Telecommunications - Wikipedia

1/25/22, 10:16 AM Telecommunications - Wikipedia
Telecommunications
Telecommunication is the transmission of information by
various types of technologies over wire, radio, optical, or other
electromagnetic systems.[1][2] It has its origin in the desire of
humans for communication over a distance greater than that
feasible with the human voice, but with a similar scale of
expediency; thus, slow systems (such as postal mail) are excluded
from the field.
The transmission media in telecommunication have evolved

through numerous stages of technology, from beacons and other
visual signals (such as smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs,
signal flags, and optical heliographs), to electrical cable and Earth station at the satellite
electromagnetic radiation, including light. Such transmission communication facility in Raisting,
paths are often divided into communication channels, which Bavaria, Germany
afford the advantages of multiplexing multiple concurrent
communication sessions. Telecommunication is often used in its
plural form.
Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication

included audio messages, such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown
horns, and loud whistles. 20th- and 21st-century technologies for
long-distance communication usually involve electrical and
electromagnetic technologies, such as telegraph, telephone,
television and teleprinter, networks, radio, microwave
transmission, optical fiber, and communications satellites.
A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade

of the 20th century with the pioneering developments in radio
communications by Guglielmo Marconi, who won the Nobel Prize Visualization from the Opte Project
in Physics in 1909, and other notable pioneering inventors and of the various routes through a
developers in the field of electrical and electronic portion of the Internet
telecommunications. These included Charles Wheatstone and
Samuel Morse (inventors of the telegraph), Antonio Meucci and
Alexander Graham Bell (some of the inventors and developers of the telephone, see Invention of the
telephone), Edwin Armstrong and Lee de Forest (inventors of radio), as well as Vladimir K. Zworykin,
John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (some of the inventors of television).
According to Article 1.3 of the Radio Regulations (RR), telecommunication is defined as « Any
transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of
any nature by wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic systems.» This definition is identical to
those contained in the Annex to the Constitution and Convention of the International
Telecommunication Union (Geneva, 1992).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications 1/29
The early telecommunication networks were created with copper wires as the physical medium for
signal transmission. For many years, these networks were used for basic phone services, namely voice
and telegrams. Since the mid-1990s, as the internet has grown in popularity, voice has been gradually
supplanted by data. This soon demonstrated the limitations of copper in data transmission,
prompting the development of optics.[3][4][5]
Contents
Etymology
History
Beacons and pigeons
Telegraph and telephone
Radio and television
Thermionic valves
Semiconductor era
Transistors
Computer networks and the Internet
Wireless telecommunication
Digital media
Growth of transmission capacity
Technical concepts
Basic elements
Analog versus digital communications
Communication channels
Modulation
Telecommunication networks
Societal impact
Microeconomics
Macroeconomics
Social impact
Entertainment, news, and advertising
Regulation
Modern media
Worldwide equipment sales
Telephone
Internet
Local area networks and wide area networks
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Etymology
The word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele (τῆλε), meaning distant, far off,
or afar,[6] and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the
French,[7] because its written use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer and novelist Édouard
Estaunié.[8][9] Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century. It comes
from Old French comunicacion (14c., Modern French communication), from Latin communicationem
(nominative communicatio), noun of action from past participle stem of communicare "to share,
divide out; communicate, impart, inform; join, unite, participate in", literally "to make common",
from communis".[10]
History
Beacons and pigeons
Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by

different cultures. Pigeon post had Persian roots, and was later used by
the Romans to aid their military. Frontinus said that Julius Caesar used
pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul.[11]
The Greeks also
conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities
using homing pigeons.[12] In the early 19th century, the Dutch
government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul
Julius Reuter started a pigeon service to fly stock prices between Aachen
and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the
telegraph link was closed.[13]
In the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as

A replica of one of
a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that
Chappe's semaphore
they could only pass a single bit of information, so the meaning of the
towers
message such as "the enemy has been sighted" had to be agreed upon in
advance. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish
Armada, when a beacon chain relayed a signal from Plymouth to
London.[14]
In 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system (or
semaphore line) between Lille and Paris.[15] However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled
operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres (six to nineteen miles). As a
result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in
1880.[16]
Telegraph and telephone
On 25 July 1837 the first commercial electrical telegraph was demonstrated by English inventor Sir
William Fothergill Cooke, and English scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone.[17][18] Both inventors viewed
their device as "an improvement to the [existing] electromagnetic telegraph" not as a new device.[19]
Samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully
demonstrated on 2 September 1837. His code was an important advance over Wheatstone's signaling
method. The first transatlantic telegraph cable was successfully completed on 27 July 1866, allowing
transatlantic telecommunication for the first time.[20]
The conventional telephone was patented by Alexander Bell in 1876. Elisha Gray also filed a caveat for
it in 1876. Gray abandoned his caveat and because he did not contest Bell's priority, the examiner
approved Bell's patent on 3 March 1876. Gray had filed his caveat for the variable resistance
telephone, but Bell was the first to write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone.[88][21]
Antonio Meucci invented a device that allowed the electrical transmission of voice over a line nearly
thirty years before in 1849, but his device was of little practical value because it relied on the
electrophonic effect requiring users to place the receiver in their mouths to "hear".[22] The first
commercial telephone services were set up by the Bell Telephone Company in 1878 and 1879 on both
sides of the Atlantic in the cities of New Haven and London.[23][24]
Starting in 1894, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi began developing a wireless communication
using the then newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves, showing by 1901 that they could be
transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean.[25] This was the start of wireless telegraphy by radio. On 17
December 1902, a transmission from the Marconi station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, became
the world's first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America and in 1904 a commercial
service was established to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could
incorporate them into their on-board newspapers.[26]
Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose
during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60 GHz in his
experiments.[27] He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves,[28]
when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901.[29][30]
World War I accelerated the development of radio for military communications. After the war,
commercial radio AM broadcasting began in the 1920s and became an important mass medium for
entertainment and news. World War II again accelerated the development of radio for the wartime
purposes of aircraft and land communication, radio navigation and radar.[31] Development of stereo
FM broadcasting of radio took place from the 1930s on-wards in the United States and displaced AM
as the dominant commercial standard by the 1960s, and by the 1970s in the United Kingdom.[32]
On 25 March 1925, John Logie Baird was able to demonstrate the transmission of moving pictures at
the London department store Selfridges. Baird's device relied upon the Nipkow disk and thus became
known as the mechanical television. It formed the basis of experimental broadcasts done by the
British Broadcasting Corporation beginning 30 September 1929.[33] However, for most of the
twentieth-century televisions depended upon the cathode ray tube invented by Karl Braun. The first
version of such a television to show promise was produced by Philo Farnsworth and demonstrated to
his family on 7 September 1927.[34] After World War II, the experiments in television that had been
interrupted were resumed, and it also became an important home entertainment broadcast medium.
Thermionic valves
The type of device known as a thermionic tube or thermionic valve uses the phenomenon of
thermionic emission of electrons from a heated cathode and is used for a number of fundamental
electronic functions such as signal amplification and current rectification.
Non-thermionic types, such as a vacuum phototube however, achieve electron emission through the
photoelectric effect, and are used for such as the detection of light levels. In both types, the electrons
are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric field in the tube.
The simplest vacuum tube, the diode invented in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming, contains only a
heated electron-emitting cathode and an anode. Electrons can only flow in one direction through the
device—from the cathode to the anode. Adding one or more control grids within the tube allows the
current between the cathode and anode to be controlled by the voltage on the grid or grids.[35] These
devices became a key component of electronic circuits for the first half of the twentieth century. They
were crucial to the development of radio, television, radar, sound recording and reproduction, long-
distance telephone networks, and analogue and early digital computers. Although some applications
had used earlier technologies such as the spark gap transmitter for radio or mechanical computers for
computing, it was the invention of the thermionic vacuum tube that made these technologies
widespread and practical, and created the discipline of electronics.[36]
In the 1940s the invention of semiconductor devices made it possible to produce solid-state devices,
which are smaller, more efficient, reliable and durable, and cheaper than thermionic tubes. From the
mid-1960s, thermionic tubes were then being replaced with the transistor. Thermionic tubes still have
some applications for certain high-frequency amplifiers.
Semiconductor era
The modern period of telecommunication history from 1950 onwards is referred to as the
semiconductor era, due to the wide adoption of semiconductor devices in telecommunication
technology. The development of transistor technology and the semiconductor industry enabled
significant advances in telecommunication technology, and led to a transition away from state-owned
narrowband circuit-switched networks to private broadband packet-switched networks.[37] Metal–
oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technologies such as large-scale integration (LSI) and RF CMOS (radio-
frequency complementary MOS), along with information theory (such as data compression), led to a
transition from analog to digital signal processing, with the introduction of digital
telecommunications (such as digital telephony and digital media) and wireless communications (such
as cellular networks and mobile telephony), leading to rapid growth of the telecommunications
industry towards the end of the 20th century.[38]
Transistors
The development of transistor technology has been fundamental to modern electronic

telecommunication.[39][40][41] The first transistor, a point-contact transistor, was invented by John
Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947.[40] The MOSFET (metal–oxide–silicon
field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was later invented by Mohamed M. Atalla
and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[42][43][44] The MOSFET is the building block or "workhorse"
of the information revolution and the information age,[45][46] and the most widely manufactured
device in history.[47][48] MOS technology, including MOS integrated circuits and power MOSFETs,
drives the communications infrastructure of modern telecommunication.[49][50][51] Along with
computers, other essential elements of modern telecommunication that are built from MOSFETs
include mobile devices, transceivers, base station modules, routers, RF power amplifiers,[52]
microprocessors, memory chips, and telecommunication circuits.[53]
According Edholm's law, the bandwidth of telecommunication networks has been doubling every 18
months.[54] Advances in MOS technology, including MOSFET scaling (increasing transistor counts at
an exponential pace, as predicted by Moore's law), has been the most important contributing factor in
the rapid rise of bandwidth in telecommunications networks.[55]
Computer networks and the Internet
On 11 September 1940, George Stibitz transmitted problems for his Complex Number Calculator in
New York using a teletype, and received the computed results back at Dartmouth College in New
Hampshire.[56] This configuration of a centralized computer (mainframe) with remote dumb
terminals remained popular well into the 1970s. However, already in the 1960s, researchers started to
investigate packet switching, a technology that sends a message in portions to its destination
asynchronously without passing it through a centralized mainframe. A four-node network emerged on
5 December 1969, constituting the beginnings of the ARPANET, which by 1981 had grown to 213
nodes.[57] ARPANET eventually merged with other networks to form the Internet. While Internet
development was a focus of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) who published a series of
Request for Comments documents, other networking advancements occurred in industrial
laboratories, such as the local area network (LAN) developments of Ethernet (1983) and Token Ring
(1984).
Wireless telecommunication
The wireless revolution began in the 1990s,[58][59][60] with the advent of digital wireless networks
leading to a social revolution, and a paradigm shift from wired to wireless technology,[61] including
the proliferation of commercial wireless technologies such as cell phones, mobile telephony, pagers,
wireless computer networks,[58] cellular networks, the wireless Internet, and laptop and handheld
computers with wireless connections.[62] The wireless revolution has been driven by advances in radio
frequency (RF) and microwave engineering,[58] and the transition from analog to digital RF
technology.[61][62] Advances in metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS
transistor) technology, the key component of the RF technology that enables digital wireless
networks, has been central to this revolution,[61] including MOS devices such as the power MOSFET,
LDMOS,[61] and RF CMOS.[38]
Digital media
Practical digital media distribution and streaming were made possible by advances in data
compression, due to the impractically high memory, storage and bandwidth requirements of
uncompressed media.[63] The most important compression technique is the discrete cosine transform
(DCT),[64] a lossy compression algorithm that was first proposed as an image compression technique
in 1972.[65] Realization and demonstration, on 29 October 2001, of the first digital cinema
transmission by satellite in Europe[66][67][68] of a feature film by Bernard Pauchon,[69] Alain Lorentz,
Raymond Melwig[70] and Philippe Binant.[71]
Growth of transmission capacity
The effective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two-way telecommunication

networks grew from 281 petabytes (pB) of optimally compressed information in 1986, to 471 pB in
1993, to 2.2 exabytes (eB) in 2000, and to 65 eB in 2007.[72] This is the informational equivalent of
two newspaper pages per person per day in 1986, and six entire newspapers per person per day by
2007.[73] Given this growth, telecommunications play an increasingly important role in the world
economy and the global telecommunications industry was about a US$4.7 trillion sector in
2012.[74][75] The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was estimated to be
$1.5 trillion in 2010, corresponding to 2.4% of the world's gross domestic product (GDP).[74]
Technical concepts
Modern telecommunication is founded on a series of key concepts that experienced progressive
development and refinement in a period of well over a century.
Basic elements
Telecommunication technologies may primarily be divided into wired and wireless methods. Overall
though, a basic telecommunication system consists of three main parts that are always present in
some form or another:
A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

A transmission medium, also called the physical channel that carries the signal. An example of
this is the "free space channel".
A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information for
the recipient.
For example, in a radio broadcasting station the station's large power amplifier is the transmitter; and
the broadcasting antenna is the interface between the power amplifier and the "free space channel".
The free space channel is the transmission medium; and the receiver's antenna is the interface
between the free space channel and the receiver. Next, the radio receiver is the destination of the
radio signal, and this is where it is converted from electricity to sound for people to listen to.
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box of
electronics working as both the transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example, a cellular
telephone is a transceiver.[76] The transmission electronics and the receiver electronics within a
transceiver are actually quite independent of each other. This can be readily explained by the fact that
radio transmitters contain power amplifiers that operate with electrical powers measured in watts or
kilowatts, but radio receivers deal with radio powers that are measured in the microwatts or
nanowatts. Hence, transceivers have to be carefully designed and built to isolate their high-power
circuitry and their low-power circuitry from each other, as to not cause interference.
Telecommunication over fixed lines is called point-to-point communication because it is between one
transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast
communication because it is between one powerful transmitter and numerous low-power but
sensitive radio receivers.[76]
Telecommunications in which multiple transmitters and multiple receivers have been designed to
cooperate and to share the same physical channel are called multiplex systems. The sharing of
physical channels using multiplexing often gives very large reductions in costs. Multiplexed systems
are laid out in telecommunication networks, and the multiplexed signals are switched at nodes
through to the correct destination terminal receiver.
Analog versus digital communications
Communications signals can be sent either by analog signals or digital signals. There are analog
communication systems and digital communication systems. For an analog signal, the signal is varied
continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is encoded as a set of
discrete values (for example, a set of ones and zeros). During the propagation and reception, the
information contained in analog signals will inevitably be degraded by undesirable physical noise.
(The output of a transmitter is noise-free for all practical purposes.) Commonly, the noise in a
communication system can be expressed as adding or subtracting from the desirable signal in a
completely random way. This form of noise is called additive noise, with the understanding that the
noise can be negative or positive at different instants of time. Noise that is not additive noise is a
much more difficult situation to describe or analyze, and these other kinds of noise will be omitted
here.
On the other hand, unless the additive noise disturbance exceeds a certain threshold, the information
contained in digital signals will remain intact. Their resistance to noise represents a key advantage of
digital signals over analog signals.[77]
Communication channels
The term "channel" has two different meanings. In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium
that carries a signal between the transmitter and the receiver. Examples of this include the
atmosphere for sound communications, glass optical fibers for some kinds of optical communications,
coaxial cables for communications by way of the voltages and electric currents in them, and free space
for communications using visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet light, and radio waves. Coaxial
cable types are classified by RG type or "radio guide", terminology derived from World War II. The
various RG designations are used to classify the specific signal transmission applications.[78] This last
channel is called the "free space channel". The sending of radio waves from one place to another has
nothing to do with the presence or absence of an atmosphere between the two. Radio waves travel
through a perfect vacuum just as easily as they travel through air, fog, clouds, or any other kind of gas.
The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the phrase
communications channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be used to
send multiple streams of information simultaneously. For example, one radio station can broadcast
radio waves into free space at frequencies in the neighborhood of 94.5 MHz (megahertz) while
another radio station can simultaneously broadcast radio waves at frequencies in the neighborhood of
96.1 MHz. Each radio station would transmit radio waves over a frequency bandwidth of about
180 kHz (kilohertz), centered at frequencies such as the above, which are called the "carrier
frequencies". Each station in this example is separated from its adjacent stations by 200 kHz, and the
difference between 200 kHz and 180 kHz (20 kHz) is an engineering allowance for the imperfections
in the communication system.
In the example above, the "free space channel" has been divided into communications channels
according to frequencies, and each channel is assigned a separate frequency bandwidth in which to
broadcast radio waves. This system of dividing the medium into channels according to frequency is
called "frequency-division multiplexing". Another term for the same concept is "wavelength-division
multiplexing", which is more commonly used in optical communications when multiple transmitters
share the same physical medium.
Another way of dividing a communications medium into channels is to allocate each sender a
recurring segment of time (a "time slot", for example, 20 milliseconds out of each second), and to
allow each sender to send messages only within its own time slot. This method of dividing the
medium into communication channels is called "time-division multiplexing" (TDM), and is used in
optical fiber communication. Some radio communication systems use TDM within an allocated FDM
channel. Hence, these systems use a hybrid of TDM and FDM.
Modulation
The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation can be used to
represent a digital message as an analog waveform. This is commonly called "keying"—a term derived
from the older use of Morse Code in telecommunications—and several keying techniques exist (these
include phase-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and amplitude-shift keying). The "Bluetooth"
system, for example, uses phase-shift keying to exchange information between various devices.[79][80]
In addition, there are combinations of phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying which is called
(in the jargon of the field) "quadrature amplitude modulation" (QAM) that are used in high-capacity
digital radio communication systems.
Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of low-frequency analog signals at higher
frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analog signals cannot be effectively transmitted
over free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency analog signal must be impressed into a
higher-frequency signal (known as the "carrier wave") before transmission. There are several different
modulation schemes available to achieve this [two of the most basic being amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM)]. An example of this process is a disc jockey's voice being
impressed into a 96 MHz carrier wave using frequency modulation (the voice would then be received
on a radio as the channel "96 FM").[81] In addition, modulation has the advantage that it may use
frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Telecommunication networks
A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications

channels that send messages to one another. Some digital communications networks contain one or
more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. An analog
communications network consists of one or more switches that establish a connection between two or
more users. For both types of networks, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal
when it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render the
signal indistinguishable from the noise.[82]
Another advantage of digital systems over analog is that
their output is easier to store in memory, i.e. two voltage states (high and low) are easier to store than
a continuous range of states.
Societal impact
Telecommunication has a significant social, cultural and economic impact on modern society. In
2008, estimates placed the telecommunication industry's revenue at US$4.7 trillion or just under
three percent of the gross world product (official exchange rate).[74] Several following sections discuss
the impact of telecommunication on society.
Microeconomics
On the microeconomic scale, companies have used telecommunications to help build global business
empires. This is self-evident in the case of online retailer Amazon.com but, according to academic
Edward Lenert, even the conventional retailer Walmart has benefited from better telecommunication
infrastructure compared to its competitors.[83] In cities throughout the world, home owners use their
telephones to order and arrange a variety of home services ranging from pizza deliveries to
electricians. Even relatively poor communities have been noted to use telecommunication to their
advantage. In Bangladesh's Narsingdi District, isolated villagers use cellular phones to speak directly
to wholesalers and arrange a better price for their goods. In Côte d'Ivoire, coffee growers share mobile
phones to follow hourly variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price.[84]
Macroeconomics
On the macroeconomic scale, Lars-Hendrik Röller and Leonard Waverman suggested a causal link
between good telecommunication infrastructure and economic growth.[85][86] Few dispute the
existence of a correlation although some argue it is wrong to view the relationship as causal.[87]
Because of the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure, there is increasing worry
about the inequitable access to telecommunication services amongst various countries of the world—
this is known as the digital divide. A 2003 survey by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) revealed that roughly a third of countries have fewer than one mobile subscription for every 20
people and one-third of countries have fewer than one land-line telephone subscription for every 20
people. In terms of Internet access, roughly half of all countries have fewer than one out of 20 people
with Internet access. From this information, as well as educational data, the ITU was able to compile
an index that measures the overall ability of citizens to access and use information and
communication technologies.[88] Using this measure, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland received the
highest ranking while the African countries Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Mali received the lowest.[89]
Social impact
Telecommunication has played a significant role in social relationships. Nevertheless, devices like the
telephone system were originally advertised with an emphasis on the practical dimensions of the
device (such as the ability to conduct business or order home services) as opposed to the social
dimensions. It was not until the late 1920s and 1930s that the social dimensions of the device became
a prominent theme in telephone advertisements. New promotions started appealing to consumers'
emotions, stressing the importance of social conversations and staying connected to family and
friends.[90]
Since then the role that telecommunications has played in social relations has become increasingly
important. In recent years, the popularity of social networking sites has increased dramatically. These
sites allow users to communicate with each other as well as post photographs, events and profiles for
others to see. The profiles can list a person's age, interests, sexual preference and relationship status.
In this way, these sites can play important role in everything from organising social engagements to
courtship.[91]
Prior to social networking sites, technologies like short message service (SMS) and the telephone also
had a significant impact on social interactions. In 2000, market research group Ipsos MORI reported
that 81% of 15- to 24-year-old SMS users in the United Kingdom had used the service to coordinate
social arrangements and 42% to flirt.[92]
Entertainment, news, and advertising
In cultural terms, telecommunication has increased the public's ability to News source preference of
access music and film. With television, people can watch films they have Americans in 2006.[93]
not seen before in their own home without having to travel to the video Local TV 59%
store or cinema. With radio and the Internet, people can listen to music
National TV 47%
they have not heard before without having to travel to the music store.
Radio 44%
Telecommunication has also transformed the way people receive their Local paper 38%
news. A 2006 survey (right table) of slightly more than 3,000 Americans
by the non-profit Pew Internet and American Life Project in the United Internet 23%
States the majority specified television or radio over newspapers. National paper 12%
Telecommunication has had an equally significant impact on advertising. Survey permitted multiple answers
TNS Media Intelligence reported that in 2007, 58% of advertising
expenditure in the United States was spent on media that depend upon telecommunication.[94]
Advertising expenditures in US in 2007

Medium Spending
Internet 7.6% $11.31 billion
Radio 7.2% $10.69 billion
Cable TV 12.1% $18.02 billion
Syndicated TV 2.8% $4.17 billion
Spot TV 11.3% $16.82 billion
Network TV 17.1% $25.42 billion
Newspaper 18.9% $28.22 billion
Magazine 20.4% $30.33 billion
Outdoor 2.7% $4.02 billion
Total 100% $149 billion
Regulation
Many countries have enacted legislation which conforms to the International Telecommunication
Regulations established by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), which is the "leading
UN agency for information and communication technology issues".[95] In 1947, at the Atlantic City
Conference, the ITU decided to "afford international protection to all frequencies registered in a new
international frequency list and used in conformity with the Radio Regulation". According to the
ITU's Radio Regulations adopted in Atlantic City, all frequencies referenced in the International
Frequency Registration Board, examined by the board and registered on the International
Frequency List "shall have the right to international protection from harmful interference".[96]
From a global perspective, there have been political debates and legislation regarding the
management of telecommunication and broadcasting. The history of broadcasting discusses some
debates in relation to balancing conventional communication such as printing and telecommunication
such as radio broadcasting.[97] The onset of World War II brought on the first explosion of
international broadcasting propaganda.[97] Countries, their governments, insurgents, terrorists, and
militiamen have all used telecommunication and broadcasting techniques to promote
propaganda.[97][98] Patriotic propaganda for political movements and colonization started the mid-
1930s. In 1936, the BBC broadcast propaganda to the Arab World to partly counter similar broadcasts
from Italy, which also had colonial interests in North Africa.[97]
Modern insurgents, such as those in the latest Iraq War, often use intimidating telephone calls, SMSs
and the distribution of sophisticated videos of an attack on coalition troops within hours of the
operation. "The Sunni insurgents even have their own television station, Al-Zawraa, which while
banned by the Iraqi government, still broadcasts from Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, even as coalition
pressure has forced it to switch satellite hosts several times."[98]
On 10 November 2014, President Obama recommended the Federal Communications Commission

reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service to preserve net
neutrality.[99][100]
Modern media
Worldwide equipment sales
According to data collected by Gartner[101][102] and Ars Technica[103] sales of main consumer's
telecommunication equipment worldwide in millions of units was:
Equipment / year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008
Computers 0 1 8 20 40 75 100 135 130 175 230 280
Cell phones N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 180 400 420 660 830 1000
Telephone
In a telephone network, the caller is connected to the person to whom they wish to talk by switches at
various telephone exchanges. The switches form an electrical connection between the two users and
the setting of these switches is determined electronically when the caller dials the number. Once the
connection is made, the caller's voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small microphone
in the caller's handset. This electrical signal is then sent through the network to the user at the other
end where it is transformed back into sound by a small speaker in that person's handset.
As of 2015, the landline telephones in most residential homes are analog

—that is, the speaker's voice directly determines the signal's voltage.[104]
Although short-distance calls may be handled from end-to-end as analog
signals, increasingly telephone service providers are transparently
converting the signals to digital signals for transmission. The advantage
of this is that digitized voice data can travel side by side with data from
the Internet and can be perfectly reproduced in long-distance
communication (as opposed to analog signals that are inevitably
impacted by noise).
Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks.

Mobile phone subscriptions now outnumber fixed-line subscriptions in
many markets. Sales of mobile phones in 2005 totalled 816.6 million with
that figure being almost equally shared amongst the markets of
Asia/Pacific (204 m), Western Europe (164 m), CEMEA (Central Europe, Optical fiber provides
the Middle East and Africa) (153.5 m), North America (148 m) and Latin cheaper bandwidth for long-
America (102 m).[105] In terms of new subscriptions over the five years distance communication.
from 1999, Africa has outpaced other markets with 58.2% growth. [106]
Increasingly these phones are being serviced by systems where the voice
content is transmitted digitally such as GSM or W-CDMA with many markets choosing to deprecate
analog systems such as AMPS.[107]
There have also been dramatic changes in telephone communication behind the scenes. Starting with
the operation of TAT-8 in 1988, the 1990s saw the widespread adoption of systems based on optical
fibers. The benefit of communicating with optical fibers is that they offer a drastic increase in data
capacity. TAT-8 itself was able to carry 10 times as many telephone calls as the last copper cable laid
at that time and today's optical fibre cables are able to carry 25 times as many telephone calls as TAT-
8.[108] This increase in data capacity is due to several factors: First, optical fibres are physically much
smaller than competing technologies. Second, they do not suffer from crosstalk which means several
hundred of them can be easily bundled together in a single cable.[109] Lastly, improvements in
multiplexing have led to an exponential growth in the data capacity of a single fibre.[110][111]
Assisting communication across many modern optical fibre networks is a protocol known as
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The ATM protocol allows for the side-by-side data transmission
mentioned in the second paragraph. It is suitable for public telephone networks because it establishes
a pathway for data through the network and associates a traffic contract with that pathway. The traffic
contract is essentially an agreement between the client and the network about how the network is to
handle the data; if the network cannot meet the conditions of the traffic contract it does not accept the
connection. This is important because telephone calls can negotiate a contract so as to guarantee
themselves a constant bit rate, something that will ensure a caller's voice is not delayed in parts or cut
off completely.[112] There are competitors to ATM, such as Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS),
that perform a similar task and are expected to supplant ATM in the future.[113][114]
In a broadcast system, the central high-powered broadcast tower transmits a high-frequency

electromagnetic wave to numerous low-powered receivers. The high-frequency wave sent by the tower
is modulated with a signal containing visual or audio information. The receiver is then tuned so as to
pick up the high-frequency wave and a demodulator is used to retrieve the signal containing the visual
or audio information. The broadcast signal can be

either analog (signal is varied continuously with
respect to the information) or digital (information is
encoded as a set of discrete values).[76][115]
The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning

point in its development, with many countries moving
from analog to digital broadcasts. This move is made
possible by the production of cheaper, faster and more
Digital television standards and their adoption
capable integrated circuits. The chief advantage of
worldwide
digital broadcasts is that they prevent a number of
complaints common to traditional analog broadcasts.
For television, this includes the elimination of
problems such as snowy pictures, ghosting and other distortion. These occur because of the nature of
analog transmission, which means that perturbations due to noise will be evident in the final output.
Digital transmission overcomes this problem because digital signals are reduced to discrete values
upon reception and hence small perturbations do not affect the final output. In a simplified example,
if a binary message 1011 was transmitted with signal amplitudes [1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0] and received with
signal amplitudes [0.9 0.2 1.1 0.9] it would still decode to the binary message 1011— a perfect
reproduction of what was sent. From this example, a problem with digital transmissions can also be
seen in that if the noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message. Using forward
error correction a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting message but too much
noise will lead to incomprehensible output and hence a breakdown of the transmission.[116][117]
In digital television broadcasting, there are three competing standards that are likely to be adopted
worldwide. These are the ATSC, DVB and ISDB standards; the adoption of these standards thus far is
presented in the captioned map. All three standards use MPEG-2 for video compression. ATSC uses
Dolby Digital AC-3 for audio compression, ISDB uses Advanced Audio Coding (MPEG-2 Part 7) and
DVB has no standard for audio compression but typically uses MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer 2.[118][119] The
choice of modulation also varies between the schemes. In digital audio broadcasting, standards are
much more unified with practically all countries choosing to adopt the Digital Audio Broadcasting
standard (also known as the Eureka 147 standard). The exception is the United States which has
chosen to adopt HD Radio. HD Radio, unlike Eureka 147, is based upon a transmission method
known as in-band on-channel transmission that allows digital information to "piggyback" on normal
AM or FM analog transmissions.[120]
However, despite the pending switch to digital, analog television remains being transmitted in most
countries. An exception is the United States that ended analog television transmission (by all but the
very low-power TV stations) on 12 June 2009[121] after twice delaying the switchover deadline. Kenya
also ended analog television transmission in December 2014 after multiple delays. For analog
television, there were three standards in use for broadcasting color TV (see a map on adoption here).
These are known as PAL (German designed), NTSC (American designed), and SECAM (French-
designed). For analog radio, the switch to digital radio is made more difficult by the higher cost of
digital receivers.[122] The choice of modulation for analog radio is typically between amplitude (AM)
or frequency modulation (FM). To achieve stereo playback, an amplitude modulated subcarrier is
used for stereo FM, and quadrature amplitude modulation is used for stereo AM or C-QUAM.
Internet
The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and

computer networks that communicate with each other using
the Internet Protocol (IP).[123] Any computer on the Internet
has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers
to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the
Internet can send a message to any other computer using its
IP address. These messages carry with them the originating
computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication.
The Internet is thus an exchange of messages between
computers.[124]
It is estimated that 51% of the information flowing through

two-way telecommunications networks in the year 2000
were flowing through the Internet (most of the rest (42%)
through the landline telephone). By the year 2007 the
Internet clearly dominated and captured 97% of all the
information in telecommunication networks (most of the
The OSI reference model
rest (2%) through mobile phones).[72] As of 2008, an
estimated 21.9% of the world population has access to the
Internet with the highest access rates (measured as a
percentage of the population) in North America (73.6%), Oceania/Australia (59.5%) and Europe
(48.1%).[125] In terms of broadband access, Iceland (26.7%), South Korea (25.4%) and the
Netherlands (25.3%) led the world.[126]
The Internet works in part because of protocols that govern how the computers and routers
communicate with each other. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a
layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less independently of
other protocols. This allows lower-level protocols to be customized for the network situation while not
changing the way higher-level protocols operate. A practical example of why this is important is
because it allows an Internet browser to run the same code regardless of whether the computer it is
running on is connected to the Internet through an Ethernet or Wi-Fi connection. Protocols are often
talked about in terms of their place in the OSI reference model (pictured on the right), which emerged
in 1983 as the first step in an unsuccessful attempt to build a universally adopted networking protocol
suite.[127]
For the Internet, the physical medium and data link protocol can vary several times as packets
traverse the globe. This is because the Internet places no constraints on what physical medium or data
link protocol is used. This leads to the adoption of media and protocols that best suit the local network
situation. In practice, most intercontinental communication will use the Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) protocol (or a modern equivalent) on top of optic fiber. This is because for most
intercontinental communication the Internet shares the same infrastructure as the public switched
telephone network.
At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for
logical addressing. For the World Wide Web, these "IP addresses" are derived from the human-
readable form using the Domain Name System (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived from www.google.com).
At the moment, the most widely used version of the Internet Protocol is version four but a move to
version six is imminent.[128]
At the transport layer, most communication adopts either the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP is used when it is essential every message sent is received by
the other computer whereas UDP is used when it is merely desirable. With TCP, packets are
retransmitted if they are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. With
UDP, packets are not ordered nor retransmitted if lost. Both TCP and UDP packets carry port
numbers with them to specify what application or process the packet should be handled by.[129]
Because certain application-level protocols use certain ports, network administrators can manipulate
traffic to suit particular requirements. Examples are to restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic
destined for a particular port or to affect the performance of certain applications by assigning priority.
Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the
session and presentation layers, most notably the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocols. These protocols ensure that data transferred between two parties remains
completely confidential.[130] Finally, at the application layer, are many of the protocols Internet users
would be familiar with such as HTTP (web browsing), POP3 (e-mail), FTP (file transfer), IRC
(Internet chat), BitTorrent (file sharing) and XMPP (instant messaging).
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows data packets to be used for synchronous voice
communications. The data packets are marked as voice type packets and can be prioritized by the
network administrators so that the real-time, synchronous conversation is less subject to contention
with other types of data traffic which can be delayed (i.e. file transfer or email) or buffered in advance
(i.e. audio and video) without detriment. That prioritization is fine when the network has sufficient
capacity for all the VoIP calls taking place at the same time and the network is enabled for
prioritization i.e. a private corporate-style network, but the Internet is not generally managed in this
way and so there can be a big difference in the quality of VoIP calls over a private network and over
the public Internet.[131]
Local area networks and wide area networks
Despite the growth of the Internet, the characteristics of local area networks (LANs)—computer
networks that do not extend beyond a few kilometers—remain distinct. This is because networks on
this scale do not require all the features associated with larger networks and are often more cost-
effective and efficient without them. When they are not connected with the Internet, they also have
the advantages of privacy and security. However, purposefully lacking a direct connection to the
Internet does not provide assured protection from hackers, military forces, or economic powers.
These threats exist if there are any methods for connecting remotely to the LAN.
Wide area networks (WANs) are private computer networks that may extend for thousands of
kilometers. Once again, some of their advantages include privacy and security. Prime users of private
LANs and WANs include armed forces and intelligence agencies that must keep their information
secure and secret.
In the mid-1980s, several sets of communication protocols emerged to fill the gaps between the data-
link layer and the application layer of the OSI reference model. These included Appletalk, IPX, and
NetBIOS with the dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity with
MS-DOS users. TCP/IP existed at this point, but it was typically only used by large government and
research facilities.[132]
As the Internet grew in popularity and its traffic was required to be routed into private networks, the
TCP/IP protocols replaced existing local area network technologies. Additional technologies, such as
DHCP, allowed TCP/IP-based computers to self-configure in the network. Such functions also existed
in the AppleTalk/ IPX/ NetBIOS protocol sets.[133]
Whereas Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) are typical
data-link protocols for larger networks such as WANs; Ethernet and Token Ring are typical data-link
protocols for LANs. These protocols differ from the former protocols in that they are simpler, e.g.,
they omit features such as quality of service guarantees, and offer collision prevention. Both of these
differences allow for more economical systems.[134]
Despite the modest popularity of Token Ring in the 1980s and 1990s, virtually all LANs now use
either wired or wireless Ethernet facilities. At the physical layer, most wired Ethernet
implementations use copper twisted-pair cables (including the common 10BASE-T networks).
However, some early implementations used heavier coaxial cables and some recent implementations
(especially high-speed ones) use optical fibers.[135] When optic fibers are used, the distinction must be
made between multimode fibers and single-mode fibers. Multimode fibers can be thought of as
thicker optical fibers that are cheaper to manufacture devices for, but that suffer from less usable
bandwidth and worse attenuation—implying poorer long-distance performance.[136]
See also
Underwater acoustic communication
Active networks
Digital Revolution
Information Age
International Teletraffic Congress
List of telecommunications encryption terms
Nanonetwork
New media
Outline of telecommunication
Telecommunications Industry Association
Telecoms resilience
Telemetry
Wavelength-division multiplexing
Wired communication
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p://www.ericsson.com/support/telecom/index.shtml) at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 April
2004) (Ericsson removed the book from their site in September 2005)
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1/25/22, 10:16 AM Telecommunications - Wikipedia

The transmission media in telecommunication have evolved

Other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication

A revolution in wireless communication began in the first decade

Beacons and pigeons

Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by

In the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as

Telegraph and telephone

Radio and television

The development of transistor technology has been fundamental to modern electronic

Computer networks and the Internet

Growth of transmission capacity

The effective capacity to exchange information worldwide through two-way telecommunication

A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

Analog versus digital communications

A telecommunications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications

Entertainment, news, and advertising

Advertising expenditures in US in 2007

On 10 November 2014, President Obama recommended the Federal Communications Commission

Worldwide equipment sales

As of 2015, the landline telephones in most residential homes are analog

Mobile phones have had a significant impact on telephone networks.

Radio and television

In a broadcast system, the central high-powered broadcast tower transmits a high-frequency

or audio information. The broadcast signal can be

The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning

The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and

It is estimated that 51% of the information flowing through

Local area networks and wide area networks

3. "How does a Gigabit Passive Optical Network (GPON) work?" (https://www.eib.org/en/stories/wha

29. "Timeline" (https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/timeline/). The Silicon Engine.

61. Baliga, B. Jayant (2005). Silicon RF Power MOSFETS (https://books.google.com/books?id=StJpD

82. ATIS Telecom Glossary 2000 (http://www.atis.org/tg2k/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200

94. "100 Leading National Advertisers" (http://adage.com/images/random/datacenter/2008/spendtren

107. Ten Years of GSM in Australia (http://www.amta.org.au/default.asp?Page=142) Archived (https://w

OECD, Universal Service and Rate Restructuring in Telecommunications (https://books.google.co

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications&oldid=1066090423"

This page was last edited on 16 January 2022, at 19:24 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

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