Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet

Contents
1. Collections: List , Dictionary , Set , Tuple , Range , Enumerate , Iterator ,
Generator .
2. Types: Type , String , Regular_Exp , Format , Numbers , Combinatorics ,
Datetime .
3. Syntax: Args , Inline , Closure , Decorator , Class , Duck_Types , Enum ,
Exceptions .
4. System: Print , Input , Command_Line_Arguments , Open , Path ,
Command_Execution .
5. Data: JSON , Pickle , CSV , SQLite , Bytes , Struct , Array , MemoryView ,
Deque .
6. Advanced: Threading , Operator , Introspection , Metaprograming , Eval ,
Coroutine .
7. Libraries: Progress_Bar , Plot , Table , Curses , Logging , Scraping , Web ,
Profile ,
NumPy , Image , Animation , Audio .

Main
if __name__ == '__main__': # Runs main() if file wasn't imported.
main()

List
<list> = <list>[from_inclusive : to_exclusive : ±step_size]

<list>.append(<el>) # Or: <list> += [<el>]

<list>.extend(<collection>) # Or: <list> += <collection>

<list>.sort()
<list>.reverse()
<list> = sorted(<collection>)
<iter> = reversed(<list>)

sum_of_elements = sum(<collection>)
elementwise_sum = [sum(pair) for pair in zip(list_a, list_b)]
sorted_by_second = sorted(<collection>, key=lambda el: el[1])
sorted_by_both = sorted(<collection>, key=lambda el: (el[1], el[0]))
flatter_list = list(itertools.chain.from_iterable(<list>))
product_of_elems = functools.reduce(lambda out, x: out * x, <collection>)
list_of_chars = list(<str>)
 <int> = <list>.count(<el>) # Returns number of occurrences. Also work
s on strings.
index = <list>.index(<el>) # Returns index of first occurrence or rai
ses ValueError.
<list>.insert(index, <el>) # Inserts item at index and moves the rest
to the right.
<el> = <list>.pop([index]) # Removes and returns item at index or fro
m the end.
<list>.remove(<el>) # Removes first occurrence of item or rais
es ValueError.
<list>.clear() # Removes all items. Also works on diction
ary and set.

Dictionary
<view> = <dict>.keys() # Coll. of keys that refl
ects changes.
<view> = <dict>.values() # Coll. of values that re
flects changes.
<view> = <dict>.items() # Coll. of key-value tupl
es that reflects chgs.

value = <dict>.get(key, default=None) # Returns default if key

is missing.
value = <dict>.setdefault(key, default=None) # Returns and writes defa
ult if key is missing.
<dict> = collections.defaultdict(<type>) # Creates a dict with def
ault value of type.
<dict> = collections.defaultdict(lambda: 1) # Creates a dict with def
ault value 1.

<dict> = dict(<collection>) # Creates a dict from col

l. of key-value pairs.
<dict> = dict(zip(keys, values)) # Creates a dict from two
collections.
<dict> = dict.fromkeys(keys [, value]) # Creates a dict from col
lection of keys.

<dict>.update(<dict>) # Adds items. Replaces on

es with matching keys.
value = <dict>.pop(key) # Removes item or raises
KeyError.
{k for k, v in <dict>.items() if v == value} # Returns set of keys tha
t point to the value.
{k: v for k, v in <dict>.items() if k in keys} # Returns a dictionary, f
iltered by keys.

Counter
 >>> from collections import Counter
>>> colors = ['blue', 'red', 'blue', 'red', 'blue']
>>> counter = Counter(colors)
>>> counter['yellow'] += 1
Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'yellow': 1})
>>> counter.most_common()[0]
('blue', 3)

Set
<set> = set()

<set>.add(<el>) # Or: <set> |= {<el>}

<set>.update(<collection>) # Or: <set> |= <set>

<set> = <set>.union(<coll.>) # Or: <set> | <set>

<set> = <set>.intersection(<coll.>) # Or: <set> & <set>
<set> = <set>.difference(<coll.>) # Or: <set> - <set>
<set> = <set>.symmetric_difference(<coll.>) # Or: <set> ^ <set>
<bool> = <set>.issubset(<coll.>) # Or: <set> <= <set>
<bool> = <set>.issuperset(<coll.>) # Or: <set> >= <set>

<el> = <set>.pop() # Raises KeyError if empt

y.
<set>.remove(<el>) # Raises KeyError if miss
ing.
<set>.discard(<el>) # Doesn't raise an error.

Frozen Set
Is immutable and hashable.
That means it can be used as a key in a dictionary or as an element in a set.

<frozenset> = frozenset(<collection>)

Tuple
Tuple is an immutable and hashable list.

<tuple> = ()
<tuple> = (<el>, )
<tuple> = (<el_1>, <el_2> [, ...])

Named Tuple
Tuple's subclass with named elements.
 >>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y')
>>> p = Point(1, y=2)
Point(x=1, y=2)
>>> p[0]
1
>>> p.x
1
>>> getattr(p, 'y')
2
>>> p._fields # Or: Point._fields
('x', 'y')

Range
<range> = range(to_exclusive)
<range> = range(from_inclusive, to_exclusive)
<range> = range(from_inclusive, to_exclusive, ±step_size)

from_inclusive = <range>.start
to_exclusive = <range>.stop

Enumerate
for i, el in enumerate(<collection> [, i_start]):
...

Iterator
<iter> = iter(<collection>) # `iter(<iter>)` returns unmo
dified iterator.
<iter> = iter(<function>, to_exclusive) # A sequence of return values
until 'to_exclusive'.
<el> = next(<iter> [, default]) # Raises StopIteration or ret
urns 'default' on end.
<list> = list(<iter>) # Returns a list of iterato
r's remaining elements.

Itertools
from itertools import count, repeat, cycle, chain, islice

<iter> = count(start=0, step=1) # Returns incremented value e

ndlessly.
<iter> = repeat(<el> [, times]) # Returns element endlessly o
r 'times' times.
<iter> = cycle(<collection>) # Repeats the sequence endles
sly.
 <iter> = chain(<coll_1>, <coll_2> [, ...]) # Empties collections in orde
r.
<iter> = chain.from_iterable(<collection>) # Empties collections inside
a collection in order.

<iter> = islice(<collection>, to_exclusive)

<iter> = islice(<collection>, from_inclusive, to_exclusive [, +step_size
])

Generator
Any function that contains a yield statement returns a generator.
Generators and iterators are interchangeable.

def count(start, step):

while True:
yield start
start += step

>>> counter = count(10, 2)

>>> next(counter), next(counter), next(counter)
(10, 12, 14)

Type
Everything is an object.
Every object has a type.
Type and class are synonymous.

<type> = type(<el>) # Or: <el>.__class__

<bool> = isinstance(<el>, <type>) # Or: issubclass(type(<el>),
<type>)

>>> type('a'), 'a'.__class__, str

(<class 'str'>, <class 'str'>, <class 'str'>)

Some types do not have built-in names, so they must be imported:

from types import FunctionType, MethodType, LambdaType, GeneratorType

ABC
An abstract base class introduces virtual subclasses that don’t inherit from it, but are still recognized
by isinstance() and issubclass().

>>> from collections.abc import Sequence, Collection, Iterable

>>> isinstance([1, 2, 3], Iterable)
True
 +------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | Sequence | Collection | Iterable |
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| list, range, str | yes | yes | yes |
| dict, set | | yes | yes |
| iter | | | yes |
+------------------+------------+------------+------------+

>>> from numbers import Integral, Rational, Real, Complex, Number

>>> isinstance(123, Number)
True

+--------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------
---+
| | Integral | Rational | Real | Complex | Numbe
r |
+--------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------
---+
| int | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes
|
| fractions.Fraction | | yes | yes | yes | yes
|
| float | | | yes | yes | yes
|
| complex | | | | yes | yes
|
| decimal.Decimal | | | | | yes
|
+--------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------
---+

String
<str> = <str>.strip() # Strips all whitespace char
acters from both ends.
<str> = <str>.strip('<chars>') # Strips all passed characte
rs from both ends.

<list> = <str>.split() # Splits on one or more whit

espace characters.
<list> = <str>.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1) # Splits on 'sep' str at mos
t 'maxsplit' times.
<list> = <str>.splitlines(keepends=False) # Splits on line breaks. Kee
ps them if 'keepends'.
<str> = <str>.join(<coll_of_strings>) # Joins elements using strin
g as separator.
 <bool> = <sub_str> in <str> # Checks if string contains
a substring.
<bool> = <str>.startswith(<sub_str>) # Pass tuple of strings for
multiple options.
<bool> = <str>.endswith(<sub_str>) # Pass tuple of strings for
multiple options.
<int> = <str>.find(<sub_str>) # Returns start index of fir
st match or -1.
<int> = <str>.index(<sub_str>) # Same but raises ValueError
if missing.

<str> = <str>.replace(old, new [, count]) # Replaces 'old' with 'new'

at most 'count' times.
<str> = <str>.translate(<table>) # Use `str.maketrans(<dict>)
` to generate table.

<str> = chr(<int>) # Converts int to unicode ch

ar.
<int> = ord(<str>) # Converts unicode char to i
nt.

Also: 'lstrip()' , 'rstrip()' .

Also: 'lower()' , 'upper()' , 'capitalize()' and 'title()' .

Property Methods
+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | [ !#$%…] | [a-zA-Z] | [¼½¾] | [²³¹] | [0-9] |
+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| isprintable() | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
| isalnum() | | yes | yes | yes | yes |
| isnumeric() | | | yes | yes | yes |
| isdigit() | | | | yes | yes |
| isdecimal() | | | | | yes |
+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

Also: 'isspace()' checks for '[ \t\n\r\f\v…]' .

Regex
import re
<str> = re.sub(<regex>, new, text, count=0) # Substitutes all occurren
ces with 'new'.
<list> = re.findall(<regex>, text) # Returns all occurrences
as strings.
<list> = re.split(<regex>, text, maxsplit=0) # Use brackets in regex to
include the matches.
<Match> = re.search(<regex>, text) # Searches for first occur
rence of the pattern.
<Match> = re.match(<regex>, text) # Searches only at the beg
inning of the text.
<iter> = re.finditer(<regex>, text) # Returns all occurrences
as match objects.
 Search() and match() return None if they can't find a match.
Argument 'flags=re.IGNORECASE' can be used with all functions.
Argument 'flags=re.MULTILINE' makes '^' and '$' match the start/end of each line.
Argument 'flags=re.DOTALL' makes dot also accept newline.
Use r'\1' or '\\1' for backreference.
Add '?' after an operator to make it non-greedy.

Match Object
<str> = <Match>.group() # Returns whole match. Als
o group(0).
<str> = <Match>.group(1) # Returns part in first br
acket.
<tuple> = <Match>.groups() # Returns all bracketed pa
rts.
<int> = <Match>.start() # Returns start index of a
match.
<int> = <Match>.end() # Returns exclusive end in
dex of a match.

Special Sequences
By default digits, whitespaces and alphanumerics from all alphabets are matched, unless
'flags=re.ASCII' argument is used.
Use capital letter for negation.

'\d' == '[0-9]' # Matches any digit.

'\w' == '[a-zA-Z0-9_]' # Matches any alphanume
ric.
'\s' == '[ \t\n\r\f\v]' # Matches any whitespac
e.

Format
<str> = f'{<el_1>}, {<el_2>}'
<str> = '{}, {}'.format(<el_1>, <el_2>)

Attributes
>>> from collections import namedtuple
>>> Person = namedtuple('Person', 'name height')
>>> person = Person('Jean-Luc', 187)
>>> f'{person.height}'
'187'
>>> '{p.height}'.format(p=person)
'187'

General Options
 {<el>:<10} # '<el> '
{<el>:^10} # ' <el> '
{<el>:>10} # ' <el>'
{<el>:.<10} # '<el>......'
{<el>:<0} # '<el>'

Strings
'!r' calls object's repr() method, instead of str(), to get a string.

{'abcde'!r:10} # "'abcde' "

{'abcde':10.3} # 'abc '
{'abcde':.3} # 'abc'

Numbers
{ 123456:10,} # ' 123,456'
{ 123456:10_} # ' 123_456'
{ 123456:+10} # ' +123456'
{-123456:=10} # '- 123456'
{ 123456: } # ' 123456'
{-123456: } # '-123456'

Floats
{1.23456:10.3} # ' 1.23'
{1.23456:10.3f} # ' 1.235'
{1.23456:10.3e} # ' 1.235e+00'
{1.23456:10.3%} # ' 123.456%'

Comparison of presentation types:

 +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+
| | {<real>} | {<real>:f} | {<real>:e} |
{<real>:%} |
+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+
| 0.000056789 | '5.6789e-05' | '0.000057' | '5.678900e-05' |
'0.005679%' |
| 0.00056789 | '0.00056789' | '0.000568' | '5.678900e-04' |
'0.056789%' |
| 0.0056789 | '0.0056789' | '0.005679' | '5.678900e-03' |
'0.567890%' |
| 0.056789 | '0.056789' | '0.056789' | '5.678900e-02' |
'5.678900%' |
| 0.56789 | '0.56789' | '0.567890' | '5.678900e-01' |
'56.789000%' |
| 5.6789 | '5.6789' | '5.678900' | '5.678900e+00' |
'567.890000%' |
| 56.789 | '56.789' | '56.789000' | '5.678900e+01' |
'5678.900000%' |
| 567.89 | '567.89' | '567.890000' | '5.678900e+02' |
'56789.000000%' |
+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+

+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+
| | {<float>:.2} | {<real>:.2f} | {<real>:.2e} |
{<real>:.2%} |
+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+
| 0.000056789 | '5.7e-05' | '0.00' | '5.68e-05' |
'0.01%' |
| 0.00056789 | '0.00057' | '0.00' | '5.68e-04' |
'0.06%' |
| 0.0056789 | '0.0057' | '0.01' | '5.68e-03' |
'0.57%' |
| 0.056789 | '0.057' | '0.06' | '5.68e-02' |
'5.68%' |
| 0.56789 | '0.57' | '0.57' | '5.68e-01' |
'56.79%' |
| 5.6789 | '5.7' | '5.68' | '5.68e+00' |
'567.89%' |
| 56.789 | '5.7e+01' | '56.79' | '5.68e+01' |
'5678.90%' |
| 567.89 | '5.7e+02' | '567.89' | '5.68e+02' |
'56789.00%' |
+---------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+--
---------------+

Ints
 {90:c} # 'Z'
{90:b} # '1011010'
{90:X} # '5A'

Numbers

Types
<int> = int(<float/str/bool>) # Or: math.floor(<float>)
<float> = float(<int/str/bool>) # Or: <real>e±<int>
<complex> = complex(real=0, imag=0) # Or: <real> ± <real>j
<Fraction> = fractions.Fraction(numerator=0, denominator=1)
<Decimal> = decimal.Decimal(<str/int/float>)

'int(<str>)' and 'float(<str>)' raise ValueError on malformed strings.

Decimal numbers can be represented exactly, unlike floats where '1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3' .
Precision of decimal operations is set with: 'decimal.getcontext().prec = <int>' .

Basic Functions
<num> = pow(<num>, <num>) # Or: <num> ** <num>
<num> = abs(<num>) # <float> = abs(<complex>)
<num> = round(<num> [, ±ndigits]) # `round(126, -1) == 130`

Math
from math import e, pi, inf, nan
from math import cos, acos, sin, asin, tan, atan, degrees, radians
from math import log, log10, log2

Statistics
from statistics import mean, median, variance, pvariance, pstdev

Random
from random import random, randint, choice, shuffle
<float> = random()
<int> = randint(from_inclusive, to_inclusive)
<el> = choice(<list>)
shuffle(<list>)

Bin, Hex
<int> = 0b<bin> # Or: 0x<hex>
<int> = int('<bin>', 2) # Or: int('<hex>', 16)
<int> = int('0b<bin>', 0) # Or: int('0x<hex>', 0)
'0b<bin>' = bin(<int>) # Or: hex(<int>)

Bitwise Operators
 <int> = <int> & <int> # And
<int> = <int> | <int> # Or
<int> = <int> ^ <int> # Xor (0 if both bits equal)
<int> = <int> << n_bits # Shift left
<int> = <int> >> n_bits # Shift right
<int> = ~<int> # Compliment (flips bits)

Combinatorics
Every function returns an iterator.
If you want to print the iterator, you need to pass it to the list() function!

from itertools import product, combinations, combinations_with_replacemen

t, permutations

>>> product([0, 1], repeat=3)

[(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1),
(1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)]

>>> product('ab', '12')

[('a', '1'), ('a', '2'),
('b', '1'), ('b', '2')]

>>> combinations('abc', 2)
[('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'), ('b', 'c')]

>>> combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2)
[('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'),
('c', 'c')]

>>> permutations('abc', 2)
[('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
('b', 'a'), ('b', 'c'),
('c', 'a'), ('c', 'b')]

Datetime
Module 'datetime' provides 'date' <D> , 'time' <T> , 'datetime' <DT> and 'timedelta' <TD>
classes. All are immutable and hashable.
Time and datetime objects can be 'aware' <a> , meaning they have defined timezone, or 'naive'
<n> , meaning they don't.
If object is naive, it is presumed to be in the system's timezone.

from datetime import date, time, datetime, timedelta

from dateutil.tz import UTC, tzlocal, gettz, resolve_imaginary

Constructors
 <D> = date(year, month, day)
<T> = time(hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, fold=
0)
<DT> = datetime(year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0, second=0, ...)
<TD> = timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0, milliseconds=0,
minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

Use '<D/DT>.weekday()' to get the day of the week (Mon == 0).

'fold=1' means second pass in case of time jumping back for one hour.
'<DTa> = resolve_imaginary(<DTa>)' fixes DTs that fall into missing hour.

Now
<D/DTn> = D/DT.today() # Current local date or naive
datetime.
<DTn> = DT.utcnow() # Naive datetime from current
UTC time.
<DTa> = DT.now(<tzinfo>) # Aware datetime from current
tz time.

To extract time use '<DTn>.time()' , '<DTa>.time()' or '<DTa>.timetz()' .

Timezone
<tzinfo> = UTC # UTC timezone. London withou
t DST.
<tzinfo> = tzlocal() # Local timezone. Also gettz
().
<tzinfo> = gettz('<Cont.>/<City>') # 'Continent/City_Name' timez
one or None.
<DTa> = <DT>.astimezone(<tzinfo>) # Datetime, converted to pass
ed timezone.
<Ta/DTa> = <T/DT>.replace(tzinfo=<tzinfo>) # Unconverted object with new
timezone.

Encode
<D/T/DT> = D/T/DT.fromisoformat('<iso>') # Object from ISO string. Rai
ses ValueError.
<DT> = DT.strptime(<str>, '<format>') # Datetime from str, accordin
g to format.
<D/DTn> = D/DT.fromordinal(<int>) # D/DTn from days since Chris
t, at midnight.
<DTn> = DT.fromtimestamp(<real>) # Local time DTn from seconds
since Epoch.
<DTa> = DT.fromtimestamp(<real>, <tz.>) # Aware datetime from seconds
since Epoch.

ISO strings come in following forms: 'YYYY-MM-DD' , 'HH:MM:SS.ffffff[±<offset>]' , or

both separated by an arbitrary character. Offset is formatted as: 'HH:MM' .
Epoch on Unix systems is: '1970-01-01 00:00 UTC' , '1970-01-01 01:00 CET' , ...
Decode
<str> = <D/T/DT>.isoformat(sep='T') # Also timespec='auto/hours/m
inutes/seconds'.
<str> = <D/T/DT>.strftime('<format>') # Custom string representatio
n.
<int> = <D/DT>.toordinal() # Days since Christ, ignoring
time and tz.
<float> = <DTn>.timestamp() # Seconds since Epoch from DT
n in local time.
<float> = <DTa>.timestamp() # Seconds since Epoch from DT
a.

Format
>>> from datetime import datetime
>>> dt = datetime.strptime('2015-05-14 23:39:00.00 +0200', '%Y-%m-%d %H:%
M:%S.%f %z')
>>> dt.strftime("%A, %dth of %B '%y, %I:%M%p %Z")
"Thursday, 14th of May '15, 11:39PM UTC+02:00"

When parsing, '%z' also accepts '±HH:MM' .

For abbreviated weekday and month use '%a' and '%b' .

Arithmetics
<D/DT> = <D/DT> ± <TD> # Returned datetime can fall
into missing hour.
<TD> = <D/DTn> - <D/DTn> # Returns the difference, ign
oring time jumps.
<TD> = <DTa> - <DTa> # Ignores time jumps if they
share tzinfo object.
<TD> = <DT_UTC> - <DT_UTC> # Convert DTs to UTC to get t
he actual delta.

Arguments

Inside Function Call

<function>(<positional_args>) # f(0, 0)
<function>(<keyword_args>) # f(x=0, y=0)
<function>(<positional_args>, <keyword_args>) # f(0, y=0)

Inside Function Definition

def f(<nondefault_args>): # def f(x, y):
def f(<default_args>): # def f(x=0, y=0):
def f(<nondefault_args>, <default_args>): # def f(x, y=0):

Splat Operator
Inside Function Call
Splat expands a collection into positional arguments, while splatty-splat expands a dictionary into
keyword arguments.

args = (1, 2)
kwargs = {'x': 3, 'y': 4, 'z': 5}
func(*args, **kwargs)

Is the same as:

func(1, 2, x=3, y=4, z=5)

Inside Function Definition

Splat combines zero or more positional arguments into a tuple, while splatty-splat combines zero or
more keyword arguments into a dictionary.

def add(*a):
return sum(a)

>>> add(1, 2, 3)
6

Legal argument combinations:

def f(x, y, z): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1,
2, z=3) | f(1, 2, 3)
def f(*, x, y, z): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3)
def f(x, *, y, z): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3)
def f(x, y, *, z): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1,
2, z=3)

def f(*args): # f(1, 2, 3)

def f(x, *args): # f(1, 2, 3)
def f(*args, z): # f(1, 2, z=3)
def f(x, *args, z): # f(1, 2, z=3)

def f(**kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3)

def f(x, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3)
def f(*, x, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3)

def f(*args, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1,
2, z=3) | f(1, 2, 3)
def f(x, *args, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1,
2, z=3) | f(1, 2, 3)
def f(*args, y, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3)
def f(x, *args, z, **kwargs): # f(x=1, y=2, z=3) | f(1, y=2, z=3) | f(1,
2, z=3)

Other Uses
 <list> = [*<collection> [, ...]]
<set> = {*<collection> [, ...]}
<tuple> = (*<collection>, [...])
<dict> = {**<dict> [, ...]}

head, *body, tail = <collection>

Inline

Lambda
<function> = lambda: <return_value>
<function> = lambda <argument_1>, <argument_2>: <return_value>

Comprehension
<list> = [i+1 for i in range(10)] # [1, 2, ..., 10]
<set> = {i for i in range(10) if i > 5} # {6, 7, 8, 9}
<iter> = (i+5 for i in range(10)) # (5, 6, ..., 14)
<dict> = {i: i*2 for i in range(10)} # {0: 0, 1: 2, ...,
9: 18}

out = [i+j for i in range(10) for j in range(10)]

Is the same as:

out = []
for i in range(10):
for j in range(10):
out.append(i+j)

Map, Filter, Reduce

from functools import reduce
<iter> = map(lambda x: x + 1, range(10)) # (1, 2, ..., 10)
<iter> = filter(lambda x: x > 5, range(10)) # (6, 7, 8, 9)
<obj> = reduce(lambda out, x: out + x, range(10)) # 45

Any, All
<bool> = any(<collection>) # False if empty.
<bool> = all(el[1] for el in <collection>) # True if empty.

If - Else
<obj> = <expression_if_true> if <condition> else <expression_if_false>

>>> [a if a else 'zero' for a in (0, 1, 2, 3)]

['zero', 1, 2, 3]

Namedtuple, Enum, Dataclass

 from collections import namedtuple
Point = namedtuple('Point', 'x y')
point = Point(0, 0)

from enum import Enum

Direction = Enum('Direction', 'n e s w')
direction = Direction.n

from dataclasses import make_dataclass

Creature = make_dataclass('Creature', ['location', 'direction'])
creature = Creature(Point(0, 0), Direction.n)

Closure
We have a closure in Python when:

A nested function references a value of its enclosing function and then

the enclosing function returns the nested function.

def get_multiplier(a):
def out(b):
return a * b
return out

>>> multiply_by_3 = get_multiplier(3)

>>> multiply_by_3(10)
30

If multiple nested functions within enclosing function reference the same value, that value gets
shared.
To dynamically access function's first free variable use
'<function>.__closure__[0].cell_contents' .

Partial
from functools import partial
<function> = partial(<function> [, <arg_1>, <arg_2>, ...])

>>> import operator as op

>>> multiply_by_3 = partial(op.mul, 3)
>>> multiply_by_3(10)
30

Partial is also useful in cases when function needs to be passed as an argument, because it
enables us to set its arguments beforehand.
A few examples being: 'defaultdict(<function>)' , 'iter(<function>,
to_exclusive)' and dataclass's 'field(default_factory=<function>)' .

Nonlocal
If variable is being assigned to anywhere in the scope, it is regarded as a local variable, unless it is
declared as a 'global' or a 'nonlocal'.
 def get_counter():
i = 0
def out():
nonlocal i
i += 1
return i
return out

>>> counter = get_counter()

>>> counter(), counter(), counter()
(1, 2, 3)

Decorator
A decorator takes a function, adds some functionality and returns it.

@decorator_name
def function_that_gets_passed_to_decorator():
...

Debugger Example
Decorator that prints function's name every time it gets called.

from functools import wraps

def debug(func):
@wraps(func)
def out(*args, **kwargs):
print(func.__name__)
return func(*args, **kwargs)
return out

@debug
def add(x, y):
return x + y

Wraps is a helper decorator that copies the metadata of the passed function (func) to the
function it is wrapping (out).
Without it 'add.__name__' would return 'out' .

LRU Cache
Decorator that caches function's return values. All function's arguments must be hashable.

from functools import lru_cache

@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
def fib(n):
return n if n < 2 else fib(n-2) + fib(n-1)

CPython interpreter limits recursion depth to 1000 by default. To increase it use

'sys.setrecursionlimit(<depth>)' .
Parametrized Decorator
A decorator that accepts arguments and returns a normal decorator that accepts a function.

from functools import wraps

def debug(print_result=False):
def decorator(func):
@wraps(func)
def out(*args, **kwargs):
result = func(*args, **kwargs)
print(func.__name__, result if print_result else '')
return result
return out
return decorator

@debug(print_result=True)
def add(x, y):
return x + y

Class
class <name>:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
def __repr__(self):
class_name = self.__class__.__name__
return f'{class_name}({self.a!r})'
def __str__(self):
return str(self.a)

@classmethod
def get_class_name(cls):
return cls.__name__

Return value of repr() should be unambiguous and of str() readable.

If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().

Str() use cases:

print(<el>)
print(f'{<el>}')
raise Exception(<el>)
loguru.logger.debug(<el>)
csv.writer(<file>).writerow([<el>])

Repr() use cases:

print([<el>])
print(f'{<el>!r}')
>>> <el>
loguru.logger.exception()
Z = dataclasses.make_dataclass('Z', ['a']); print(Z(<el>))
Constructor Overloading
class <name>:
def __init__(self, a=None):
self.a = a

Inheritance
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

class Employee(Person):
def __init__(self, name, age, staff_num):
super().__init__(name, age)
self.staff_num = staff_num

Multiple Inheritance
class A: pass
class B: pass
class C(A, B): pass

MRO determines the order in which parent classes are traversed when searching for a method:

>>> C.mro()
[<class 'C'>, <class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'object'>]

Property
Pythonic way of implementing getters and setters.

class MyClass:
@property
def a(self):
return self._a

@a.setter
def a(self, value):
self._a = value

>>> el = MyClass()
>>> el.a = 123
>>> el.a
123

Dataclass
Decorator that automatically generates init(), repr() and eq() special methods.
 from dataclasses import dataclass, field

@dataclass(order=False, frozen=False)
class <class_name>:
<attr_name_1>: <type>
<attr_name_2>: <type> = <default_value>
<attr_name_3>: list/dict/set = field(default_factory=list/dict/set)

Objects can be made sortable with 'order=True' and/or immutable and hashable with
'frozen=True' .
Function field() is needed because '<attr_name>: list = []' would make a list that is
shared among all instances.
Default_factory can be any callable.

Inline:

from dataclasses import make_dataclass

<class> = make_dataclass('<class_name>', <coll_of_attribute_names>)
<class> = make_dataclass('<class_name>', <coll_of_tuples>)
<tuple> = ('<attr_name>', <type> [, <default_value>])

Slots
Mechanism that restricts objects to attributes listed in 'slots' and significantly reduces their memory
footprint.

class MyClassWithSlots:
__slots__ = ['a']
def __init__(self):
self.a = 1

Copy
from copy import copy, deepcopy
<object> = copy(<object>)
<object> = deepcopy(<object>)

Duck Types
A duck type is an implicit type that prescribes a set of special methods. Any object that has those
methods defined is considered a member of that duck type.

Comparable
If eq() method is not overridden, it returns 'id(self) == id(other)' , which is the same as
'self is other' .
That means all objects compare not equal by default.
Only the left side object has eq() method called, unless it returns NotImplemented, in which case
the right object is consulted.
 class MyComparable:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
def __eq__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, type(self)):
return self.a == other.a
return NotImplemented

Hashable
Hashable object needs both hash() and eq() methods and its hash value should never change.
Hashable objects that compare equal must have the same hash value, meaning default hash()
that returns 'id(self)' will not do.
That is why Python automatically makes classes unhashable if you only implement eq().

class MyHashable:
def __init__(self, a):
self._a = copy.deepcopy(a)
@property
def a(self):
return self._a
def __eq__(self, other):
if isinstance(other, type(self)):
return self.a == other.a
return NotImplemented
def __hash__(self):
return hash(self.a)

Sortable
With total_ordering decorator you only need to provide eq() and one of lt(), gt(), le() or ge()
special methods. ```python from functools import total_ordering

@total_ordering class MySortable: def init(self, a): self.a = a def eq(self, other): if isinstance(other,
type(self)): return self.a == other.a return NotImplemented def lt(self, other): if isinstance(other, type(self)):
return self.a < other.a return NotImplemented

### Iterator
* **Any object that has methods next() and iter() is an iterator.**
* **Next() should return next item or raise StopIteration.**
* **Iter() should return 'self'.**
```python
class Counter:
def __init__(self):
self.i = 0
def __next__(self):
self.i += 1
return self.i
def __iter__(self):
return self
 >>> counter = Counter()
>>> next(counter), next(counter), next(counter)
(1, 2, 3)

Python has many different iterator objects:

Iterators returned by the iter() function, such as list_iterator and set_iterator.

Objects returned by the itertools module, such as count, repeat and cycle.
Generators returned by the generator functions and generator expressions.
File objects returned by the open() function, etc.

Callable
All functions and classes have a call() method, hence are callable.
When this cheatsheet uses '<function>' for an argument, it actually means '<callable>' .

class Counter:
def __init__(self):
self.i = 0
def __call__(self):
self.i += 1
return self.i

>>> counter = Counter()

>>> counter(), counter(), counter()
(1, 2, 3)

Context Manager
Enter() should lock the resources and return an object.
Exit() should release the resources.
Any exception that happens inside the with block is passed to the exit() method.
If it wishes to suppress the exception it must return a true value.

class MyOpen():
def __init__(self, filename):
self.filename = filename
def __enter__(self):
self.file = open(self.filename)
return self.file
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
self.file.close()

>>> with open('test.txt', 'w') as file:

... file.write('Hello World!')
>>> with MyOpen('test.txt') as file:
... print(file.read())
Hello World!

Iterable Duck Types

Iterable
 Only required method is iter(). It should return an iterator of object's items.
Contains() automatically works on any object that has iter() defined.

class MyIterable:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
def __iter__(self):
for el in self.a:
yield el

>>> z = MyIterable([1, 2, 3])

>>> iter(z)
<generator object MyIterable.__iter__>
>>> 1 in z
True

Collection
Only required methods are iter() and len().
This cheatsheet actually means '<iterable>' when it uses '<collection>' .
I chose not to use the name 'iterable' because it sounds scarier and more vague than 'collection'.

class MyCollection:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
def __iter__(self):
return iter(self.a)
def __contains__(self, el):
return el in self.a
def __len__(self):
return len(self.a)

Sequence
Only required methods are len() and getitem().
Getitem() should return an item at index or raise IndexError.
Iter() and contains() automatically work on any object that has getitem() defined.
Reversed() automatically works on any object that has getitem() and len() defined.

class MySequence:
def __init__(self, a):
self.a = a
def __iter__(self):
return iter(self.a)
def __contains__(self, el):
return el in self.a
def __len__(self):
return len(self.a)
def __getitem__(self, i):
return self.a[i]
def __reversed__(self):
return reversed(self.a)
Collections.abc.Sequence
It's a richer interface than the basic sequence.
Extending it generates iter(), contains(), reversed(), index(), and count().
Unlike 'abc.Iterable' and 'abc.Collection' , it is not a duck type. That is why
'issubclass(MySequence, abc.Sequence)' would return False even if MySequence had all
the methods defined. ```python from collections import abc

class MyAbcSequence(abc.Sequence): def init(self, a): self.a = a def len(self): return len(self.a) def
getitem(self, i): return self.a[i]

#### Table of required and automatically available special methods:

```text
+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| | Iterable | Collection | Sequence | abc.Sequence |
+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+
| iter() | REQ | REQ | Yes | Yes |
| contains() | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| len() | | REQ | REQ | REQ |
| getitem() | | | REQ | REQ |
| reversed() | | | Yes | Yes |
| index() | | | | Yes |
| count() | | | | Yes |
+------------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+

Other ABCs that generate missing methods are: MutableSequence, Set, MutableSet, Mapping
and MutableMapping.
Names of their required methods are stored in '<abc>.__abstractmethods__' .

Enum
from enum import Enum, auto

class <enum_name>(Enum):
<member_name_1> = <value_1>
<member_name_2> = <value_2_a>, <value_2_b>
<member_name_3> = auto()

If there are no numeric values before auto(), it returns 1.

Otherwise it returns an increment of the last numeric value.

<member> = <enum>.<member_name> # Returns a member.

<member> = <enum>['<member_name>'] # Returns a member or rai
ses KeyError.
<member> = <enum>(<value>) # Returns a member or rai
ses ValueError.
<str> = <member>.name # Returns member's name.
<obj> = <member>.value # Returns member's value.

list_of_members = list(<enum>)
member_names = [a.name for a in <enum>]
member_values = [a.value for a in <enum>]
random_member = random.choice(list(<enum>))
 def get_next_member(member):
members = list(member.__class__)
index = (members.index(member) + 1) % len(members)
return members[index]

Inline
Cutlery = Enum('Cutlery', ['fork', 'knife', 'spoon'])
Cutlery = Enum('Cutlery', 'fork knife spoon')
Cutlery = Enum('Cutlery', {'fork': 1, 'knife': 2, 'spoon': 3})

Functions can not be values, so they must be wrapped:

from functools import partial

LogicOp = Enum('LogicOp', {'AND': partial(lambda l, r: l and r),
'OR' : partial(lambda l, r: l or r)})

Another solution in this particular case, is to use 'and_' and 'or_' functions from module
operator.

Exceptions

Basic Example
try:
<code>
except <exception>:
<code>

Complex Example
try:
<code_1>
except <exception_a>:
<code_2_a>
except <exception_b>:
<code_2_b>
else:
<code_2_c>
finally:
<code_3>

Catching Exceptions
except <exception>:
except <exception> as <name>:
except (<exception>, ...):
except (<exception>, ...) as <name>:

Also catches subclasses of the exception.

Raising Exceptions
 raise <exception>
raise <exception>()
raise <exception>(<el> [, ...])

Re-raising caught exception:

except <exception>:
<code>
raise

Useful built-in exceptions:

raise ValueError('Argument is of right type but inappropriate value!')

raise TypeError('Argument is of wrong type!')
raise RuntimeError('None of above!')

Common Built-in Exceptions

 BaseException
+-- SystemExit # Raised by the sys.exit() function.
+-- KeyboardInterrupt # Raised when the user hits the interru
pt key (ctrl-c).
+-- Exception # User-defined exceptions should be der
ived from this class.
+-- StopIteration # Raised by next() when run on an empty
iterator.
+-- ArithmeticError # Base class for arithmetic errors.
| +-- ZeroDivisionError # Raised when dividing by zero.
+-- AttributeError # Raised when an attribute is missing.
+-- EOFError # Raised by input() when it hits end-of
-file condition.
+-- LookupError # Raised when a look-up on a collection
fails.
| +-- IndexError # Raised when a sequence index is out o
f range.
| +-- KeyError # Raised when a dictionary key or set e
lement is not found.
+-- NameError # Raised when a variable name is not fo
und.
+-- OSError # Failures such as “file not found” or
“disk full”.
| +-- FileNotFoundError # When a file or directory is requested
but doesn't exist.
+-- RuntimeError # Raised by errors that don't fall in o
ther categories.
| +-- RecursionError # Raised when the the maximum recursion
depth is exceeded.
+-- TypeError # Raised when an argument is of wrong t
ype.
+-- ValueError # When an argument is of right type but
inappropriate value.
+-- UnicodeError # Raised when encoding/decoding strings
from/to bytes fails.

Collections and their exceptions:

+-----------+------------+------------+------------+
| | list | dict | set |
+-----------+------------+------------+------------+
| getitem() | IndexError | KeyError | |
| pop() | IndexError | KeyError | KeyError |
| remove() | ValueError | | KeyError |
| index() | ValueError | | |
+-----------+------------+------------+------------+

User-defined Exceptions
 class MyError(Exception):
pass

class MyInputError(MyError):
pass

Print
print(<el_1>, ..., sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)

Use 'file=sys.stderr' for errors.

Use 'flush=True' to forcibly flush the stream.

Pretty Print
from pprint import pprint
pprint(<collection>, width=80, depth=None)

Levels deeper than 'depth' get replaced by '...'.

Input
Reads a line from user input or pipe if present.

<str> = input(prompt=None)

Trailing newline gets stripped.

Prompt string is printed to the standard output before reading input.
Raises EOFError when user hits EOF (ctrl-d) or input stream gets exhausted.

Command Line Arguments

import sys
script_name = sys.argv[0]
arguments = sys.argv[1:]

Argparse
from argparse import ArgumentParser, FileType
p = ArgumentParser(description=<str>)
p.add_argument('-<short_name>', '--<name>', action='store_true') # Flag
p.add_argument('-<short_name>', '--<name>', type=<type>) # Optio
n
p.add_argument('<name>', type=<type>, nargs=1) # First
argument
p.add_argument('<name>', type=<type>, nargs='+') # Remai
ning arguments
p.add_argument('<name>', type=<type>, nargs='*') # Optio
nal arguments
args = p.parse_args() # Exits
on error.
value = args.<name>
 Use 'help=<str>' to set argument description.
Use 'default=<el>' to set the default value.
Use 'type=FileType(<mode>)' for files.

Open
Opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.

<file> = open('<path>', mode='r', encoding=None, newline=None)

'encoding=None' means that the default encoding is used, which is platform dependent. Best
practice is to use 'encoding="utf-8"' whenever possible.
'newline=None' means all different end of line combinations are converted to '\n' on read,
while on write all '\n' characters are converted to system's default line separator.
'newline=""' means no conversions take place, but input is still broken into chunks by
readline() and readlines() on either '\n', '\r' or '\r\n'.

Modes
'r' - Read (default).
'w' - Write (truncate).
'x' - Write or fail if the file already exists.
'a' - Append.
'w+' - Read and write (truncate).
'r+' - Read and write from the start.
'a+' - Read and write from the end.
't' - Text mode (default).
'b' - Binary mode.

Exceptions
'FileNotFoundError' can be risen when reading with 'r' or 'r+' .
'FileExistsError' can be risen when writing with 'x' .
'IsADirectoryError' and 'PermissionError' can be risen by any.
'OSError' is the parent class of all listed exceptions.

File Object
<file>.seek(0) # Moves to the start of the file.
<file>.seek(offset) # Moves 'offset' chars/bytes from the
start.
<file>.seek(0, 2) # Moves to the end of the file.
<bin_file>.seek(±offset, <anchor>) # Anchor: 0 start, 1 current pos., 2
end.

<str/bytes> = <file>.read(size=-1) # Reads 'size' chars/bytes or until E

OF.
<str/bytes> = <file>.readline() # Returns a line or empty string/byte
s on EOF.
<list> = <file>.readlines() # Returns a list of remaining lines.
<str/bytes> = next(<file>) # Returns a line using buffer. Do not
mix.
 <file>.write(<str/bytes>) # Writes a string or bytes object.
<file>.writelines(<collection>) # Writes a coll. of strings or bytes
objects.
<file>.flush() # Flushes write buffer.

Methods do not add or strip trailing newlines, even writelines().

Read Text from File

def read_file(filename):
with open(filename, encoding='utf-8') as file:
return file.readlines()

Write Text to File

def write_to_file(filename, text):
with open(filename, 'w', encoding='utf-8') as file:
file.write(text)

Path
from os import getcwd, path, listdir
from glob import glob

<str> = getcwd() # Returns the current working directo

ry.
<str> = path.join(<path>, ...) # Joins two or more pathname componen
ts.
<str> = path.abspath(<path>) # Return an absolute path.

<str> = path.basename(<path>) # Returns final component.

<str> = path.dirname(<path>) # Returns path without final componen
t.
<tup.> = path.splitext(<path>) # Splits on last period of final comp
onent.

<list> = listdir(path='.') # Returns filenames located at path.

<list> = glob('<pattern>') # Returns paths matching the wildcard
pattern.

<bool> = path.exists(<path>) # Or: <Path>.exists()

<bool> = path.isfile(<path>) # Or: <DirEntry/Path>.is_file()
<bool> = path.isdir(<path>) # Or: <DirEntry/Path>.is_dir()

DirEntry
Using scandir() instead of listdir() can significantly increase the performance of code that also needs
file type information.

from os import scandir

 <iter> = scandir(path='.') # Returns DirEntry objects located at
path.
<str> = <DirEntry>.path # Returns path as a string.
<str> = <DirEntry>.name # Returns final component as a strin
g.
<file> = open(<DirEntry>) # Opens the file and returns a file o
bject.

Path Object
from pathlib import Path

<Path> = Path(<path> [, ...]) # Accepts strings, Paths and DirEntry

objects.
<Path> = <path> / <path> [/ ...] # One of the paths must be a Path obj
ect.

<Path> = Path() # Returns relative cwd. Also Path

('.').
<Path> = Path.cwd() # Returns absolute cwd. Also Path().r
esolve().
<Path> = <Path>.resolve() # Returns absolute Path without symli
nks.

<Path> = <Path>.parent # Returns Path without final componen

t.
<str> = <Path>.name # Returns final component as a strin
g.
<str> = <Path>.stem # Returns final component without ext
ension.
<str> = <Path>.suffix # Returns final component's extensio
n.
<tup.> = <Path>.parts # Returns all components as strings.

<iter> = <Path>.iterdir() # Returns dir contents as Path object

s.
<iter> = <Path>.glob('<pattern>') # Returns Paths matching the wildcard
pattern.

<str> = str(<Path>) # Returns path as a string.

<file> = open(<Path>) # Opens the file and returns a file o
bject.

OS Commands

Files and Directories

Paths can be either strings, Paths, or DirEntry objects.
Functions report OS related errors by raising either OSError or one of its subclasses.

import os, shutil

 os.chdir(<path>) # Changes current working directory.
os.mkdir(<path>, mode=0o777) # Creates a directory. Mode is in oct
al.

shutil.copy(from, to) # Copies the file.

shutil.copytree(from, to) # Copies the directory.

os.rename(from, to) # Renames the file or directory.

os.replace(from, to) # Same, but overwrites 'to' if it exi
sts.

os.remove(<path>) # Deletes the file.

os.rmdir(<path>) # Deletes empty directory.
shutil.rmtree(<path>) # Deletes non-empty directory.

Shell Commands
import os
<str> = os.popen('<shell_command>').read()

Sends '1 + 1' to calculator and captures its output:

>>> from subprocess import run

>>> run('bc', input='1 + 1\n', capture_output=True, encoding='utf-8')
CompletedProcess(args='bc', returncode=0, stdout='2\n', stderr='')

Sends 'test.in' to calculator running in standard mode and saves its output to 'test.out':

>>> from shlex import split

>>> os.popen('echo 1 + 1 > test.in')
>>> run(split('bc -s'), stdin=open('test.in'), stdout=open('test.out',
'w'))
CompletedProcess(args=['bc', '-s'], returncode=0)
>>> open('test.out').read()
'2\n'

JSON
Text file format for storing collections of strings and numbers.

import json
<str> = json.dumps(<object>, ensure_ascii=True, indent=None)
<object> = json.loads(<str>)

Read Object from JSON File

def read_json_file(filename):
with open(filename, encoding='utf-8') as file:
return json.load(file)

Write Object to JSON File

 def write_to_json_file(filename, an_object):
with open(filename, 'w', encoding='utf-8') as file:
json.dump(an_object, file, ensure_ascii=False, indent=2)

Pickle
Binary file format for storing objects.

import pickle
<bytes> = pickle.dumps(<object>)
<object> = pickle.loads(<bytes>)

Read Object from File

def read_pickle_file(filename):
with open(filename, 'rb') as file:
return pickle.load(file)

Write Object to File

def write_to_pickle_file(filename, an_object):
with open(filename, 'wb') as file:
pickle.dump(an_object, file)

CSV
Text file format for storing spreadsheets.

import csv

Read
<reader> = csv.reader(<file>, dialect='excel', delimiter=',')
<list> = next(<reader>) # Returns next row as a list of strin
gs.
<list> = list(<reader>) # Returns list of remaining rows.

File must be opened with 'newline=""' argument, or newlines embedded inside quoted fields
will not be interpreted correctly!

Write
<writer> = csv.writer(<file>, dialect='excel', delimiter=',')
<writer>.writerow(<collection>) # Encodes objects using `str(<el>)`.
<writer>.writerows(<coll_of_coll>) # Appends multiple rows.

File must be opened with 'newline=""' argument, or an extra '\r' will be added on platforms
that use '\r\n' linendings!

Parameters
'dialect' - Master parameter that sets the default values.
'delimiter' - A one-character string used to separate fields.
 'quotechar' - Character for quoting fields that contain special characters.
'doublequote' - Whether quotechars inside fields get doubled or escaped.
'skipinitialspace' - Whether whitespace after delimiter gets stripped.
'lineterminator' - How does writer terminate rows.
'quoting' - Controls the amount of quoting: 0 - as necessary, 1 - all.
'escapechar' - Character for escaping 'quotechar' if 'doublequote' is False.

Dialects
+------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
| | excel | excel-tab | unix |
+------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
| delimiter | ',' | '\t' | ',' |
| quotechar | '"' | '"' | '"' |
| doublequote | True | True | True |
| skipinitialspace | False | False | False |
| lineterminator | '\r\n' | '\r\n' | '\n' |
| quoting | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| escapechar | None | None | None |
+------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

Read Rows from CSV File

def read_csv_file(filename):
with open(filename, encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
return list(csv.reader(file))

Write Rows to CSV File

def write_to_csv_file(filename, rows):
with open(filename, 'w', encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
writer = csv.writer(file)
writer.writerows(rows)

SQLite
Server-less database engine that stores each database into separate file.

Connect
Opens a connection to the database file. Creates a new file if path doesn't exist.

import sqlite3
db = sqlite3.connect('<path>') # Also ':memory:'.
...
db.close()

Read
Returned values can be of type str, int, float, bytes or None.
 <cursor> = db.execute('<query>') # Can raise sqlite3.Opera
tionalError.
<tuple> = <cursor>.fetchone() # Returns next row. Also
next(<cursor>).
<list> = <cursor>.fetchall() # Returns remaining rows.

Write
db.execute('<query>')
db.commit()

Or:

with db:
db.execute('<query>')

Placeholders
Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None, bool, datetime.date or datetime.datetme.
Bools will be stored and returned as ints and dates as ISO formatted strings.

db.execute('<query>', <list/tuple>) # Replaces '?'s in que

ry with values.
db.execute('<query>', <dict/namedtuple>) # Replaces ':<key>'s w
ith values.
db.executemany('<query>', <coll_of_above>) # Runs execute() many
times.

Example
In this example values are not actually saved because 'db.commit()' is omitted!

>>> db = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
>>> db.execute('create table t (a, b, c)')
>>> db.execute('insert into t values (1, 2, 3)')
>>> db.execute('select * from t').fetchall()
[(1, 2, 3)]

MySQL
Has a very similar interface, with differences listed below.

# $ pip3 install mysql-connector

from mysql import connector
db = connector.connect(host=<str>, user=<str>, password=<str>, database=<
str>)
<cursor> = db.cursor()
<cursor>.execute('<query>') # Only cursor has execute
method.
<cursor>.execute('<query>', <list/tuple>) # Replaces '%s's in query
with values.
<cursor>.execute('<query>', <dict/namedtuple>) # Replaces '%(<key>)s's w
ith values.
Bytes
Bytes object is an immutable sequence of single bytes. Mutable version is called bytearray.

<bytes> = b'<str>' # Only accepts ASCII characters

and \x00 - \xff.
<int> = <bytes>[<index>] # Returns int in range from 0 to
255.
<bytes> = <bytes>[<slice>] # Returns bytes even if it has o
nly one element.
<bytes> = <bytes>.join(<coll_of_bytes>) # Joins elements using bytes obj
ect as separator.

Encode
<bytes> = bytes(<coll_of_ints>) # Ints must be in range from 0 t
o 255.
<bytes> = bytes(<str>, 'utf-8') # Or: <str>.encode('utf-8')
<bytes> = <int>.to_bytes(n_bytes, byteorder='big/little', signed=False)
<bytes> = bytes.fromhex('<hex>')

Decode
<list> = list(<bytes>) # Returns ints in range from 0 t
o 255.
<str> = str(<bytes>, 'utf-8') # Or: <bytes>.decode('utf-8')
<int> = int.from_bytes(<bytes>, byteorder='big/little', signed=False)
'<hex>' = <bytes>.hex()

Read Bytes from File

def read_bytes(filename):
with open(filename, 'rb') as file:
return file.read()

Write Bytes to File

def write_bytes(filename, bytes_obj):
with open(filename, 'wb') as file:
file.write(bytes_obj)

Struct
Module that performs conversions between a sequence of numbers and a bytes object.
Machine’s native type sizes and byte order are used by default.

from struct import pack, unpack, iter_unpack

<bytes> = pack('<format>', <num_1> [, <num_2>, ...])
<tuple> = unpack('<format>', <bytes>)
<tuples> = iter_unpack('<format>', <bytes>)

Example
 >>> pack('>hhl', 1, 2, 3)
b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
>>> unpack('>hhl', b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
(1, 2, 3)

Format

For standard sizes start format string with:

'=' - native byte order

'<' - little-endian
'>' - big-endian (also '!' )

Integer types. Use capital letter for unsigned type. Standard sizes are in brackets:

'x' - pad byte

'b' - char (1)
'h' - short (2)
'i' - int (4)
'l' - long (4)
'q' - long long (8)

Floating point types:

'f' - float (4)

'd' - double (8)

Array
List that can only hold numbers of a predefined type. Available types and their sizes in bytes are
listed above.

from array import array

<array> = array('<typecode>', <collection>) # Array from coll. of numb
ers.
<array> = array('<typecode>', <bytes>) # Array from bytes object.
<bytes> = bytes(<array>) # Or: <array>.tobytes()

Memory View
A sequence object that points to the memory of another object.
Each element can reference a single or multiple consecutive bytes, depending on format.
Order and number of elements can be changed with slicing.
 <mview> = memoryview(<bytes/bytearray/array>) # Immutable if bytes, else
mutable.
<real> = <mview>[<index>] # Returns an int or a floa
t.
<mview> = <mview>[<slice>] # Mview with rearranged el
ements.
<mview> = <mview>.cast('<typecode>') # Casts memoryview to the
new format.
<mview>.release() # Releases the object's me
mory buffer.

Decode
<bin_file>.write(<mview>) # Appends mview to the bin
ary file.
<bytes> = bytes(<mview>) # Creates a new bytes obje
ct.
<bytes> = <bytes>.join(<coll_of_mviews>) # Joins mviews using bytes
object as sep.
<list> = list(<mview>) # Returns list of ints or
floats.
<str> = str(<mview>, 'utf-8') # Treats mview as a bytes
object.
<int> = int.from_bytes(<mview>, byteorder='big/little', signed=False)
'<hex>' = <mview>.hex()

Deque
A thread-safe list with efficient appends and pops from either side. Pronounced "deck".

from collections import deque

<deque> = deque(<collection>, maxlen=None)

<deque>.appendleft(<el>) # Opposite element is drop

ped if full.
<deque>.extendleft(<collection>) # Collection gets reverse
d.
<el> = <deque>.popleft() # Raises IndexError if emp
ty.
<deque>.rotate(n=1) # Rotates elements to the
right.

Threading
CPython interpreter can only run a single thread at a time.
That is why using multiple threads won't result in a faster execution, unless at least one of the
threads contains an I/O operation.

from threading import Thread, RLock

Thread
 thread = Thread(target=<function>, args=(<first_arg>, ))
thread.start()
...
<bool> = thread.is_alive() # Checks if thread has finished exec
uting.
thread.join() # Waits for thread to finish.

Use 'kwargs=<dict>' to pass keyword arguments to the function.

Use 'daemon=True' , or the program will not be able to exit while the thread is alive.

Lock
lock = RLock()
lock.acquire() # Waits for lock to be available.
...
lock.release()

Or:

lock = RLock()
with lock:
...

Thread Pool Executor

from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=None) as executor:
<iter> = executor.map(lambda x: x + 1, range(3)) # (1, 2,
3)
<iter> = executor.map(lambda x, y: x + y, 'abc', '123') # ('a1',
'b2', 'c3')
<Future> = executor.submit(<function> [, <arg_1>, ...])

Future:

<bool> = <Future>.done() # Checks if thread has finished exec

uting.
<obj> = <Future>.result() # Waits for thread to finish and ret
urns result.

Queue
A thread-safe FIFO queue. For LIFO queue use LifoQueue.

from queue import Queue

<Queue> = Queue(maxsize=0)
 <Queue>.put(<el>) # Blocks until queue stops being ful
l.
<Queue>.put_nowait(<el>) # Raises queue.Full exception if ful
l.
<el> = <Queue>.get() # Blocks until queue stops being emp
ty.
<el> = <Queue>.get_nowait() # Raises queue.Empty exception if em
pty.

Operator
Module of functions that provide the functionality of operators.

from operator import add, sub, mul, truediv, floordiv, mod, pow, neg, abs
from operator import eq, ne, lt, le, gt, ge
from operator import and_, or_, not_
from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter, methodcaller

import operator as op
sorted_by_second = sorted(<collection>, key=op.itemgetter(1))
sorted_by_both = sorted(<collection>, key=op.itemgetter(1, 0))
product_of_elems = functools.reduce(op.mul, <collection>)
LogicOp = enum.Enum('LogicOp', {'AND': op.and_, 'OR' : op.or_})
last_el = op.methodcaller('pop')(<list>)

Introspection
Inspecting code at runtime.

Variables
<list> = dir() # Returns names of local variables
(including functions).
<dict> = vars() # Returns dict of local variables. A
lso locals().
<dict> = globals() # Returns dict of global variables.

Attributes
<list> = dir(<object>) # Returns names of object's attribut
es (incl. methods).
<dict> = vars(<object>) # Returns dict of object's fields. A
lso <object>.__dict__.

<bool> = hasattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')

value = getattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')
setattr(<object>, '<attr_name>', value)
delattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')

Parameters
 from inspect import signature
<sig> = signature(<function>)
no_of_params = len(<sig>.parameters)
param_names = list(<sig>.parameters.keys())
param_kinds = [a.kind for a in <sig>.parameters.values()]

Metaprograming
Code that generates code.

Type
Type is the root class. If only passed an object it returns its type (class). Otherwise it creates a new
class.

<class> = type('<class_name>', <parents_tuple>, <attributes_dict>)

>>> Z = type('Z', (), {'a': 'abcde', 'b': 12345})

>>> z = Z()

Meta Class
Class that creates classes.

def my_meta_class(name, parents, attrs):

attrs['a'] = 'abcde'
return type(name, parents, attrs)

Or:

class MyMetaClass(type):
def __new__(cls, name, parents, attrs):
attrs['a'] = 'abcde'
return type.__new__(cls, name, parents, attrs)

New() is a class method that gets called before init(). If it returns an instance of its class, then
that instance gets passed to init() as a 'self' argument.
It receives the same arguments as init(), except for the first one that specifies the desired type of
the returned instance (MyMetaClass in our case).
Like in our case, new() can also be called directly, usually from a new() method of a child class
( def __new__(cls): return super().__new__(cls) ).
The only difference between the examples above is that my_meta_class() returns a class of type
type, while MyMetaClass() returns a class of type MyMetaClass.

Metaclass Attribute
Right before a class is created it checks if it has a 'metaclass' attribute defined. If not, it recursively
checks if any of his parents has it defined and eventually comes to type().

class MyClass(metaclass=MyMetaClass):
b = 12345

>>> MyClass.a, MyClass.b

('abcde', 12345)
Type Diagram
type(MyClass) == MyMetaClass # MyClass is an instance of MyMetaCl
ass.
type(MyMetaClass) == type # MyMetaClass is an instance of typ
e.

+-------------+-------------+
| Classes | Metaclasses |
+-------------+-------------|
| MyClass --> MyMetaClass |
| | v |
| object -----> type <+ |
| | ^ +---+ |
| str ---------+ |
+-------------+-------------+

Inheritance Diagram
MyClass.__base__ == object # MyClass is a subclass of object.
MyMetaClass.__base__ == type # MyMetaClass is a subclass of type.

+-------------+-------------+
| Classes | Metaclasses |
+-------------+-------------|
| MyClass | MyMetaClass |
| v | v |
| object <----- type |
| ^ | |
| str | |
+-------------+-------------+

Eval
>>> from ast import literal_eval
>>> literal_eval('1 + 2')
3
>>> literal_eval('[1, 2, 3]')
[1, 2, 3]
>>> literal_eval('abs(1)')
ValueError: malformed node or string

Coroutine
Any function that contains a '(yield)' expression returns a coroutine.
Coroutines are similar to iterators, but data needs to be pulled out of an iterator by calling
'next(<iter>)' , while we push data into the coroutine by calling
'<coroutine>.send(<el>)' .
Coroutines provide more powerful data routing possibilities than iterators.

Helper Decorator
All coroutines must first be "primed" by calling 'next(<coroutine>)' .
 Remembering to call next() is easy to forget.
Solved by wrapping coroutine functions with the following decorator:

def coroutine(func):
def out(*args, **kwargs):
cr = func(*args, **kwargs)
next(cr)
return cr
return out

Pipeline Example
def reader(target):
for i in range(10):
target.send(i)
target.close()

@coroutine
def adder(target):
while True:
value = (yield)
target.send(value + 100)

@coroutine
def printer():
while True:
value = (yield)
print(value, end=' ')

>>> reader(adder(printer()))
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Libraries
Progress Bar
# $ pip3 install tqdm
from tqdm import tqdm
from time import sleep
for el in tqdm([1, 2, 3]):
sleep(0.2)

Plot
 # $ pip3 install matplotlib
from matplotlib import pyplot
pyplot.plot(<y_data> [, label=<str>])
pyplot.plot(<x_data>, <y_data>)
pyplot.legend() # Adds a legend.
pyplot.savefig(<filename>) # Saves the figure.
pyplot.show() # Displays the figure.
pyplot.clf() # Clears the figure.

Table
Prints a CSV file as an ASCII table:

# $ pip3 install tabulate

import csv, tabulate
with open('test.csv', encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
rows = csv.reader(file)
header = [a.title() for a in next(rows)]
table = tabulate.tabulate(rows, header)
print(table)

Curses
Clears the terminal, prints a message and waits for an ESC key press:

from curses import wrapper, curs_set, ascii

from curses import KEY_UP, KEY_RIGHT, KEY_DOWN, KEY_LEFT

def main():
wrapper(draw)

def draw(screen):
curs_set(0) # Makes cursor invisible.
screen.nodelay(True) # Makes getch() non-blocki
ng.
screen.clear()
screen.addstr(0, 0, 'Press ESC to quit.')
while screen.getch() != ascii.ESC:
pass

def get_border(screen):
from collections import namedtuple
P = namedtuple('P', 'x y')
height, width = screen.getmaxyx()
return P(width - 1, height - 1)

if __name__ == '__main__':
main()

Logging
 # $ pip3 install loguru
from loguru import logger

logger.add('debug_{time}.log', colorize=True) # Connects a log file.

logger.add('error_{time}.log', level='ERROR') # Another file for errors
or higher.
logger.<level>('A logging message.')

Levels: 'debug' , 'info' , 'success' , 'warning' , 'error' , 'critical' .

Exceptions
Exception description, stack trace and values of variables are appended automatically.

try:
...
except <exception>:
logger.exception('An error happened.')

Rotation
Argument that sets a condition when a new log file is created.

rotation=<int>|<datetime.timedelta>|<datetime.time>|<str>

'<int>' - Max file size in bytes.

'<timedelta>' - Max age of a file.
'<time>' - Time of day.
'<str>' - Any of above as a string: '100 MB' , '1 month' , 'monday at 12:00' , ...

Retention
Sets a condition which old log files get deleted.

retention=<int>|<datetime.timedelta>|<str>

'<int>' - Max number of files.

'<timedelta>' - Max age of a file.
'<str>' - Max age as a string: '1 week, 3 days' , '2 months' , ...

Scraping
Scrapes Python's URL, version number and logo from Wikipedia page:
 # $ pip3 install requests beautifulsoup4
import requests
from bs4 import BeautifulSoup
URL = 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)'
try:
html = requests.get(URL).text
doc = BeautifulSoup(html, 'html.parser')
table = doc.find('table', class_='infobox vevent')
rows = table.find_all('tr')
link = rows[11].find('a')['href']
ver = rows[6].find('div').text.split()[0]
url_i = rows[0].find('img')['src']
image = requests.get(f'https:{url_i}').content
with open('test.png', 'wb') as file:
file.write(image)
print(link, ver)
except requests.exceptions.ConnectionError:
print("You've got problems with connection.")

Web
# $ pip3 install bottle
from bottle import run, route, static_file, template, post, request, resp
onse
import json

Run
run(host='localhost', port=8080) # Runs locally.
run(host='0.0.0.0', port=80) # Runs globally.

Static Request
@route('/img/<image>')
def send_image(image):
return static_file(image, 'img_dir/', mimetype='image/png')

Dynamic Request
@route('/<sport>')
def send_page(sport):
return template('<h1>{{title}}</h1>', title=sport)

REST Request
@post('/odds/<sport>')
def odds_handler(sport):
team = request.forms.get('team')
home_odds, away_odds = 2.44, 3.29
response.headers['Content-Type'] = 'application/json'
response.headers['Cache-Control'] = 'no-cache'
return json.dumps([team, home_odds, away_odds])
Test:

# $ pip3 install requests

>>> import requests
>>> url = 'http://localhost:8080/odds/football'
>>> data = {'team': 'arsenal f.c.'}
>>> response = requests.post(url, data=data)
>>> response.json()
['arsenal f.c.', 2.44, 3.29]

Profiling

Stopwatch
from time import time
start_time = time() # Seconds since the Epoch.
...
duration = time() - start_time

High performance:

from time import perf_counter

start_time = perf_counter() # Seconds since restart.
...
duration = perf_counter() - start_time

Timing a Snippet
>>> from timeit import timeit
>>> timeit('"-".join(str(a) for a in range(100))',
... number=10000, globals=globals(), setup='pass')
0.34986

Profiling by Line
# $ pip3 install line_profiler memory_profiler
@profile
def main():
a = [*range(10000)]
b = {*range(10000)}
main()

$ kernprof -lv test.py

Line # Hits Time Per Hit % Time Line Contents
=======================================================
1 @profile
2 def main():
3 1 1128.0 1128.0 27.4 a = [*range(10000)]
4 1 2994.0 2994.0 72.6 b = {*range(10000)}
 $ python3 -m memory_profiler test.py
Line # Mem usage Increment Line Contents
=======================================================
1 35.387 MiB 35.387 MiB @profile
2 def main():
3 35.734 MiB 0.348 MiB a = [*range(10000)]
4 36.160 MiB 0.426 MiB b = {*range(10000)}

Call Graph

Generates a PNG image of a call graph with highlighted bottlenecks:

# $ pip3 install pycallgraph

from pycallgraph import output, PyCallGraph
from datetime import datetime
time_str = datetime.now().strftime('%Y%m%d%H%M%S')
filename = f'profile-{time_str}.png'
drawer = output.GraphvizOutput(output_file=filename)
with PyCallGraph(drawer):
<code_to_be_profiled>

NumPy
Array manipulation mini language. Can run up to one hundred times faster than the equivalent
Python code.

# $ pip3 install numpy

import numpy as np

<array> = np.array(<list>)
<array> = np.arange(from_inclusive, to_exclusive, ±step_size)
<array> = np.ones(<shape>)
<array> = np.random.randint(from_inclusive, to_exclusive, <shape>)

<array>.shape = <shape>
<view> = <array>.reshape(<shape>)
<view> = np.broadcast_to(<array>, <shape>)

<array> = <array>.sum(axis)
indexes = <array>.argmin(axis)

Shape is a tuple of dimension sizes.

Axis is an index of dimension that gets collapsed. Leftmost dimension has index 0.

Indexing
<el> = <2d_array>[0, 0] # First element.
<1d_view> = <2d_array>[0] # First row.
<1d_view> = <2d_array>[:, 0] # First column. Also [..., 0].
<3d_view> = <2d_array>[None, :, :] # Expanded by dimension of size 1.

<1d_array> = <2d_array>[<1d_row_indexes>, <1d_column_indexes>]

<2d_array> = <2d_array>[<2d_row_indexes>, <2d_column_indexes>]
 <2d_bools> = <2d_array> > 0
<1d_array> = <2d_array>[<2d_bools>]

If row and column indexes differ in shape, they are combined with broadcasting.

Broadcasting
Broadcasting is a set of rules by which NumPy functions operate on arrays of different sizes and/or
dimensions.

left = [[0.1], [0.6], [0.8]] # Shape: (3, 1)

right = [ 0.1 , 0.6 , 0.8 ] # Shape: (3)

1. If array shapes differ in length, left-pad the shorter shape with ones:

left = [[0.1], [0.6], [0.8]] # Shape: (3, 1)

right = [[0.1 , 0.6 , 0.8]] # Shape: (1, 3) <- !

2. If any dimensions differ in size, expand the ones that have size 1 by duplicating their
elements:

left = [[0.1, 0.1, 0.1], [0.6, 0.6, 0.6], [0.8, 0.8, 0.8]] # Shape: (3,
3) <- !
right = [[0.1, 0.6, 0.8], [0.1, 0.6, 0.8], [0.1, 0.6, 0.8]] # Shape: (3,
3) <- !

3. If neither non-matching dimension has size 1, rise an error.

Example

For each point returns index of its nearest point ( [0.1, 0.6, 0.8] => [1, 2, 1] ):
 >>> points = np.array([0.1, 0.6, 0.8])
[ 0.1, 0.6, 0.8]
>>> wrapped_points = points.reshape(3, 1)
[[ 0.1],
[ 0.6],
[ 0.8]]
>>> distances = wrapped_points - points
[[ 0. , -0.5, -0.7],
[ 0.5, 0. , -0.2],
[ 0.7, 0.2, 0. ]]
>>> distances = np.abs(distances)
[[ 0. , 0.5, 0.7],
[ 0.5, 0. , 0.2],
[ 0.7, 0.2, 0. ]]
>>> i = np.arange(3)
[0, 1, 2]
>>> distances[i, i] = np.inf
[[ inf, 0.5, 0.7],
[ 0.5, inf, 0.2],
[ 0.7, 0.2, inf]]
>>> distances.argmin(1)
[1, 2, 1]

Image
# $ pip3 install pillow
from PIL import Image

<Image> = Image.new('<mode>', (width, height))

<Image> = Image.open('<path>')
<Image> = <Image>.convert('<mode>')
<Image>.save('<path>')
<Image>.show()

<tuple/int> = <Image>.getpixel((x, y)) # Returns a pixel.

<Image>.putpixel((x, y), <tuple/int>) # Writes a pixel to the i
mage.
<ImagingCore> = <Image>.getdata() # Returns a sequence of p
ixels.
<Image>.putdata(<list/ImagingCore>) # Writes a sequence of pi
xels.
<Image>.paste(<Image>, (x, y)) # Writes an image to the
image.

<2d_array> = np.array(<Image>) # Converts greyscale imag

e to NumPy array.
<3d_array> = np.array(<Image>) # Converts color image to
NumPy array.
<Image> = Image.fromarray(<array>) # Converts NumPy array to
Image.

Modes
 '1' - 1-bit pixels, black and white, stored with one pixel per byte.
'L' - 8-bit pixels, greyscale.
'RGB' - 3x8-bit pixels, true color.
'RGBA' - 4x8-bit pixels, true color with transparency mask.
'HSV' - 3x8-bit pixels, Hue, Saturation, Value color space.

Examples

Creates a PNG image of a rainbow gradient:

WIDTH, HEIGHT = 100, 100

size = WIDTH * HEIGHT
hues = [255 * i/size for i in range(size)]
img = Image.new('HSV', (WIDTH, HEIGHT))
img.putdata([(int(h), 255, 255) for h in hues])
img.convert('RGB').save('test.png')

Adds noise to a PNG image:

from random import randint

add_noise = lambda value: max(0, min(255, value + randint(-20, 20)))
img = Image.open('test.png').convert('HSV')
img.putdata([(add_noise(h), s, v) for h, s, v in img.getdata()])
img.convert('RGB').save('test.png')

Drawing
from PIL import ImageDraw

<ImageDraw> = ImageDraw.Draw(<Image>)
<ImageDraw>.point((x, y), fill=None)
<ImageDraw>.line((x1, y1, x2, y2 [, ...]), fill=None, width=0, joint=None
)
<ImageDraw>.arc((x1, y1, x2, y2), from_deg, to_deg, fill=None, width=0)
<ImageDraw>.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2), fill=None, outline=None, width=0)
<ImageDraw>.polygon((x1, y1, x2, y2 [, ...]), fill=None, outline=None)
<ImageDraw>.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2), fill=None, outline=None, width=0)

Use 'fill=<color>' to set the primary color.

Use 'outline=<color>' to set the secondary color.
Color can be specified as a tuple, int, '#rrggbb' string or a color name.

Animation
Creates a GIF of a bouncing ball:
 # $ pip3 install pillow imageio
from PIL import Image, ImageDraw
import imageio
WIDTH, R = 126, 10
frames = []
for velocity in range(15):
y = sum(range(velocity+1))
frame = Image.new('L', (WIDTH, WIDTH))
draw = ImageDraw.Draw(frame)
draw.ellipse((WIDTH/2-R, y, WIDTH/2+R, y+2*R), fill='white')
frames.append(frame)
frames += reversed(frames[1:-1])
imageio.mimsave('test.gif', frames, duration=0.03)

Audio
import wave

<Wave_read> = wave.open('<path>', 'rb') # Opens the wav file.

framerate = <Wave_read>.getframerate() # Number of frames per se
cond.
nchannels = <Wave_read>.getnchannels() # Number of samples per f
rame.
sampwidth = <Wave_read>.getsampwidth() # Sample size in bytes.
nframes = <Wave_read>.getnframes() # Number of frames.
<params> = <Wave_read>.getparams() # Immutable collection of
above.
<bytes> = <Wave_read>.readframes(nframes) # Returns next 'nframes'
frames.

<Wave_write> = wave.open('<path>', 'wb') # Truncates file if it ex

ists.
<Wave_write>.setframerate(<int>) # 44100 for CD, 48000 for
video.
<Wave_write>.setnchannels(<int>) # 1 for mono, 2 for stere
o.
<Wave_write>.setsampwidth(<int>) # 2 for CD quality sound.
<Wave_write>.setparams(<params>) # Sets all parameters.
<Wave_write>.writeframes(<bytes>) # Appends frames to file.

Bytes object contains a sequence of frames, each consisting of one or more samples.
In stereo signal first sample of a frame belongs to the left channel.
Each sample consists of one or more bytes that, when converted to an integer, indicate the
displacement of a speaker membrane at a given moment.
If sample width is one, then the integer should be encoded unsigned.
For all other sizes the integer should be encoded signed with little-endian byte order.

Sample Values
 +-----------+-------------+------+-------------+
| sampwidth | min | zero | max |
+-----------+-------------+------+-------------+
| 1 | 0 | 128 | 255 |
| 2 | -32768 | 0 | 32767 |
| 3 | -8388608 | 0 | 8388607 |
| 4 | -2147483648 | 0 | 2147483647 |
+-----------+-------------+------+-------------+

Read Float Samples from WAV File

def read_wav_file(filename):
def get_int(a_bytes):
an_int = int.from_bytes(a_bytes, 'little', signed=width!=1)
return an_int - 128 * (width == 1)
with wave.open(filename, 'rb') as file:
width = file.getsampwidth()
frames = file.readframes(file.getnframes())
byte_samples = (frames[i: i + width] for i in range(0, len(frames), w
idth))
return [get_int(b) / pow(2, width * 8 - 1) for b in byte_samples]

Write Float Samples to WAV File

def write_to_wav_file(filename, float_samples, nchannels=1, sampwidth=2,
framerate=44100):
def get_bytes(a_float):
a_float = max(-1, min(1 - 2e-16, a_float))
a_float += sampwidth == 1
a_float *= pow(2, sampwidth * 8 - 1)
return int(a_float).to_bytes(sampwidth, 'little', signed=sampwidt
h!=1)
with wave.open(filename, 'wb') as file:
file.setnchannels(nchannels)
file.setsampwidth(sampwidth)
file.setframerate(framerate)
file.writeframes(b''.join(get_bytes(f) for f in float_samples))

Examples

Saves a sine wave to a mono WAV file:

from math import pi, sin

samples_f = (sin(i * 2 * pi * 440 / 44100) for i in range(100000))
write_to_wav_file('test.wav', samples_f)

Adds noise to a mono WAV file:

from random import random

add_noise = lambda value: value + (random() - 0.5) * 0.03
samples_f = (add_noise(f) for f in read_wav_file('test.wav'))
write_to_wav_file('test.wav', samples_f)
Plays a WAV file:

# $ pip3 install simpleaudio

from simpleaudio import play_buffer
with wave.open('test.wav', 'rb') as file:
p = file.getparams()
frames = file.readframes(p.nframes)
play_buffer(frames, p.nchannels, p.sampwidth, p.framerate)

Text to Speech
# $ pip3 install pyttsx3
import pyttsx3
engine = pyttsx3.init()
engine.say('Sally sells seashells by the seashore.')
engine.runAndWait()

Synthesizer
Plays Popcorn by Gershon Kingsley:

# $ pip3 install simpleaudio

import simpleaudio, math, struct
from itertools import chain, repeat
F = 44100
P1 = '71♪,69,,71♪,66,,62♪,66,,59♪,,,'
P2 = '71♪,73,,74♪,73,,74,,71,,73♪,71,,73,,69,,71♪,69,,71,,67,,71♪,,,'
get_pause = lambda seconds: repeat(0, int(seconds * F))
sin_f = lambda i, hz: math.sin(i * 2 * math.pi * hz / F)
get_wave = lambda hz, seconds: (sin_f(i, hz) for i in range(int(second
s * F)))
get_hz = lambda key: 8.176 * 2 ** (int(key) / 12)
parse_note = lambda note: (get_hz(note[:2]), 0.25 if '♪' in note else 0.
125)
get_samples = lambda note: get_wave(*parse_note(note)) if note else get_p
ause(0.125)
samples_f = chain.from_iterable(get_samples(n) for n in f'{P1}{P1}{P2}'
.split(','))
samples_b = b''.join(struct.pack('<h', int(f * 30000)) for f in samples
_f)
simpleaudio.play_buffer(samples_b, 1, 2, F)

Basic Script Template

#!/usr/bin/env python3
#
# Usage: .py
#

from collections import namedtuple

from dataclasses import make_dataclass
from enum import Enum
from sys import argv
import re

def main():
pass

###
## UTIL
#

def read_file(filename):
with open(filename, encoding='utf-8') as file:
return file.readlines()

if __name__ == '__main__':
main()