NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

MODULE 1

ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY, NATIONAL INTERESTS, AND HERITAGE,

Contents:

TOPIC PAGE

1. Introduction 01

2. History of Zimbabwe 02

2.1. The Great Zimbabwe State 03

2.2. The Mutapa State 04

2.3. The Rozvi State 07

2.4. The Ndebele State 07

2.5. White Settler Occupation of Zimbabwe 10

2.6. Crimes Against Humanity; Colonization and Slavery 15

2.7. Consolidation of Settler-Colonialism in Zimbabwe 21

2.8. African Nationalism And Organized Resistance To colonialism 30

4. Cultural heritage

5. Political Heritage

6. Economic heritage
7. Civic responsibilities

8. Acknowledgements

1: INTRODUCTION

NASS- The background

There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and cherished
by that society. Education is about values in other word behavior change in all the
domains of education that is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled
artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in society at the family level or at work
or society in general is a social misfit and a drain to national wealth because of the need to
either hospitalise him because he has AIDS or incarcerate him because he is a criminal and
a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging or identity, responsibility and
accountability are the things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and
in the past are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of belonging has
eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed and the collapse of the
extended family due to western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary
attitude pervades all sectors of society in the banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil
service. The need to change attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only
urgent but imperative now and in the future.

NASS -Definition
NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all Zimbabweans who go
through tertiary institutions become responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefor be
mobilised to participate in national development. .
Civic education is typical of and in all educational systems and is not unique to
Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was the odd case in that it did not have this kind of emphasis in
its education as much as Zimbabwe was the odd case in relation to National Service.

NASS-Purpose
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the attitudes of participants
with respect to their national identity and with respect to translating the political gains of
the Second Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth Chimurenga.

2.0: ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…

Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe
ruins as well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the Second Chimurenga war.
The second chimurenga in essence establishes our ‘enduring political tradition” and
ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far behind as he is able to see as far ahead .
Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to

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the distance he/she is able to see as far backward.’ History is therefor relevant not only
for today’s events and policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of
yester -year.
2:1 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY

2.1.1 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

· State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
· It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment of tribute
and was involved in international relations.
· The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the shona people and
who had much wealth in the form of livestock..
· The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which became the
centre of social, religious, economic and political life..
· The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means “house of
stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba dzemabwe” were built across
the country for chiefs on rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.

Historical evidence

· Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great
Zimbabwe state . However, there is little that we normally get from the oral
traditions because the Shonas have no written records.
· Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and
records found in Arab writings have an account on the Changamire and Mutapa
states.

Archaeological Evidence

· Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of the
evidence including bones, copper and iron tools.
· These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political activities
of the people at Great Zimbabwe.
· The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or temple area and
the external enclosure which consisted of a large number of stone buildings.
· Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and brassware,
· sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
· Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.

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Social and Political Organisation

· By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize almost the
whole population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite blocks.
· The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid tribute
to the mambo at great Zimbabwe.
· Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage and
trade.
· The ruling class controlled trade.

Purpose of the stone structure

1) Security
2) Religion
3) prestige monument.
4) occupy slave labour

Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State

· The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.

· There was increased emigration
· Shortage of resources i.e. salt
· Civil wars
· Declining soil fertility
· Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had failed to
succeed and left and formed the Mutapa state..

2:1:2. THE MUTAPA STATE

· The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in search
of salt or after a succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota went to the
Zambezi Valley where he defeated some weak communities who were already settled
there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people. Mutota As a result earned the title ‘
Munhu-mutapa’ a praise name which means Lord of Conquering.

· Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had ordered
Mutota to find salt.
· Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt and
reported on the abundance of elephants in the area.
· Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a “Zimbabwe”
on the slope of Chikato hill near the Utete River.

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· Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north of
Guruve.
· Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of
Mutota, his son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half sister
Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa hence she is often referred to as
Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa Empire stretching from the Anngwa
and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the Musengezi and
Mukumbura Rivers.

The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs

· The people had the same shona language, customs and culture similar to the peoples
of the Great Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until the 19 th century.
The Ndebele people described the Karanga ie. Mutapa language and area of control as
“entshona langa” which means a place where the sun sets or a place to the west.
· Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in
Zimbabwe) one of which is Karanga.
· They believed in a god whom they called ‘mwari’ who is claimed to have spoken
through the spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit mediums i.e.
the Mhondoros.
· Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where music dancing
and feasting occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north
east, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka in the west.
· At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of
society as well as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement
was a high degree of morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution,
divorce and almost all known present day social ills being unknown. The law was
highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less defined in terms of commerce.
Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the
injured and the culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of
murder. When a person was murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a
young woman from the murderers’ family had to be given to the victim’s family.
Inevitably, this created a bond between the two considering that at birth or death there
are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman. This is in stark
contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and divisive.

The Mutapa Economy

The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it was the
heart of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route and received
taxes from foreigners. Not only was the economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was
also part of their economy. The people of the Mutapa provided a variety of goods for
trade. Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.

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· The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid tribute
in the form of tusks ..
· The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in return the
miners had to sell the gold to the Mutapa.
· He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts, people
brought disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his judgement.

The Mutapa Political Structures

· They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.

· Some of the emperors’ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling their
business and as members of his royal court they became very powerful.
· Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes made
from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
· A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and collecting
taxes and cattle and brought new communities into the empire.

The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.

· When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became
king and was the first to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandes who brought
rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
· The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa’s power such that he was in a position
to assist his ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
· In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He took over
Mbire province earning the praise name Munembire.
· He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at
the king’s palace.
· In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba an
unmarried youth, took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
· Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Goncalo da’ Silveira
who wanted to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the king’s court
(vamwenyi) did not like this and plotted to kill Da’ Silveira. They subsequently
strangled him and dumped him in a pond.
· Goncalo’s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his
death, it was defeated.
· In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese’s for assistance to fight his rival for the
leadership and in return they were given mines.

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· The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier
experience with Portuguese Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this is where the name
purazi comes from) who took their land.
· More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese
formed private armies and became wild and lawless.

The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State

· The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the Mutapa
Nyambo Kapararidze to try to expel them.
· He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura
Mhande was installed.
· After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey them.
· An 18 th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new chiefs
were appointed to restore order.
· Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the
Portuguese but was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the Mutapa
state.

2:1:3. THE ROZVI STATE

· The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (1634)
believed to having been a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that his
father was a mwari and his mother a virgin. The Rozvi capital was at
Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
· By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and
Limpopo rivers and even into areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
· The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
· By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.

Decline and Collapse Of the State

Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane ‘or time of trouble” caused by
Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the Zulu state in present
day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler
Chirisamhuru.

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· The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and defeated
the Rozvi. Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and
finished the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837 – 1840.

2:1:4. THE NDEBELE STATE

The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of , Matshobane and grandson of Zwide.
Mzilikazi joined Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan called Khumalo. He
suspected Zwide of the death of his father Matshobane.

· Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to Tshaka and
fled north.
· He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a
nickname by Tswanas and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased his side
through conquering and incorporating weak tribes such as the Tswana and
Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi . He was defeated by the Boers
at Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed the Limpopo river in 1837 –
1846 and settled at Inyati near Matopo hills.
· They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under their
control. They conquered Shonas such as the Kalanga and Venda.

Political Structures

· King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme commander
of the army, highest judge with power over life and death. He was a religious leader
who presided over important religious ceremonies such as Incxwala.G
· King however didn’t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the Mphakati and
Izinkulu indicating that king was not a dictator.
· The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left Natal
and knew Zulu military tactics.
· These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the king.
· The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in
the Ndebele state..

The Ndebele Economy.

Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of Ndebele

economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had lots of time for
raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true. The following were the basis of Ndebele
economy:

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· Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndeng
initially were not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndeng kept large
heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
· They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained through the
conquered Rozvi and others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona while
others were obtained through raiding.
· Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum,
water melons etc.
· Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of climatic
conditions.
· Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their kills
ranged from large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and
rodents. Men usually hunted while women concentrated on gathering.
· They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the
Ndebele state as far as it supplemented organized agriculture.
· Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the Shona
The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewellery, beads
etc.

- Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited
extent. They traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in winter- after
harvest when people didn’t have much work in the field.

· Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from those tribes
under their control
· Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young
men and grain.
· However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn’t always raid the Shona. Only
those who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such as the Shona
in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.

Ndebele- Shona relations

The myths and realities.

· Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and that
the Shona were on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists came to Zimbabwe.
They used this as an excuse to influence the British government to colonize this
country and the missionaries used this argument more than the ordinary settlers.
· The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and
destroy the Ndebele Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a single Ndebele
man.

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· The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the
Ndebele had the occasional raid as a common feature of this relationship.
· In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the Ndebele were
pre-occupied with their own security, internal problems such that they could not
always fight the Shona.
· It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to 1890
especially those Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
· Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were major
targets for raids. Ndebele raids did not interfere with The economy of those Shona
chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some Shona chiefs aided the Ndebele and some
stole or raided the Ndebele to recover stolen cattle.
· The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of inter-
marriage.
· The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu’ and followed the Shona
traditions of ancestral worship..
· The state was divided into 3 district social groups based on history namely:

a) Abezanzi

These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They formed
the aristocratic ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who had left Natal and
constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. the Hadebes, Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

b) Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and
Tswana who joined the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied important
military positions in the Ndeng state and they constituted about 25% of Ndebele
population.

c) Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the
Kalanga and other Shona speaking people who were conquered and absorbed by the
Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population. However, the hole who proved
themselves in battle also occupied important military posts in the Ndebele economy.
Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost their identities ie the
Moyos, Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.
THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

· White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape In
South Africa. This was a re-supply post for fresh water and food for the East India
trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape were soon displaced by the British and pushed
North. The discovery of gold on the Rand and diamonds led to the continued jostling

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 for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the good part of the two
centuries from 1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail
blazzers for British colonisation spread the rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the
area occupied by the Ndeng across the Limpopo.

· Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health joined his brother at
the Kimberly diamond fields and became rich and directed his attention to the
rumors of an “el dorado” or city of gold to the north.

· Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control all
African territory from South Africa to Egypt.

· Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British responsibility
to civilize Africa the so called dark continent.

· Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the
short lived Transvaal Republic, Germans from South West Africa and especially the
Portuguese.

The Grobler Treaty

· In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to negotiate a
friendship treaty with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all the territories north
of the Limpopo. The agreement - known as the Grobler treaty provided for a Boer
Representative to be resident at Bulawayo and Lobengula would assist the Boers ( in
the face of British threats) if required to do so.

· In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a

representative to Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty..

The Moffat Treay

· John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed the
treaty in February 1888. According to this agreement Lobengula was to cancel the
Grobler Treaty. He would also not enter into any agreement with any European
power without the consent of Britain.

· The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between Lobengula and
the British government but in fact was the first step in the collapse and subjugation of
the Ndeng state.

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The Rudd Concession

· Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by the white
settlers through the British South African company. Rhodes had formed this
commercial company to spear head the occupation of this country.

· The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing Rhodes
and Lobengula . The Rudd delegation consisted of three people namely; .

1. Charles Rudd

Rhodes’ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore an
embodiment of Rhodes’ self interest.

2. Rotchford Maguire

Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to be useful in
tricking lobengula.

3. Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages

including Ndeng. He had a perfect knowledge of Ndeng custom. His presence was
therefore meant to influence Lobengula to sign the agreement. Rhodes was careful
in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn’t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the evidence
is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula’s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who
influenced Lobengula to sign the agreement and for that role Lotshe was executed
together with his family.

3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as Moffat who

misled or lied to him that the Rudd delegation represented the queen.

4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd
Concession in October 1888, the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

· Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

· 1000 enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

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· A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese invasion..

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

-Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and precious
metals in Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

· Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

· They would dig only one hole.

· They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his people.

The Royal Charter

· Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of the
British government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this protection through The Royal
Charter, granted in October 1889. The document in effect declared that the Rudd
concession had effectively made the territories of Lobengula British territories under
the administration of the British South Africa Company (BSAC)and by that virtue
restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion. Some German hunters advised Lobengula
on what was meant by the document and he tried I vain to repudiate it.

· He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and Charles Helm
to inform her that he was no longer interested in the Rudd Concession . The indunas
were deliberately delayed and the repudiation was too late.

· To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German

businessmen a concession for a period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

· Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more powerful.
The Pioneer Column

· Rhodes’s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the first t
settlers in Zimbabwe.

· The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and chosen from
thousands of applicants from all over Europe and South Africa.

· Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold claims
each. The Botswana protectorate provided 800 African labourers..

· Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the country as a
hunter. The group crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and built fort Tuli. The
column turned east avoiding the Ndeng state and established Fort Victoria (Masvingo)
On 17 August 1890 the Column reached Fort Charter (Chivhu). From Charter the

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 column reached Harare on 12 September 1890, raised the british flag the Union jack
and, and called Harare Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at that time.
This marked the completion of the occupation of the land.

· Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes’ personal friend was appointed the first governor of
Mashonaland.

The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of gold
they got in Mashonalnad.

· They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second Rand
could be found in Matebeleland.

· The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the attractive
land (rich grazing lands). They even believed that Lobengula’s capital was built on
top of a gold mountain.

· It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable and
unavoidable. It was to complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and , as the BSAC was
bankrupt, it needed gold, hence Matebeleland was their own way out of that big
problem.

· To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndeng state and Leander
Star Jameson needed an excuse in order to attack the Ndeng state. He created conflicts
to justify war between whites and Ndeng.

Precursors to the war

1.The Boundary Line

· According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

· Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from Matebeleland.
He then restricted Lobengula’s rule to Matebeleland.

· Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

· He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary line
kept on shifting towards his capital thus reducing his area of influence.

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The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the Ndeng
were trying to avoid any conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were interested in
Matebeleland, Rhodes and his people were busy finding ways of attacking the Ndeng The
whites admired the Ndeng’s rich grazing lands and suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

· Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndeng still regarded later as their subjects.

· In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole 500 metres of
telegraph wire.

· They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that belonged
to Lobengula and which they had had stolen.

· Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

· Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to have
stolen cattle belonging to Lobengula.

· Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result Shona
servants on European farms were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria for protection.

· The Ndebele Indunas,Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona people who
sought refuge in Victoria.

· The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate of
Fort Victoria refused and the Ndeng were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria.

· Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani ’s party and killed all of them and in
response Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.

· The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the white
farmers believed that there were rich gold deposits in Matebelaland and had long
planned on how to get there

They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe for
prosperity even if they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers from
getting enough labour for their mines and farms.

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Preparation for war

· By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed white
settlers aided by missionaries from South Africa.

· Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each if the
Ndeng were defeated.

The Battles

· The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved south
west towards Matopo ready for a show down with the Ndeng.

· In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the Ndeng impi
was heavily defeated.

· On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces entered the
Ndeng capital, Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled north where he
vanished without trace to date.

· The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to Ndeng
Supremacy.

3. CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.

Slavery is the highest level of degrading another human being. Slavery is as ancient as
human existence. The practice was pronounced under the Roman empire and at that
time it also assumed its commercial undertones. This practice was perfected by the
former Roman colonies in Europe when they enslaved Africa. Never in the History of
mankind was such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and inhumanity perpetrated by
human beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the most crude method of
exploiting other human beings and in its wake came colonisation which by definition is
slavery with a humane face. The latter like slavery leads to the exploitation of other
man by other man by other means other than brute force.It is not possible under The
United Nations Charter for a nation to unilaterally attack or annex the territory of
another state and where this has happened of late as when Iraq attacked Kuwait the
UN unanimously agreed to reverse the annexture through force of arms. To colonize
another state is therefor the highest form of state irresponsibility. The USA under false
claims of existence of weapons of mass destruction attacked Iraq in 2003 and there was
a global outcry against the war. Colonization nevertheless took place many centuries
before the UN came into existence but that does make colonization any less a crime
against humanity. Colonizsation was perpetrated by the very nations that were
vociferously opposed to the Iraq Kuwait invasion and yet many serious human rights
violations were perpetrated by the colonial powers in this process. In Tasmania

jascas 16
 Australia, the aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man by British
settlers. The Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and civilizations in the
Americas.

SLAVERY

1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South America or in the
Americas created the need for disciplined workforce.

2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand organized

disciplined labour.

3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.

4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g. small pox,

syphilis, gonorrhea etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa which captured
and sold its own kith and kin for a bottle of fire water that is gin.

· Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of slavery. The

trade in Europe did not provide sufficient profit because of the problem of exchange
values. But the trade with unindustrialized countries in Africa and America was more
profitable because of the use values.

· This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and slavery and
colonial conquest.

· To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock company was devised
and several of this new economic tool were formed, e.g. the Adventurous Russia
company and the Africa company. According to Nassau, a well known academic of
the time, the objectives of the Africa company were, “ …to kidnap or purchase and
work to death the natives of Africa without mercy.” The Eastland company had the
monopoly and right to trade with the European hinterland. The Levan company in
which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a major shareholder became the East Indian company.

· The Fuggers company in Germany was first a merchant company and later became a
bank and financed all Germany wars of the period.

· The Fuggers company in return for financing war was paid through the form of
trading concessions, colonial land and through revenue from colonial mines.

· As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company turned to
Africa for cheap labour.

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· It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour which was also
disciplined in many respects. The Uterecht Treaty of 1713 gave English Merchants the
right to supply South America with 5 000 slaves every year and a special company
was formed to supply these slaves.

· Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America ended up in
British towns.

· The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680 resulted in 70
000 slaves being taken to South America. However, only 46 000 survived the
translocation. The slave trade was part of the triangular trade between Europe, Africa
and South America .This trade was very profitable to the European companies and
the African Royal company which was the slave company paid a dividend of 300%
despite loss of half the “goods/cargo” that’s despite the death of more than half the
slaves en route to the Americas.

· There is therefore a co relation between Europe’s expansion/development and slave

labour from Africa. The methods used by the companies especially British firms, was
to capture other countries’ export markets through colonisation, protectionism and
unequal exchange.

· Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the plunder, the
enslavement and the destruction of the native people of Africa.

COLONIALISM

· Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The

former (the merchants) later supported and financed the political institutions or their
governments in their wars of conquest and colonisation and they also participated in
policy making . Colonisation therefore was therefor an economic necessity. The
reasons or causes of Africa’s colonisation were or are:

a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade
problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super structure and
beliefs of the colonizers on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

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· African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16th century but the need to
exploit the wealth of South America saw slavery reaching a climax in the 18 th century.
Slavery however, came to an end when it stopped serving the purposes and interests
of European commerce.

· The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer required
slave labour. Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even
grew after this banning. In 1833 slavery was internationally banned but it did not die
until a 100 years later and to the shame of Africa still lingers on in places like the
Sudan.

· Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its weakedness but because
commerce could not benefit as much from this evil practice.

· Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

· The commercial revolution in the 16 th century expanded trade beyond Europe and this
created a conservative class of merchants and landlords. Commercial merchants were
a class which could not fully satisfy their accumulation potential in Europe so they
turned to foreign markets.

· Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and other
dishonest means, was extended and practiced in foreign lands through colonization.

· The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the Ashanti
kingdom and the Aztec Civilization in central America.

· Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and this
almost destroyed the Arab civilization. The crusades were less about religion and
more about plunder and theft and robbery. The amount of wealth stolen in this
manner although substantial could not last long and the result was to exploit the
mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South America.

· In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines could
not be exploited using local labour so they resorted to stealing people from Africa.

· This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more profitable way
of accumulating wealth.

· Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both

colonialism and slavery.

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THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

· Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed between
Europe and Africa and in trying to protect their commercial interest, Europeans had
fought many wars and for almost a 100 years between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at
war with each other because of commercial or economic interests. With the growth of
England and France as the major military powers, the wars became less and less
However, when German became a powerful nation towards the end of the 19 th
Century, the following scenario developed in Europe;.

· The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

· The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple acts etc.
with a view to monopolising trade with the so called ‘new world’ and ‘the dark
continent.’

· Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain, suggested or requested Otto Von
Bismark, the Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for all interested parties
with trading or commercial interests with Africa. This led to the infamous Berlin
conference. The objectives of the conference were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.

2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Coference;

1.Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily between

European powers and African Chiefs.

3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and evidence of a
written protectorate agreement.
PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. German

2. Belgium

3. England

4. France

5. Italy

6. Portugal

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Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and African
Chiefs/Kings.

1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European commercial company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their lives
through European civilization.

8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through commercial
companies or by commercial companies.

2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the African
chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they understood the
implications of the agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise Africa.

THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and European
countries during and after colonialism through a new form of relationship called Neo-
colonialism..

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without benefit to Africa.

3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate

industrialisation (investment was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of
resources).

4. Cultural decimation/destruction.

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5. Dependency on European economies.

6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after colonialism

7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and the their extensions in America and
Australia.

Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..

3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa..

5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

Early Settler Administration.

· With the Ndbele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the face of
superior settler firepower , the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its grip on the
country. The Transvaal Boer state however posed a great challenge to Rhodes’ plans In
1895, Jameson withdrew most of the company’s armed personnel into the Transvaal to
fight the Boers but was crushed and the scenario for the Native rebellion in Zimbabwe
developed.

THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

Causes of the War

The Ndebele Revolt

1. The land Issue

· The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry

inhospitable holding areas was introduced.

· In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

jascas 22
· After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing many
natives and those displaced became fulltime labourers or squatters.

· The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

2. FORCED LABOUR

· The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to go to
work and in order to raise revenue.

· Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

· To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The chiefs
were instructed to recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as
labourers- “chibharo”. The Shona and Ndebele so enslaved ran away into the hills to
escape.

· The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

· Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral land back as
in the reserves there was food shortage and starvation at times.

· CATTLE

· Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites confiscated
the Ndeng cattle numbering about 250 000.

· This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle back as it
was a sign of prestige.

· TAXATION

· This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

· In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had had to fight the whitemen and the
employment of their former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please the
Ndebele as they were now told what to do by these Shona policeman.

· NATURAL DISASTERS

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· It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought, rinderpest
a cattle disease and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters a religious
interpretation, they argued that the presence of the whites had angered their ancestors
hence these natural disasters and they then found it necessary to drive away the
whites in an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.
THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

· These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive away the
white man and they used a variety of methods. They passed information on the
progress made in the preparations for war. Some prophesied that the fighters would
be protected by their ancestors. They also provided medicine which they claimed
made the fighters bullet proof.

· They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they threatened
death to all those who showed no interest.
RESULTS

· Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which included
spears, shields, bow and arrows against the whitemen’s machine guns, cannons and 7
pounders.

· Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as some
collaborated with the whites.

· Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the Africans
direction less and leaderless.

· Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in general
leading to many Africans being converted to Christianity. However, although the
Africans were defeated, their efforts need to be recognised. It was the first time that
they had fought a common enemy as a united people.

· It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance that is
the 2nd Chimurenga etc.

· Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda,
Kaguvi, General Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief Chingaira,
Mashonganyika, Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindu, Manyongori, Gunduza,
Mvenuri and Gutu.

·
Repressive Settler Legilation which dispossed and dehumanized
Native Zimbabweans

jascas 24
 Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first
Chimurenga war and many thousands of Africans died in battle and
in the reprisals that followed up to and during 1898. To secure their
position the settlers enacted many pieces of legislation that
effectively proscribed or limited African economic, cultural and
political freedoms.
The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.
Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and
replaced them with puppet settler administrators. The act also
created reserves or cantonments in dry inhospitable areas.
The Hut Tax: 1903.
Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go
and work for the white man.
The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.
The land bank act provided new white settler farmers with free
tillage for five years and the same period as grace before
commencing to repay loans from the state owned Land bank.
The European Produce Act: 1917.
Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production
was concerned with respect to quantities they could market or the
prices they could fetch.
The Morris Carter Commission: 1925.
Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall
patterns from the highest rainfall region 1 to the lowest rainfall
region 5. Natives were trans- located to regions 4 and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres
of prime land while blacks who numbered 1 000 000 were allocated
28 000 000 acres of the worst land in regions 4 and five. The
translocation of blacks was accompanied with untold violence and
starvation and malnutrition became endemic. More government
officials were employed country wide and effect while rule and
these included native commissioners and police man. A land policy
after 1905 was affected which started to impoverish blacks and to
keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded from
government through strict qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was
given to males over 21 days with an annual income of 50 000 pounds
or with property worth 75 pounds. The Land Apportionment Act of
1930 confirmed and legalized the displacement of Africans that had
been ongoing earlier.

Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural produce came from
black farmers and many whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result, the Rhodesia

jascas 25
Native Labor Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks from competing with whites and between
1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the best land was taken from blacks and given to
whites. New boundaries were created to exclude fertile high rainfall areas from newly
created reserves. The latter were located in semi arid areas. Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3
were made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since many could not pay they were
removed and settled in reserves which were situated far away from markets and rail and
tarred motor roads. By the 1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into
reserves. This led to cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.
The Maize Control Act:1935.
The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2
grades of maize were made, a grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a
higher price while B fetched a lower price.

· Whites also paid less for maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

· Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

· The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

· This system impoverished the blacks who were losing out through this fraudulent
commercial arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the reserves they migrated
or translocated to towns.
Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

· Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

· Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites, that is skilled and semi-skilled job.

· The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

Þ The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an offence
for a white to share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools, hospitals, or hotels
even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

Þ The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle or eight
acres of land in the communal lands.

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The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

Þ The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas.
Natives could only occupy land in communal lands without holding title to it. In
Towns natives could only lease property and no black man could own a house in town
until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

Þ The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000 acres as
European land and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45 000 000acres
was designated as native land to be shared by the 5 000 000 blacks.

Þ The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race’s land.

PASS LAWS

· All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white man or
police officer of any race could demand at anytime anywhere. This restricted black
freedom of movement from place to place.
AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the British
through the BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control and since company rule
was increasingly becoming inadequate and incapable of running the country, the British
gave the settlers two options to either join South Africa or to establish responsible self
government. In a referendum in 1923 the settlers chose the latter. The more the settler
regime became repressive the more the African spirit of resistance blazed. Early resistance
took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or refusing to work on farms and
in mines. More refined resistance took the form of strikes and joining trade unions.

· Between the 1 st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among blacks
were the trade unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the Reformed
Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were the first and most effective and they
also were non tribal.

· Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity
originating and directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike that
paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in Zambia’s copper belt.

jascas 27
· In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in
the country.

· The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland
(Southern and Northern Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi)and by the early
1950s this absorbed the attention of the natives since there were many false promises
associated with the creation of the federation. The federation was eventually created in
1953 and its major features were the following;

· Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern

Rhodesia..

· The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern Rhodesia

with the Federation railways and airlines being headquartered in Southern Rhodesia

· The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern Rhodesia.

· The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to rid

Southern Rhodesia of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in Northern
Rhodesia and replacing them with what were perceived as docile migrant laborers
from Zambia and Malawi.

· White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any hopes
of early self determination for all the members of the federation as long as the
federation existed.

· 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers
movement operating in the urban areas.

· Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations’ political aspirations.
Some churches criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However there
were many racists church leaders who used religion or Christianity to subdue and
indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a subservient role. These racist
apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in church, politics
and the economy and the result was a proliferation of many independent African
churches.

· In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and it was a
merger between the old ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Nkomo. It
demanded majority rule.

· It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land
Husbandry Act (1951) and it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the government.
Garfield Todd, the federation premier (1953-1957) who was a liberal, argued for
accommodation of African demands but the avowed racists in his cabinet called for

jascas 28
 repression of all African political activity. As a result Todd was deposed in an internal
coup for giving in to black demands and David White head became premier and in
1959 e SR-ANC was banned and hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

· 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

The Native Affairs Act 1959

The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

The Emergency Powers Act 1960

THE law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

Þ Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more repression
and the nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the settlers and to give
independence to blacks but Britain refused.

Þ January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-ANC.
Joshua Nkomo was elected president and the leardership of the party consisted of
Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard Chidzero, George
Silunduka, Jaison Moy, Leopold Takawira, Josiah Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

Þ 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

Þ 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia and the
party represented the hard core white racists determined to wipe out all resistance to
colonialism and Winston Field was then premier.

Þ 1962 September ZAPU was banned.

Þ 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of tolerance
and accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

Þ 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or in
exile.

Þ 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of
sabotage . Of note is the action by self styled General Chedu who led 100 youths calling
themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation army. The same year ZANU recruited and
trained the first armed resistance to colonialism and the Crocodile group drew first
blood when they attacked a police station and killed a white farmer in
Chimanimani(Melsetter).

jascas 29
Þ 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

Þ 1965 November 11 th. Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral Declaration of
Independence. This made the country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed
to be the legitimate ruler they failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At about the
same time the little island of Anquilla in the Pacific made a UDI and Britain did not
hesitate to reign in the rebels.

Þ UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self
determination and the Smith regime went on an all out campaign to stifle African
aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid or racial segregation as the system of
governance and social and economic life. The same year a state of emergency was
declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some or all civil liberties and
allows the state to take extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What followed
were many years of state terrorism and murder to which the Africans responded by
intensifying the armed resistance - the second Chimurenga war..

Þ By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African countries
like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu’s armed wing
became the ZImbabwe National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU’s armed wing
became known as the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training also
took place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China, and Russia.

Þ 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the
security forces and all seven members of the group were killed.

Þ 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress’s armed
wing Umkhonto Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The
majority of combatants were killed in and around Wankie district. Rhodesia airforce
began to violate Zambian airspace and another larger group was deployed by the
alliance and again was decimated.

Þ The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the Smith
government passed the Law and order maintenance amendment bill – 7 September
1967. The law provided for a death sentence on any one caught with arms of war

Þ Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mocambique fighting the
Portuguees in Mocabmique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more experience
they provided training and logistical support which proved invaluable and led to the
opening of the eastern front. Mass mobilisation became the preferred tool of the armed
resistance and met with great success. Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in
1968.

Þ 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm Centenary.

jascas 30
Þ 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier Salazaar and
brought immediate independence to Mocambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

Þ 1974 John Vorster South Africa’s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of
accommodation designed to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal
reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This stalled and almost derailed the
armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of Herbet Chitepo on 18
March 1975 in Zambia.

Þ Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation formed after the
banning and jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the
war while the leadership was in prison..

Þ 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were introduced

in all war fronts to deprive the fighters food and other support.

Þ 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU force the
two to combine their armed efforts.

Þ 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people’s army (ZIPA) and
armed resistance gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA intensified operations
in Gaza, Tete and Manica provinces or fronts or regions according to ZIPRA
terminology.

Þ 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees and
guerillas at Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mcambique and Freedom camp Mulungushi,
and Chifombo in Zambia.

Þ March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti war and
reactionary black groups in Rhodesia.

Þ April 1979 the ANC’s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham elections
and temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it was not
recognized by any state except South Africa. It was during this period that some of the
most gruesome murders were perpetrated against refugees and the armed resistance
with the authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s government.

Þ South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in Rhodesia
pressured Smith for a negotiated solution.

Þ 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house
talks. The parties to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front(ZANU
and ZAPU) and the internal group Muorewas ANC and Smith’s Rhodesia front. The
talks could not reconcile the demands of the parties especially on land but both groups

jascas 31
 hoped against hope that they would win and be able to maintain their claims and
positions from a legialised position.

Þ 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a single

seat in parliament , Smith only got his reserved 20 whitemen’s seats, ZANU(PF) swept
the board with 79 seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland and
ZANU –Ndonga got one seat..

Þ Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand Australia

Britain etc. where they continue to reminisce nostalgically about the war and how
Britain sold them out.

Þ 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as premier.
The new prime minister offered Josshua Nkomo the titular head of state position but
he declined to accept although several ministries were headed by his other fellow
ZAPU colleagues.

Þ 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose to have been
surrendered to the state are discovered and ZAPUs properties with caches are
confiscated by the state. Disturbances of a tribal nature erupt in Bulawayo in
Entumbanen and some people are killed and the army is sent in to reign in rogue
ZIPRA elements and some these flee to the bush

Þ 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid regime in South
Africa begin a campaign of sabotage, murder and destabilisation in Matebeleland and
the Midlands and such names as Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula inkomicho became
household names for their notoriety. Hoods, Conjwayo and other South African
saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in Zimbabwe. South Africa
unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline states with rebel movements
RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola wrecking havoc to the economies of
all Front line states..

Þ 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade is
deployed in Matebeleland and the Midlands and development stalls in the affected
areas as hundreds of Shona civilians perish at the hands of dissidents and thousands
of Ndebele civilians loose their lives in reprisals by the Fifth Brigade..

Þ 1987 December 12 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe’s first non

executive president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed between ZANU
PF and ZAPU PF. A new party ZANU PF is created and Joshua Nkomo became a co
vice president with Simon Muzenda. All dissident to be incorporated into society and
no charges to be preferred against them and similarly no charges to be preferred
against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

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Þ 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral
practice continued and exists unabated to date. The new government made strides to
correct the colonial evils in the following areas;

1. Universal free primary and secondary education..

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists

to which they have to date spurned.

4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer basis.

5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents

6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to own and control

business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at large

Þ 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and World Bank
was adopted. The programme required Zimbabwe to liberalize trade, that is allow free
movement of goods from outside, restrict or cut expenditure, and devalue or allow the
local currency to float.

Þ 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the negative effects
of ESAP.

Þ 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the
beleaguered Kabila regime.

Þ 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non compulsory acquisition
of land close in the Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organized and
many foreign donors pledge to assist Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

Þ 1999 The labor Union leadership break ranks with government and threatens to form a
political party under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the same
year this actual happens in the form of the Movement for Democratic change...

Þ War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the 2000
elections The labor leadership cum opposition party slides more and more to the right
and is seen supporting settler colonial interests in land commerce and industry and
receives massive monetary and moral support from the same quarter. This alliance
also receives massive external assistance from foreign interests like the USA and UK

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 governments directly or indirectly through such organisations as the Westminister
Foundation etc.

Þ February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and
labour, the opposition together with civic organisations mobilise the electorate to reject
it because allegedly it confers too much power on the president but really because of
the ‘no compensation for land compulsorily acquired for settlement “ clause in the
constitution.

Þ 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in derailing the land
redistribution by using political parties they funded and helped to found, Veterans of
Zimbabwe’s 2nd. Cimurenga and landless peasants occupied white owned farms and
forced government to make appropriate legislation to fast track land distribution – The
Land Acquisition Act 2000.

Þ 2000 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling ZANU(PF)
party and wins 57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

Þ 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the Mugabe
regime and begins to talk about regime and forces its friends to impose sanctions on
Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order tomake the electorate vote him out of power.
Inflation rises steadily and local white employers on the whole do everything to arm
twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

Þ 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC refuses to
concede defeat or to recognize the new government and goes to caught to challenge the
election results and alleges intimidation vote rigging etc.

Þ 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain and
America and court challenges to the presidency continuing and the opposition top
leadership is arrested and taken to court for trying to assassinate the president.

Þ 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic
expectation pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning for the 2005
gubernatorial elections get underway.
ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring political tradition. In the
USA, the national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war and
rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied in the term REPUBLICANISM. The
French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the French revolution which
climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the slaughter of the nobility as their
national heritage. Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second
Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition. The second chimurenga

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ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles which define and
continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine
that nation’s heritage hence the continuing psychological war by the enemies of
Zimbabwe to distort and demonize not only the second chimurenga war but those who
participated in that war and especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement, tradition

or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have emotional
attachments and for which they are prepared to defend and to go to war if threatened or
violated.

SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The
demographic statistics show that the people of Shona extraction constitute about ninety
percent of the population with the Ndebele at 2.5%, Tonga, Venda, Kalanga, Cewa
Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups constituting about 7%. The white population
has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. Inspite of their small number the
Ndebele influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has
rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is
dynamic. As a result it is a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African
culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European culture. There are at most only variations in
customs among the various African groups in Zimbabwean society but the customs are
either the same or closely resemble each other. Zimbabwean African culture has the
following major elements;

-Nuclear or extended family

- recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.

- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the African
culture in Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media have done much harm in
undermining the superior African culture by encouraging foreign tastes and habits in
terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex and the extended family. The first culprit has
been the African family with divorce (unknown and unthinkable in pure African culture)
wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and prostitution has grown to
pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The white man’s’ consumption or
spending patterns have also spread among young Zimbabweans and they are finding the
extended family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white

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man’s’ culture and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white
person in Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient expendable cash and as a result
debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making the lives of many Zimbabweans
miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation
cemented. Moreover such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and
political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed would be nonexistent. All these
ills are a result of lack of self respect and lack of personal identity due to wanting to be a
white person e.g. Michael Jackson who straightens his nose or an African woman who
wears false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or preferring to speak in a foreign
language and not vernacular..

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchallengeable in that
traditional diet consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables and nuts
naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a common feature of most urbanized
woman and the major cause of high blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and
infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long
healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS more so than condoms.

Marriage and the family is the economic base of any society and nation. Premarital sex,
divorce and sex for money and perversions such as lesbianism homosexuality, drug taking
including alcohol directly attack and undermine the family and as such society. A
multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage will always lead one to either multiple sex
partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction with one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of
Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good morals
that is no fornication or adultery no perversion that is no homosexuality, taking care of the
needy etc. Are biblical positions that remain unchangeable? In short the white man’s’
culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis and a direct
attack on everything Godly, that is, it is devilish... The problem between African religion
and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but methods of accessing God or
worship. Indeed this writer is convinced there is lots of superstition with respect to
methods of worship in African religion in as much as most main line and emerging
Christian churches are thoroughly paginated. It is only right and good therefore to
promote and maintain our morally superior culture while adopting correct Christian
methods of worship.

Our religious inheritance will therefore remain for all time our good cultural values or
morals.

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The values of any society therefore serve to define that society’s identity. History has
much been distorted by painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent that it is
almost the accepted value among most young Zimbabweans to be immoral because a
White Christian has an immoral value or practice for an example walking naked or partial
naked in public despite the fact that this violates Christian principles. The Black person
should there for not use the Whiteman’s values, or morals or immortals as the case may be
as the reference point for good or bad values but should use traditional practice as the
point of departure and compare that with biblical principles which remain unchanging
Our values as Africans clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality
graft corruption and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe
in God and we have no room for atheism in our culture.

The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the economic
level the legacy of the second chimurenga and our heritage from that event is that the
resources that are God given belong to Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe.
Thus the land as resource number one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans
with very negligible exceptions believe that land and all ill gotten gains from the
international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic cleansing and segregation are
legitimately and exclusively the property of those former criminals. Whites do not want to
share our land with us . We have said we will equitably share our land with whites and
that remains and will always remain the Zimbabwean African’s morally right and correct
position. Any so called Zimbabwean therefor of any race who departs from this position
is not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in essence declaring
that the second chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by the Africans in
Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost by settler colonialists through by much
blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of war.

Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land firmly
in their hands, can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from the
comparative advantages we have in terms of skilled disciplined labour, good climate, an
abundance of minerals and varied flora and fauna - domestic and wild. Economic activity
therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost and this should happen through
an internal driven economic programme and not one that is externally driven. Political
liberation simply relates to universal common suffrage being available to all citizens. This
was gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and
subsequent elections whether presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and
empty and absolutely useless if it is not used to bring about economic emancipation.
Political emancipation there for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic
emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies through
the practice of neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of the
developed world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most
difficult war in that it is now being fought at the psychological level through global media
houses and the agency of corrupted local comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists

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who raise and imagine and publish false notions of the freedoms of expression assembly
and association. This leads to people as it were shooting themselves in the foot because
they through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters’ perceptions have been
warped in favour of their colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their
economic subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel and
criminal because of the open aggression through demands made on former colonies
under the guise of human rights.

At the political level the second chimurengas’ heritage is that as a people we are
sovereign and can determine our own destiny without outside interference and through
democratic processes designed to safeguard our hard won independence. (see governance
under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances places the
nation on the strategic resources map of the world.

Land

Zinbabwe’s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive climate
being neither too hot nor too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin, emeralds.
Diamonds, platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance because
they are ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and quality. Unfortunately control of
these minerals is still in foreign hands and as a nation we also are not yet adding value to
them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and
Tanzanian wild life population of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game –
elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino are more abundant in our game parks than in any
other park in the world..

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely populated
considering that our land mass can sustain seventy million people with optimal economic
utilization. The plus about this population is its literacy levels –about 87% and its varied

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skills base from which even the most advanced nations are tapping into. Through many
tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Western countries have not
rested in trying to spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which they will use as a pretext to
directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatch ell the infamous homosexual has
been quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but sponsoring a group consisting of
personnel in Zimbabwe’s’ armed forces and in the Diaspora to militarily bring about an
end to the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much
earlier the Heritage Foundation a USA right wing organization are trying and had tried to
use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean armed forces. On the
whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this very destructive and
dangerous way and have democratically expressed their wishes at the polls. The people of
this nation save those who pipe and beat the drum of this nation’s enemies remain
resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented onslaught from Europe and the USA. O

NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the rallying
point of the nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it describes and narrates in a few
words our origins, history, beliefs and aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they are the
official and visible tokens of the state and its authority and existence. The flag is also a
product of the war of liberation. The red star represents our socialist ideals and the
Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our distant origins and prowess as a people and
nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of the world. The white background on
which the above two are superimposed represents our desire for peace and tranquility
within and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who died liberating
the country, yellow our mineral resources green our flora and fauna and black the
indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and
any foreigner on our soil to acknowledge our statehood by standing at attention when the
flag is lowered where ever and whatever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a
religious act as some overzealous and misguided so called Christians think. Kneeling or
bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shades and his
other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing is standing
erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to refuse to kneel to the
flag for every Christian. It is only right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in
recognition not homage of those who rule them.

The Great Zimbabwe monument.

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Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design and
construction and stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of
possessing no scientific psychological make up or achievements or capability. It was used
as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if any and
has water plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and mist from which its more
appropriate Tonga names is derived from –mosi a-tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the
nation’s prime tourist resort attraction.

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

Disasters

As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it and at the
same time what appears to be natural disasters have also increased. Management of
these disasters has become a major science and the role of each citizen in disasters has
become an imperative. Major disasters can be listed as,

-disease pandemics e.g. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken dam

walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear contamination.

etc.

-Earthquakes.

Þ Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility. Correct

dietary and sexual habits are the first front line. Each individual is a national
resource and eating junk food or recklessly imbibing in drugs or alcohol destroys
that line as much as taking irresponsible and immoral sexual behavior like sex
before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious diseases, each
individual should take note and report any suspected infections and quarantine
self or the affected victim.

Þ Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally behind
those affected by donating food and clothes and shelter. It is also necessary to
avoid flood and quake prone areas and to take heed to quake or flood warning.

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 Þ Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social responsibility to
minimize the risks. There is no such thing as safe technology. The issue at stake is
risk minimization and management.

Þ Droughts have always been there before the white man’s agriculture and especially
exotic crops such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not found unpopulated as
a result. A banana plant does not grow in Gokwe as naturally as it does in Rusitu
valley in as much as maize thrives in Peru but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe.
Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its homeland in South America but is
prone to drought in Zimbabwe. On the other hand small grains thrive in
Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The paradigm shift in our
dietary habits will go a long way towards national food self sufficiency because
eventually sooner rather than latter even irrigated crops will fail when there is no
flow in the dams. There is no other credible long lasting solution to drought at the
family or national level than reverting to the small grains.

Þ :In defense of the Nation

Þ All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen’s ability to
identify with his nation by being able to distinguish between party political issues
and national issues. Sovereignty, land and defending the nation are not party
political issues but national issues to which every real Zimbabwean must stand up
in defense.

Patriotism means;

- Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to do so by
the authorities in power or individually when the situation so demands like in the case
of unilateral superpower attack.

- Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation’s greatest and most potent
enemy today is the one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods about the nation’s
politics and economy. Other than the dissident menace, Zimbabwe has been the most
peaceful nation at par with countries like Botswana and Namibia.

- Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

- Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution etc.

- Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime, corruption, greed
and harmful behavior such as premarital sex, drug abuse etc..

- Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

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- Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of differences in
approaches.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

· Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred years of
colonial rule.

· Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small white
section of the population.

· Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

· Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national economy
and agricultural production.

· Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

· Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

· Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major
international currencies

· Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and profiteering.

· Falling commodity prices in the international market.

· Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic approach.

· Political interference in the nation’s politics through the sponsoring and creation of
opposition parties with a foreign agenda..

· The brain drain

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· Corruption

· Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

· Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from abroad and
construction of dams and also creating grain strategic reserves seeds packs given to
peasants to help them recover from droughts. Of major importance has been the
redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the congested rural areas and settling
people in areas with fertile soils and high rainfall.

· The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone some way in
creating employment.

· Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in favour of
home grown solutions

· Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked gradually
restoring sanity to the financial sector.

· ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected to the
East Asian economies to encourage investment and cooperation..

· SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to encourage an
increase in international trade.

· However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

· Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiralling costs..

· Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, The Land bank land

redistribution etc have all gone a long way towards alleviating the unemployment
problem.

· New monetary policies together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation
decreasing slowly but gradually.

· Reawakening of the peoples’ moral values and their culture as a solution to decreasing
and ultimately wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.

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NATIONAL AND STATEGIC STUDIES

MODULE 2

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY STUDIES

CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE

1. Law:
Definition……………………………………………………………………2
Purpose………………………………………………………………………3
Nature……………………………………………………………………… 3
Origins of law………………………………………………………………3
Law making process…………………………………………………………………4
Classifications/Divisions…………………………………………………………….5

2. Constitution:
The Constitution…….……………………………………………………………...6
Doctrine of separation of power……………………………………………………7
Constitutional provisions.…………………………………………………………..8
Declaration of rights………………………………………………………………..9

3. Executive:...………………………………………………………………………………11
The President……………………………………………………………………….12
Functions of the President………………………………………………………….12
Public Service………………………………………………………………………13
Uniformed forces…………………………………………………………………...14

4. The Legislature:………………………………………………………………………….15

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 Composition………………………………………………………………………..15
Constitutional amendments………………………………………………………...17
Elections……………………………………………………………………………17
Commissions……………………………………………………………………….17

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LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

1. LAW

1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;
a) ‘rules of behavior enforced by society’
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of society’
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign individual
and /or body, to a member or members of some independent political
society in which his authority is supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced by the courts in
the administration of justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century) defines
law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to protect their
interests.”

The major elements in Austin’s definition are:

1) “ the command of a sovereign’. This suggests use of force and the right to
command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as justice,
consistence and uniform application. In this present day and age law is
looked at as the balance and union between might and rightness or justice
and legitimacy. The definition also excludes the law enforcement aspect –
the courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and “recognition’
and in typical English legal tradition leaves room and gives a free hand to the judge
to determine what is a recognized principle and what is not. Moreover this
definition does not deal with the element of legitimacy assuming that English
political authority is right and legitimate always and everywhere and in one
statement legitimating such evils as colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a large range of
cases resembling one another in their most essential features” and the result or
outcome is invariably the same.

Vinshisky ‘s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and explains the
origins; purposes and justification of such laws as the Hut tax the Land
apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in pre-independent Zimbabwe. It also
explains the current laws being made to reverse the very same laws e.g. the Land
acquisition Act, POSA and AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in

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 pursuit of that elusive thing called justice but for the protection of the interests of
those in power. To a large extent this is a Marxist definition and is precise in so far
as it is realistic and not idealistic. No law is just per se’. All law is premised on
maintaining the status quo and the advantages - political and economic- of those in
authority or of the ruling class.

1.2 Purpose of Law;

1.2.1 Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of those making the
law.

1.2.2. Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order,
predictability, stability and peace.

1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term ‘society’ or community suggests norms or

behavioral patterns in the society. Behavior patterns become social customs with
the passage of time, usage, and acceptance. Social customs attract social sanctions if
and when violated e.g. labeling such as Uri nzenza or ostracism etc. Social custom
evolves into legal custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g..
van Breda and Others vs. Jacobs.

1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle ‘ do unto
others as you would want them to do unto you’. Evolutionists suppose that man
had to escape from a state of nature that is lawless society. In such a society each
member of society does as he pleases and is a law to himself and does not value nor
does he respect the welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an
authoritarian command, which should be legitimated by its consistence or
compliance to natural law that is one gives as much as he is willing to receive. One
enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of staying in his house because he in turn does not
threaten the undisturbed enjoyment of other people’s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law.
Lawmakers are therefore bound by natural law and it flows naturally from right
reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis and norm for legislators and
governments. The state is thus a product of men or members of society contracting
to appoint a single body or will to bear or represent all of them. Members of society
therefore enter into a social contract, which is characterized by a mutual transfer of
rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man from doing that which is destructive of his
life or taking away the means of preserving his life. Man in a state of nature has the
right to everything and is governed by his own reason and can do anything to

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 anyone to further his interests. Thus man should be willing if and when others are
willing and in so far as his security and peace are assured as he sees it, waive his
right to every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty against others as s he
receives from others. Every member of society should therefore surrender as much
in terms of rights as the other person is prepared or willing to surrender. This
alludes to the entering of a social contract by people whose desire is to escape from
a state of nature. All modern law is presumed to be based on natural law.

1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

1.5.1 Persuasive sources of law

These are references, which the law courts resort to in order to tilt the
balance for or against a decision or controversial point of law. These are; a)
social custom, b). Legal literature by jurists, c) Judicial precedent specifically
Obiter Dicta or that part of a judges decision in a novel case which are side
statements and not the actual principle.

1.5.2 Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is legal, or are
not. It consists of legal principles in the following forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the law courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles established each
time a new case or situation comes before a judge. It is based on ratio
decided, that is the legal basis on which a decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or parliament
and is termed statutory law or acts of parliament. Parliament
delegates its authority to make law to such bodies as municipalities
and the law they make is termed delegated legislation that is,
statutory instruments or by laws. Where there is a conflict between
the various laws, the statutory law position takes precedence and
nullifies any other position.

1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law

All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following elements;

i) Doctrine of impartiality;
a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the application of law
among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the application of
law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;

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 a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the executive
should be separated to ensure counterbalancing and counterchecking
the exercise of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made within
the confines of the law i.e. in consistence to/with the constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-facto.

1.7 Divisions/classification of law

LAW

National Law International Law

Criminal Law
Private
International
Admin Law Law
Public
International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of treaties
Civil Private Law
Law of sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law

National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of citizens of
and within a specific country and it is further subdivided into three specializations. These
three distinctions are not based on the type of act/omission but on the legal action that
follow.

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Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person for committing
a crime that is an act or omission that attracts sanctions – fines or imprisonment or both.
The parties in criminal proceedings are; the State vs. the defendant or the accused. The
outcome is guilty or not guilty.

Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual sues another
individual in a legal suite. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff or complainant
(the one suing) and the defendant (the one being sued). The result of or sentence of the
proceedings is commission of a wrong or no commission. The sentence can be damages,
compensation, restitution or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of formal
institutions in so far as their relations with the state and their employees is concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is based on
conventions, custom, treaties and bi-lateral and multilateral agreements. It differs from
national law in that where as national law has a law-enforcing agency to back it in the
form of the army and police and prisons, international law has none of these law-enforcing
agencies and relies on the goodwill of states, which in many instances is lacking.
International law can be private international law or public international law. The former
deals with disputes between citizens of two different countries and these are mostly trade
disputes. Public international law is the law that relates to disputes between states and
these are normally issues relating to boundaries, war, or natural resources access.
International law is the law that governs the behavior of states and to a growing extent the
behavior of nationals within states e.g. War crimes, crimes against humanity and
terrorism.

1.8 Substantive and adjectival law

This classifications cut across all the above categories.

Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the enforcement of rights
and duties liberties and powers specifically the law of procedure and evidence for
an example civil and criminal pleadings. In civil procedure the plaintiff’s claim is
termed the declaration and the defendant’s response is termed a traverse
(countercheck quarrelsome according to Dickens).
Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples’ rights, duties, liberties and
powers e.g. the constitution or an act of parliament.

2. The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the country. The
United kingdom stands out as the odd case that has no one clear document written
and termed a constitution. The UK has precedent, custom as well as separate pieces

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 of documents that all add up to what may be interpreted as a constitution. A
constitution is the body of rules and regulations that sets out the authority of those
in power or and the extent and limits of the exercise of executive power. It also sets
out the rights and duties of the citizen. These two aspects are contained in the
doctrine of the separation of powers and the doctrine of intra-vires and ultra- vires.

2.1 THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First Chimurenga war,
the settler colonialists and Britain succumbed to the reality of defeat and had to
negotiate for peace and unlike the previous occasions where peace talks were
unsuccessful, it was imperative that a solution had to be found to the war of
liberation in Zimbabwe if the settler community and British interests were to be
safeguarded. The Frontline states were also a major factor in the search for peace at
the conference in that there were clear signs of war weariness on their part. This
scenario was ideal for the settlers in that there was every chance of as they saw it of
getting into power I they or their stages the DNC were to get into power. The
major problems provisions of the agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature

The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the
authority and identity conferred by a people within a country to themselves and for
which there is a force in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does
not change or vanish unless territory is annexed by another state through conquest
or agreement or the population becomes non existent and the territory becomes
uninhabited that is terra nullius. Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation
but it is claimed by each individual nation people and asserted through the exercise
of executive powers and the ability to enter into diplomatic intercourse with other
nations.

A Nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a country whose

aspirations, interests shall so decide the shaping of their destiny.

A Country is geographical space marked by natural or man-made boundaries.

2.3 The doctrine of separation of powers.

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 The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on each other so
that there is no abuse of power by anyone aspect or arm of state. This ensures that
the judiciary is impartial and does not make any law. The legislature is the supreme
law making body and has no restricted competency and can change or amend the
constitution.

2.3.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine

Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions of the
constitution and the executive or government must exercise its authority as
provided for in the constitution. When the executive or parliament acts
within their powers they are acting intra-vires when they act outside their
powers as provided for by or in the constitution, they are acting ultra vires
and there is therefore no rule of law. When parliament makes law they act
intra-vires the constitution there is therefore the rule of law. Any influence
by foreign or illegitimate forces in relation to constitutional uses, were
national interests are concerned; the wish of the state thru the national force
(people) shall take precedents in the interests of sovereignty.

2.3.2 Public order

Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every individual is able
to exercise his/her constitutional rights without infringing or interfering
with the rights of others or endangering state security and national
sovereignty by championing blatantly clear foreign interests that seek to
reverse the gains of independence and self rule and by so doing
compromising state national sovereignty. Democracy is therefore a qualified
and subjective term that does not give license to any individual or group or
political party the right to exploit situational hurdles in the history of
Zimbabwe to compromise national sovereignty and the ethos of the
preservation of freedom. If and when that happens, the custodian of the
nation, the army and every patriotic Zimbabwean, should by all means
available, defend the nation and democratic rights can and should be
suspended until such a time as these are compatible with our historical
aspirations. Public order therefore entails the capability of self-censorship
with respect to the exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the
rights of expression, speech, assembly and association. In the latter case, the
constitution cannot be read to mean that belonging or associating with a
subversive organization or unpatriotic party or ill association whose interests
are to destabilize peace, order and security is a right guaranteed by the
constitution.

2.3.3 Democracy and traditional Zimbabwean systems of governance.

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 Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main tenet was
its attempt to bring about an inclusive rather than an exclusive form of
governance that is typical of the monarch or king. A monarch has its merits
and demerits and so does democracy.
The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while having its
shortcomings was nevertheless superior to both the former aristocratic
European system of governance and the present form of democracy as
championed by the West especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K. Demo
means people and cracy means rule. Democracy means people rule. Hence
aristocracy that is rule by the top few or kleptocracy that is rule by thieves.
Democracy as a system of governance is not established through elections
only. In the traditional Shona system of governance “ushe hwaive madzoro”
first and foremost, that is there was no permanent ruling class or family as in
the present American and European systems where the super rich and well
connected and acceptable few in terms of race and ideology qualify to rule
that is the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese, Hispanics and especially lacks
are excluded from the presidency on no other grounds other than that that
they are from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings
“dare” and this system of inclusion permeated the whole structure from top
to bottom and it was reflected in the family governance where the family
was not run by the father tyrannically but involved and to a large extent
today does involve the mother the children who have come of age and the
check and balance of the extended family “vana tete nana babamunini”.

2.4 Constitutional provisions

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is above the

constitution of the republic of Zimbabwe in determining what is legal and
what is illegal in Zimbabwe. This law (constitution) is drawn and revised to
protect and safeguard the interests of the citizens of this country. Some
countries especially the European nations and the U.S.A. want to introduce
laws that they term international norms or laws acceptable in international
law.
This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other countries in such a
way as to have their interests protected. The majority of these laws are
designed to protect subversive or perverted elements within other societies
or nations for an example perverts (Gays and lesbians) or puppet political
and economic groups within smaller nations for an example secessionist and
tribal minorities.

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 2.4.1 Republican Destiny
The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that Zimbabwe is
a sovereign state and so shall decide its destiny. The republican destiny is
outlined in conjunction with national interests as represented by the public
seal which shall be kept by the president as the head of state and whose
authority protects national interests and aspirations.

2.4.2 Citizenship
- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic immunity, are
not citizens, or the parents are enemy aliens or an illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country but his
parents are or were Zimbabwean citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the minister of Home
affairs.
Dual citizenship.
No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean citizen unless
he/she renounces that other citizenship. In many precedents law tends to
favour descent than any other citizenship status on enjoyment of privileges.

2.4.3 Declaration of rights

Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled to the basic and
fundamental rights of the individual provided that when enjoying such
rights or freedoms he/she does not infringe on the peaceable enjoyment of
the rights of others or does not endanger the public interest that is state
security and public order. Such freedoms are as follows:

a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a death sentence,
or where there is need to defend property or in repelling violence, or
effecting lawful arrest or preventing someone from escaping from lawful
custody, or in suppressing a riot, insurrection and unlawful gathering, or in
preventing the commission of a crime or if the cause of death is a lawful act
of war.

b) Right to Personal liberty

Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the person is
sentenced to a prison term by a court of law for a criminal offence or for
contempt of a court of law or in a civil suit or where a parent or guardian so
requests the court for the welfare or education of an individual between 21
and 23 years old or in order to prevent the spread of a disease or if the
person is of an unsound mind, is a drug addict an alcoholic or is an illegal
immigrant or subject of an extradition process.

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 Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and should be
charged within a reasonable period and where a person is unlawful detained
the detainee is entitled to compensation from that person or authority
detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court sentence or is
necessary for hygiene and the maintenance of the places of lawful detention
or is a requirement by a parent for purposes of parental discipline or labour
required by virtue of belonging to a uniformed service or required of any
citizen during an emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as reasonable force or
corporal punishment is acceptable in effecting an arrest or for a parent or
anyone in loco parentis over a person eighteen years and below and under
his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived of his/her
property or right therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the utilization of such
land for purposes of agricultural settlement or other use or for land
reorganization such as forestry and game parks or for purposes of relocation
of persons affected in the former cases, or for purposes of public defense,
public order and safety, morality, health, town and country planning, or for
any other public good.

Where such land is thus acquired it will be done according to the law in force
at that time allowing for reasonable notice and fair compensation.

f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or his property
Except where the person so searching is parent, or for purposes of the
defense and security of the state, public health, morality or town and country
planning or in the enforcement of the law where there are reasonable
grounds of suspicion of the existence of a crime.

g) Provision to secure protection of the law

All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a person is
charged with a criminal offence that person should; be brought before an
independent and impartial court within reasonable time, is innocent until

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 proved otherwise, is entitled to legal representation and to defend and cross
examine witnesses and no person is guilty of an offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has a right to
freedom of thought, religion (belonging or changing), freedom to
individually or severally in public or private to propagate/ manifest his/her
religion through worship teaching practice and observance. No person
attending an educational institution shall be compelled to receive religious
instruction contrary to his/ her religion, unless in the interest of group
discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its members at
its educational institutions. Provisions on guardianship powers may limit
freedom of conscience.

i) Protection of freedom of expression

Every citizen save for minors or with one’s own consent is entitled to hold
his her own opinions on any issue and receive and impart such opinions or
information without interference Excerpt where, The law makes provisions
for the sake of the defense of the nation, public safety and order, economic
interests of the state, public morality and public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain confidentiality,
protect parliament, the courts and tribunals, and regulate technical aspects of
telecommunications and the electronic media and preventing any unlawful
communication. Freedom of expression is exercised within the parameters
of justification, fair comment and qualified or absolute privilege.

j) Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every citizen is
entitled to assemble and associate and belong to or not to be compelled to
assemble or associate with any group, political party, union for purposes of
protecting and propagating his/her interests. Excerpt where the law makes
provisions for the sake of public order, safety morality, health, security and
defense and the regulation of companies or other business enterprises. The
associations whose interests are known to comprise security and order shall
be diffused under the prohibition from commitment of crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of origin tribe, etc.
No law or practice shall be deemed lawful if it violates this provision excerpt
in the cases of adoption, marriage divorce, burial devolution of property or

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 any matter pertaining to personal law or relating to immigration status,
qualifications for purposes of employment not relating to any of the above.

l) Enforcement of rights
Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the said person
shall appeal to the supreme court which alone has the prerogative to hear
and deliberate on all matters relating to the constitutional provisions on the
fundamental freedoms.

2.4.4. The Executive

The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State the president, the
Vice presidents, the Cabinet, the ministries or/and the civil service, the
Security agencies that is the Zimbabwe Defense Forces, the Zimbabwe
Republic Police, The Prison Service, And the Central Intelligence Service.

a) The President

i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government, and is the

commander in chief of the Defense Forces. Is the Pre- eminent person
in the Nation.

ii) Qualification.
Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent, should be forty
years and above, is ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe.
(NB. To be read into the constitution although the document is silent
is that the presidential aspirant should espouse and uphold the
aspirations of the nation, derived from assertions leading to the war of
liberation in the preservation of freedom, independence and national
interests uphold Zimbabwe’s ENDURING POLITICAL TRADITION
as represented by the values of the War of liberation.) Should hold no
criminal record.

iii) Election.
Is an elected y voter on the common roll and within ninety days
before the expiry of the presidential term and in the case of death,
incapacity or impeachment the Vice president shall act as president
for ninety days during which period fresh elections should be held.

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 iv) Tenure (duration in office)
Shall be in office for six years and until the next person elected take
office

v) Removal from office

- Can leave office through resignation by letter to the speaker of
parliament.
- Can leave office on parliamentary recommendation following a
request of not less than a third of members of parliament
alleging willful violation of the constitution, or incapacity to
carry his duties/functions or gross misconduct and when two
thirds or more of members support the motion to impeach the
president.

vi) Functions of the President.

a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state that is the
government of the country or the enforcement of law, the defense
of the nation translation of political policy into government
programs and their implementation by the civil service.
b) To uphold the constitution

c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -

§ Enter into treaties and international agreements.
§ Proclaim and terminate martial law
§ To declare war and make peace.
§ To confer honors and precedence
§ Appoint and accredit diplomats
§
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
§ Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
§ Appointment and removal of governors
§ Duties of the Vice presidents or any other person appointed
by the president.

e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -

§ Grant pardon to felons
§ Declare a stay of execution of a felon
§ Vary/substitute prison terms
§ Suspend or remit a sentence
§ Declare public emergencies
Which shall be approved by parliament within fourteen days
failing which the declaration becomes void?

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 The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period not
exceeding six months subject to any extension of such a period by the
president. The effect of such a declaration is to allow the direction of
funds to that emergency and where necessary the suspension of civil
liberties.

2.4.5 The Public service

The constitution provides that a public service be established for the
administration of the country. This consists of all the ministries and
other institutions through which government implements its
programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit and have
security of tenure, are not political appointees and at most are not
expected to engage in active politics.

The affairs of the Public service are managed by a commission, which

consists of a chairperson and not less than two and no not more than
seven members. The president appoints the members.

2.4.6 The Attorney General

Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a public office but
is not a part of the public service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the judicial
services commission. Only persons suitable for appointment as judges
are qualified to be A.Gs. The A.G. is an ex-officio member of the
cabinet and his main functions are to institute criminal proceedings,
and to prosecute or defend an appeal from all criminal proceedings.

2.4.7 The Police Force

The police force is provided for in the constitution with the specific
task of preserving the internal security in the country and the
maintenance of law and order.
A police commissioner appointed by the president heads the ZRP.
A Police commission headed by a chairperson who is the Chairperson
of the Public service commission manages the affairs of the Police
force.

2.4.7 The Zimbabwe Defence forces

To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the constitution
provides for the establishment of an army consisting of an Air force,

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 and an Army – ground troops and any other specializations deemed
necessary for the defence of the nation and provided for through an
act of parliament. The commander in chief of the defence forces shall
be the President.
The affairs of the army are managed by the defence forces commission
consisting of a chairperson (the Public service chairperson) and not
less than two and no more than seven other members.

2.4.8 The Prison service

Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals by
incarcerating them and rehabilitating and reintegrating them into
society. The prison service is headed by a Prison service commissioner
and the affairs of the service are managed by a Prison service
commission headed a chairperson (the head of the public service
commission) and between two and seven other members.

2.4.9 The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President
with the specific task of providing, through conventional and
unconventional means, information of any type necessary for the
protection of the nation’s economic, political, social or cultural and
other interests. A Director General appointed by the President heads
the service.

2.4.10 The Ombudsman

Holds public office buts not a member of the public service. He she is
tasked with the responsibility of receiving any complaint from
members of the public on the function or lack of it of member of the
civil service.

2.4.11 The Comptroller and Auditor General

Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service.
His/her main functions are to examine or audit at least once a year all
ministries or persons or institutions entrusted with the receipt or the
use of public funds, that is, monies from the consolidated revenue
fund. (C.R.F). The president appoints him after consulting the Public
service commission.

2.4.12 The C.R.F.

All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees,

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 fines, profit etc. are deposited into the CRF and used or withdrawn
from that account as allocated funds under respective ministerial
budgets excerpt where the authority is allowed to retain the monies so
collected and for use to defray their expenses as provided for through
an act of parliament. The allocation shall be made through the Budget
process in Parliament as votes to Ministries and government
departments.

3. THE LEGISLATURE

Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for Zimbabwe. No law
made elsewhere is binding or legal unless Government accedes to or ratifies such
law through parliament. International law or other legal protocols are binding only
if and when parliament ratifies such directly or through an act of parliament.
Parliament can delegate it authority to make law to other bodies such as local
government authorities or parastatals.

3.1 The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of society. Most of
the law however comes in the form of bills o proposals from concerned ministries
and not as private members’ bills. The stages in the law making process are as
follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney general’s office.
3.1.3 Draft bill- distributed in parliament.
3.1.4 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from MPs.
3.1.5 Second reading- no responses from MPs.
3.1.6 Committee stage
3.1.7 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.8 Third reading – responses from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – voting
3.1.10 Presidential assent Gazzetting.
At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the Parliamentary Legal
Committee, which shall consider inputs from MPs from a legal point of view
and produce adverse or non-adverse reports where necessary.

3.2 Composition consists of: -

- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and nominated
as follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120 constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president

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 - 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.

3.3. Non-voting members of parliament

- The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and the AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to facilitate the process
of legislation by ensuring that debate and voting and al other procedures
related to legislation are conducted in the manner prescribed by the standing
rules of the house. The speaker is elected from persons who have been
members of parliament before and his tenure of office lasts a full
parliamentary term unless he/she resigns or becomes a minister or vice
president while his/her term has not expired
Or becomes an MP.

3.4 Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is the pre-
eminent administrative officer of parliament. Holds a public office but is not
in the public service.

- Clerk to parliament
He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office and supervises
all other supporting staff like clerks, stenographers accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms
He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and ensures that
order is enforced in the legislative assembly.

3.5 Parliamentary Legal committee

The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by the
parliamentary committee on standing rules and orders at the beginning of each
parliamentary term. The members of the committee shall in the majority be legally
qualified.

The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

3.6 Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved

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 Membership shall also laps: -
- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session of
parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or assumes any public
office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit
- Is incarcerated for more than six months

3.7 Parliamentary privilege and immunity

These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of parliament
is criminally or civilly liable in any act or utterance while performing his/her
parliamentary functions.

3.8. Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president within
twenty-one days of being passed by parliament

A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority provided that
members present a re a quorum that is not less than twenty-five.

3.9 Constitutional amendment

Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution through an
affirmative vote of not less than two thirds of members of parliament.

3.10 Parliamentary elections

Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of parliament or as
by election in the event that a seat becomes vacant. For elections to be held the
following shall be done as provided for in the constitution.

a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation of a member

of parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in the supreme
law of the country.

4. Commissions

4.1 Delimitation commission

- Is appointed by the president

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 - Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the supreme or high
court and three other members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the -constituencies taking
cognisance of such features as geography, ethnicity and communication etc.

4.2. Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed by the
president after consulting the judiciary service commission and two after
consulting the speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

4.3 The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service Commission,
the Judiciary Commission, and the Police Commission etc.

5. Contemporary issues and New dimension in law

a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is above the law

b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be applied based on

certain trivial relative issues

c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe make the most
decisions and tailor-make law to protect their interests

d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has led to
commitment of crime and subsequent ignorance of the rule of law even when
certain behaviours become immoral e.g. the gays and lesbian case

e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal frameworks, the same
have been used in negotiations although in many cases equality is not achieved
in Christian balances. The ‘coveter’ and the converted are two different entities.

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 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

Module 3

Regional and International Relations

1 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by the
arms of state, that is, government, judiciary and the legislature and which is normally
embodied in the constitution as the right of a group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or
exercising the executive powers of the state that is, representing the nation at
international fora, defending and keeping law and order in the nation,
implementing political, economic, and social policy of the ruling political party.
Government is formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes and
goes where as the state is permanent except where the country is annexed, secedes
or the people become extinct.

2 The practice of International relations

2.1 Society

People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation therefore
the people should have similar political aspirations or interests. The term “society”
supposes the existence of common norms or behavioural patterns within that society. Such
norms determine relations among the members of the society in terms of political
structures or governance; this determines in turn distribution of resources. Political
structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within society. Classes in turn infer
inequalities among the people. In international relations instead of people forming the
society or community we have nations being the members of the international society or
community and hence the existence also of norms or political behaviour, international
political hierarchy and classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class
and hence the existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full under
international capital below.

2.2.International Society.

The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the world’s

history. Vast empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been the general

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 picture of politics at the global level. Sovereign nation – states appear on the global scene
about five hundred years ago and evolve and only become the norm in the 16 th. century as
principles that govern their conduct take a definitive shape. Before the development of
rules that govern relations between areas or regions or states, relations between different
political entities were characterized by internecine warfare. It was more a state of nature or
survival of the fittest. With the advent of Christianity and its growth, war and its
limitation, conduct and justification became necessary and the notion of the just war was
developed. In his work, “The Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas argued the case
for a just war as consisting of;
- It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or the
avoidance or prevention of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war and by
about 1490 Honore Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of God who by his permission
make wars upon sinners and sin and make havoc among them in this world as the devils
of hell do in the next”. Not surprising therefore that at about that time the Aztec
civilization was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the
world seen as containing sinners were subjected to the most cruel and inhuman plunder
and decimation by the European powers. In the same vein Gorge Bush’s “axis of evil”
position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the Aquinian doctrine. Bush argues that
the war on Iraq - weapons of mass destruction aside - was a just war because that nation is
evil. Who defines evil and by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this doctrine
in international relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve rules that
could govern relations between states. Similarly, because of a reversion to the same old
position by the Bush administration, the whole fabric of international law is strained to
breaking point. “Evil” is a value laden term which is highly subjective.
Being a fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by Bush and his company
whether one is a suicide bomber or not and no law therefore can restrict regime change in
any nation perceived to be evil. Such international behaviour not only drags the world
backwards but also creates a very dangerous environment in which every nation and
individual takes unilateral action to redress grievances and institutionalise suicidal
tendencies and solutions even at state level like in the case of North Korea.

In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”, Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote
principles that were supposed to govern warfare and this became the basis for our modern
international law.

3. Approaches in the study of international relations

The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science. The main
approaches are as follows;

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 A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach

B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach
2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach

C: The Behavioural approach

1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model

3.1 The Traditional Approaches

3.1.1.The Classical approach;

The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract theorists.
Thomas Hobbes sees the state, as arising out of the need to escape
from a state of nature where there is anarchy and life is insecure,
short, nasty and brutal. A state of nature presupposes the non-
existence of society and therefore the non-existence of law. In such a
lawless state everyone does as he pleases and those with more clout
survive. In other words the law of the jungle that is “might is right”
and “survival of the fittest” rules supreme. In another sense this
approach is also evolutionist or Darwinian. It infers natural selection
that favours the stronger species’ survival and continuity. To escape
from this state of nature at the national or state level people had to
agree to surrender some of their rights to each other and appoint a
sovereign authority as guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social
contract. The same arrangement could be said to hold true within the
community of nations or the global society. However as nation states
developed in Europe a state of nature more or less developed in that
these states resorted to war wily nily on the basis of each state’s
prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war. All wars were
therefore justifiable. Jean Jacques Rousseau and others saw relations
among states as possessing potential for peace as long as members of
a society were willing to enter a clear contract. The Machiavellian
argument was closely echoed by Immanuel Kant and Carl von
Clausewittz in his book “On War,” argues that power is at the heart of
interstate relations in that each state seeks to increase its power at the
expense of other states. Alliances, wars and the arms race were the

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 result of this argument and Europe was plunged into the First World
War.

3.1.2 The Idealist Approach.

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far the toll
in human and material loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace as something
they should deliberately seek and sought to engineer global society in such a way as to not
only create peacefully conditions but also prevent war. This approach was thus normative
prescriptive and pro active. Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time and others thus
pursued this logic and it resulted in the creation of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918.
The USA refused to join the league in spite of championing it. Through covenants or a
body of rules collective security it was thought could thus be assured in the community of
nations. This body of thinking or ideology failed to bring about peaceful coexistence
among states and soon after the formation of the League of Nations after 1927 Italy and
Germany went on the warpath and soon after the world was in another global war.
Idealism sought to affect the thinking of global society but this proved to be a futile
exercise.

3.1.3 The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from idealism to
rationalism or realism. This means people began to look at the actual practice of relations
among states and sought to explain their behavior rather than to change their behavior. In
a way this approach was a throw back to the classical approach. Hans Morgen Thau a
major proponent of this approach argued that power and self-interest were at the heart of
state behavior. To legitimate pursuit of power and self-interest nations cake iced and
disguised their otherwise questionable and illegitimate behavior moral hyperbole and
legalistic arguments. This fits squarely in the George Bush Jr.s’ conduct of the war in Iraq.
Saddam was said to be evil but that had never been justification for war in modern society.
To legalize action against Sadam, the latter had to possess weapons of mass destruction
and that became the legal basis for war. Having e failed to provide the evidence of WMDs
Bush back tracked to the moral position, that is, Sadam is evil anyway. War thus is not
only inevitable, but also desirable in certain instances and the issue at stake is not its
prevention or avoidance, but its control to achieve desired outcomes. This approach is
thus to a large extent descriptive.

3.2 The Modern Approaches

3.2.1 The billiard ball model.

This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as individual entities
which when and if one entity or ball picks motion naturally on contact with others

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 produces motion in other balls or states. The internal dynamics of each entity or ball are
seen having no effect on the relative position of the entities.

3.2.2 The Cob web model

John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or matrix in
which each state is linked to the other directly and indirectly and where motion in or
between components impacts on the rest. This approach is very close to reality in that the
operations of global commerce and industry is such that events in any state immediately
impacts on events in all or in other states. More over cyberspace and efficient transport
communications is threatening to produce a global super culture.

3.2.3 The Strategic Approach

The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics. They strategize or
scheme situations in the global arena that best suit the pursuit of their self-interests.
Former USA secretary of state Henry Kissinger Herman Khan and others emphasized the
use of mathematical models and games theories policy options ranging from total
surrender graduated severity warfare to total annihilation. Policy options according to the
strategists are rationally made on the basis of comparisons of outcomes. The probability of
a favorable outcome was seen as the deciding factor in the action of any state. Deterrence
through such policies as mutual assured destruction (MAD) became major policy
positions of the USA as a result of this approach.

3.2.4 The Behavioral Approach

This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches and

denounces the strategic approach as war mongering immoral and a threat to world peace
and security. Behaviouralists incorporate all social sciences techniques and conclude that
the danger to peaceful co-existence may result from unintentional war due to
misinformation or miscalculation or both. There is an element of correct prognosis in the
approach considering the furor over the role of intelligence over Iraq in assessing the
nature and extant of threat posed by Saddam Hussein. The war in Viet Nam and Iraq are
classical examples of miscalculation and misinformation.

3.2.5 The global approach

Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-world
government with the nation state disappearing.

3.2.6 The Non-global Approach.

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 In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the state
dispensed with and authority devolved to lower tier structures below the present state
level or tier.

4. The Subject matter or issues in International relations

All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of the following
areas;
1. Conflict
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all
nations are relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are concerned.

4.1 Conflict

Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost synonymous
with war. World history is the story of when and with whom nations have fought from
time immemorial to date.

4.2 Cooperation

When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace and in
dealing with the challenges and problems that mankind face for an example diseases such
as AIDS or disasters such as earth quakes. Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced
even among nations that appear to have no love lost between them in that the UN and
many other world fora provide an avenue for all nations to cooperate in one way or
another.

4.3 Competition

Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or commerce
and can manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

5. The global power Balance.

5.1 Power blocs

International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or cooperation among

states. The three Cs produce a global political picture, which is either dominated by one

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 super power or a group of states that become a super power bloc or a scenario where
power is evenly distributed between two or more blocs or centres. When the Roman
empire of the Caesers came into being by about 160 BC there was no power on earth
strong enough to challenge its hegemony for almost six hundred years up to about 530
AD. Global Power was concentrated in that one super state and it was a uni-polar global
power arrangement. When pagan Rome collapsed the world stage was again dominated
by Papal power the so called Holy Roman Empire for almost 1300 years up to 1789. Papal
power was however effectively challenged by Frances’ Napoleon Bonarparte and from
that time to the end of the second world war power concentration was widely dispersed
among European and Asian nations and no one state or group of states had monopoly
over global power. This was a multi polar global power balance. With the end of the
Second World War the world was split between two power blocs with the Soviet Union
leading the eastern or Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the west the
communist bloc and the USA leading the NATO or western bloc nations. After
decolonisation of most African and Asian nations from about 1947 the former colonies
formed so-called non- aligned nations. Global politics never the less remained polarised
between the two major blocs and up until the collapse of the War Saw Pact bloc by about
1985. During that period the world was in a nuclear stand off between the two major
powers where each bloc had sufficient nuclear weapons to annihilate the whole world.
The periods’ relations are characterised by what is termed the cold war. The cold war was
in fact a very live and hot war in which the two major blocs sponsored opposing groups in
civil wars in countries termed the Non Aligned nations. The period was marked by
bloody wars in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and many other nations in
Africa and South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy and
ideology of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear deterrence that is;
“having so many nuclear bombs and an unstoppable delivery system which would render
an attack by any one of the two opposing sides simple suicide because the other side
would retaliate in an equally overwhelming response and bring about a mutually assured
destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the other side, the 1970s and early 1980s were marked by
a runaway arms race as the two blocs tried to gain the upper hand. The arms race proved
too expensive for the Soviet Union and following the introduction of the Glasnost policy
by Michael Gorbachev the Soviet President then, the whole War Saw pact military and
economic system collapsed and the USA emerged as the unchallenged global superpower
from the 1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus become uni-polar and the USA
has assumed the role of global policeman or and corrector of all rogue states so called.
Other terminology has also begun to be used in global politics for an example “rogue
state” meaning a nation that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow tow to USA bullying,
“regime change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state leaders who are not
supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to those countries opposed to
American style of governance. The period also saw a marked increase in unilateral action
by the USA outsides the mechanism of recognised international fora such as the UN.

5.2 International Terrorism

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 The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism. Terrorism can be
defined as indiscriminate acts of violence against soft targets for an example non-military
installations and un armed civilians. The USA has declared war on global terror but this
terror in the first place appears to have been prompted by USA partiality in dealing with
global problems like in the handling of the Palestinian issue or dealing with undemocratic
as if dealing with democratic states for an example Uganda under Museveni a non
democratically elected government while making lots of fuss about lack of democracy in
Libya and more blatantly parochial the alleged lack of democracy in Zimbabwe. In any
case there is no international that makes it mandatory for any state to adopt American
style democracy. The latter is not holy writ nor is it fool proof neither fair nor just.
Terrorism is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups and individuals with no other
options in redressing their grievances. Terrorism has become the preferred tool of many
marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the resolution of their
grievances.

Global power balances are important in that it is within the framework of this
arrangement that state inter action takes place. As shown above, the multilateral power
structure between 1800 and 1945 produced or created a very unsafe world and led to two
catastrophic wars. The bipolar global power balance between 1945 and 1985 and the
resultant rivalry and arms race of that period saw many developing countries falling
victim to the politics of the day. After 1985 increasing USA unilateralism has bred a new
global scourge called terror. The USA has itself become a terror to many states small and
big if they dare assert their nationalism hence the growth in terrorism. Terrorism is
inherently evil and un acceptable as much as the bellicose attitudes by stronger states that
drive weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

6. International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct or behaviour
expectations for its members. These behaviour expectations arise out of custom or
agreements. There is there for such a thing as international law. (NB. See International
Law in Module 2. Legal and Parliamentary affairs.) The major deficiency in international
law has been its lack of a force back up mechanism that is an army or police force. Of late
there has been attempts to make international more meaningful by extending its
jurisdiction to individual and to the actions of states as it relates to its citizens.

6.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

In its current mould international law affects those countries that are signatories to
conventions and agree to be bound by the provisions of such agreements. The signatories
are also left with the option to accept the conclusions of the International Court Of Justice
or simply to ignore them. The ICJ was formed in 1945 as an organ of the UN and is based
at The Hague in the Netherlands. The disputes that are taken to the courts are mutually

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 agreed upon and relate to trade or boundary disputes between states. The action of states
against other states is a hardly ever the subject matter of international Law. Criminal acts
by individuals or states have traditionally fallen outside the scope and jurisdiction of
international law. Increasingly however there is a trend toward making international law
more encompassing by the introduction of crimes that can be defined as acts against
humanity e.g. genocide. This has led to the establishment of many international Tribunals
like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to try NAZI Germany war criminal after
WW2. Other special international tribunals have also been set to deal the Balkans crisis
and the Rwanda genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up as of 2003 the International
Criminal Court and many countries have ratified the treaty. The USA however has refused
to ratify the agreement and has gone on a bullying campaign coercing small nations to
agree not to send USA nationals to the court. In the meantime The USA is making a lot of
noise about sending Charles Taylor to the Special War crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone.

7. DIPLOMACY

Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of
official relations between the governments of independent states.” Formal contact
between nations in the global community takes place through the medium of diplomacy
and the interaction of diplomats. Diplomats are the emissaries or representatives of their
governments in other countries and are the direct contact between different governments.
The ministries of foreign affairs in all states have the responsibility for the deployment of
diplomats and the carrying out of the foreign policy of each respective country.

7.1 Foreign policy

Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world affairs.
Foreign policy is determined by each state’s National Interest. The National interest can be
defined as the common interests of all the citizens of a nation. The national interest arises
from the values and aspirations and history of a nation and these are at variance with the
national interests of other nations because of the competitive nature of inter state relations.
Foreign policy objectives relate to power or sovereignty, profit and prestige. These
objectives can be classified as: a) Core interests, b) Objective interests, and c) Subjective
interests.

7.1.1 Core interests

These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and relate
to self preservation as a nation and revolve round defending the nation and the
perpetuation of a particular social cultural and economic way of life.

7.1.2 Objective interests

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 These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the
state that is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In
Zimbabwe this may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives
of this country.

7.1.3 Subjective interests.

To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend upon
the values and subjective assessment of those making a decision and the issue at stake
does not relate to self-preservation or perpetuation as a state. Example would be the
decision on whether Zimbabwe remains a member of the Commonwealth or not.

It is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is conducted. This suggests or

presupposes therefore that all diplomats are conversant with the interests of the state that
they represent and will be defending and promoting.

7.2 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe’s foreign policy was
unequivocally non-aligned. This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a neutral state.
Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-alignment has from independence sought to
establish close relations with states pursuing a socialist ideology. This approach allowed
Zimbabwe to articulate its national interests from a firm ideological base.

7.2.1 Objective Interests in Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy

- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common wealth
and believes in the democratic right without interference from outside to self-
determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a member of
SADC, COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent’s history of slavery, colonialism
neo colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes against humanity. In
pursuit of the same fought against banditry and imperial de- stabilization in
Mozambique against RENAMO and in the DRC against imperial sponsored regime
change of the Kabila administration through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.

7.2.2 Core Interests

- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to share it
equally with other Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.

7.2.3 Subjective Interests

- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

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7.3 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that
“nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje” This statement also underlies one of the major
elements of diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic person and his
possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in early European states as well as in all
the pre-colonial Zimbabwean states. In Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow
during the so-called Holy Roman Empire. These were the dark ages of human civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced with permanent
embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the seventeenth century
diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and the disputes that arose over
diplomatic precedence and protocol were such that war was always narrowly averted. In
1815 The Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised
diplomatic rules and procedure. It was only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna
Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse And Immunities that The Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The document covers all aspects of diplomatic activity
in terms of types of missions’ functions and immunities and privileges of diplomatic
personnel

7.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions

Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all
diplomats posted are acceptable to the receiving state and the host state issues a document
called the agre’ment to indicate their acceptance of the proposed head of mission. The
latter document can be withheld without explanation. The head of mission to be becomes
official after the presentation of credentials at the ceremony where he meets the head of
state of the host county and presents his letter of credence.

7.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation

Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:

- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state
- Charge’d’ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host state.
- Former British colonies’ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and heads of
mission between non-former British colonies are termed ambassadors extraordinary and
plenipotentiary.

7.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats

All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the host state
and exempt from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state’s laws where they
enter into private business. Action incompatible with the status of the diplomats may lead
the host state to request their removal.

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 Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the host
state.

7.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.

The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive and
substantive routine work and b) non routine work.

7.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions

Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or cocktail
parties, luncheons honour giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of births
deaths marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host state issuing,
validating and replacing passports. Dealing with extradition cases and looking after the
interests of citizens from their country in the host state.

(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be carried out in the
diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and issuing of visas, certificates e.g. certificate of
origin and the facilitation of any other commercial activities. )

7.7.2 Substantive Routine work

This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering is
not an official or declared function of diplomatic missions but they are never the less used
extensively as cover for these nefarious activities. Where the host state observes
abnormally high and audacious levels of espionage they demand the immediate
withdrawal of such personnel and this normally prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is
normally on economic, political, military and social issues. In certain instances it might be
necessary to engage specialized diplomats called Attaches’ in the areas of information
military and economic affairs.

7.7.3 Non-Routine Functions

This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages and
attending to direct talks at various levels with the authorities of the host state.

8. INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

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8.1 Introduction.

The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high level of
dominance relations between the weak and the powerful states. Such domination has been
the major feature in relations between sates and within states since time immemorial and
arises out of the structured nature of society national or global. The term society suggests
classes and classes suggest inequalities in the distribution of resources in that society.
Inequalities also suggest contradictions and contradictions suggest motion that is politics.
Thus it can be argued from the outset that the major characteristic of global relations has
been the phenomenon of imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism. On the other
hand the study of motion that results from class contradictions is termed dialectical
materialism. “It is the study of society in their essentially contradictory movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the resources within
society or exploitation. This sharing is what can be termed political economy. Political
economy of any society therefore reveals the extent and level of exploitation in that society
and the level of dynamics or contradictions in that society. Historical and dialectical
materialism and political economy there for are the tools that can best be used to analyze
the past and present stage in global relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class structure,
which determines relations in the society.

8.2 Stages in the development of Capital

Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups within states to
exploit other states or groups through relations brought about by force or other subtle
means and to the detriment of the exploited group and the advantage of the dominant
group or state.” Such exploitation becomes manifestly visible through exchange and
production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and at each stage
the major feature has been the existence of dominance relationships that is an exploited
class and an exploiting class. At each stage imperialism can be seen to be mutating or
changing until it reaches its present and highest stage as International or Global Capital.
The stages through which capital has evolved are as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism
3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital
5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital

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 Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or technology
depending on the stage of development of that society which at most is either scarce or
monopolized by a small group within a particular society.

While Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal mode of production or
stage, it can be seen that its nonexistence in the first mode of production namely the
hunter-gatherer stage, was due to the class nature of that society.

8.3 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS ECONOMY
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC Non-existent Survival specialisation hunting
– 1500 BC) of the fittest in a state and gathering No
of native gave rise to ownership
the need for society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave Aristocracy owned
Slave Society (1500 BC 2. Soldier e.t.c labour leading to means of production
to 500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter rebellion against the land and workers-slaves
colonii ruling elite non paid
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs Barter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite led to friction between economy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave serfs and landlords surplus through free
half worker labour and rent in
3. Clergy kind=produce and latter
money. Land owned by
landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of
Mercantile Capital 2. Merchants exploitation by markets by merchants.
(1700 to 1800) 3. Clergy Merchants and Surplus value extracted

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 4. Craftsman landlords. through under paid
5. Labourer/worker Concentration of worker and high profit
capital and formation mark up on goods at
of joint stock company home and abroad.
led to globalisation of Means of production
trade and slavery and owned by merchants
colonialism and land owners=land +
money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 2. Worker Smith against international division of
1800 to 1900 3. Peasant/leman merchant monopoly of labour. Exploitation of
capital and markets. workers by industry.
Industrialists + Monopoly of machines
bankers exploit money and land
workers and
bankers=former
merchants exploit
industrialists

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS ECONOMY
6. Monopoly Capital 1. Bankers Worker’s labour under Extraction of surplus
1900 to 1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute value through lending is
3. Workers concentration of paying for workers
4. Peasants capital needs not for value of
labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-
land, money and
machines
7. Finance Capital 1945 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine Selling of Money Export
to present 2. Borrowers prices of Money Monopoly
ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no classes.
Extraction of surplus value or exploitation of one class by another class was not possible.
The situation was a free for all and this made life difficult on a state of nature. With the

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 development of Roman slave society classes developed as well as conflicts as well. The
landowners had slaves who resented being owned and forced to work. The colonii or
freed former slaves and peasants were also exploited by the landowners who made them
pay rent in kind or in cash. These conflicts eventually led to the collapse of the system and
it was replaced by Feudalism. Feudalism as a mode of production was based on a highly
stratified society where extraction of surplus value by those who owned and monopolised
the means of production was for long sustained through force. The serfs or landless
peasants were made to work and pay part of their produce to the landlords who owned all
the land. The major features of all successive modes of production develop at this stage
except the global element, which exists in the last stage or mode of production. It is this
global aspect namely the extraction of surplus value or exploitation from other countries
through the exportation or selling of finance capital that imperialism reaches its highest
and most developed stage.

8.4 Major elements of imperialism

The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather modes are as
follows: -

1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of

a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is extracted.

2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.

3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes and

different contradictions but with exploitation or surplus value extraction
being the ever-unchanging feature.

The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is globalised in
that those who own and monopolise the means of production, have been able to mortgage
all economic activity in their home countries and abroad to money that these financial
institutions lend locally in export abroad. The result in the global economy has been there
for marked by:

a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral financial

institutions.

b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus value or
exploit the world economy through interest on money loaned through such banks
as the IMF the World Bank etc.

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 c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being pushed into
being producers of raw materials while others have become producers of
manufactured goods. Producers of raw materials as a global class have
contradictions with those who monopolise finance capital and those who buy their
raw materials at cheap prices determined by the buyer who then manufactures
goods to sell to producers of raw materials. This is exploitation of man by man at its
highest level and is no different from exploitation by force under slavery or
colonialism hence the term neo-colonialism to describe the economic and political
relations between producers of finished goods the develop0ed countries and
producers of raw materials under developed countries or the third world.

8.5 International Economic Relations

The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global economic
arrangement. The idealism of the immediate post world war two period led to massive
government led initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world back to its feet. By
1979 however this role of government in economic activity was under attack and has to a
large extent been abandoned altogether. The social welfare state has become a thing of the
past and a new ideology emphasising the role of the market in determining all economic
as well as social and political decisions has been adopted.

In the current economic thinking, cooperation’s or business have total freedom and
collective bargaining and trade unionism and the consumer and citizen in general have
found themselves at the receiving end of the new international economic order. This new
international economic order had by the middle 1990s assumed a new form and
characteristic namely globalisation.

The IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial institutions were formed for the
specific purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing those economic and
social issues that had led and that might lead to new war. The mandate of these financial
institutions was to provide lending for reconstruction and for short-term balance of
payment support. These institutions after 1979 have increasingly taken over individual
governments, economic policies and intervene in national policy will beyond the scope of
their mandate. The post 1945 period saw a massive realignment of global economic
relations with Europe being mortgaged to the U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw
infusion of capital into Europe from the U.S.A. and newly created Breton Woods financial
institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as a condition of giving financial
support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus the U.S.A. gained the empires
that Europe lost through decolonisation as it gained unprecedented control of former
colonies through new economic relations specifically the supply of manufactured goods
and the provision of finance capital. Debt becomes the primary form of survival technique
for all former colonies and the supply of new materials from former colonies was
accelerated in order to raise money to pay off the debt. By the end of the 1970s the so

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called debt crisis had developed with a new economic global structure which split the
world into producers of raw materials and importers of finance capital and finished goods
and producers of finished goods and exporters of finance capital. This relationship was
marked or characterised by a high level injustice in the form of unequal exchange. The
former colonies in America, Africa and Asia were selling raw materials with little value
added to them at prices set by the buyer that is the developed countries. The latter sell
manufactured goods to the developing countries at high profit margins and over and
above this drain of resources from the south servicing the loans obtained from the north
compounds or increases the flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And
SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and unequal
exchange is further increased with the insistence on structural adjustment programmes in
the south by the so called donor community that is western governments and the Breton
Woods financial institutions or the North. The catch word on economic structures
adjustment programmes forced on the South are similar to the free market economic
policies instituted on the domestic economics of the North which resulted in nett gains for
the super rich and nett loss for the average worker. Average income in the 1980s of the
top 10% of American families increased by 16%, “the top 5% increased by 23%, the top 1%
got 50%. The bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same period.” The same
policies during the same period applied to global policies saw an increase in nett flows of
income to the North and a decrease in income to the South with the result that IMF
policies have led to increased poverty in the South. These policies are what can be termed
globalisation and are hinged upon: -

a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the

removal of trade barriers.

b) free circulation of capital

c) freedom and protection of investments

d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the economy.

e) privatisation of parastatals

These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement

of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced

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 privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.

Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade
under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North.

The North in the meantime is not removing trade restrictions, which remain
in the form of quarters or strict health requirements in agricultural
products. Moreover subsidies maintained by both the U.S.A. and Europe on
agricultural production is seeing many countries in the South collapsing
economically.

9. International Division Of Labour

The global economic arrangement between the South and North has structural linkages,
which perpetuate the inequalities that exist in global economic relations. The North or
developed economies can thus be termed the centre of global economic activity and the
South or developing countries the periphery of economic activity at the international level.
These relations can be diagrammatically represented as follows: -

Centre

Periphery Periphery
Periphery Centre

Centre Centre Disharmony of

interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

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9.1 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments. They also have
a periphery that is the workers and the unemployed. The same can be said of both. The
centre in the centre has to have harmony of interests with the centre in the periphery
because both these groups are the beneficiaries in the world economic arrangement. The
peripheries in both divisions have disharmony of interests with the centres because they
are the victims of the system. This relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for the
developing countries to get out of their current position because of the collaboration
between their political leadership with the leadership in the North. It also explains why
the North seeks to influence the selection of leaders in the South and talk about regime
change when they fail to control the electoral processes the South.

10. Development Strategies

In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South that thrive on
the allocation of unequal roles based on historically and political derived positions
development in the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow economic conditions in
the South to develop to such a level or extent or to undermine the supply of their raw
material resources or the continued existence of markets for their goods. Development has
remained elusive in the South especially as long as the North subverts or influences the
political process in the South. Development refers to a situation where the majority of the
people have sufficient levels of literacy, access to education, food, shelter and health care.
Bustling metropolis are not proof of development. Highly segmented society where a few
people enjoy privileged economic advantages while the rest of the population languish in
squalor and poverty in illiteracy and in slums with no access to health care are clear
examples of endemic under development. This scenario is true for many of Zimbabwe’s
neighbours and especially when one compares the health education and infrastructure in
the region. Structural dependence linkages, which create, sustain and perpetuate the
existence of dual economics, are short-term gains that will in the long term create
catastrophic situations. Development approaches have to be long term in nature and have
to take cognisance of the realities in which nations exist as members of the global
community. It has already been demonstrated that former colonies are structurally
dependent and linked to the former colonies through new forms of linkages, which
prohibit development in this neo-colonial relationship.

The problem countries like Zimbabwe face is dependence which perpetuates the
traditional role and position of supplier of raw materials with the result of creating a dual
economy – an affluent metropolis and a poor peasantry. Development therefore can be
viewed from the following angles.

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10.1 Interdependence

“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile land,

fresh water, deposits of minerals and sources of energy are dispersed unevenly
over its surface. In simpler times, populations were concentrated mainly in areas of
plentiful resources and especially those propitious for the growing of food. Such
societies could therefore become more or less self-sufficient and international trade
gradually developed mainly to provide exotic products, which were initially,
luxuries but which little by little improved the general material standard of life.
With the impact of technological development, a vastly greater range of materials
was required. The present industrialized economies, which arose as a consequence
of the industrial revolution, were initially based on local deposits of coal and iron
ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their industries called for a
wide variety of materials, many of which had to be imported from distant lands
and this had many consequences including colonization. Interdependence, then,
became an important reality but was seldom recognized politically.
Little by little, within this system human skills and knowledge (especially those of
science and technology) became the most important of all national resources and
we have now reached a situation in which successful and innovative economies can
be created”

10.2 Self Reliance

“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature of the

contemporary world. However, it is inevitable that the most powerful of the
nations are the most capable of exploiting it to their own advantage; at least as
the’re short-term vision seems to indicate. Such a situation tends to make the rich
richer and the poor relatively poorer, increasing disharmony, which must in the
end imperil the rich as well as the poor. For the establishment of a stable world
order, therefore, interdependence has to be complemented by self-reliance, which
means, essentially, the capacity to manage interdependence. Without such a
capacity, interdependence can only mean dependence on the part of the many, a
continuing economic and technological colonialism, or just plain poverty.

There are many ingredients within the concept of self-reliance. It is necessary for
instance to have a stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be
well trained and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who may be
stronger. Likewise it is necessary to attain a national competence in science and
technology to provide a sound basis for industrialization and to ensure that
imported technologies are well chosen, intelligently assimilated and assist in
providing the skills which will make possible indigenous innovations and
development. It necessitates also a good level of education and training as well as
the acquisition of management capacities. Self-reliance is thus a very different

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 concept from that of self-sufficiency; it entails the building up of a capacity, both
institutional and in terms of human skills which enables a country to manage its
resources and affairs effectively so as to benefit to the maximum from
interdependence, rather than to be its passive victim”.

11. Regionalism

Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is normally on a regional
or sub-regional basis. Before taking the merits and demerits of such integration it is
necessary to define first what we mean or what is meant by “region” and “integration”.
The term region will be defined first and integration will be defined latter. By region is
meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a common

cultural heritage, shared political philosophy or mutual economic interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -

i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations such as the

Organisation of American States (O.A.S), the Organisation of Africa’s Unity
(O.AU) and the League of Arab States (LAS).

ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited (sub-

regional) organisations such as the European Economic Community (EEC)
and the Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS).

iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such as the

Colombo plan for economic cooperative development.

iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations such as the
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Economic Commission for Latin
America (ECLA), Economic Commission for Western Asia (ECWA), and the
Economic Commission for South Asia and the Pacific (ECSAP).

To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional bodies such as
the British Common Wealth, the Organisation of the Conference of Islamic States and
Africa-Caribbean and Pacific group that falls under the Lome Conventions 1 and 11.
These organisations usually double as loose association with political as well as economic
undertones. It is possible to make further extensions to include the ideological divide,
which form the End-West confrontation, but a broad assumption will be made that
developing countries do not fall under these groupings. The North-South dialogue can
also be seen as being trans regional.

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The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production and trade at the
economic level and shared cultural and social values at the political level. The formation
of regional organisation is therefore a logical imperative and answer to the common
problems facing mankind. When the UN was formed article 52(1) of the Charter provided
that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or
agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace
and security as are appropriate for regional action provided that such arrangements or
agencies and their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the United
Nations”

Student Exercise

Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the following
regional organisations, SADC, COMESA, ECOWAS, AU, SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATION FORMATION ORGANISATION
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Public International Organisation

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by states for the
purposes of facilitating inter stake cooperation in economic political social and cultural
issues. These organisations arise out of the need to regulate intercourse In relations
between states. The consul and diplomatic mission were the first examples of formal
institutions in relations between states. The existence of problems, which could not be
dealt with by or through the diplomatic mission, gave rise to the development of the
international conference consisting of representatives from various states. The conference
of Vienna (1815), The Paris conference of 1919 etc were ad-hoc conferences of this nature,
which discussed each unique problem as it arose. Associations and unions had developed
by the nineteenth century to replace the mechanism of the conferences. These unions and
associations were either private or public international organisations such as the
International Law Association and the Universal Postal Union respectively. After World
War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of the League of Nations, which
became the precursor to the United Nations. International Organisations can be classified
according to function as follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.
c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.

Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -

a) Global
b) Regional

Student’s Exercise
Using the table below fill in the information in the table on the United Nations and its
organs.
The UN:
1. Year of formation
2. Number of members
3. Purposes and functions.

Structure of the UN

General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O Disarmament

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 Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff
Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4
Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO
Committee No. 5
Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Committee No. 6 IFAD

Legal

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Student Exercise

Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs and state the functions of each
organ.

The UNWTO (United Nations World Trade Organisation)

The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Objectives

To enable states to agree among them to reduce and remove or eliminate restrictions on
trade. Of all UN organs the WTO has been cited as the most negative in its operations for
an example: -

1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.

2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that undermine commerce
and industry in the developing nations etc.

Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)

Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in international relations

for two reasons: -

a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front organisations.

b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the specific purpose of
articulating concerns, raising awareness and lobbying governments for legislative or other
political action and soliciting for resources.

NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or operations namely: -

a) Developmental NGOs

b) Advocacy NGOs

c) Relief NGOs

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 Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use in
alleviating poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to take
specific action to deal with that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for financial and
material resources for use where natural disasters and earthquakes occur.

12. The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of infrastructure

in the rural areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with the ministry of local
government been putting up shallow and deep wells. Other organisations have been
involved in the provision of equipment, construction of clinics and dams. The work of
these organisations while laudable in the short term has produced and fostered a culture
of dependence among Zimbabweans. People who receive these handouts have no sense of
ownership of the items donated and are not only reckless in the use of donated equipment
but abandon such equipment sooner rather than latter. Most wells have been abandoned
in the rural areas because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered to repair them.

Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe. These organisations have
raised awareness on such issues as women’s rights, the girl child, human rights democracy
and many other areas. These organisations have produced less positive contribution than
the other organisations. It is also these organisations that have been used by western
governments to subvert and undermine the democratic process in Zimbabwe. These
organisation have been highly disruptive of African or local culture assuming western or
foreign values to be superior over local culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such
assistance while it averts starvation in the short term has been extremely detrimental in
long-term food security in the country. Instead of coming up with solutions to recurring
drought, people in Zimbabwe look for external assistance. Adopting wrong grains for
food worsens drought effects. Local small grains like sorghum and millet have been safe
food security reserves in the past but the use of an exotic and foreign grain like maize not
suited to our climate has produced a crisis in food security. The overall picture or effect is
that NGOs have contributed more negatively than positively to Zimbabwe’s welfare.

Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other purposes or
activity. These front organisations have been used to subvert the political process in
Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is sponsored by white Rhodesians to create
an environment that undermines black interests and gains. MISA –Media Institute for
Southern Africa promotes, funds and where necessary encourages the creation of media
that is friendly to western interests. One of MISA’s subsidiaries, the Southern African
Media Development Fund has been active in promoting media hostile to the Zimbabwe
government. The U.S. Agency for International Aid, of a USA, government department,

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funds more than fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining the
Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is funding
a hostile and subversive radio station SW radio advocating political uprising in
Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance Foundation of the Netherlands reportedly
seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and supports activities of the
“Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean
government. The Westminster Foundation, a United Kingdom organisation has been
active in supporting all activities aimed at undermining the Zimbabwean government.

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