89, 92
Ukrainian Weekly (newspaper), 87
Ukrainian Youth League of North Y
America, 86 Yanukovych, Viktor, 106
UNA. See Ukrainian National Yaroslav the Wise, 23
Association Yushchenko, Victor, 35, 106, 108
About the Contributors
Series Editor Robert D. Johnston is associate professor and director
of the Teaching of History Program in the Department of History at
the University of Illinois at Chicago. He is the author of The Making
of America: The History of the United States from 1492 to the Present,
a middle-school textbook that received a School Library Journal Best
Book of the Year award. He is currently working on a history of
vaccine controversies in American history, to be published by Oxford
University Press.
John Radzilowski is an author and historian and is adjunct professor

of history at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota.
He has written numerous books and articles on immigration from
eastern and central Europe to North America.
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What are some of the challenges faced by early Ukrainian immigrants?

What are some of the challenges faced by early Ukrainian immigrants?

What factors led Ukrainians to immigrate to North America?

What factors led Ukrainians to immigrate to North America?

the new immigrants

Copyright © 2007 by Infobase Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in

You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at

Series design by Erika K. Arroyo

Printed in the United States of America

In 1943, during World War II, the Federal Bureau of Inves-

and Latin America—have, over the last several decades, added

Koreans who have come to this country also demonstrate

valley in central Oregon were helping Japan during World War

In 1868, the U.S. government hired Reverend Honcharenko to

number of these early immigrants is not known. Immigration

*These periods mark the time when the largest number of

Ukrainian Immigration to the United States

* These periods mark the time when the largest number of

freedom to emigrate. Some came to the United States or Canada

Rise From Humble Beginnings

famous Ukrainian americans

Roberta Bondar (1945– )

Ramon Hnatyshyn (1934–2002)

to the public. During his time as governor general, he created the

Jack Palance (1919– )

Terry Sawchuk (1929–1970)

William Teron (1932– )

(continued from page 15)

immigrants as inferior. They were often treated as second-

would have new opportunities that they themselves would not

Ukrainian immigrants settled throughout the United States and

during the Soviet period of 1918 to 1990. During these years,

U kraine is located in eastern Europe, just north of the Black

Ukraine is home to approximately 47 million people. Most

Slavic women and soon learned their language and culture.

Kiev is sometimes referred to as the “Gold-Domed” city due to its large

Lithuanian and Polish Rule

forming a single powerful kingdom. They pushed the Tatars,

Under the Russian Tsar and

spread the dream of a free Ukraine. Shevchenko helped inspire

smaller Ukrainian communities in Czechoslovakia, Germany,

The First Soviet Period, 1919–1939

During the Soviet-implemented Terror-Famine of 1932–1933,

In June 1941, Hitler betrayed Stalin and attacked the Soviet

to turn on Jews and Poles. As a result of the severe repression

T he most tragic event in Ukrainian history is the Holodomor, or

groups dedicated to driving out all people considered different

radio commentator Carveth Wells was traveling through Ukraine

The extraordinary thing was that the farther we penetrated into

Ukrainian immigrants who lived in other countries tried to

We have neither bread nor anything else to eat. Dad is com-

* Carveth Wells, Kapoot (London: Jarrolds, 1933), 133. Available on-

Ukrainians soon discovered that Germans were just as bad as

Soviet Rule, 1945–1991

In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and captured

In the 1980s, Soviet control began to weaken. In neighbor-

During the first years of independence, life in Ukraine was

*These periods mark the time when the largest number of

* Carveth Wells, Kapoot (London: Jarrolds, 1933), 133. Available on-