ScopeAndSequence Literacy

Scope & Sequence
for Literacy Instruction
Carol Murray
The Lexia Institute

766 Raymundo, Suite A, Los Altos, CA 94024
Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction
by Carol Murray
Copyright © 1997, 1998, 2002 by Carol Murray. All rights reserved. No part of this of this book
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the
publisher. Printed in the U.S.A.
ISBN 0-9666922-0-9
Dedicated to
teachers
in memory of
Beth H. Slingerland
who influenced and enhanced
the lives of so many

Acknowledgments
Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction would not have been written without
the encouragement and assistance of my closest colleagues at The Lexia Institute, John
Anton and Jerry Elkind. John’s gentle but persistent insistence to “sit down and write”
gave me incentive to begin, while Jerry’s willingness to format tedious tables, proofread,
and advise, kept me on task.
This book could not have been written without the keen interest and financial
support of The Educational Foundation of America and particularly that of board member
Sharon Ettinger.
Close teacher friends who gave greatly appreciated advice and valuable time to
proofread and formulate thoughtful suggestions, and who encouraged me to continue
when I felt disinclined, are Patricia Beis, educational consultant and private tutor in
Eugene, Oregon; Nancy Royal, former executive director of Prentice School for Dyslex-
ics in Santa Ana, California; and Sharon Sousa, principal of Los Altos Christian School
in Los Altos, California.
Thanks are extended to two San Francisco Bay Area educators who contributed
the lesson plans for Chapter 5. They are Regen Murray, an Orton-Gillingham-Slingerland
trained instructor who wrote the Orton-Gillingham plan, and Lynne Mayer, a whole lan-
guage classroom teacher with a strong background in phonics, who contributed the whole
language lesson. Ms. Murray also helped extensively with the overall copyediting.
My deepest indebtedness is to my husband Bill who reformatted and beautified

the first copy of Scope & Sequence using Word for Windows and who surprised me with
his copyediting expertise, precise standards, and tenacity.
Finally, thank you friend Larry Weaver for volunteering to do the final proofing
and for finding so many errors—100, 1000, more—after I was sure there were none re-
maining.
Although many wonderful people helped to make this book possible—including

teachers, parents, and students with whom I worked over the course of a rewarding ca-
reer—I alone take responsibility for any shortcomings in Scope & Sequence for Literacy
Instruction. I hope that its strengths will outweigh weaknesses and be of real benefit.
Foreword
If you are able to decipher this written language code (Wingdings), you know that
it says:
Written language is an unnatural brain
function that opens doors of opportunity.
In today’s modern world, most opportunities for success require adequate reading
and writing skills. While spoken lan guage evolves naturally, the use of written symbols
to convey information remains a relatively recent development in the history of mankind.
The ability to read, write, and spell has become an almost universal expectation, yet
learning written language skills remains an unnatural process that is dependent upon the
quality of instruction.
There is a lively debate over the best way to provide instruction in the language
arts area. Many enlightened educators argue that effective instruction must include as-
pects found in “whole language” as well as in “phonetic” approaches. While it is true that
every student would benefit from aspects of both approaches, it is essential for children
with language processing disabilities to receive instruction utilizing structured, multisen-
sory phonics. These youngsters, for example, cannot fully benefit from a literature course
unless they understand the code—or language—in which it is written.
Unfortunately, many dedicated teachers who are proficient in whole language

have not had the opportunity to master the phonetic code. This book is an excellent re-
source for teachers who are looking for more effective ways to teach children how to
read, write, spell, and express themselves. Its instructional guides will be useful for both
experienced Slingerland and Orton-Gillingham teachers, as well as for whole language
teachers who want their students to be well-grounded in phonics.
Over the years, the Orton-Gillingham/Stillman Simultaneous Multisensory Tech-

niques—including the classroom adaptation by Beth H. Slingerland—have proven to be
very effective in teaching children with Specific Language Disability (developmental
dyslexia). The principles first proposed by Dr. Samuel Orton have been implemented, as
vii
viii Foreword
well as developed and refined, by Beth Slingerland, Sally Childs, Jane MacClellan (stu-
dents of Anna Gillingham and Bessie Stillman), June Orton and other students who fol-
lowed in the footsteps of these innovative pioneers. This is as it should be. Both Slinger-
land and Childs personally told me that as we learn more and more about how the brain
processes information, we must use the new findings to make instruction more effective.
It is also important to continue to test each new instructional technique against the most
recent scientific discoveries about learning processes (Current neuroresearch, by the way,
continues to support Dr. Orton’s theories).
It was Beth Slingerland’s wish that her books not be revised. Instead, she said,
new books should be written. Carol Murray accepted this challenge, and has authored a
well-written and well-organized book that discusses the similarities and differences be-
tween the Slingerland and Orton-Gillingham approaches. As Murray points out, there are
actually more similarities than dissimilarities between them.
Her text is also an excellent source for clearly outlined instructional sequences in
easy-to-read reference tables. These can be utilized in traditional lesson planning, or in
conjunction with Lesson Planner, a computerized lesson planning software package.
Various levels of instruction are included, along with helpful references.
Murray’s ability to organize and her great passion for the intricacies of the Eng-
lish language make this book useful for both beginning and experienced teachers. It is an
important contribution to the field of teaching children with language learning difficul-
ties, and it is an exceptional reference tool for the professional’s library.
Nancy L. Royal, Ed. D.

Executive Director, retired
The Prentice School
Santa Ana, California
Contents
Acknowledgments....................................................................................... v
Foreword...................................................................................................vii
Contents ..................................................................................................... ix
Tables........................................................................................................ xv
Chapter 1: Introduction ..............................................................................1
Alphabetics.......................................................................................................................1
Reading Fluency ..............................................................................................................2
Reading Comprehension.................................................................................................3
Relationship Between Teacher Education and Reading Instruction .............................4
Computer Technology and Reading Instruction............................................................4
The Purpose of This Book .....................................................................................................4
Phonics-Based Approaches ....................................................................................................5
Overview of Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction .....................................................6
How This Book Helps Teachers ............................................................................................6
LessonPlanner™ and Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction ........................................7
How to Best Use this Book: Categories of Users ...................................................................8
LessonPlanner Users with Orton-Based Training..........................................................8
Orton-Based Teachers But Not LessonPlanner Users .....................................................9
Meaning-Emphasis Teachers with Phonics Training......................................................9
School Administrators and Teachers Without Phonics................................................10
Chapter 2: Handwriting ...........................................................................11
The Importance of Handwriting........................................................................................11
Historical Perspective .........................................................................................................12
Variations in Orton-Based Handwriting Programs .........................................................13
Why Use Slingerland’s Handwriting Program?................................................................14
Preliminary Considerations for Handwriting Instruction...............................................15
Considerations for a Manuscript Scope and Sequence in Grade 1 ....................................16
Introducing Letters that Look or Sound Alike .............................................................18
First Trimester...............................................................................................................20
ix
x Contents
Second Trimester ...........................................................................................................21

Grade One SLD Third Trimester or Non-SLD Second Trimester ..............................23
Reviewing Manuscript Formations....................................................................................26
Continuum Manuscript Instruction ..................................................................................27
Considerations for a Cursive Scope and Sequence in Grade 3 and Beyond......................29
The Introduction of Cursive Handwriting........................................................................30
First Three or Four Cursive Lessons..............................................................................30
Second and Third Weeks of Cursive Instruction..........................................................32
Third or Fourth Week of Cursive Instruction
for an SLD Class or Slightly Earlier for Non-SLD..........................................33
End of the First and Start of the Second Month of Cursive
for an SLD Class or Slightly Earlier for Non-SLD..........................................34
Completing Lowercase Cursive by the End of the Second Month
or Earlier for Non-SLD....................................................................................36
Review of Cursive ..............................................................................................................37
What Else to Teach with Patterns ......................................................................................38
Handwriting Practice and Review (Manuscript and Cursive) .........................................38
Chapter 3: Visual Presentations................................................................39
What Are Visual Presentations? ........................................................................................39
A Comparison of Orton-Gillingham and Slingerland Use of Visual Cards....................39
An Orton-Gillingham Program...................................................................................40
Sequencing Differences in Orton-Based Programs ............................................................41
Rationale for Visual Card Scope and Sequence.................................................................43
Rationale for Visual Card “Levels”..............................................................................44
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for First and Second Grades .........................................45
Graphemes for the First Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade ..................46
Graphemes for the Second Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade ..............47
Graphemes for a Continuum Second Grade SLD Class or Earlier for Non-SLD ......48
Rationale for More Vertical than Horizontal Instruction...........................................51
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for Third Grade and Above .........................................51
Graphemes for Third Grade and Above.......................................................................52
Rationales for Deciding What to Teach Next....................................................................54
Contents xi
Graphemes for Third Grade and Above............................................................................55

Rationale for Slight Differences in the Advanced Checklists ............................................63
Scope and Sequence for Fifth and Sixth Grades .................................................................63
Advanced Group I Graphemes .....................................................................................64
Advanced Group II Graphemes....................................................................................66
A Note About Visual Card Verbalizations..................................................................70
Rationale for Changes in Pronunciation of Graphemes ...................................................71
Advanced Oddities........................................................................................................71
Rationale for Eliminating Prompts in Visual Cards........................................................72
Rationales for Differences in the Introduction of Graphemes in Different Grades..........73
Decoding .............................................................................................................................77
Including Nonsense Words ...........................................................................................80
Rationale for Introducing the Vowel “a” Before “i” ....................................................81
A Note About the Suffix “ed”........................................................................................82
Adding Soft c and Soft g Words....................................................................................83
Rationale for Letter Combination and Phonogram Sequences in Decoding ...................85
Choosing Which Phonograms to Introduce Next .........................................................86
Decoding V-Consonant-E Words .................................................................................88
Decoding Word Families and Homonyms...................................................................91
But Where Do You Teach Vocabulary and Grammar?....................................................93
Two-Syllable Decoding .......................................................................................................97
Decoding with Double-Duty g and k............................................................................99
Pronunciation and Accenting Two-Syllable Words
with Short Vowels in Both Syllables .......................................................................99
Typical Review of Two-Syllable Word Decoding,
Beginning with One-Syllable Words..............................................................101
Syllabification — Rules II, III, and IV........................................................................104
Words With More Than Two Syllables............................................................................107
Decoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes ....................................................109
Decoding Words with Three or More Syllables ..........................................................111
Last Gigantic Review..................................................................................................112
Preparation for Reading...................................................................................................113
xii Contents
Reading from the Book.....................................................................................................117

Chapter 4: Auditory Presentations..........................................................119
What Are Auditory Presentations? ..................................................................................119
Phoneme Awareness ....................................................................................................119
Auditory Cards.................................................................................................................120
Yellow Auditory Cards ....................................................................................................121
Yellow Auditory Card Scope and Sequence.....................................................................122
Phonemes Spelled with Consonants, Consonant Digraphs, and Trigraphs...............123
Phonemes Spelled with Short Vowels and Phonograms .............................................125
Phonemes Spelled with Long Vowels, Diphthongs, and Phonograms .......................126
Phonemes Spelled with R-Controlled Phonograms or Syllables ................................129
Yellow Card Exercises for C-le or Silent-e Syllables ..................................................130
Yellow Card Exercises for the Past Tense Suffix “ed” .................................................130
A Yellow Card Exercise for the Suffix “ous” and the Noun Ending “us” ..................131
Vowel Perception and Discrimination.......................................................................131
The Auditory Card Tables................................................................................................133
A Quick Review of Auditory Card, Perception, Discrimination,
and Yellow Card Techniques .........................................................................133
Scope and Sequence for Encoding and Spelling ...............................................................144
Encoding Phonetic Words...........................................................................................145
Differences in Encoding Techniques ...........................................................................146
Discriminating Between the Phonemes \a*\ and \˛û\ .....................................................148
Encoding Ambiguous and Phonetic Words................................................................149
Be Careful About Nonsense Words in Encoding........................................................150
Encoding and Spelling Non-Phonetic and Phonetic Words ......................................151
Encoding One-Syllable Phonogram and Letter Combination Words ......................154
A Note About the Inclusion of Suffixes in Encoding..................................................157
Choices for What to Introduce Next ...........................................................................159
Techniques for Encoding v-e Words ...........................................................................160
Continuing Mixed Encoding ......................................................................................163
Scope and Sequence for Spelling .......................................................................................163
Contents xiii
Introducing Suffixes with Concept .............................................................................164

Encoding/Spelling Non-Phonetic, Word Family, and Homonym Words ...............165
Spelling Phonetic, Ambiguous, and Non-Phonetic Words ........................................166
Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words
with Two or More Consonants in the Medial Position..................................170
Encoding and Spelling Review ...................................................................................171
Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words
with a Single Medial Consonant ....................................................................173
Encoding and Spelling Two-Syllable Words
with One Open Syllable and a Single Consonant in the Medial Position ....174
Encoding and Spelling Words of Two or More Syllables ...........................................176
Encoding and Spelling Words with Common Suffixes and Prefixes ..............................177
Encoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes ....................................................178
Encoding and Spelling Words with Advanced Suffixes and Endings........................180
The Ending \Es\ Spelled Ous or Us .............................................................................181
Encoding and Spelling Words with Latin and Greek Roots .....................................182
Encoding Words with Three or More Syllables ..........................................................183
Learning and Incorporating Spelling Rules.....................................................................184
The Silent-E Rule ........................................................................................................184
The 1-1-1 Vowel Rule..................................................................................................185
The Consonant-Y Rule ...............................................................................................186
The Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule..................................................................................187
The Letter “l” and the Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule ....................................................187
An Active Way to Look at Spelling Rules..................................................................188
Phrase and Sentence Writing to Reinforce Spelling Skills...............................................188
Dictations .........................................................................................................................189
Independent Writing........................................................................................................190
Integrating Grammar into Dictations and Composition .........................................191
Chapter 5: Conclusions ...........................................................................193
Three Lesson Plans............................................................................................................193
Overview of the Lesson’s Content ..............................................................................193
The Format of the Lesson Plans ..................................................................................194
xiv Contents
The Slingerland Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson ........................................................195

Question of the Day ....................................................................................................195
Learning to Write .......................................................................................................195
Visual Lesson...............................................................................................................195
Auditory Lesson...........................................................................................................199
The Orton-Gillingham Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson............................................201
I. Phonogram Review .................................................................................................201
II. Presentation of a New Concept ..............................................................................201
III. Words Read in Isolation .......................................................................................203
IV. “What says . . . ?”...................................................................................................204
V. S.O.S. and Dictated Phrases ..................................................................................204
VI. Oral Reading ........................................................................................................205
The Whole Language Lesson Augmented with Phonics ..................................................206
I. Daily Oral Language...............................................................................................206
II. Vocabulary Development.......................................................................................206
III. Reading .................................................................................................................207
IV. Handwriting.........................................................................................................208
V. Phonics, Spelling and Writing ...............................................................................209
VI. Seatwork................................................................................................................210
Referencing the Research ..................................................................................................211
A Final Word ...................................................................................................................212
Appendix A: LessonPlanner Graphemes....................................................... 215
Appendix B: LessonPlanner Phonemes.......................................................... 219
Appendix C: Two Exercises for You.............................................................. 223
Glossary ........................................................................................................... 227
References......................................................................................................... 239
Index ................................................................................................................ 243

Tables
Table 2–1. First Trimester: First Group of Letters............................................................................................... 20
Table 2–2. First Trimester: Second Group of Letters........................................................................................... 21
Table 2–3. Second Trimester of an SLD Grade One and First Trimester of a Non-SLD Grade One............... 22
Table 2–4. Grade One SLD Third Trimester or Non-SLD Second Trimester.................................................... 24
Table 2–5. First Three or Four Cursive Lessons................................................................................................... 30
Table 2–6. Second Several Cursive Lessons.......................................................................................................... 31
Table 2–7. Second and Third Weeks of Cursive .................................................................................................. 33
Table 2–8. Third or Fourth Week of Cursive Instruction for an SLD Class or Slightly Earlier for Non-SLD . 34
Table 2–9. End of First and Start of the Second Month of Cursive for an SLD Class or Earlier for Non-SLD. 35
Table 2–10. Completing Lowercase Cursive by the End of the Second Month or Earlier for Non-SLD ........... 36
Table 3–1. Orton-Gillingham Level I—Group I ................................................................................................. 40
Table 3–2. Orton-Gillingham Level I—Group II................................................................................................ 41
Table 3–3. Orton-Gillingham Level II ................................................................................................................ 42
Table 3–4. Orton-Gillingham Level III............................................................................................................... 42
Table 3–5. Orton-Gillingham Level IV .............................................................................................................. 42
Table 3–6. Advanced Gillingham Checklist........................................................................................................ 43
Table 3–7. Level I—Group I Graphemes for the First Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade ........... 46
Table 3–8. Level I—Group II for the Next Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade SLD Class
or Earlier for Non-SLD..................................................................................................................... 47
Table 3–9. For a Continuum 2nd Grade SLD Class or Earlier for Non-SLD ................................................... 48
Table 3–10. For a Second Grade Accelerated SLD Class or Earlier for Accelerated Non-SLD.......................... 49
Table 3–11. Level I Graphemes for Third Grade and Above.............................................................................. 52
Table 3–12. Level II Graphemes for Third Grade and Above ............................................................................ 55
Table 3–13. Level III Graphemes for Third Grade and Above........................................................................... 57
Table 3–14. Level IV Graphemes for Third Grade and Above........................................................................... 59
Table 3–15. Advanced Group I Graphemes ........................................................................................................ 64
Table 3–16. Advanced Group II Graphemes ....................................................................................................... 67
Table 3–17. Choices for Teaching w and qu........................................................................................................ 69
Table 3–18. Advanced Grapheme Oddities......................................................................................................... 72
Table 3–19. Manuscript and Cursive Comparison–Level I ................................................................................ 74
Table 3–20. Manuscript and Cursive Comparison–Level II ............................................................................... 74
Table 3–21. Cursive Continuum–Level III and IV ............................................................................................ 75
Table 3–22. Advanced Grapheme Checklist........................................................................................................ 76
xvi Tables
Table 3–23. Advanced Grapheme Oddities to Ponder and Perhaps Teach......................................................... 77

Table 3–24. Beginning Decoding with cvc (- a -) One-Syllable Words .............................................................. 79
Table 3–25. Decoding with cvc (- i -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................. 80
Table 3–26. Decoding with cvc (- u -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................ 81
Table 3–27. Decoding with cvc (- u -) Suffixes and Digraphs ............................................................................. 82
Table 3–28. Decoding with cvc (- o -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................ 83
Table 3–29. Decoding with cvc (- e -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................ 84
Table 3–30. Beginning Decoding with Letter Combinations ............................................................................. 85
Table 3–31. Decoding with Phonogram oa ......................................................................................................... 85
Table 3–32. Decoding with Phonogram ee.......................................................................................................... 86
Table 3–33. Decoding with Phonograms ai and ay ............................................................................................ 87
Table 3–34. Decoding with y - \˛â\ and v-e Words ............................................................................................... 88
Table 3–35. Decoding with More Phonograms.................................................................................................... 89
Table 3–36. Decoding with Yet More Phonograms ............................................................................................. 90
Table 3–37. Continuing Mixed Decoding ........................................................................................................... 91
Table 3–38. Decoding Homonyms, Word Family Words, Phonograms, and Plurals........................................ 91
Table 3–39. C/C Syllabification........................................................................................................................ 100
Table 3–40. Accenting hints 1 and 2.................................................................................................................. 101
Table 3–41. Review One and Two-Syllable Word Decoding............................................................................ 102
Table 3–42. Two-Syllable C/C Decoding.......................................................................................................... 103
Table 3–43. C/ Syllabification........................................................................................................................... 104
Table 3–44. /C Syllabification........................................................................................................................... 106
Table 3–45. V/V Syllabification ....................................................................................................................... 107
Table 3–46. Decoding Words With More Than Two Syllables ......................................................................... 108
Table 3–47. Accenting hint 3 ............................................................................................................................. 108
Table 3–48. Decoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes ....................................................................... 110
Table 3–49. Accenting hints 4 and 5.................................................................................................................. 111
Table 4–1. First Phoneme-Graphemes................................................................................................................ 134
Table 4–2. Phoneme-Graphemes for First Trimester ......................................................................................... 137
Table 4–3. Phoneme-Graphemes for the Second Trimester or Beyond.............................................................. 138
Table 4–4. Phoneme-Graphemes for Third Grade and Above.......................................................................... 140
Table 4–5. Advanced Phoneme-Graphemes for Third Grade and Beyond....................................................... 140
Table 4–6. Advanced Phoneme-Graphemes for Fourth Grade and Beyond ..................................................... 142
Table 4–7. Phoneme-Grapheme Oddities for Advanced Students in Fifth Grade and Beyond ....................... 143
Table 4–8. Beginning Encoding with cvc (- a -) One-Syllable Words .............................................................. 147
Tables xvii
Table 4–9. Encoding with cvc (- i -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................ 149

Table 4–10. Encoding with cvc (- u -) One-Syllable Words.............................................................................. 150
Table 4–11. Encoding with cvc (- o -) One-Syllable Words.............................................................................. 152
Table 4–12. Encoding with cvc (- e -) One-Syllable Words.............................................................................. 153
Table 4–13. Beginning Encoding with Phonograms (oa) .................................................................................. 155
Table 4–14. Beginning Encoding with Letter Combinations ........................................................................... 156
Table 4–15. Continuing Encoding with Phonograms (ee) ................................................................................ 158
Table 4–16. Continuing Encoding with Phonograms (ai and ay).................................................................... 159
Table 4–17. Encoding with y - \˛â\ and v-e Words............................................................................................. 160
Table 4–18. Continuing Encoding with More Phonograms ............................................................................. 162
Table 4–19. Continuing Mixed Encoding ......................................................................................................... 163
Table 4–20. Spelling Homonyms, Word Family Words, Plurals, and Words with Rules ............................... 169
Table 4–21. Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words with Two or More Consonants
in the Medial Position..................................................................................................................... 171
Table 4–22. One and Two-Syllable Word Encoding and Spelling Review ...................................................... 172
Table 4–23. Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words with a Single Consonant
in the Medial Position..................................................................................................................... 174
Table 4–24. Encoding and Spelling Two-Syllable Words with a Single Consonant
in the Medial Position and One Accented Open Syllable.............................................................. 176
Table 4–25. Encoding Words of More than Two Syllables................................................................................ 178
Table 4–26. Encoding with Common Suffixes and Prefixes ............................................................................. 179
Table 4–27. Encoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes and Endings.................................................. 180
Table 4–28. Encoding Words with Advanced Suffixes and Endings ................................................................ 181
Table 4–29. Encoding with Latin and Greek Roots.......................................................................................... 183
Table 4–30. Encoding Words of Three or More Syllables with Affixes.............................................................. 185
1
Introduction
Throughout the United States and other English speaking countries there is an exciting,
renewed focus on literacy instruction. Educators are now strongly advocating that reading
instruction be based on proven scientific reading research.
In 1997, Congress asked the Director of the National Institute of Child Health and Devel-
opment (NICHD) and the Secretary of Education to convene a National Reading Panel
(NRP) to evaluate the status of scientific research literature on reading. The panel as-
sessed various instructional approaches and designed a plan for disseminating informa-
tion that would facilitate effective reading instruction. Their report provides the best
summary of what is known from the research literature. It also confirms the validity of
the type of instruction described in this book.
The NRP considered five main topics: alphabetics, reading fluency, reading comprehen-
sion, the relationship between teacher education and reading instruction, and between
computer technology and reading instruction. These topics and the NRP findings are
summarized below.
Alphabetics
Alphabetics concerns phomenic awareness and phonics instruction. Phonemic awareness
refers to a student’s understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of se-
quences of speech elements. This understanding is a necessary pre-condition for learning
to read alphabetic languages such as English, where speech sounds are represented by
letters. The NRP determined that:
♦ Early phonemic awareness instruction generally does produce improvement in stu-

dents’ phonemic awareness, reading, and spelling—but has no impact on math per-
formance.
♦ Phonemic awareness instruction produces improvements in children of varying

abilities.
1
2 Chapter 1: Introduction
♦ Explicit, systematic phonemic awareness instruction with small groups of children,

focusing on only one to two phoneme manipulations, is most effective.
♦ Phonemic awareness is one of two best predictors of how well children will learn to
read in the first two years of school. The other strong predictor is letter recognition.
Phonics refers to the various reading and spelling instruction methodologies that focus to
some degree on phoneme–grapheme correspondences.1 Sometimes phonics is confused
with phonemic awareness, or with phonetics (see the Glossary for a definition). Phonics
instruction is extremely beneficial, but will make no sense to the student who lacks pho-
nemic awareness. The panel identified three key characteristics of successful phonics in-
struction programs:
• Systematic phonics—Instruction should build gradually from basic units or elements
toward those that are more subtle and complex. The sequence of presentation is key.
The Panel found that systematic phonics instruction benefits students in kindergar-
ten through sixth grade, including children who have difficulty learning to read; and
specifically, students with dyslexia.
♦ Synthetic phonics—Students should be taught to convert letters (graphemes) into
sounds (phonemes), and then to blend the sounds to form recognizable words. This
corresponds to Orton-based decoding. Systematic synthetic phonics instruction im-
proves disabled readers’ reading skills and significantly improves low socioeco-
nomic status children’s alphabet knowledge and word reading better than methods
focusing less on these initial reading skills.
♦ Explicit phonics—Important points and principles should be taught explicitly, and
not merely implied or embedded in instruction as secondary considerations. Early
readers should be taught as soon as possible how letters are linked to phonemes to
form letter-sound correspondences and spelling patterns. The Panel found this ex-
plicit instruction to be essential to successful phonics instruction.
Reading Fluency
The panel found that repeated oral reading with guidance from a teacher or someone sub-
stituting the role of teacher has a positive and significant impact on reading fluency as
well as word recognition and comprehension across several grade levels.
1
A grapheme is one or more letters that represent a single sound or phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest
unit of speech that distinguishes one utterance from another. Refer to the glossary for a more detailed ex-
planation of these somewhat technical terms.
The Purpose of This Book 3
Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension may be viewed as the intentional thinking that occurs during
reading whereby meaning is constructed through interactions between the reader and
what the reader is reading. This requires the reader to intentionally “think” and engage in
problem solving. Research that the NRP reviewed indicates the following:
Vocabulary Instruction
♦ Vocabulary instruction leads to comprehension gains; how vocabulary
is taught must be appropriate to the ability and age of the learners.
♦ Instruction should be taught both directly and indirectly.
♦ Vocabulary development should be an active process requiring inten-

tional and thoughtful interaction.
♦ Both repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary are important.
♦ Learning vocabulary in rich context, via incidental learning, and with

the use of computers all enhance the development of vocabulary.
Text Comprehension Instruction

The Panel recommended that the following types of instruction at least be included in
text comprehension:
♦ Monitoring, to help students be aware of their understanding of what

they read;
♦ Cooperative learning, during which students learn reading strategies

together;
♦ Question answering, to questions asked by a teacher who then pro-

vides immediate feedback;
♦ Question generation, to help students learn to ask themselves meaning-

ful questions;
♦ Use of graphic and semantic organizers, where readers improve com-

prehension by making graphic representations, such as story maps;
♦ Story summarization, where students are taught to integrate ideas and

generalize what they read;
♦ Story structure, where readers learn to use the structure of their read-
ings to improve their recall and to answer questions better.
Relationship Between Teacher Education and Reading Instruction

Since teachers are important in helping develop literacy skills, the Panel sought to learn
what type of education best helps improve their teaching. It was found that professional
development in-services produce higher gains in students’ achievements than other forms
of teacher education.
Computer Technology and Reading Instruction

Fewer research studies on the usefulness of computers for literacy instruction were avail-
able. However, from those that were reviewed, the Panel was encouraged by successes
and the potential for successes. In particular the Panel noted computer speech recognition
capabilities, developments in the Internet with the potential to link schools and instruc-
tion, the use of hypertext as an instructional advantage, and the use of word processing to
combine writing and reading instruction for overall improved literacy instruction and
learning.
One important effect of the NRP Report is that it is helping put an end to the
sometimes bitter polarization between proponents of code emphasis and meaning empha-
sis2 literacy instruction. It is hoped that both phonics (code-emphasis) and whole lan-
guage (meaning-emphasis) schools will gradually concur that the NRP Report must be
reviewed and adaptations to instruction made accordingly. The time is here to begin to
work in harmony to improve literacy instruction and opportunities for individuals of all
ages.
The Purpose of This Book

The purpose of this book is to provide teachers with what, when, and why to introduce
and review specific literacy concepts and skills that ensure students have the best oppor-
tunity to develop literacy competency. Scope & Sequence is not a detailed how-to book.
Teachers must decide themselves how to teach literacy depending on their pedagogical
preferences, the needs of their students, and hopefully the recommendations of the NRP.
2
Code-emphasis is a term used by many educators to distinguish phonics-based (code-emphasis) reading
programs from meaning-emphasis. In meaning-emphasis or literacy-based programs, including whole lan-
guage, common words found in print are introduced with little or no regard to their letter-sound regularity.
They include words that appear frequently in print. Students learning to read them are taught a variety of
strategies or clues to decipher them from the content of pictures, word configurations, and the initial letters
of words. In meaning-emphasis programs there is little attempt to control words so that the same letter
represents the same sound in beginning readers. For instance, the words some, do, don’t, hot, spoon, spoil,
ouch, and hope might be presented in one reading lesson with the “o” in each word representing a different
phoneme.
Phonics-Based Approaches 5
The author’s own training, experience, and success as a literacy teacher—old as it may
be—is founded on a most effective, alphabetic phonics-based instructional approach that
many of the NRP findings validate.
Phonics-Based Approaches
The most respected alphabetic phonics approaches for teaching literacy are based on the
works of Samuel T. Orton (Orton, 1937) and Anna Gillingham and Bessie Stillman (Gil-
lingham and Stillman, 1997). We refer to these collectively as Orton-based in this book.
Samuel Orton, a neuropsychiatrist and pathologist during the 1930s and 1940s, is
most noted for his pioneering study of neurological backgrounds of language disabilities.
He invited Anna Gillingham, a psychologist, to develop a remedial teaching approach,
based on his studies and philosophy, for gifted students who were unable to read, write,
and spell at a level commensurate with their intelligence. Gillingham, in turn, asked
Bessie Stillman, a remedial teacher, to work with her in devising the remedial approach
for students with what later came to be known as specific language disability (SLD) or
dyslexia.3 (Orton Dyslexia Society Newsletter, 1994)
The original collaborative work of Orton, Gillingham, and Stillman provided the
foundation for the development of Orton-based adaptations for literacy remediation to
students with SLD. The most relevant, for the purposes of this book, is the classroom ap-
proach developed by one of Gillingham’s protégées, Beth Slingerland. (Slingerland,1971,
1976, 1981)
Slingerland developed the classroom adaptation of the Orton-Gillingham-Stillman
approach for the prevention and remediation of specific language disabilities.4 As you
will see throughout this textbook the NRP findings concur with practices of Orton-based
instruction and particularly that of the Slingerland approach.
3
Specific Language Disability (SLD) is synonymous with the term dyslexia. As defined by a Committee of
Members of the International Orton Dyslexia Society in 1994, “Dyslexia is a neurologically-based, often
familial, disorder which interferes with the acquisition and processing of language. Varying in degrees of
severity, it is manifested by difficulties in receptive and expressive language, including phonological proc-
essing, in reading, writing, spelling, handwriting, and sometimes in arithmetic. Dyslexia is not a result of
lack of motivation, sensory impairment, inadequate instructional or environmental opportunities, or other
limiting conditions, but may occur together with these conditions. Although dyslexia is life-long, individu-
als with dyslexia frequently respond successfully to timely and appropriate intervention.”
4
Slingerland teacher-education courses have been offered since 1960. Currently, several course levels are
offered throughout the country and abroad. Slingerland-trained teachers are those who have completed at
least one graduate level Slingerland teacher-education course. For more information, contact the Slinger-
land Institute, One Bellevue Center, 411 108th Ave., N.E., Bellevue, WA 98004. Phone: (425) 453-1190;
fax: (425) 635-7762; email: Slingerland@aol.com; www.SlingInst.org.
Overview of Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction

Chapter 1, Introduction, explains for whom this book is intended and emphasizes the im-
pact of research in changing literacy instruction.
Chapter 2, Handwriting, is devoted to the scope and sequence for manuscript and
cursive handwriting instruction for SLD and non-SLD students, based primarily on Slin-
gerland’s works.
Chapter 3, Visual Presentations, explains the scope and sequence for the introduc-
tion of graphemes and decoding words from a more global Orton-based perspective. It
includes a discussion of morphemes, syllabification rules, accenting hints, and how Slin-
gerland adapted the original Orton-Gillingham approach to teach reading in a way that is
compatible with whole language instruction.
Chapter 4, Auditory Presentations, explains the scope and sequence for pho-
nemes, encoding,5 spelling, and writing skills. It includes many spelling generalizations
and the four major spelling rules.
Chapter 5, Conclusions, begins with the presentation of three lesson plans—

Slingerland, traditional Orton-Gillingham, and whole language—emphasizing their simi-
larities. It continues with a recommendation for a “must” to read to be informed about
educational research that impacts literacy instruction. The chapter concludes with a final
word to the reader.
Three appendixes, a glossary of terms, and references follow the last chapter.
How This Book Helps Teachers

This book is intended to assist all teachers who strive to improve literacy instruction. The
sequence for introducing language elements supports the recommendations for systematic
explicit phonics instruction. The sequence, based on Orton-Gillingham pedagogy, is pre-
cisely what educators, heedful of the NRP Report, recommend. This book addresses read-
5
Until recently, in the Slingerland approach, encoding and blending were used synonymously. Currently,
however, blending is frequently used synonymously with the term decoding which is the opposite of Slin-
gerland’s encoding. B. Blending is thus now referred to as B. Encoding. It is on the auditory side of the
Slingerland daily lesson plan where phonetic words are spelled. (Technically, encoding also includes spell-
ing non-phonetic and ambiguously spelled words, as well.) Many educators today refer to encoding as seg-
mentation, for the techniques of encoding require hearing a word and then breaking it apart or segmenting it
into its phonemes (individual sounds) with their corresponding graphemes (letters) to spell. Segmentation is
the basis for sounding out words, i.e., spelling.
LessonPlanner™ and Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction 7
ing instruction components and topics within a comprehensive and cohesive framework
with rationales for the introduction, instruction, and review of literacy skills.
If you are a teacher using an Orton-based approach, this book explains some of
the differences and similarities among Orton-based adaptations; provides rationales that
you might have missed; describes opportunities to enhance what and how you already
teach; graphically displays the sequence for the introduction of graphemes–phonemes,
decoding, and spelling; and validates the instructional strategies and techniques to which
you are committed.
No matter what type of instruction you use, this book provides guidance in devel-
oping and incorporating a sequential, phonics-based program into your own instruction to
address the needs of students with SLD, of students who are learning English as a second
language (ESL), and to enhance literacy skills of most students. By using Scope & Se-
quence you will keep abreast of the NRP’s findings and recommendations for how to best
teach literacy. You will be able to adapt and enhance your own programs.
LessonPlanner™ and Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction

Computers help people with learning disabilities in a variety of ways. For example, they
help improve weak phonemic processing and language skills, and they help children and
adults compensate for poor reading and writing skills. Computers also aid teachers who
work with individuals with learning disabilities by complementing and reinforcing in-
struction.
LessonPlanner is a software tool that has proven especially helpful to teachers.6

LessonPlanner provides a comprehensive set of resources to assist teachers in their de-
velopment of sequential, highly structured, multisensory language arts lessons for stu-
dents with specific language disabilities (dyslexia). LessonPlanner was originally devel-
oped for Slingerland teachers and others who use instructional Orton-based approaches.
6
LessonPlanner is available from the Lexia Institute, a non-profit corporation that develops computer
technology for people with learning disabilities and their teachers. Lexia’s goal is to help people with learn-
ing disabilities function more effectively at home, school, and work. Lexia offers another software tool,
WordSpring, that provides simple access to an extensive set of word lists that can also be used in conjunc-
tion with this book and a web site for teachers, www. LEXIAnet.org, that focuses on phonics instruction.
WordSpring should be of special interest to teachers using meaning emphasis methods who want to include
a strong phonics component in their instruction. LEXIAnet should be of interest to all users of this
book. Lexia’s address is 766 Raymundo, Suite A, Los Altos, CA 94024; Phone: (650) 964-3666; fax: (650)
969-1632; email: LexiaInst@aol.com; www.LexiaInst.org.
LessonPlanner users requested the addition of a scope and sequence guide to facilitate
preparation of their lesson plans.
LessonPlanner has also been found useful for preparing lessons for students in
regular classrooms. This is not surprising since the Slingerland approach was originally
intended for general education—not special education—instruction.
For teachers who do not use LessonPlanner, this book provides essential direction
and rationales for what to introduce, when to introduce specific elements or concepts, and
how much students can be expected to learn within given timeframes. Teachers will want
to use their own favorite resource books and materials7 to create needed word lists.
Teachers who use LessonPlanner will find that Scope & Sequence for Literacy In-
struction complements LessonPlanner. The book provides direction for what to intro-
duce, when to introduce elements or concepts, and how much students can be expected to
learn within specific timeframes. LessonPlanner provides word lists containing numerous
digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, affixes, Latin and Greek roots, homonyms, confusables,
and other instructional components. This book furnishes a review of how to create and
obtain these resources from LessonPlanner.
How to Best Use this Book: Categories of Users

Scope & Sequence is intended for four broad categories of educators:
♦ LessonPlanner users with Orton-based training

♦ Orton-based teachers but not LessonPlanner users
♦ Meaning-emphasis teachers with phonics training
♦ School administrators and teachers without phonics
LessonPlanner Users with Orton-Based Training

In the first broad category of educators are teachers with Orton-based training who al-
ready use LessonPlanner. This community includes teachers with training in a number of
Orton-based adaptations.8 Within this community are also LessonPlanner users with tra-
7
Educators Publishing Service, Inc. (EPS), 31 Smith Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138-1000, has a
wide selection of resource books and materials intended for use with students with and without learning
disabilities.
8
Adaptations include the video-taped Barton Reading & Spelling System (Bright Solutions, 1999); Alpha-
betic Phonics (Cox, 1992); Multisensory Teaching Approach (MTA) (Smith and Hogan, 1987); the Dys-
lexia Training Program (Texas Scottish Rite, 1989); Project Read (Enfield and Green, 1988); the Wilson
Reading System for Older Students with Dyslexia (Wilson, 1988); the Slingerland Approach (Slingerland,
How to Best Use this Book: Categories of Users 9
ditional Orton-Gillingham-Stillman training approved by the Orton-Gillingham Academy

of Practitioners and Educators.9
Slingerland teachers will want to read and use all five chapters of the book be-
cause they follow the Slingerland daily lesson plan format closely. Other Orton-based
teachers may choose to use the sequence for the introduction of graphemes taught in their
respective training programs or that are provided in Chapter 3, Visual Presentations. It is
recommended that consideration be given to using either the manuscript or cursive Slin-
gerland handwriting sequence presented in Chapter 2, Handwriting.
If you are a LessonPlanner user with Orton-based training, you should be able to
use Scope & Sequence without special training or difficulty. For optimal benefit, how-
ever, be sure to study the LessonPlanner User’s Manual. When using LessonPlanner,
some adaptation of the daily lesson plan format will be required. Perusing this book will
make adaptation easier and more personalized.
Orton-Based Teachers But Not LessonPlanner Users

In the second category of educators are teachers with Orton-based training who are not
LessonPlanner users. If you are a teacher in this category, you should be able to use
Scope & Sequence without difficulty or special training by merely skimming the com-
ments that explain how information and word lists can be obtained from LessonPlanner.
However, the more you use Scope & Sequence, the more likely you will be to appreciate
the value of LessonPlanner as a useful, extensive resource and timesaving tool.
Meaning-Emphasis Teachers with Phonics Training

The third category includes meaning-emphasis or whole language teachers with phonics
training and teachers currently enrolled in phonics training workshops that use Scope &
Sequence. Even a quick skim of Scope & Sequence gives you some idea about the impor-
tance and complexity of scope and sequence in literacy instruction. When participating in
workshops that augment meaning-emphasis instruction with phonics, course instructors
will teach you how to use Scope & Sequence most profitably and demonstrate Lesson-
1971, 1976, 1981); and both the Spalding (Spalding and Spalding, 1980) and Herman (Herman, 1975)
methods, as well as others. Additionally, the Lindamood (Lindamood and Lindamood, 1975) Auditory Dis-
crimination in Depth (A.D.D.) training program was influenced by Orton and Gillingham.
9
One such program is the Massachusetts General Hospital Boston Program of Education in Therapy for
Specific Reading Disability, Boston, Massachusetts 02114. There are others throughout the United States
as well. For information about other O-G programs contact the Orton-Gillingham Academy of Practitioners
and Educators, P.O. Box 234, Main St., Amenia, New York 12501-0234.
Planner. For a more thorough foundation in multisensory, phonics-based instruction, Or-

ton-based teacher education courses are recommended.10
School Administrators and Teachers Without Phonics

The fourth category includes educators with little or no training in phonics who are
searching for ways to incorporate phonics into their schools or districts to meet state
regulations, improve reading, and/or supply missing phonic elements, particularly to
meaning-emphasis programs. If you are a school administrator or teacher without a back-
ground in phonics, a superficial review of Scope & Sequence will give you a fairly clear
idea of what is required to augment your current reading programs with phonics that in-
cludes related strategies and techniques. By viewing the numerous tables sequentially you
will appreciate the comprehensiveness of this textbook, the effectiveness of LessonPlan-
ner, and the content and thoroughness of Orton-based instruction and training courses.
For rationales and details that are interwoven throughout Scope & Sequence, a more care-
ful reading is required.
10
To give you an idea of the length of instruction, the introductory, summer Slingerland teacher-education
course, or in-year or modules equivalents, are four weeks in duration, with an 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. daily
schedule. The winter session of the Massachusetts General Hospital Program of Education in Therapy for
Specific Reading Disability is a total of 335 hours. The practicum is approximately 255 hours and the
seminars and conferences, 80 hours.
2
Handwriting
The Importance of Handwriting
Penmanship or handwriting is one of the most fundamental skills that children are taught
in school. Especially during the primary and elementary school years, much of each
school day is devoted to using a pencil to identify papers, to note the day and date, to
study for and take spelling tests, to compute arithmetic problems, to fill in worksheets
and quiz blanks, to write sentences, to compose stories, to label pictures, to copy a favor-
ite poem, to record a friend’s telephone number, and to write reports.
Even when students have access to computers in the upper grades for writing re-
ports or for doing homework, personal computers are usually not available to them at
their desks, so it is essential that they are able to automatically, quickly, and legibly write
down homework assignments, take class notes, outline when studying, and take written
tests and examinations. Handwriting remains important in adult life. During the next sev-
eral days, note how often you and other adults pick up a pen or pencil to jot down a
phone message, compile a shopping list, leave a note on the refrigerator, fill out a check,
complete a medical or insurance form, compose a personal thank-you, or write comments
on student papers you are correcting or grading. A person who lacks the ability to write
legibly is at a distinct disadvantage that can affect daily organization, academic achieve-
ment, and employment opportunities and advancement.
The two main reasons the Slingerland handwriting program has been selected to
be described in this chapter are similar to those for why this book is phonics-based: First,
it advocates and reinforces the inclusion of direct or explicit instruction based on scien-
tific research. Second, the author’s training, experience, and success as a teacher of pen-
manship as a component of literacy instruction, is based on the respected, neurologically-
based, successful Orton-Gillingham-Slingerland approach. Its evolution is explained
more fully in the next several paragraphs.
11
12 Chapter 2: Handwriting
Historical Perspective
Samuel T. Orton is widely known as America’s Father of Dyslexia. His identification,
study, and neurological understanding of what he termed strephosymbolia,1 referred to as
dyslexia today, led eventually to his enunciation of principles and procedures for instruc-
tion—principles which remain valid today: Instruction must begin with the smallest unit
of sight, sound, and feel—a single letter; it must progress sequentially forward to more
complex learnings after previous learnings are secure; teaching must be through the intel-
lect to establish correct thought patterns; and simultaneous multisensory techniques—
auditory, visual, and kinesthetic-motor—must be incorporated in all learning. In teaching
handwriting, Dr. Orton’s principles are particularly evident.
In the 1930s Orton employed Gillingham to develop a remedial approach to teach

students with specific language disabilities (dyslexia) how to read, write, and spell. With
the assistance of Stillman, Gillingham applied Orton’s basic principles to develop the Or-
ton-Gillingham-Stillman simultaneous multisensory instructional approach for the reme-
diation of specific language disabilities.
In their pioneering instructional manual for teachers, Gillingham and Stillman

(Gillingham and Stillman, 1956, 1960, 1997)2 cite many causes for poor penmanship, in-
cluding injury, poor and damaging penmanship instruction—for left-handers in particu-
lar, and causes related to specific language disability with several subgroup categories.
Most teachers will find Gillingham’s discussion of penmanship both pedagogically and
historically informative.
Slingerland discusses handwriting instruction extensively in two of her three ma-

jor textbooks. Book 1 (Slingerland, 1971) provides manuscript handwriting instruction
while Book 3 (Slingerland, 1981) covers cursive instruction. Slingerland felt that much of
1
Strephosymbolia, meaning “twisted symbol,” was coined by Orton and is described in Orton’s Reading,
Writing, and Speech Problems in Children, published first in 1937. The twisting of the symbols pertains to
the tendency of dyslexics to reverse, invert, and transpose letters and syllables.
2
Two editions of Remedial Training for Children with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Pen-
manship were available from the publisher until recently. The 1956 fifth edition with a red cover—the “Red
Manual”—is keyed to the pronunciation symbols in Webster’s New International Dictionary, Second Edi-
tion. The 1960 seventh edition with a green cover—the “Green Manual”—is keyed to symbols in Webster’s
Third New International Dictionary. The 1997 edition, entitled The Gillingham Manual: Remedial Train-
ing for Students with Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship, has just been released. It
conforms to the pronunciation symbols of the tenth edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.
This edition, which also has a green cover, but with a yellow stripe added, is intended to supplant previous
publications.
Variations in Orton-Based Handwriting Programs 13
Gillingham and Stillman’s carefully developed penmanship instruction had been lost or
altered because the procedures and techniques, with important rationales, had not been
documented sufficiently. She did not want the same to occur to her own carefully honed
handwriting programs that she adapted for classroom use from the original Orton-
Gillingham-Stillman approach.
The Orton-based Slingerland approach has been taught since the early 1960s in
approved Slingerland teacher education college courses.3 Founded on sound pedagogical
and neurological principles, it is recognized as having one of the most comprehensive and
valuable handwriting programs in existence today.
Variations in Orton-Based Handwriting Programs

The various remedial instructional approaches derived from the original works of Orton,
Gillingham, and Stillman differ in their emphasis on handwriting and how it is taught,
especially to students with specific language disabilities. In contrast, other key Orton-
based instructional techniques—for example, techniques for using alphabet cards and for
decoding, spelling, and dictation—remain relatively constant. Variations in handwriting
programs pertain mainly to:
♦ the size and kind of pencils used4

♦ whether students trace or merely copy introduced letters; if they do
trace, whether they simultaneously name or give the sound of the letters
♦ the size of the letter patterns—if used at all—for tracing letters as they
are introduced
♦ whether the patterns for left-handers are slanted back toward the left,
have a forward slant as those for right-handers, or have almost no slant
at all
♦ whether the initial tracing or formation of letters is on crayoned pat-
3
The first two, graduate level courses are entitled “Adaptation for Classroom Use of the Orton-Gillingham
Approach.” They are taught throughout the United States, in Canada, and abroad. For further information
write to the Slingerland Institute at One Bellevue Center, 411 108th Ave., N.E., Bellevue, WA 98004;
Phone (425) 453-1190, fax: (425) 635-7762; email: Slingerland@aol.com; www.SlingInst.org.
4
Slingerland recommends larger, easier-to-grasp, fat, primary pencils without erasers for the youngest
children, then slightly smaller and slimmer eraserless pencils for older children, and finally, standard pen-
cils for more advanced children. A favorite replacement for standard pencils are the newer, easy-to-grip
triangular pencils. One currently popular brand is Jumbo Trirex.
terns on newsprint or also on chalk board, in sand or rice, on sandpaper,

or even in shaving cream
♦ the sequence for introducing letters, and whether it is prescribed or rec-
ommended
♦ precisely how each letter is introduced—for instance, with or without a
corresponding key word and/or letter sound (phoneme)
♦ which letters and how many are introduced per lesson; that is, what the
scope of instruction is daily and also weekly, monthly, and throughout
the school year
Why Use Slingerland’s Handwriting Program?

There are several good handwriting programs available. Those developed by Slingerland
are compatible with this book, and in the author’s opinion, they are the best. The first of
Slingerland’s handwriting programs is intended for use with specific language disability
students. Its procedures and techniques are imbedded in, and integral to, the Slingerland
multisensory approach which is taught in Slingerland teacher-education in-year and
summer school programs and in modules.5 The second program, either for manuscript or
cursive handwriting, was developed by Slingerland and her professional heir, Marty Aho.
(Slingerland and Aho, 1985) This program is intended for students in regular classrooms
and can be taught in separate units.6
Slingerland handwriting instruction clearly shows what is meant by simultaneous,

integrated multisensory and direct (explicit) instruction. It is also an excellent way to be-
gin to teach students to simultaneously incorporate multisensory strategies and techniques
for all learning. Gradually, students and teachers gain a clear understanding of the impor-
tance of beginning with the smallest units of sight, sound, and feel, of teaching through
the intellect, and for using a carefully planned scope and sequence. Handwriting instruc-
tion is the foundation for the development of many literacy skills.
5
Slingerland modules are short courses that cover segments of the total Slingerland teacher training
courses. One of the more popular modules is for handwriting instruction.
6
Educators Publishing Service, Inc. publishes most of the books and materials used by the various Orton-
based programs, including those for Slingerland instruction.
Preliminary Considerations for Handwriting Instruction 15
Preliminary Considerations for Handwriting Instruction

Practical scope and sequence choices will depend on whether instruction is to a class, a
small group, or an individual tutorial student. The design of scope and sequence is also
influenced by the age, maturity, motivation, and intelligence of the students—their grade
level, previous writing instruction and practice, and the degree and type of learning dis-
abilities they may have, including in particular, kinesthetic-motor and visual modality
strengths and weaknesses. All these factors are important to the rationale upon which a
scope and sequence for handwriting instruction can be recommended in order to ensure
successful handwriting mastery.
Regardless of age or grade, there are several conditions that must be attended to
before the actual introduction of letters begins:
1. Position right-handed students’ chairs slightly to the left side of their

desks, and position left-handed students’ chairs slightly to the right
side of their desks.
2. Place students’ writing papers to the right side of the desks of right-
handers and to the left side for left-handers.
3. Instruct students to hold their pencils so that the point of the pencil is
showing at the tip between the thumb and first finger of the writing
hand. The pencil should be set back in the hand so that the underside
of the point can be pulled straight down and pushed straight back up.
Elbows should be held parallel, toward the body so the pencil is posi-
tioned comfortably on top of the desk.
If students do not carefully position themselves, their papers, and their pencils in
the same way every time they write, they will always be attempting to compensate for
perhaps barely perceptible, but definitely distracting and detrimental, shifts in position
that make it difficult to obtain handwriting automaticity. Ensuring correct positioning at
the commencement of manuscript or cursive instruction allows greater focus on the key
task of handwriting rather than on difficulties stemming from necessary adjustments in
seating, placement of paper, and how pencils are held.
Considerations for a Manuscript Scope and Sequence in Grade 1

The Slingerland scope and sequence for handwriting presented here provides an overview
of an exemplary handwriting program that is more detailed than the other literacy skills
presented in this book. Even so, this overview does not replace the need for a comprehen-
sive program for handwriting instruction. For instruction to non-SLD students, Slinger-
land and Aho’s program (Slingerland and Aho, 1985) is recommended. For manuscript
instruction to SLD students, Slingerland’s Book 1 (Slingerland, 1971) is recommended;
for cursive instruction to SLD students, Book 3 (Slingerland, 1981) is recommended. En-
rollment in an introductory Slingerland teacher-education course will provide the most
effective instruction in how to teach handwriting to students with specific language dis-
abilities.
Manuscript instruction is often a painstakingly slow, lengthy, arduous, but hope-

fully joyful process, requiring patience and care. To summarize briefly how it is intro-
duced to first graders using the Slingerland approach for SLD students, six steps for
structuring new learning are followed. From the beginning the goal is to develop auto-
matic memory for the sequential movements necessary to form letters through the use of
gross motor movements that are simultaneously reinforced auditorily, kinesthetically, and
visually.
Step 1. The teacher teaches the students what letters are before introducing the name
of the first letter to be taught—often the letter h—and then shows an h for the
students to name.
Step 2. The teacher forms a large h on a blackboard or chalkboard and explains its
formation. With considerable guidance, the teacher aids individual students as
they trace and name the letter h at the board.
Step 3. Each student has the opportunity to trace and name his or her own h letter pat-
tern at the board.
Step 4. Large permanent letter patterns are given to the class for tracing and naming.
This is done first with two fingers before moving to the next step. It could
take one to three days to reach step 4.
Considerations for a Manuscript Scope and Sequence in Grade 1 17
Step 5. The children name and trace their permanent patterns with the eraserless, un-
sharpened ends of their primary pencils. All three modalities for learning are
engaged simultaneously—auditory, visual, and kinesthetic-motor.
Step 6. The children are given expendable patterns on three-fold newsprint to trace
and name as they did their permanent patterns. Then, with continued constant
teacher supervision and guidance, the children copy their own h to be traced
while simultaneously naming it. Lastly, they write an h from memory, again,
while simultaneously naming it.
Approximately one-third of Slingerland’s Book 1 is devoted to Learning to Write

because it is such a fundamental academic skill. To understand the complexity of teach-
ing handwriting thoroughly and well, it is again recommended that you read the detailed
coverage in Book I.
Concerning the scope and sequence for introducing manuscript letters, when Book
I was first published in 1971, Slingerland stated that only eight to ten letters could be ex-
pected to be learned and put to functional use in the first grade by the beginning of the
new year in SLD preventive classes. This was before year-round programs came into ex-
istence. With simple extrapolation, however, “the beginning of the new year” is approxi-
mately four months after the commencement of manuscript instruction.
The preventive classes Slingerland envisioned were usually slightly smaller, gen-
eral education classes composed of first-graders whom today would be considered “at
risk” because of their specific language disability profiles. Since the publication of Slin-
gerland’s first textbook, many teachers discovered that they were either required to intro-
duce letters more quickly than Slingerland recommends or they were able to do so quite
easily because of the pre-writing training the children were given in kindergarten. In pri-
vate schools, where parents often have more voice in how their schools are operated, par-
ents often insist that children be moved forward at an accelerated pace even when it is not
in the children’s best interests. Parental requests may be prompted by the knowledge that
their child’s stay at the school will be brief or by other seemingly justifiable reasoning.
Slingerland based her recommendations on an ideal continuum program that she devel-
oped wherein the establishment of solid academic skills in the first grade, including
handwriting, were continued into the next two grades, and then supported in subsequent
grades. At every grade level students were to be instructed by highly trained and skilled
teachers in reasonably sized classes that were not so overwhelming as they often are to-
day.
When considering how many and which manuscript letters should be taught,
teacher judgment is crucial. Teachers must consider class size, age, intelligence, motiva-
tion, and the maturity of their students, as well as the quality and quantity of pre-school
and kindergarten language and motor skill experiences the children were provided, and
the degree and type of specific language disabilities present. The teacher’s ongoing
evaluation of children’s handwriting performance and progress is also important, as well
as subsequent modifications and adjustments to establish and maintain an appropriate
scope and sequence. The key is for students to develop automatic writing skills.
The manuscript letters that Slingerland recommends to be taught at the beginning

of a Slingerland or SLD first grade class are equally appropriate for non-SLD instruction.
The letters are those that are formed similarly but are not easily confused, as well as those
that can be combined readily to construct the first words children encode for spelling. For
example, the manuscript letter l (ell) is best introduced before the more difficult letter k
that requires more complicated letter strokes and lifting the pencil. Although a is a diffi-
cult letter to form, it is essential early because it provides the first vowel, a necessity for
building words.
Not only are the usefulness, simplicity, and similarity of letters important. Equally
important is ease or difficulty of the corresponding graphemes’ phonemes.7 For instance,
h is taught before the more easily formed l (ell) because the \h\ phoneme is easier for
children to feel and enunciate than \l\.
Introducing Letters that Look or Sound Alike

The greater the similarity between and among letters, the greater the possibilty for confu-
sion. Letters that look alike—particularly those that can be easily reversed or inverted—
should not be introduced too closely together, and certainly not in the same lesson. Be
especially careful with the introduction of the following letters:
7
A grapheme is a letter or more than one letter that represents a single sound or phoneme. A phoneme is
the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one utterance from another as \d\ in duck and \oi\ in toil. De-
pending on the dialect, English is comprised of approximately 45 phonemes.
b and d
d and p
p and d
q and p
and sometimes
b and q and d
n and m
h and n
h and y
v and w
w and u
u and v
n and r
In Orton-based programs where the sounds or phonemes for letters or graphemes

are introduced at the same time as letter names and formations, confusion can be avoided
by separating the introduction of letters with similar corresponding phonemes by at least
one lesson, if not several, and with precise instruction. The following letters have corre-
sponding phonemes that are similar and must be taught carefully and separately:
f —\f\ and v —\v\
b —\b\ and p —\p\
k —\k\ and g —\g\
m —\m\ and n —\n\
i —\˛û\ and e —\e*\
o —\o*\ and u —\u*\
The pairs of letters that cause the greatest difficulty are those that are both audito-
rily and visually similar. The introduction of these letters should also be well separated.
b —\b\ and d —\d\
m —\m\ and n —\n\
b —\b\ and p —\p\
e —\e*\ and i —\˛û\
Regarding the usefulness of letters for reading, writing, and spelling, vowels are
the most important. The consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, k, m, n, p, r, s, and t are more
useful than j, qu, z, y, x, v, and w in the early grades.
First Trimester
As shown in table 2–1, the tall letters h, t, l, f, and b, and the vowel a, should be
taught in the first three or four months. When a is introduced in the second month, encod-
ing and spelling can begin shortly thereafter, using words made from just the few letters
introduced to date (bat, hat, lab, tab, fat, flab, blab, etc.). Remember that the
pace for introducing letters to SLD children will be slower than to non-SLD children.
Table 2–1. First Tri- Definitely teach: h, t, l, f

mester: First Group b with special verbalization
of Letters
Maybe teach: a
Perhaps begin: letter-size relationships
As you introduce letters, it is helpful to talk the children through each letter. For
example, while a child or you form the letter h you should both say, “h—down all the
way, up and around, and down.” For letters that are easily reversed, the children should
be taught to help themselves avoid confusions by repeating the special verbalizations de-
veloped by Slingerland and others. Similar verbalizations can be used with numerals as
well, particularly when they are first introduced with patterns.8
The first special verbalization that children learn and say for a longer period of
time than the initial verbalizations for all letters, is for the letter b. After talking through
the formation of b (always taught considerably before d) right-handers should learn to
say, “b—tall stem down, back up, turn out (away) from my body, and around (close to
my body).” Alternatively they may say, “b—tall stem down, up, out (away) from my
body, and around (close to my body).” Left-handers say, “b—tall stem down, turn across
(in front of) my body, and around (close to my body).” Alternatively they may say,
“. . . toward my other hand.” To be consistent with the second alternative for right hand-
ers, left-handers say, “b—tall stem down, up, into my body, and around (close to my
body).”
8
For numerals, see page 65 of Slingerland’s Book 1.
For the letter a, children should say before beginning to write, “a starts a little be-
low the mid-line.”
Instruction of letter-size relationships should also be started early.
As shown in table 2–2, the next group of letters include f, k, c, a, g, m, s, and

the first consonant digraph, ck. Note that f and a may have been introduced in the earlier
group. If a was not introduced earlier, it should be introduced in this group, after c, but
before g and s. The prior introduction of a allows for two verbalizations that help chil-
dren recall direction and formation: “g—round like an a, straight down below the line,
under and up” and “s begins like an a.”
Table 2–2. First Tri- Definitely teach: f, k, c

mester: Second Group a with special verbalization
of Letters
g special verbalization
m
s special verbalization
ck first digraph—introduced in visual cards
a few numerals (with patterns)
letter-size relationships
Perhaps begin: space reduction
Recall that ck is introduced in visual cards first, but only after c and k have been
taught individually in handwriting. All single letters and qu are introduced when their
formations are taught during handwriting instruction (Learning to Write in the Slinger-
land approach). Many words can be formed now that the children have learned three
spellings for the \k\ phoneme.
Also teach spacing between letters. Spacing between the lines that the children
use for writing should be reduced gradually when the children are ready.
Second Trimester
As shown in table 2–3, the vowel i and several more consonants, should be introduced
within three months from the time manuscript instruction commences with an SLD class
and within the first two months with non-SLD students. At the start of an SLD class be-
ginning in September, this means January. In year-round programs, count four months
forward to determine the month in which to introduce i. The other dotted letter, j, should
be taught sometime after i. Both d and p are introduced in the second trimester, but never
in the same lesson because of how readily they are confused. A few additional consonant
digraphs such as sh, ch, and th (all introduced visually first) may be included. The di-
graph th is introduced early for reading and spelling because it is found in several impor-
tant, high-frequency words that children are exposed to in the first grade (the, this, then,
than, that, them, those, these, they, both, with, three).
Table 2–3. Second Definitely teach: space reduction

Trimester of an SLD more numerals
Grade One and First
letter-size
Trimester of a Non-
SLD Grade One
i
d with special verbalization
p separated from d by several lessons; use
verbalizations
Maybe teach: sh
ch separated from sh by several lessons
th
Perhaps teach: j, w, wh
Practice: letter groupings
Maybe include: the ing grouping
Then maybe teach: the first capital (perhaps T)
Cautiously, if at all e (no phoneme)
for writing:
In Chapter 4, Auditory Presentations, we discuss how the frequency of graph-

emes, such as wh, th, and ph, influences when they should be introduced. If an occasion
necessitates teaching w, then the digraph wh can be introduced subsequently. Like th,
wh should be introduced relatively early because of its frequency in important and useful
words (where, why, when, who, and what). Other letter groupings commonly used in
writing, encoding, and spelling include two-letter beginning consonant blends (bl, cl, fl,
gl, sl, pl, br, cr, dr, fr, gr, tw, pr, tr, sc, sk, sm, sn, sp, st, and sw) and two-letter ending
consonant blends (ld, nd, st, lf, lk, lp, lt, sk, mp, sp, ct, ft, nt, and pt). The first suffix, ing,
can now be introduced. In her guide for teachers, Beverly Wolf (Wolf, 1982), recom-
mends that ing be taught six months into the first grade. You can introduce the first
manuscript capital letter as needed for writing. It could, for instance, be the capital at the
beginning of your students’ names, an address, or the name of their school.
When teaching d, to counteract visual confusion between b and d, both right-

handers and left-handers create a multisensory differentiation as they say, “d—round like
an a, tall stem up, straight (or pulled) down to the line.”
When teaching p, to avoid confusion with b and d, right-handers say, “p—stem

below the bottom (or writing) line, up (to the midline), out from my body, and around.”
Left-handers say, “p—stem below the bottom (or writing) line, up (to the midline), into
my body, and around.”
If needed, you can introduce the letter e for writing only, as explained in the fol-
lowing section.
Grade One SLD Third Trimester or Non-SLD Second Trimester

As shown in table 2–4, some of the remaining commonly used consonants may already
have been introduced as needed. They include n, m, and r. If they were not introduced
previously, introduce them now, as well as the vowel u, but during different lessons. Re-
maining consonants to be introduced as needed are v, x, y, and z. The digraph qu re-
quires special teaching9 and is sometimes not taught in a first grade SLD class, where the
children are struggling with the automaticity of the other letters previously presented.
When it is taught, the following verbalization is helpful.
Right-handed children say, “qu—goes round like an a, stem below the line, out
(away) from my body to the u.” Left-handers say, “qu—goes round like an a, stem below
the line, across (in front of) my body to the u.”
The next vowels to be introduced are o, first, and e, last. As noted, however, e,
the most frequently used letter in the English language, may be introduced earlier for
writing only—not for sounding out in spelling with SLD children. The letter e increases
the number of suffixes that can be used, including ed, er, and est. Be reminded that er
is a phonogram as well as a common suffix. In Instructional Sequence for SLD Class-
9
Experienced Slingerland teacher, Barbara Sterling, finds that a nice way to teach little children to remem-
ber the qu formations—particularly the direction of the q—is to help them conceptually by explaining that
since q and u are best friends, q is always reaching out to hold u’s hand.
rooms (Wolf, 1982), Wolf recommends that the suffix er be taught in April and ed in
May. In year-round programs, this translates to the final few weeks of the first grade.
Table 2–4. Grade If not taught previously: ch, sh, th, w, wh

One SLD Third letter groupings including ing
Trimester or Non-
first capital letter (perhaps T)
SLD Second Trimes-
ter
m (keep separate from n), n, r, u
Gradually teach: v, x, y, z, o
Perhaps for writing: e
Practice: suffixes with e (er, es, ed,
est for more advanced students)
Practice combinations
introduced visually: ing, ang, ung, ong
Perhaps practice: ink, ank, unk, onk
Practice phonograms
introduced visually: oa or ee
Perhaps, if introduced,
practice: oo, ai, ay, ar, ou, er
Practice other common beginning and ending blends
groupings: a word family (old or ind)
non-phonetic spellings
Maybe teach: e, eng, qu
And a few more com-
mon capitals: T, A, I, S
The phoneme for e should not be taught until all the other, less difficult short
vowels have been introduced. However, definitely teach non-SLD classes the letter e
with its corresponding key word and phoneme before the end of the first grade. You can
also teach e to accelerated SLD classes.
Other letter groupings to be practiced in preparation for encoding and written

spelling include the first phonograms10 usually taught, oa and ee. The sequence for the
10
Using Slingerland’s definition, diphthongs and vowel digraphs are phonograms; a diphthong is a speech
sound made by gliding from one vowel to another in a syllable, such as oi in oil. A vowel digraph consists
of any two vowels adjacent to each that produce one phoneme (ai, ey, ee, etc.). A phonogram is a diph-
thong or vowel digraph.
presentation of phonograms is discussed more fully in visual cards where they are intro-
duced. Capital manuscript letters should be taught as needed, especially when your chil-
dren begin to write phrases and short sentences. Punctuation must be taught too. Patterns
for teaching the formation of exclamation and question marks are optional. Capital manu-
script letters that are often introduced first are T, A, I, and S. Manuscript capitals that
children typically have more difficulty learning are D, K, Y, Z, and Qu. Less frequently
used capitals are Z, X, and Qu.
In selecting capital manuscript letters to be taught, consider both their frequency

or usefulness and similarity of formation compared to their corresponding lowercase let-
ters. Capital X, although similar to its lowercase form, would not be one of the first capi-
tals to be taught because it is not a capital that young children have occasion to use often,
if at all. On the other hand, capital S is both useful and formed similarly to lowercase s.
Other lower and uppercase formations that are similar are w–W, c–C, k–K, o–O, p–P,
and u–U. Less frequent similar pairs are v–V, x–X, and z–Z. To a lesser degree of simi-
larity are f–F, m–M, n–N, j–J, t–T, y–Y, l–L, and i–I. The remaining letter pairs of
the alphabet are dissimilar.
Thus far there has been no discussion of letter combinations.11 Wolf recommends
that ing and ang letter groupings be taught shortly after the letter i is introduced, and
likewise, ung after u, ong after o, and eng after e. The suffix ing is an especially useful
letter grouping to practice. Interspersed in the introduction of letter combinations are the
first phonograms.12 Remember, phonograms and letter combinations are introduced visu-
ally. They can be practiced and reviewed as letter groupings in handwriting. The next let-
ter combinations to include are ink, ank, unk, and onk.
Similar to letter combinations are word families.13 In word family words, as used
throughout this book, it is usually the vowel that has an unexpected phoneme. In one of
the first word families introduced, old, it is expected that o would be short, \o*\, because
11
A letter combination, as used here and throughout this book, is a group of letters which, when combined,
makes a sound (phoneme) which differs from the individual sounds of its letters, as in ink, ang, and tion.
12
Using Slingerland’s definition, a phonogram is a diphthong or vowel digraph. A digraph is a combina-
tion of two letters that express a simple sound such as \th\ or \ooB\.
13
In word family words, usually the vowel has an unexpected phoneme. For example, in ind word family
words, it is expected that the vowel i followed by two consonants in a closed syllable would be pronounced
\˛û\ instead of \˛â\.
of the vcc14 pattern forming a closed syllable. Contrarily, o is long, \o@\. Because of its
frequency in common words (old, cold, hold), it must be introduced early and thus in-
cluded as a letter grouping to be practiced and reviewed in penmanship.
Mention must be made about red flag or non-phonetic words discussed more fully
in Chapter 4, Auditory Presentations. Such words are often copied and traced because
they cannot be sounded out phonetically. More difficult letter groupings within these
words should be practiced during handwriting instruction to ensure that when children
study them for spelling they will be able to concentrate on spelling rather than on how the
letters are formed. This is an example of what is meant by integration within the daily
lesson plan.
Reviewing Manuscript Formations

There should be constant reviews of letters arranged in groupings that begin with similar
strokes. For example, tall letters that begin with a downward stroke should be grouped: l,
h, b, k, t, and perhaps f, with a special reminder about how it differs in formation from
the other tall letters. Other letters that make a good grouping for review are: g, j, p, y,
and, if taught, qu; for all these letters extend below the writing line. With capitals, chil-
dren should be reminded that no manuscript uppercase letters have stems that go beneath
the writing line, whereas some lowercase manuscript letters do (g, j, p, qu, and y).
In review, two- and three-letter groupings that occur in familiar words should be
dictated by the teacher (br, si, aut, ese, etc.). Also, capital–lowercase letter pairs and
lowercase–capital pairs (C–c, M–m, a–A) should be dictated as well as capitals with dif-
ferent lowercase letters (Al, Ca, Th). Whole words can be dictated too and then spelled
aloud letter by letter (will—w-i-l-l or laugh—l-a-u-g-h) for children to write.
LessonPlanner records which letters a user has introduced to individual students

or different classes for handwriting instruction, and provides the introduction status for
all its graphemes and phonemes for each student or class.
14
The v represents the word vowel and c represents the word consonant. When a vowel is followed by at
least one consonant in a syllable, the vowel is usually short (cat, fish, box).
Continuum Manuscript Instruction 27
Continuum Manuscript Instruction

Throughout the first grade “scope and sequence” should be taught without hurdling or
hurrying to reach unattainable and unreasonable goals. Such goals are too frequently
based on preconceived ideas of what children should know and be able to do as they enter
school and as they continue. You are now ready to continue manuscript instruction into
the second half of a regular first grade or into a second grade continuum with SLD chil-
dren. Included will be the following for review, practice, and new learning.
There will obviously be some overlapping between manuscript instruction in the

first grade and that which will be taught in an SLD continuum second year program, or to
non-SLD students in the second half of the first grade. Included in this continuum will be
at least the following for introduction, practice, and review:
♦ review of letter-size relationships

♦ review of all consonants previously taught
♦ review of previously taught vowels
♦ introduction of short e, if not previously introduced
♦ introduction of qu if not taught before
♦ continued reduction of spacing between lines, down to the use of con-
trol paper15 (by the end of the third trimester or earlier)
♦ use of standard sized pencils before the end of the first grade, or the
slightly larger triangular pencils
♦ fewer special verbalizations for a, s, b–d–p, g, and qu
♦ review of the previously taught digraphs (ck, sh, ch, wh, and th) for
the purpose of writing, and continuation of new digraphs and trigraphs
as they are introduced visually. See the discussion of visual cards in
Chapter 3.
15
Control paper, sometimes referred to as split binder paper, is paper of varying sizes with dotted lines
between the base writing line and the top line to assist students with sizing letters. The dotted line replaces
a mid-line. Students write lower-case letters, such as a, between the base line and the dotted line and tall
letters, such as l, through the dotted line, up to the top line, back down to the base line crossing at the dotted
line.
♦ review of previously taught capital letters and continued introduction of

new capital letter formations, as needed
♦ review of the previously taught letters in common suffixes (ing, ed, s,
es, er)
♦ practice writing letter groupings in previously taught and new suffixes
for use in spelling, such as able, ful, est, less, ness, y, ment, and
ly, as needed
♦ review of letter groupings in common phonograms (oa, ee, and maybe
ai, ay, oo or ou)
♦ addition of letter groupings in new phonograms such as ar, er,16 eigh,
ey, ea and v–e (vce or vce syllables)
♦ review of previously taught groupings in the letter combinations ing,
ang, ung, ong, and for new ones (eng, ink, ank, unk, and onk)
♦ review of numerals
♦ review of letters grouped according to the similarity of their beginning
strokes (two o’clock letters that begin where the “2” is on a clock, tall
letters that are two spaces high, hill letters that curve like hills, etc.)
♦ punctuation marks, as needed in writing, and possibly quotation marks
and comma formations
♦ practice of letter groupings with difficult formations for the study of
word families (old, ind, ign) and non-phonetic words (was, said,
laugh)
♦ review of letters with similar formations; for example, the 2 o’clock let-
ters—c, a, d, g, qu, o)
♦ review of capitals or lowercase letters (F–f, A–a, and G–g) and capi-
tals with lowercase letters (Al, Ca, Th)
For the preceding continuum instruction, Slingerland’s second textbook, Book 2,
(Slingerland, 1976) is recommended for its detailed instructional procedures, techniques,
rationales, and more.
16
In most Orton-based programs ar and er are distinguished from the other phonograms by being referred
to as r-controlled syllables rather than phonograms. Slingerland includes all the r-contolled syllables (ar,
er, ir, or, ur, yr, ear, and our) with the phonograms (ai, oa, eigh, etc.).
Considerations for a Cursive Scope and Sequence in Grade 3 and Beyond 29
Considerations for a Cursive Scope and Sequence in Grade 3 and

Beyond
In an ideal educational world, first grade children are taught manuscript handwriting so
expertly that by the second grade they are ready to put to functional use their handwriting
skills, as tools for spelling, dictation, and propositional and creative writing. Theoreti-
cally, all that is then required at the beginning of a second grade continuum is a review of
handwriting from the previous year before new instruction begins. Finally, by the third
year, cursive handwriting can be taught with alacrity because the students were provided
such an excellent foundation.
The foundation includes the Preliminary Considerations for handwriting for stu-
dents: how to position their chairs, where to place and slant their papers, and how to hold
and use their pencils correctly. It also includes techniques for tracing new letters at the
blackboard and tracing permanent patterns, first with two fingers and then with the blunt
end of the pencil, while simultaneously naming the letters. If the students are secure with
letter-size relationships and other techniques from their manuscript training, then they can
begin immediately with expendable cursive patterns. Often, only a few permanent pat-
terns are needed. Expendable patterns are large letter patterns that are traced and simulta-
neously named while being copied, and finally written from memory before new forma-
tions are practiced and reviewed. See Slingerland’s Book 3 (Slingerland, 1981) for a de-
tailed description of cursive handwriting instruction.
If a solid manuscript handwriting foundation has been taught, cursive letters can
be introduced with greater scope, i.e., with more letters introduced daily, and preferably
using a sequence similar to that presented in this chapter. You must use your judgment as
a teacher to determine how quickly to proceed. You will do this best if you weigh in the
factors of age, intelligence, drive, maturity, the number of students in your class, grade
level, quality and quantity of previous handwriting instruction, the degree and kind of
specific language disabilities of your students, and most important, how quickly and well
your pupils are learning handwriting based on their performance during handwriting in-
struction and during instruction of other subjects in which the focus is not on handwrit-
ing, but where handwriting is required.
If possible, at the beginning of cursive instruction, writing should be limited dur-

ing the instruction of other subjects for at least the first month to allow all students time
to secure new cursive skills correctly.
The Introduction of Cursive Handwriting

Cursive letters with similar formations, particularly similar beginning strokes, are often
taught in the same lesson, and are put to functional use quickly. The simplest formations
should be taught first. For example, the cursive letter l should be introduced before the
more difficult letter f that requires writing beneath the base (writing) line. The letter h
should follow the letter l because it is only slightly more difficult to form than l.
First Three or Four Cursive Lessons

As shown in table 2–5, in the first lessons, plan to introduce, practice, and review simi-
larly formed, two-spaced, tall, looped letters l, h, k, f, or b, and the first vowel a, if
the vowel is to be used soon in blending or spelling. If not, be cognizant that both f and b
are more difficult to form than l, h, or k. With some students and classes, depending on
the factors previously discussed, you might wish to hold off teaching either b or f until
the end of the first set of three or four lessons.
Table 2–5. First Definitely teach: l, h, k

Three or Four Cur-
sive Lessons Maybe teach: b or f, with verbalizations
To begin encoding
or spelling, teach: a
Teach: letter-size and spacing relationships
In Slingerland teacher training programs, at least four letters are usually taught
daily. However, two of those are taught by the demonstration or master teacher while the
other two are taught by the teacher participants to the student or students with whom they
are practicing the techniques demonstrated earlier by the master teacher. Normally, you
would introduce no more than two letters a day. In lengthy tutorial sessions, with students
working at more advanced or sophisticated levels, all or most of the letters listed above
might be introduced in one lesson. With larger classes, it might be possible to teach l and
h, or only l, the first day; followed by k and f, or only b, the next day; and so on.
Before writing b, right-handers will be helped to avoid confusion with d, f, and
p if they say, “b˛—tall loop up (like an l˛˛), down, turn out from my body, up, and out.”
The Introduction of Cursive Handwriting 31
Left-handers say, “b˛—tall loop up (like an l˛˛), down, turn across my body, up, and out.”
(For slight verbalization variations, see Slingerland’s Book 1 (Slingerland, 1971) and
Book 3 (Slingerland, 1981) verbalizations for avoiding handwriting confusions.)
It is not advisable to introduce b, d, and f, or p on the same day. To help avoid

b and f similarity confusion, right-handed students benefit from saying, “f—up like an l,
down below the line, turn out from my body, up, and out.” Left-handers say, “f—up like
an l, down below the line, turn across my body, up, and out.” Refer to Slingerland’s
textbooks for other variations of verbalizations to help avoid letter confusions.
As shown in table 2–6, continue to introduce, practice, and review the looped,
two-spaced letters. If you did not introduce b in the last lesson, teach students how to
remind themselves about the formation of the letter b because it is not only easily con-
fused visually with the letter f, but also with d, p, and q.
Table 2–6. Second Definitely teach: f

Several Cursive Les-
sons Perhaps teach: b with verbalization
Teach: c
a (if not previously taught)
common connections (ck, ll, ta)
difficult connections with patterns (bþ˛, bÎ)
d with verbalization
Perhaps teach: t
g (not with d˛ )
Introduce with ex-
treme caution: e (for writing only—not spelling)
If l, h, k, f, b have all been introduced, the next letters to consider for in-
and
troduction should be a and c, ideally in the same lesson because of their similarity. Of
the two, c should be introduced first in terms of letter formation, but a is often taught
before c because it is needed to begin encoding and spelling. The letters c and a are of-
ten called two-o’clock letters because they start where the “2” is located on the face of a
clock, and they are formed counterclockwise. Other two-o’clock letters to introduce soon
thereafter, but on different days, are g and d.
The letters b and d should not be introduced in the same lesson because they are
easily reversed by both younger and older students. Similarly, it is advisable not to teach
g and d together; they are easily reversed and/or inverted. When teaching d, Slingerland
recommends another verbalization to help avoid reversing d with b. Both right-handers
and left-handers say, “d—round like an a, straight up, down, and out.”
With students who will soon begin to encode and spell, the one remaining tall, but
not looped letter, t, might now be introduced to increase the number and kind of words
that can to be encoded or spelled containing only the letters taught to date.
Introduce the letter e if your students are in an Orton-based continuum program.

The letter e, the most frequently used letter in the English language, is needed for writ-
ing. The cursive e formation is similar to that of l except it is half its size. If, however,
key words and phonemes are being taught at the beginning of instruction, e should defi-
nitely not be introduced until your students are secure with the other, less difficult to
learn single vowels. You will be able to introduce e earlier to non-SLD students—as pre-
viously discussed.
Finally, teach and practice letter connections. Use common connections, particu-
larly letter connections that are required when writing at other times throughout the day.
Patterns are recommended for the more difficult connections, such as bÎ and bþ˛, after b
is taught.
Second and Third Weeks of Cursive Instruction

If l, h, k, b, f, a, c, d, and g have been introduced, practiced, reviewed, and
integrated into encoding or spelling, the letter iË is the next vowel to be taught in most
Orton-based programs, as shown in table 2–7. With the introduction of the letter iË the
beginning upward stroke that is used to start the cursive letters j, r, s, u, t, w, the eas-
ier, unlooped p formation, and the y formation that begins like u, is introduced. The
letters r and s occur more frequently than j; therefore, they are good choices at this
point. If there is time for only s or r, remember that s increases the number of words
that can be spelled more than r, for s is used both as a plural and third person singular
inflection.
Table 2–7. Second Definitely teach: t, g, s, iË

and Third Weeks of
Cursive Perhaps teach: r, j, cŒ (first digraph, introduced visually first)
Teach: common and difficult connections such as b²,
b±, b¨Ë – some with patterns.
It is important to try to integrate the day’s handwriting instruction with what is

expected to be written at different times during the day. Referring again to the ending s,
if it had been recently noted or discussed in reading, then including it in spelling would
be timely, and the choice between teaching r versus s would be intelligently confirmed.
The first consonant digraph cŒ is usually taught around this time. Recall that cŒ
is introduced in visual cards first, and that all single letters, including qÊ, are introduced
when their formations are taught during Learning to Write in the Slingerland approach.
When cŒ has been introduced, more words can be formed, for now you have given your
students three spellings for the \k\ phoneme. The cŒ connection requires penmanship
practice and review.
Third or Fourth Week of Cursive Instruction for an SLD Class or Slightly

Earlier for Non-SLD
As shown in table 2–8, during this period the third vowel, u, is usually introduced as well
as the remaining letters that begin with the same upward stroke as iË and u.17 At the same
time, introduce a few easier digraphs—sÝ and cÝ in separate lessons, and w§—each
with only one key word and phoneme provided. Teach tÝ with two key words—one to
represent the unvoiced phoneme, as in thimble, \th\, and the other for the voiced \th\ pho-
neme as in these. (Remember, digraphs are usually introduced in visual cards and prac-
ticed in handwriting.) The digraph tÝ is introduced early for reading and spelling be-
cause it is found in several important, high-frequency words that children are exposed to
at the beginning of reading (the, this, then, than, that, them, those, these, they, both, with,
and three). The digraph w§, like tÝ, should also be introduced early because of its fre-
17
Phyllis Bertin and Eileen Perlman, authors of the Orton-based program entitled Preventing Academic
Failure (Bertin and Perlman, 1980), use the descriptive term rocket letters for these letters; they look as if
they are taking off.
quency in important, useful words (where, why, when, who, and what). Penmanship prac-
tice and review of these digraph connections is essential.
Table 2–8. Third or Teach letters perhaps

Fourth Week of Cur-
not introduced previ-
sive Instruction for
an SLD Class or ously: j, r
Slightly Earlier for Definitely teach:
Non-SLD
cŒ (visually first), u, w
Perhaps teach: sÝ, p (verbalization)
Practice and review
digraph connections: cÝ, tÝ, w§
Practice: easy and difficult connections such as b´,
w§, wÎ, w±, w¨Ë – some with patterns
See further discussion for scope and sequence of digraphs and trigraphs in Chap-
ters 3 and 4 on visual and auditory cards, respectively, and in LessonPlanner. Refer to
visual cards for how cŒ, often the first digraph to be taught, is introduced as the third
spelling for the \k\ phoneme.
When teaching p, right-handed students should say, “p—up to the midline, down
below the writing line, up to the midline, round out from my body, and out.” For slight
variations refer to the manuscript instructions of this chapter. Left-handers should say,
“p—up to the midline, down below the writing line, up to the midline, round across my
body, and out.”
End of the First and Start of the Second Month of Cursive for an SLD Class
or Slightly Earlier for Non-SLD
As shown in table 2–9, during this period, you should introduce the fourth vowel, o, as
well as qÊ, that begin with the same two-o’clock formation as the previously taught a, c,
d, and g; qu requires careful teaching. The q is not taught without u following it, for q
does not appear in English words without u. The adjacent u acts as a consonant (most
frequently with the \w\ sound rather than the short \u*\ phoneme). When teaching the di-
graph qÊ, remind right-handed students that both qÊ and f have stems below the writing
line that turn out from their bodies. For left-handers, qÊ and f have stems that turn
across their bodies.
Right-handed students say, “qÊ—round like an a, stem below the line, turn out
from my body, up, and out.” (Again, consistent variations are acceptable.) Left-handed
students say, “qÊ—round like an a, stem below the line, turn across my body, up, and
out.”
At this point, or even a bit earlier, you can review in writing additional digraphs
and even a trigraph—pÝ and t„Ý, respectively—after they are introduced visually.
Also, begin to gradually introduce cursive capital letters, especially to students in

Orton-based programs that require writing sentences to put to functional use, words that
are encoded or spelled. One of the earliest capitals to introduce is T, followed by per-
haps A or W or H, again, as needed. I requires careful instruction since its beginning
stroke, to the left and upward, is unusual. The only other capital that begins in the same
direction is J. More manuscript upper- and lowercase letters are formed similarly than
cursive letters because most cursive capitals, excepting for G, I, S, and J, begin on the
top writing line while all lowercase letters begin on the base writing line. Only cursive s–
S are somewhat similar, both beginning on the base line. Therefore, similarity cannot be
used to help determine which cursive capitals to teach as it does in manuscript instruc-
tion.
Table 2–9. End of Practice grapheme connections re-

First and Start of
the Second Month maining from previous lessons: sÝ, cÝ, tÝ, w§
of Cursive for an
SLD Class or Ear- Definitely teach: p, o, qÊ (verbalization)
lier for Non-SLD
First capitals: T, A, W, or H
Gradually add more capitals.
Lowercase difficult connections: b®, o¨Ë, o³, o¡, o®, o£, etc.
Uppercase with lowercase connec- Al, Wh, Th, Ho, etc.
tions:
If introduced visually first, practice

and review digraph connection: pÝ
and trigraph connection: t„Ý
Capital connections must also be taught at this time (Th, AÒ, Ho, etc.) Be sure
to point out that J, Z, and Y all go beneath the writing line in cursive. Other capital cur-
sive letters that are typically introduced early are D,L, F, S, and M. Cursive capitals
that students often have the most difficulty learning are D, E, G, I, J, Qu, and Z. Less
frequently used capitals, introduced later, are Z, Qu, U, and X.
Completing Lowercase Cursive by the End of the Second Month or Earlier

for Non-SLD
As shown in table 2–10, cursive instruction in the first month with students who are re-
sponding with relative ease, or well into the second month for slower moving classes,
should include letters that begin the way n begins—referred to as hill letters in some
programs. Both m and n could have been introduced earlier if there had been a need for
more words with them in encoding and spelling. For example, the addition of the letter n
gives the possibility of introducing the first letter combinations in visual cards, the di-
graph kÐ, and the suffix iËÐÜ in spelling. The letter m increases the number of avail-
able one-syllable words that end in two or more consonants (limp, bump, stamp). Other
letters you can introduce that begin like n and m
v, x, z, and one of the two
include
accepted y formations. (The other common y begins like a u.)
Table 2–10. Complet- Definitely teach: n, m, e

ing Lowercase Cur-
sive by the End of the Gradually teach: v, y, z, x
Second Month or
Earlier for Non-SLD Teach, practice, and letter connections
review: bridge connections, some with patterns (où,
v¨Ë, w², etc.)
letter combinations (iËÐÜ, oùÜ, aÐÜ, uÐÜ)
Perhaps practice and more advanced letter combination connec-

review: tions (eÐÜ, iËÐŒ, aÐŒ, oùŒ, uÐŒ, kÐ)
Practice: phonogram connections (v-e, oÎ, o´,

eŠËÜÝ, etc.)
letter connections for affixes and non-
phonetic spellings
As needed, teach: more capitals and punctuation

Review of Cursive 37
Students should be taught that the cursive letter m has three downstrokes
whereas n has two. This helps avoid the confusion that occurs when students attempt to
count the number of humps when identifying or forming an m or n. Counting humps
works most of the time but not when m is connected with a preceding o, one of the four
cursive letters that end on the midline (b, o, v, and w). The most common of these are
the letter connections oò and où, where the first hump is not really distinguishable as
such.
Mention must be made again regarding red flag or non-phonetic words that are
learned by copying and tracing them. The more difficult connections in these words
should be practiced during handwriting instruction. This ensures that when students study
spelling they can focus on how the words are spelled rather than on how the letters in the
words are formed and connected. This is an example of the importance of integration
within the daily lesson. Integration is equally important as letter combinations (iËÐÜ,
aÐÜ, uÐÜ, oùÜ, eÐÜ, iËÐŒ, aÐŒ, uÐŒ, oùŒ, tŠËÑù, sŠËÑù, tÊÕÚ), phonograms (oÎ,
eÚ, aŠË, aš, o®, o´, aÕ, eÕ, eŠËÜÝ, eš, e‚, v-e), and affixes (e…, s, eÂ, eÕ, aƒþÚ, fÊÒ,
eÂ•, lÚÂÂ, y, mÚÐ•, lš and rÚ, dŠËÂ, uÐ, iËÒ, cÑù, pÕÚ, pÕÑ, dÚ, etc.) are included
for writing, as well as capitals, capital connections, and common connections in blends,
starting with two-letter beginning and ending consonant blends, as follow: bþ,
cÒ, fÒ, gÒ,
sÒ, pÒ, b±, cÕ, dÕ, fÕ, gÕ, t˜, pÕ, tÕ, s„, sŒ, s¿, sÐ, sÓ, s•, s˜, and l…, n…,
s•, lÛ, lŒ, lÓ, l•, sŒ, mÓ, sÓ, c•, f•, n•, and p•. In brief, integrate!
Definitely introduce the vowel e for spelling as well as writing.
Finally, remember that the pace will be far swifter in non-SLD classes or in indi-
vidual tutoring than it will be in SLD classes or some tutoring sessions.
Review of Cursive
As with manuscript, you should constantly review letters arranged in groupings that be-
gin with similar strokes. For example, all the letters that begin with the two o’clock
stroke should be grouped together for review: c, a, g, o, and qu. Remind your students
that every stroke begins on the writing line and most go toward the right as they are
formed; just four letters end on the midline (b, v, w, and o); and few uppercase cursive
letters go beneath the writing line (J, Y, and Z).
In review, dictate two- and three-letter connections that occur in words (b±, s¿,
aÊ•, eÚÐ, etc.). Also review mixed capitals and lowercase letters (F–f, A–a, G–g) and
capitals with lowercase letters (AÒ, C‚, Th). Whole words can be dictated and then
spelled aloud letter by letter; for example, “will—w-i-l-l” or “laugh—l-a-u-g-h” for stu-
dents to write.
What Else to Teach with Patterns

Patterns may be used when teaching musical notations, arithmetic signs, geometric fig-
ures, shorthand notations, scientific symbols, abbreviations, typical key-board symbols,
or any other two-dimensional figures that students must write or draw for various sub-
jects, as well as letter formations, numbers, and punctuation.
Handwriting Practice and Review (Manuscript and Cursive)

Practicing new letters occurs in Slingerland instruction immediately after all the letters in
a given lesson have been introduced. Practice is for the kinesthetic feel, rhythmic flow,
alignment, correct use of letter-size relationships, and correct groupings in manuscript
and connections in cursive. Letters are most frequently practiced on the back of expend-
able patterns, on newsprint folded in the same way, and then on nine-fold newsprint. All
letters introduced in a day’s lesson are practiced before moving on to Review of Letters.
Reviewing letters occurs after Practice of New Letters in Slingerland and after the
introduction of letter formations in other handwriting programs. It includes the review of
previously taught lowercase and uppercase letters with letter groupings in manuscript and
connections in cursive. Integration is especially important: letters that will be written
elsewhere during the day in blends, digraphs, letter combinations, phonograms, non-
phonetic words, affixes, and as numerals and punctuation should be reviewed in hand-
writing instruction.
To incorporate Slingerland’s Practice of New Letters and Review of Letters into a

handwriting program, it is recommended that teachers use her Book 1 for manuscript and
Book 3 for cursive instruction in programs for SLD students. For students without spe-
cific language disability (Slingerland and Aho, 1985) are recommended as well as the
accompanying duplicator masters. The detailed coverage of every aspect of teaching
handwriting, including practice and review, in these books is impressive.
3
Visual Presentations
What Are Visual Presentations?
Visual presentations begin with alphabet cards and are followed by decoding and then
reading. Movement progresses from the smallest units of sight, sound, and feel in visual
cards to slightly larger units, words for decoding, and finally to the largest units, text for
reading.
Visual cards provide a time for students—and teachers—to learn and practice
with simultaneous visual-auditory-kinesthetic association graphemes that are put to func-
tional use in acquiring the skills of language, including decoding and reading. Visual card
introduction, review, and practice are essential in establishing the foundation for the se-
quential development of subsequent visual presentations.
A Comparison of Orton-Gillingham and Slingerland Use of

Visual Cards
In many Orton-based instructional programs, consonants and vowels are introduced with
cards visually. In Slingerland, the name and formation of each consonant, including the
digraph qu and single vowels, are introduced in the section of the daily lesson called
Learning to Write, described in Chapter 2. In most Orton-based programs, including
Slingerland, digraphs (ch, kn, wr, etc.), trigraphs (tch, dge, sch, etc.), letter combinations
(ang, ink, tion, etc.), phonograms (ai, oi, a-e, etc.), consonant-le syllables (ble, gle, stle,
etc.), and ligatures (du, tu, etc.)1 are introduced as graphemes on visual cards before they
are identified in words to be decoded.
1
A ligature is two letters together (tu, du, di) that make a sound which is different from the expected blend
of their individual sounds; for example, /joob/ in graduate rather than grad-u-ate.
39
40 Chapter 3: Visual Presentations
The terms used to identify the different types of graphemes differ somewhat from
program to program. For instance, in Slingerland, tle, gle, and stle are referred to as si-
lent-e syllables whereas in most other Orton-based programs they are called consonant-le
syllables. This book uses the abbreviated term C-le syllables.
Precisely how each grapheme is introduced differs, too. A Slingerland teacher ex-
poses a card showing the grapheme to be introduced and says, “This is the letter (phono-
gram, letter combination, etc.)” and names it; then names the key word and the sound the
grapheme makes. For example, when introducing the digraph ch, the teacher says, “This
is (the digraph) ch - chair - \ch\.” With older students, the term digraph is included.
While looking at the card, students form the letter(s) in the air while simultane-
ously naming it, name the key word, and then the corresponding phoneme (sound). For
example, after the teacher introduces the digraph ch, students form the letters c and h in
the air while saying, “ch”, and then, “chair - \ch\.”
In traditional Orton-Gillingham instruction, the teacher introduces oa to a slightly

more advanced student by saying, “This is the diphthong oa; it says \o@\ as in boat.” The
student then says, “oa - \o@\ - boat” and often writes oa, or the student says, “oa - boat -
\o@\˛ ” before writing it.
An Orton-Gillingham Program
Table 3–1 through table 3–6 show the sequence for the introduction of graphemes used in
the Massachusetts General Hospital Boston Program of Education in Therapy for Spe-
cific Reading Disability. This program adheres more to the original instructional program
developed by Orton, Gillingham, and Stillman than those that have been augmented or
adapted from the original and are referred to as Orton-based in this text. Individual
graphemes are listed together with key words for the corresponding phonemes that are
then carried over into decoding and spelling. The order of introduction is prescribed
within several Levels. Students progress gradually from one level to the next.
Table 3–1. Orton- a - apple h - hat m - man

Gillingham Level I—
Group I
b - boy i - Indian p - pan
c - cat j - jam t - top
f - fun k - kite
Sequencing Differences in Orton-Based Programs 41
Letters and other graphemes are introduced with visual cards in two groups, as
shown in table 3–1 and table 3–2.
Table 3–2. Orton- g - goat ch - chin y - yes

Gillingham Level I—
Group II
o - octopus e - elephant v - van
r - rat s - sun z - zebra
l - lamp sh - ship a-e safe, lake
n - nut d - dog e-e these, Eve, Pete
th - thumb w - wind i-e pine, pipe
u - umbrella wh - whistle o-e home, cone
u-e mute, cube
Sequencing Differences in Orton-Based Programs

The Slingerland program differs only slightly from the Orton-Gillingham program at
Boston Mass General Hospital or from most Orton-based programs, with respect to its
sequence for the introduction of graphemes. The letters l, d, s, and g are usually intro-
duced slightly earlier in Slingerland because they are taught in Learning to Write, where
there is greater emphasis on how letters are formed. Other differences are logical conse-
quences. For example, once l is introduced, it is logical to follow with the introduction of
similarly formed letters (h, b, k, etc.). Once c is introduced, it is logical to follow with the
introduction of d and g.
Once individual letters have been introduced, Slingerland and Orton-Gillingham

instruction become much more alike in their progression for the introduction of graph-
emes. Some of the Level II graphemes shown in table 3–3 may just as easily be intro-
duced later, while several of the Level III graphemes shown in table 3–4 may be intro-
duced slightly earlier, depending on need. For example, in Orton-Gillingham Level II, ey
- valley - \e@\, could be introduced later, whereas oi - oil and oy - boy might be introduced
earlier in Slingerland.
Finally, the graphemes which remain to be taught using visual cards have been
compiled into an Advanced Gillingham Checklist by Helaine M. Schupack, as shown in
table 3–6. This list is given to teacher trainees in the Boston Mass General Program, and
is used by Schupack in her own advanced Orton-based training course offered at the Cen-
ter for Neuro-psychology and Learning Disorders in Rhode Island.2
Table 3–3. Orton- e - he ay - play oe - toe

Gillingham Level II
o - go ee - feed ow - snow
ang, ing, ong, ung ea - eat ed - rented
ank, ink, onk, unk ck - black ed - jumped
y - my ar - car ed - sailed
x - box or - horn oo - food
qu - queen ind, old, ost, ild oo - book
tch - catch oa - boat ow - plow
y - candy er - her ey - valley
ai - sail ur - burn ou - out, ouch
all - all family ir - bird
Table 3–4. Orton- oi - boil ea - steak tion - station

Gillingham Level III
oy - boy a - baby sion - mission
igh - light e - erase sion - television
ie - piece i - spider c - \s\ before e, i, y
ie - pie o - pony g - \j\ before e, i, y
ph - phone u - music au - August
ea - bread a - Alaska aw - saw
ou - soup
Table 3–5. Orton- consonant-le eigh - eight dge - fudge

Gillingham Level IV
ew - few ue - rescue ei - ceiling
ew - grew ue - true ei - vein
eu – Europe
2
475 Lloyd Ave., Providence, RI 02906.
Rationale for Visual Card Scope and Sequence 43
Table 3–6. Advanced ear - \Er\ ligature d - \j\ endings

Gillingham Checklist our - \Er\ ligature t - \ch\ -ary, ory, ery
ard - \Erd\ ci - \sh\ -able
rr ti - \sh\ -ible
ough - \o$\ -cian - \shEn\ -al, -el
ough - \oob\ -ive -ant, -ance
ough - \ou\ -ine -ent, -ence
ough - \o@\ -ce, -ise -ic, -ics, -ical
ough - \u*f\ Greek medial y -icle
ough - \o$f\ -gue - \g\ -cede, -ceed, -sede
augh - \o$\ -que - \k\ -ist, -est
ou - \E\ -mb, -mn -ess
ui -th/the -ous, -us
eo wr
ai - \e*\ or \u*\ kn
i - \e@\ gn
-age - \˛ûj\ homonyms
-ion - \yEn\
Rationale for Visual Card Scope and Sequence

The scope and sequence presented here is compatible with most Orton-based programs,
including Slingerland, and is also implemented in LessonPlanner. LessonPlanner, ini-
tially developed specifically for Slingerland teachers, was strongly Slingerland based and
thus immediately applicable to the Slingerland approach. Subsequent versions of Lesson-
Planner were developed for a broader audience of teachers and are adaptable for use by
most Orton-based instructors. If you are a whole language or meaning-emphasis teacher
with phonics training, you will find the scope and sequence presented herein beneficial
when developing phonics and spelling programs tailored to augment and enhance your
own reading program or other similar, current programs.
The purpose here is to recommend an order (sequence) for introducing graph-

emes, with cards, as well as to recommend how many graphemes (the scope) should be
introduced and reviewed during instruction. Scope and sequence depends on whether in-
struction is to an individual student in tutoring, to a small group, or to a class. Variations
in scope and sequence are also influenced by student grade level, age, maturity, educa-
tional background, degree and extent of any learning disabilities—especially within the
visual modality—intelligence, and current achievement levels, particularly in reading and
spelling.
All of these factors are important to the rationale upon which a scope and se-
quence for visual cards can be recommended to ensure success. Visual cards contain the
smallest units of sight, sound, and feel that lead to the next larger units—words for de-
coding—and to yet larger units—phrases, sentences, paragraphs, a page, a chapter, and
ultimately, books with stories, poetry, news articles, recipes, jokes, fiction and non-
fiction, and biographies. Beginning with the introduction of the smallest grapheme units
and continuing gradually to larger and more complex units, reading mastery is the goal.
Rationale for Visual Card “Levels”

Slingerland was reluctant to provide teachers with a definitive, inflexible sequence for the
introduction of graphemes and phonemes because she felt that so much depends on the
many factors discussed previously. If, for example, a class is required to use a reader
where vce (or v-e) words are introduced almost immediately and occur frequently, then
Slingerland would recommend that a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-e be taught early in the school
year. In the same vein, Slingerland introduces ey - they - \a@\ earlier than in most Orton-
based programs even though ey words, particularly with ey pronounced long \a@\, do not
appear frequently. However the word they does appear often and early in reading, caus-
ing considerable frustration, especially for SLD children, unless its difficulty is prevented
by early and careful introduction.
In this book, “Levels” analogous to the preceding Orton-Gillingham Levels are

presented because one of the most frequently asked questions in any Orton-based teacher
education course is, “How will I know what to teach next or not to teach next?” Encour-
aging teachers to rely on logic and instinct, to scour a myriad of references, or wait a year
or more to obtain additional training, is not the solution. Teachers today have too many
added responsibilities that often prevent them from an ideal and scholarly approach in
trying to determine how much of what to teach next. If they are asked to “wait” they may
seek a different, easier, or more accessible instructional approach that often is not as
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for First and Second Grades 45
comprehensive or effective.
Teachers today frequently have not been provided with as adequate a foundation
in phonics and other related language skills as were teachers of Gillingham, Stillman, and
Slingerland’s era. Those carrying
on the work of these pioneers have ck Generalization
a responsibility to give newer
ck comes directly after one short vowel at the
teachers all the help they need and
end of a one-syllable word.
to prevent them from becoming so
overwhelmed by the scope of what For younger children it is sufficient to say, “ck
they must learn that they resist fur- comes at the end” when introducing it. When
ther training. Only with quality in- children are a little further along in the program
struction, support, and guidance they can learn the entire generalization.
can teachers become effective liter- When exposing the ck card, first teach “ck -
acy instructors who will, over the jack - \k\ comes at the end of a word.” (In some
course of many years, help students Orton-based programs, the verbalization might
with and without specific language be “ck - \k\ - jack.”)
disabilities learn to read, write, and
Later you may instruct students to say, “ck -
spell. With this in mind, Levels
jack - \k\ comes directly (or immediately) after
corresponding to the Orton-
one short vowel at the end of a word.”
Gillingham Levels have been com-
piled. Furthermore, the Levels are Finally the children say, “ck - jack - \k\ comes
based on years of experience teach- directly (or immediately) after one short vowel
ing, observing, and talking to Slin- at the end of a one-syllable word.”
gerland teachers intent upon mas-

tering skills for effective literacy instruction.
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for First and Second Grades
If you are a manuscript grade one or grade two Slingerland teacher, you can skim over
much of the discussion and tables that pertain to the introduction of vowels and conso-
nants. Instead, you will want to follow the scope and sequence for teaching manuscript
handwriting outlined in Chapter 2. For how to introduce the phonemes for vowels and
consonants, simply apply the techniques you learned in your Slingerland training. How-
ever, carefully note the ck Generalization sidebar on page 45.
If you are not a Slingerland teacher, or if you do not intend to follow the manu-
script handwriting scope and sequence described in Chapter 2, carefully read the follow-
ing discussion and tables that focus on the initial introduction, scope, and sequence of
graphemes using visual cards, including letters of the alphabet.
Graphemes for the First Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade

As shown in table 3–7, in a beginning first or second grade class, teach the graphemes h,
l, s, b, t, a, c, m, k, f, and g. Perhaps introduce ck with its corresponding spelling gener-
alization described in the ck Generalization sidebar on page 45.
Table 3–7. Level I— Definitely teach: h*, l, s, b*, t, a-\a*\, c, m*, k, f, g

Group I Graphemes
Perhaps teach: ck with generalization
for the First Trimes-
ter in a Beginning Subsequently teach: i-\˛û\, j, d*, p*
First or Second Grade Perhaps teach: sh
ch (separate from sh)
Maybe teach: th with both phonemes

Teach the second phoneme s \z\
for:
Teach for writing only: e
Do not introduce, within the same lesson, graphemes that are easily confused
visually or those with similar phonemes that may be auditorily confused. Those that are
visually confusing are noted in the preceding and following tables with asterisks (*). Re-
fer to Introducing Letters that Look or Sound Alike, beginning on page 18, for a list of
letters that are frequently confused due to visual or auditory similarities.
In the next several months, you will introduce i, j, d, and e for writing only, p, ch,
sh, and th with both sounds or phonemes—\th\ and \th\. The unvoiced phoneme, \th\, oc-
curs more frequently; however, it is recommended that the less common, voiced pho-
neme, \th\, be introduced first because it is contained in several essential, common, high-
frequency words (the, this, then, than, that, them, those, these, and they). Perhaps a better
solution is to introduce both phonemes at the same time.
You should teach the second phoneme for s, \z\, as well. Remember that how
quickly you introduce graphemes will depend on whether you are working with SLD or
non-SLD students.3
Graphemes for the Second Trimester in a Beginning First or Second Grade

As shown in table 3–8, within the last several months of first grade you can introduce u,
w as a consonant, wh, n, r, m, v, x, y as a consonant, z, o, oa, ee, ing, ang, ung, ong,
ink, ank, unk, onk, and maybe ai, ay, oo with two sounds, \oob\ and \ooB\, and ou. De-
pending on what your first graders are reading, you may choose to introduce fewer pho-
nograms and instead introduce a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-e.
Table 3–8. Level I— If not taught: m, sh, ch, th, the second phoneme for s
Group II for the Next
Teach: u \u*\*, w*, wh, n*, r*, v*, x, y*, z, o-\o*\
Trimester in a Be-
ginning First or Sec- Definitely Teach: ck generalization with verbalization
ond Grade SLD Class Teach: oa, ee
or Earlier for Non-
SLD ing, ang, ung, ong
ink, ank, onk, unk
Maybe teach: ai, ay
Teach: oo with 2 phonemes, ou
If needed: v-e: a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e
Maybe teach: e, qu
In Orton-based programs, v-e is referred to as one of six syllable types. Slinger-

land includes v-e in her phonogram chart and other phonogram lists.
Sometimes in an SLD class with more severe disabilities, you will not be able to
teach all the vowels in a first year program—especially short e except for writing—nor
the less frequently used and difficult digraph qu. This means, too, that you will not be
able to introduce as many letter combinations and phonograms with a slower paced class.
However, non-SLD students progress more quickly.
Be sure not to introduce graphemes that are easily confused visually, auditorily, or
both visually and auditorily within the same lesson.
3
Appendix A contains a list of the graphemes found in LessonPlanner together with their corresponding
key words and phonemes.
Graphemes for a Continuum Second Grade SLD Class or Earlier for Non-
SLD
After considerable review of all the previously introduced material, introduce any re-
maining phonograms and letter combinations listed in table 3–8 (oa, ee, ai, ay, ou, and oo
with two phonemes).
As shown in table 3–9, teach ai and ay, e, and qu if you did not teach them be-
fore. The same applies to a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-e with both phonemes, long \u@\ and long
\oob\. Additional phonograms include oi, oy, and ow with both sounds, long \o@\ and \ou\;
igh, ar, or, er, ir, and ur with one phoneme for each; ea with all three phonemes, long
\e@\, long \a@\, and short \e*\; ie with two sounds, long \˛â\ and \e@\; perhaps eigh; and more
slowly and cautiously, aw and au before ew, with both phonemes, \u@\ and \oob\. When ew
is introduced, students should be taught that oo is usually found in the middle of a word
while ew is usually at the end of a word.
Table 3–9. For a Definitely teach: e-\e*\, qu

Continuum 2nd ai, ay, oo with 2 phonemes, ou
Grade SLD Class or
a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e with 2 phonemes
Earlier for Non-SLD
ing, ang, ung, ong
ink, ank, onk, unk
Gradually teach: oi, oy, ow with 2 phonemes
igh, ar, or, er, ir, ur
ea with 3 phonemes
ie with 2 phonemes
Perhaps teach: eigh
Teach cautiously: au, aw, ew with 2 phonemes
As designated in table 3–10, introduce the letter combinations eng, tion with one
phoneme, \shEn\, and sion with two, \shEn\ and \zhEn\, with care. The digraphs kn, wr,
and gh can easily be added if they were not taught previously.
It is recommended that ph be taught cautiously; ph appears frequently in reading,

but not in many first and second grade readers. It occurs more commonly in multisyllabic
words. The trigraph tch should definitely be taught now. See the tch Generalization side-
bar on page 50. Hold off longer for dge unless you have a very fast paced class.
The second pronunciation for the vowel o, scribal-o4, in closed syllables may be
introduced around this time to non-SLD students definitely, and perhaps to more capable
SLD students. It is o - honey - \u*\. The main reason to not wait too long to teach o -
honey - \u*\ is that so many common words (some, come, love, month, Monday, mother,
brother, another, other—to name just a few) contain a scribal-o. It is perfectly acceptable
to teach some of these as sight words initially, if you prefer.
Table 3–10. For a Teach more readily: eng, tion, sion with 2 phonemes
Second Grade Accel-
Teach easily: kn, wr, gh with 2 phonemes
erated SLD Class or
Earlier for Acceler- Teach carefully: ph
ated Non-SLD Definitely teach: tch with verbalization
Teach to a slightly
accelerated class: dge with verbalization, scribal-o
Teach: ce and ge, at least, for soft c and soft g
To an accelerated
class, teach: ce, ci, cy, ge, gi, gy
Teach with cards: tle, ple
Without cards: ble, dle, fle, gle, kle, zle
Teach only to an ue with 2 phonemes, and/or eu with 2 pho-
accelerated class: nemes
Another concept appropriate for a faster group of non-SLD first graders or SLD
second graders, usually after the dge verbalization is introduced, pertains to “soft c and
soft g.” Refer to the dge Generalization sidebar on page 58.
If introduced at all to young children, use individual cards and key words, includ-
ing: ce - cent - \s\, ci - city - \s\, cy - fancy - \s\, ge - gentle - \j\, gi - ginger (giraffe) - \j\,
and gy - gypsy - \j\ to teach soft c and soft g. Likely you will only be able to introduce ce
and ge at this stage. Later, individual cards may or may not be necessary, as explained
later in this chapter. Earlier EPS Slingerland cards,5 did include separate cards for ce, ci,
4
See the story in the Gillingham-Stillman Manuals, and in the Scribal-o sidebar on page 56 of this chapter,
for why early scribes changed the letter u to an o but retained the short \u*\ sound. It is suggested that you
not relate the story to very young or immature children as it may cause confusion.
5
Teacher’s Hand Pack for Classroom Use. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.
and cy. However, they do not now, which reflects Slingerland’s change in view as to how
to teach soft c and soft g without
individual cards. In the yellow tch Generalization
Slingerland cards, discussed in Tch comes directly (or immediately) after one
Chapter 4: Auditory Presenta- short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word.
tions, a card with s, ce, ci, and cy This is similar to the ck generalization. Older
is included, but a corresponding students can learn the entire generalization, but
one with j, dge, ge, gi, and gy is younger students must learn it gradually as they
not. The latter can be added to a acquire the concepts governing the generaliza-
hand-made yellow card and then tion.
attached to the other half of the
Second graders should only say, when tch is
EPS j - dge yellow card.
exposed, “tch - match - \ch\ comes at the end
With SLD second graders of a word.”
or non-SLD first graders who are
Later, or if your students are particularly capa-
progressing nicely and beginning
ble, you may choose to change the ending to,
to decode two-syllable words,
“tch comes directly (or immediately) after one
some of the C-le syllables may be
short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word.”
introduced: ble, dle, fle, gle, kle,
Whether you use “directly” or “immediately”
ple, tle, and zle. In the EPS
be consistent and do not use both.
teacher’s hand pack, cards for only
tle and ple are provided. Usually
when students understand the concept of C-le, introduced with just two visual cards, but
taught with much discussion and practice in decoding, they generalize correctly when
encountering other C-le syllables where only the first consonant is different.
The frequency of usage for various graphemes and corresponding phonemes is

discussed in greater detail in the section entitled Decoding later in this chapter.
If your students are extremely adept, you may teach ue or eu, or both, each with
two phonemes, \u@\ and \oob\, but with extreme caution. Students will benefit if they are
taught that ue is found only at the end of words; ue and eu occur less frequently than ew.
As an interesting aside, there are several graphemes in table 3–9 and table 3–10
that some educators recommend not be taught as phonetic elements to young pupils.
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for Third Grade and Above 51
Their reason is that these phonograms, ie and ue, appear in fewer than ten single-syllable,
common words. The same applies with the digraph gh. They recommend instead that
words such as pie, chief, blue, cue, ghost, and laugh be taught as sight or learned words.
Some Orton-based teachers contest this position because of the frequency and usefulness
of the words that contain these graphemes. The decision rests in your hands.
Rationale for More Vertical than Horizontal Instruction

In a non-SLD first grade or continuum SLD second grade where Orton-based instruction
has been provided for at least a year, at times it is better to focus more on horizontal
teaching with practice and review than vertical teaching with new skills and concepts. In
other words, the letters, digraphs, trigraphs, letter combinations, and phonograms already
taught throughout the first year should be put to greater functional use and practice in
handwriting, decoding, reading, encoding, spelling, and in writing phrases, sentences, and
paragraph dictations. The increase in the number of visual cards, compared to auditory
cards, comes from the addition of new phonograms for decoding, including v-e.
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for Third Grade and Above
A third grade SLD class might well be composed of students who are continuing their
Slingerland instruction from the first and/or second grades, or they might be new to the
program. Additionally, some students may have begun cursive instruction while others
may have had none. The following discussion parallels the sequence for the introduction
of graphemes for cursive instruction in Learning to Write, described in Chapter 2. It also
provides the recommended scope and sequence for the introduction of graphemes using
visual cards for students in the third grade and above. The instructional pace is swifter
than it is with first and second grade children.
If you are a third grade Slingerland teacher teaching cursive, you will be able to
skim over some of the discussion and tables that pertain to the introduction of vowels and
consonants because you will want to follow the scope and sequence for teaching cursive
handwriting outlined in Chapter 2. For how to introduce the phonemes for vowels and
consonants, simply apply the techniques you learned in your Slingerland training. How-
ever, carefully note the accompanying ck and tch Generalizations sidebar on page 53.
If you are not a Slingerland teacher or do not intend to follow the cursive hand-
writing scope and sequence described in Chapter 2, carefully read the following discus-
sion and tables that focus on the initial introduction, scope, and sequence of graphemes,
including letters of the alphabet, using visual cards.
Since visual cards are printed in manuscript, it is important to heed the discussion
on page 18 in Chapter 2, Introducing Letters that Look or Sound Alike, listing graphemes
that should not be introduced in the same lesson because of how easily they are confused
due to their visual or auditory similarities.
Graphemes for Third Grade and Above

Table 3–11 summarizes the Level I, Group I scope and sequence. It will be helpful when
you work with a group of new students rather than with continuum students.
Table 3–11. Level I First, definitely teach: l, h, k, b or f, a-\a*\

Graphemes for Third
Next, depending on which b or f, c, g, d
Grade and Above
was taught first, teach:
Maybe teach: e for writing only
Perhaps teach: t
Next teach: i-\˛û\, s, r, t
Maybe teach: j
Definitely teach: ck with verbalization
Continue by teaching: w, p, u, sh, ch, wh
Maybe teach: th with 2 phonemes
Teach second phoneme for: s-\z\
Gradually teach: o-\o*\, qu, tch with verbalization
If not introduced, teach: ph
Continue by teaching: n, m, v, y as a consonant, z, e-\e*\
Perhaps teach: kn, oa, ee, ai and ay
Add: ing, ang, ung, ong
ink, ank, unk, onk
Maybe teach: eng
Visual Card Scope and Sequence for Third Grade and Above 53
Within the first three or four days, introduce and/or review l, h, k, maybe b or f,
and a. Refer to the more detailed Scope and Sequence for Teaching Cursive Handwriting
in Chapter 2 for guidance when introducing consonants and vowels. It is comparable
primarily to the Orton-Gillingham Level I, Group I and II categories, and to the begin-
ning of the Orton-Gillingham Level II, with several readily detectable differences. It also
parallels the sequence for the introduction of vowels and consonants in Slingerland’s cur-
sive Learning to Write.
Within the next several days,

ck and tch Generalizations
moving into the second week, teach
either b or f, c, g and d on separate Ck comes directly (or immediately) after one
days, maybe e for writing only, and short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word.
perhaps t. Slightly older students can easily master the
Within the second and third entire ck generalization. Teach them to say, “ck
weeks, teach either b or f, i, s, r, t, - jack - \k\ comes directly (or immediately) af-
ter one short vowel at the end of a one-syllable
and maybe j. Around this time also
word.” (In some Orton-based programs, the
teach ck with its generalization. Re-
verbalization is “ck - \k\ - jack.”)
fer to the accompanying ck and tch
Generalizations sidebar on this page. Tch comes directly (or immediately) after one
short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word.
Within the third and fourth
Third graders and older students can learn the
weeks, or earlier for non-SLD, teach
whole generalization. When tch is exposed,
the graphemes not taught within the
students say, “tch - match - \ch\ comes directly
second and third weeks, plus w as a
(or immediately) after one short vowel at the
consonant, p, u, sh, ch, and maybe
end of a one-syllable word.”
th with its voiced and unvoiced
phonemes, and wh. Also teach the
second phoneme for s, \z\, at this point or earlier with more skilled or advanced students.
It should be introduced shortly after the letter z is introduced.6
At the end of the first month and beginning of the second, teach o and qu. You
may teach ph, and tch with its special verbalization at this time, too, if not introduced
earlier. Refer to the accompanying ck and tch Generalizations sidebar on this page.
6
For the list of graphemes found in LessonPlanner with corresponding key words and the phonemes for
each grapheme, see Appendix A.
Within the second month or slightly earlier for non-SLD students, teach n, m, v, y
as a consonant, and z. Also teach e. Perhaps teach kn, oa, ee, ai, and ay. Now that n has
been taught, you can introduce the letter combinations ing, ang, ung, and ong. At this
level, key words are usually not essential for the letter combinations. Students respond to
the ang card by saying, “a-n-g -\aN\.” Soon you can also introduce ink, ank, unk, onk,
without key words, and maybe eng, with a key word because of its difficulty.
Rationales for Deciding What to Teach Next

Level II graphemes for the third grade could conceivably be taught by the start of the new
year, or four months from the start of cursive instruction in a year-round program of a
continuum third grade class or with non-SLD students. Level II could also be covered in a
new Slingerland SLD fifth grade class or with a new fifth grade tutorial student in an-
other Orton-based program. With a new fourth grader or class, the pace, scope, and se-
quence will obviously be slower; whereas, in non-SLD classes the pace will be faster.
When deciding which phonogram to introduce next, check to see whether the
phonogram you have in mind appears frequently and if it usually represents only one
vowel sound, in one-syllable base words.7 Thus far, most of the introduced phonograms
appear in common, everyday, mostly one-syllable base words that spell only one, long
vowel sound, usually: (1) \a@\ in ay words, (2) \e@\ in ee words and (3) \o@\ in oa words.
Remember, part of your decision for what to introduce will also be determined by the
readers you use.
Apply similar checks when selecting digraphs or letter combinations for introduc-
tion. Note that the first digraph, ck, occurs frequently, is found mostly in one-syllable
words, and spells only one relatively easy, consonant sound, as do sh and wh which you
should also introduce early. The digraph sh, found in many common words, is pro-
nounced \sh\ nearly always; wh is pronounced \hw\ less frequently than expected, but its
frequency is still significant; kn appears infrequently, especially in young children’s
reading, but its phoneme is not difficult and is usually pronounced as expected. Also, kn
is visually easy to recall. The two sounds of th are more difficult, but th appears far more
frequently in reading than, say, gn or other digraphs not yet recommended for introduc-
tion.
7
One excellent resource for grapheme frequencies is Direct Instruction Reading (Carnine, et. al., 1990).
Graphemes for Third Grade and Above 55
The rationale for introducing the first letter combinations (ing, ang, ung, and
ong) is similar: Each of the designated letter combinations appears frequently in common
words and each represents only one, not difficult phoneme. Because ing is a suffix or in-
flection, too, it is particularly frequent. As we continue in our scope and sequence, try to
determine why certain graphemes are introduced, and why the introduction of others is
postponed. For example, ay, er, and oa are good phonogram candidates for early intro-
duction because of their regularity and frequency: ay is pronounced \a@\ in over 100 words
nearly one hundred percent of the time; er is pronounced \ur\ in nearly 300 words, also
nearly one hundred percent of the time, and oa is pronounced \o@\ ninety percent of the
time (Carnine, et. al, 1990).
Graphemes for Third Grade and Above

As shown in table 3–12, digraphs and trigraphs should now definitely include ph, wr, kn,
tch, and perhaps dge if tch was taught and mastered, as well as gn, and gh with one or
both pronunciations—\f\ often at the end of words and \g\ often at the beginning. You
may also introduce the less common graphemes mb and mn. The second phoneme for
ch, \k\, found often in Greek-based scientific and medical words, should be taught at this
time, if not a bit earlier. See the dge Generalization sidebar on page 58.
Table 3–12. Level II Probably teach from ph, kn, eng, tch with verbalization
Graphemes for Third the previous table:
Grade and Above
New: wr
Perhaps teach: gn, gh with 2 phonemes
dge (see the dge Generalization sidebar
on page 58)
Maybe teach: mb, mn
Teach the second pho- ch \k\
neme for: a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e with 2 phonemes
tion, sion with 2 phonemes
With faster classes: ture
Those that could be oo with 2 phonemes
taught previously: ou, ar
New: scribal-o
With slightly more advanced students, many teachers prefer not to make and use
individual cards for gn, gh, mn, or mb. Instead they include them only in yellow auditory
cards and, of course, in spelling, decoding, and reading. See further discussion in Chapter
4 in the section on auditory cards.
The v-e graphemes should be introduced; they include a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, y-e, and
u-e with both pronunciations, \u@\
and \oob\. Since y-e occurs most Scribal-o
frequently in more advanced, mul- With more mature students it is helpful to use
tisyllabic words, do not teach it at the story from the Gillingham-Stillman Man-
this time. Also, do not teach u-e yet ual, or a slightly altered version, that explains
because it is difficult and has two why early scribes changed the letter u to an o:
phonemes. You should introduce The scribes saw that too many of their quill-
u-e in a separate lesson. penned letters were almost indistinguishable
Letter combinations should from each other, especially m’s, n’s, w’s, u’s,
certainly include eng, and r’s, and v’s, made with similar, beginning,
tion/sion, and maybe ture with flourishing strokes—readily illustrated on the
faster moving or non-SLD classes blackboard for the enjoyment and benefit of
or students. Although eng appears your students. Therefore, the wise scribes,
infrequently, students will general- when copying, changed the vowel u to o when
ize from learning the other similar u appears adjacent to one of the offensive let-
letter combinations and quickly be ters just listed. The scribes, however, obviously
on their way to reading and spell- could not alter the pronunciation of the words
ing length and strength with pro- that were affected by the changes they made in
ficiency. The introduction of tion, writing. Therefore, the letter o in words like
sion, and ture implies that your month, brother, love, some, and wonder, is
students have begun decoding two- pronounced \u*\.
syllable words or will soon. (Slin-
gerland teachers might want to make a ture card.)
Phonograms other than oa, ee, ai, and ay might include ou, and oo with two pho-
nemes. Note that ai is pronounced \a@\ most of the time, especially in one-syllable words.
In two-syllable words, ai is frequently pronounced \˛û\ or \E\ (mountain, bargain). The
phonograms ou and ar could be introduced in Level II now, or Level III later.
The second phoneme for the vowel o, scribal-o, in closed syllables, may be intro-
duced around this time: o - honey - \u*\. (See the Scribal-o sidebar above.)
As shown in table 3–13, digraphs and trigraphs may include gn; gh, definitely
with two phonemes; perhaps the three phonemes for ch—the third being \sh\ in French-
based words; and dge. Any of these can wait until Level IV, or even later, or they can be
introduced earlier.
Most of the C-le or silent-e syllables may be introduced here or in Level IV: ple
and tle (with published cards), and kle (with a handmade card) usually at the end of two-
syllable words, plus ble, dle, gle, zle, and fle—not to be confused with the word full or
the suffix ful.
Table 3–13. Level III Definitely teach from the gn, gh with 2 phonemes
Graphemes for Third previous table: dge with verbalization
Grade and Above a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e
tion, sion, ture
Begin to teach the easier ple, tle, and kle—usually at the
C-le syllables: end of two-syllable words
ble, dle, gle, zle
fle—not to be confused with the
word full or the suffix ful
Teach the third phoneme ch \sh\
for:
New: y-e, oi, oy, igh
ow with 2 phonemes
Perhaps teach: ie and ey both with 2 phonemes
Teach second phoneme for soft c \s\ and soft g \j\ with the ver-
c and g: balization on page 58
With less capable students, ce, ci, cy and ge, gi, and gy with
teach: key words and verbalization
Perhaps begin to teach pho- a, e, i, o (all long vowel sounds)
nemes for the vowels in ac-
cented, open syllables:
Perhaps teach: y as a suffix
If u-e with both phonemes was not introduced earlier it should be now, along with
y-e, found more frequently at the end of multisyllabic, Greek-based words. Also, if y has
been introduced as a suffix, include its corresponding phoneme in visual cards.
Additional phonograms to include that do not appear as frequently in reading as

others introduced earlier are: oi, oy, and igh; ow, pronounced \o@\ is more common than
ow pronounced \ou\. Both phonemes should be introduced at the same time. You can also
introduce ie with two separate phonemes, \˛â\ and \e@\, carefully; ey might have been taught
earlier because of the frequency of the word they. If not, teach it at this Level with both
phonemes, \a@\ and \e@\.
The concept of “soft c” and “soft g” may be taught at this point with a fast-paced
SLD student or class, without individual cards, or in Level IV. You can also teach “soft c
and soft g” readily with most non-SLD students at this time. Instruct your students not
only to say, “c - cake - \k\˛˛” but also “c - followed by e, i, or y says \s\˛˛” when exposing
the c card. For g, have your stu-
dents say, “g - followed by e, i, dge Generalization
or y, sometimes says \j\.” Re-
With visual cards, students initially say, “dge -
member, however, that the task
bridge (fudge) - \j\ comes directly (or immedi-
at hand is not to teach students to
ately) after one short vowel, at the end of a one-
merely memorize meaningless
syllable word.” (dge is slightly more difficult to
words. To emphasize concept
learn than ck and tch for decoding; dge is defi-
instead when teaching soft c, re-
nitely more difficult than ck and tch for spelling.)
late another tale found in the Gil-
lingham-Stillman Manuals about
poor, sad, little letter c, that has no sound of its own and must borrow the \k\ from letter k
or the \s\ from letter s.
With more disabled students, it is advisable to follow the procedures using hand-
made individual cards described in the continuum, second grade Level II section. The
hand-made cards include one for each of the following: ce - cent - \s\, ci - city - \s\, cy -
fancy - \s\, ge - gentle - \j\, gi - ginger (giraffe) - \j\, and gy - gypsy \j\.
Depending on how well decoding progresses, you can introduce the second pho-
neme for each of several vowels, as shown in table 3–13 on the previous page: a, e, i, and
o, but not for u or y. The second phoneme for each vowel occurs when the vowel is at the
end of an accented, open syllable. This will require careful instruction before your stu-
dents respond to an exposed vowel card by: first, naming the vowel, giving the key word,
and then the short vowel sound found in closed syllables, and, second, repeating the fol-
lowing for the second vowel phoneme: a - baby - \a@\ at the end of an accented syllable; e
- meter (secret) - \e@\ at the end of an accented syllable; i - tiger - \˛â\ at the end of an ac-
cented syllable; and o - pony - \o@\ at the end of an accented syllable.
It is perfectly acceptable to choose a slightly different response for your students

as long as you are consistent. What is not acceptable is to allow your students to respond
one way one time and a different way another time. Consistency is essential. In Slinger-
land textbooks, “o at the end of an accented syllable, pony, \o@\,” is given alternatively as a
way to respond to open syllable - o, and likewise with the other long vowels. In some
other Orton-based programs, the response is, “o as in pony, \o@\˛ .”
When a vowel card (a) is shown, Slingerland students now respond by saying,
first, “a - apple - \a*\˛ ” or “a - consonant - apple - \a*\.” The word consonant is sometimes
added for awhile to emphasize the difference between an open (a at the end) syllable and
a closed (a followed by a consonant) syllable or the difference between a vowel - conso-
nant - e (v-e) syllable and a closed syllable or an open syllable.
Second, students say, “a - baby - \a@\ - at the end of an accented syllable” or even
“at the end of an open accented syllable.” In several other Orton-based programs, stu-
dents say, “a - \a*\- apple” and “a - \a@\ - baby” or “a as in baby – a.”
Referring to table 3–14, if the digraphs gn, gh, mb, and mn were not taught be-
fore, you can introduce them now as well as the trigraph dge. In Level IV, definitely in-
troduce both phonemes for gh at the same time.
Table 3–14. Level IV Definitely teach from the pre- gn, gh, mb, mn, eng, tion, sion,
Graphemes for Third vious table: ture, ar, ie, and dge
Grade and Above
New: or, eigh, er, ur, ir, ea with three
phonemes, au and aw
More cautiously: ew with two phonemes
For non-SLD students only: ue with two phonemes
Very carefully if at all: eu
Definitely teach, likely without soft c and soft g with verbaliza-
individual cards: tion
Continue teaching vowels at a, e, i, o
the end of accented, open syl-
lables:
A bit later, teach open syllable: u with two phonemes
If y has been taught as a suffix, y as \˛û\
then teach:
Perhaps teach open syllable: y
Teach as needed: new phonograms
As you use the tables in this chapter, it is important to remember that although
you might introduce and review the
more difficult and less common Structuring the Introduction of a New
graphemes, such as gh and gn, you Learning: Soft c and Soft g
would usually not include gh or gn
The steps for teaching new concepts, designed
words for spelling this soon. How-
by Slingerland, are beneficial when teaching
ever, you would teach dge for spell-
the generalization governing soft c and soft g.
ing, for it occurs frequently in
common one-syllable words (fudge, In Step 1, explain and demonstrate (model)
badge, judge). This becomes clearer what governs the hard and soft sounds of c and
once you study Chapter 4, Auditory g. Then instruct your students how to respond
Presentations. when the c and g cards are exposed henceforth.
If not taught previously, In Step 2, guide one of your students to repeat

teach the last couple of common your instructions. Have the class repeat, before
letter combinations, including eng you call upon several other individual students
and ture. You would likely have to respond to the c and g cards as newly taught.
already taught tion and sion, but if In Step 3, after your students have learned how
not, introduce both phonemes for to decode soft c and soft g words, they should
sion, \shEn\ and \zhEn\, in Level IV. be able to respond to the visual cards without
Several phonograms usually additional guidance.
taught in Level IV could just as In Step 4, they should be able to differentiate
well have been introduced in Level between the phonemes for c or g when reading
III if needed. They include ar, or, independently. By mentally reviewing the c or
eigh (infrequent), er, ir, ur, ea with g card and the related decoding techniques,
all three phonemes, and au and aw. they will apply the soft c and soft g generaliza-
More cautiously, teach the less fre- tion to decode successfully.
quently occurring phonograms ew,
In Step 5, students apply the soft c and soft g
eu and ue with their respective two
generalization in spelling.
phonemes to non-SLD students.
The phonogram ue pronounced \u@\
occurs at the end of words (hue, rescue, revenue) except in the word fuel that, theoreti-
cally, may be considered a two-syllable word (fu/el).
You can also teach ie with two phonemes, \˛â\ and \e@\.
The phonograms ar, er, ir, or, ur, yr, ear, and our are often referred to as r-
controlled.8 Of these, ur and ir are most reliably pronounced \ur\; ur is twice as common
as ir; ar is the most common but not
as reliable in its pronunciation since
it has three phonemes, \a·r\, \Er\, and
Two Phonemes for tion:
\a*r\. The phonogram or is slightly
\shEn\ and \chEn\
less common, but again not as reli- It is debatable whether to teach both phonemes
able because it has two correspond- for tion with cards. There are only a handful of
ing phonemes.9 words with the \chEn\ sound spelled tion. They
usually follow an s: question, digestion, com-
The concept of “soft c and
bustion, suggestion, congestion, bastion, and
soft g” should be taught without in-
dividual visual cards, if possible. exhaustion. Not after an s are: attention, con-
(See the preceding level, Level III.) tention, and mention.
Depending on how many If you decide to teach \chEn\ with its few
vowels were already introduced with memorizable words, then you might also want
their long vowel sounds, you can to teach cion - \zhEn\ or \shEn\ in the two
teach all of them now. As discussed words coercion and suspicion.
previously, the second phonemes
occur at the end of accented open syllables and require careful instruction before students
respond to an exposed vowel card in the following way:
1. The student names the vowel (while forming it in the air or writing it), gives the
key word, and enunciates the short vowel sound; for example, “a - apple - \a*\˛ .”
2. The student renames the vowel (while forming it in air or writing it), gives the
second key word, enunciates the second, long vowel sound, and adds, “at the end
of an accented (open) syllable”; for example; “a - baby - \a@\, at the end of an ac-
cented (open) syllable.”
8
An r-controlled phonogram or syllable is one with an r at the end that alters the sound of the vowel that
precedes the r; thus, the r controls the vowel sound so that it is neither purely long nor short, as in third,
earth, and church.
9
As discussed more fully in Chapter 4, some instructors teach that in spelling, when in doubt as to which
grapheme to use for \ur\, the best choice is er. Strictly speaking, er does not appear to be as common as
some of the other r-controlled phonograms because it is given the \ur\ pronunciation mainly in the middle
of words (herd). As the extremely common suffix er (hotter) or in an unaccented syllable in the middle of
a word (refrigerator), many dictionary diacritical notations reflect that er is contained in an unaccented
syllable and use the \Er\ notation—thus making the frequency of er as \ur\ seem less that it is.
Students in other Orton-based programs say “a - \a*\- apple” and “a - \a@\ - baby” or
“a - baby - at the end of an accented, open syllable - \a@\.” Although verbalizations differ
somewhat among Orton-based programs, it is important to be consistent within specific
programs and schools.
Previously, the key words accompanying a, e, i, and, o (baby, meter or secret, ti-
ger, and pony) were given in Cursive Level III. For u, there is a slight important variation
in that u spells two long vowel sounds: u - music - \u@\ at the end of an accented syllable
and u - lunar - \\ at the end of an accented syllable. The vowels a, e, i, and o have just
one long vowel phoneme at the end of an accented open syllable.
The Greek medial y with its short i, \˛û\, phoneme is now taught. Since, in some
programs, y would already have been introduced as a suffix in spelling—found mostly in
multisyllabic words—students would now have learned at least two phonemes for y,
short i, \˛û\, and long e, \e@\. They might have also learned the third phoneme, \˛â\, that y
spells at the end of little words—mostly one syllable—as in my, cry, shy, etc. and in a
few slightly longer words (reply, deny, supply, and July). Usually teach y - cycle \˛â\ at
the end of an accented syllable a bit later.
Either at this level, or the next, students’ response to the usually salmon-colored y
vowel card should follow the response order of all the vowels (short sound in a closed
syllable, first; long vowel sound at the end of an accented open syllable, second; unac-
cented vowel sound at the end of an open syllable, third): y - myth (gym) - \˛û\, y - cycle -
\˛â\ at the end of an accented syllable, and y - candy - \e@\. Since y does not quite follow the
pattern of the other vowels, some teachers add nothing about accenting at the end while
others add, “. . . in an unaccented syllable.” Remember, too, never rely on i or y.
Note that the handling of y is similar to that for the second ar and or phonemes
that some teachers have their students verbalize: ar - dollar - \Er\ in an unaccented sylla-
ble and or - doctor - \Er\ in an unaccented syllable.
In some Orton-based programs, especially in the southern part of the United

States, the pronunciation of y as a suffix or inflection, as in candy, is \˛û\. This corresponds
to the phoneme for y’s twin i in an unaccented syllable: i - Tibet - \˛û\ at the end of an un-
accented syllable.
Scope and Sequence for Fifth and Sixth Grades 63
Rationale for Slight Differences in the Advanced Checklists

You may notice that the suffixes and endings in Schupack’s Advanced Gillingham
Checklist (table 3–6), are not included in the advanced checklists in this book. They are
omitted because common suffixes and endings are presented auditorily in spelling first,
while word families (ind, ild, old, and ost), homonyms, advanced suffixes, and Latin and
Greek roots are usually presented visually without cards. In accordance with Slingerland
instruction, common suffixes and endings are introduced in spelling first. More advanced
suffixes and endings are commonly taught first in decoding. They are explained more
fully at the end of Chapter 3 and in Chapter 4.
Teachers who still have an older edition of the EPS Slingerland teachers’ hand
pack will have a suffix ed card. Indeed, ed was contained in the hand pack until Slinger-
land realized that it was not helping teachers teach their students the concepts for the ap-
plication of suffixes. Misconception regarding the purpose of including the ed card led to
the overuse and overmemorization of numerous hand-made suffix cards with excessive
accompanying verbalizations. (This writer was among a group of well intentioned teach-
ers who tried to teach affixes with hand pack cards before grasping the underlying ration-
ale for their application and before understanding that ed had been included in the cards
because it is the only common suffix with three phonemes.) The suffix ed is discussed
again in this chapter.
Scope and Sequence for Fifth and Sixth Grades

Regarding scope, if you are working with a new fifth or sixth grade class, you can expect
to cover most of the hand pack cards and concepts contained in Grapheme Levels I
through IV. In some cases the pace will be slower, and in others it will be faster. Much
will depend on whether you are working with continuum or new students and whether
your students are SLD or not SLD. The way to ensure appropriate pacing is to constantly
observe and evaluate the performance of your students as they begin to put to functional
use each new learning.
In more advanced programs, the same care should be used as recommended

throughout. That which determines how quickly you introduce and put to functional use
advanced graphemes will be your own teacher judgment. As expected, working with SLD
students demands slower pacing and more review than when teaching non-SLD students,
but at times, especially when a solid foundation has been established, you should be
pleasantly surprised by how quickly bright, motivated, diligent SLD students learn.
Again, your good professional judgment is crucial. This is what the art of teaching is all
about.
Advanced Group I Graphemes

As shown in table 3–15, of the phonograms already taught, the second phoneme for ar
and or in unaccented syllables, \Er\, should definitely be introduced, for your students
will have already begun work on accenting. In the second ar and or response, some
teachers have older students add, after the respective key words dollar and doctor are
named,“. . . in an unaccented syllable.” Additionally, inform students that ar often fol-
lows an l (poplar, granular), and or often follows ct (factor, doctor).
Table 3–15. Ad- Teach second phoneme for: ar, or \Er\

vanced Group I ai \˛û\ or \E\
Graphemes
Or, teach the ending: ain
Gradually teach di/trigraphs: sc, rh, gu or gue, que
Plus new phonograms: ei, ear, our
oe (perhaps with two
phonemes)
Teach second and third phonemes for: ou with verbalization
Teach with one or two phonemes: ui
Continue C-le: stle, sle, cle
Maybe teach the ligatures: du, tu, su, di
Perhaps teach: augh
Teach initially with one or two pho- ough
nemes only:
Other phonograms for which a second or third phoneme should be taught include
ai as \˛û\ or \E\, usually in an unaccented syllable (foun'tain, moun'tain). Some teachers
prefer to teach ain as an ending instead of ai - mountain - \˛û\ or \E\ in an unaccented syl-
lable.
Teach the next digraphs and trigraphs—sc and rh are found in Greek-based scien-
tific words, que and gue in French words. It might be preferable to include them only in
yellow cards, discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. Without putting less common di-
graphs and trigraphs on visual cards, they can still be learned and included in decoding
and spelling. In Slingerland, gu as in guest is taught before gue. However some teachers
prefer not to teach gu as a digraph but rather as a concept: The u is inserted sometimes to
keep the g hard (guess, guide) before e, i, and y.
New phonograms can include: ei with its \a@\ phoneme; ear and our as \ur\, and oe
as \o@\. Recall that some teachers recommend that oe not be taught as a phonetic element.
Two common words that provide both of oe’s phonemes are toe and shoe. Students can
easily remember: Put your toe in your shoe. If not taught previously, teach the second
and third sounds for ou, \oob\ in French-based words, and \E\ in unaccented syllables—
particularly in the suffix ous. The short \u*\ sound of ou is really the same as schwa, \E\,10
in unaccented syllables (famous). To recall ou as \u*\, remember: A couple of tough,
young, country cousins were in double, rough trouble.
The phonogram ui is taught differently in different parts of the country. Certainly

in California, ui spells only one sound, \oob\ and not \u@\—no one says \su@t\ for suit in most
parts of the country anymore. To remember the most common ui words, the following
should help: On our cruise we sat in our swimsuits (playsuits, jumpsuits) and drank juice
made from bruised fruit. Although ui with its \oob\ phoneme could easily have been pre-
sented in an earlier Level, because it appears in several relatively common one- and two-
syllable, everyday words, ui, as in build and guild with the \˛û\ sound and ui in biscuit
and circuit with the \E\ sound, are usually not introduced until the Advanced Level, or as
discussed earlier, not presented at all as phonetic elements. See further discussion on
grapheme Oddities in the last section of this chapter.
The problem with graphemes such as ui and ue is that they appear less frequently
as phonograms than they do in other forms. If you conduct a dictionary word search for
ui words, you will find u and i, indeed, adjacent to each other, but in different syllables
(acu/ity, circu/itous). You will also find the u in the second letter of the digraph qu adja-
cent to i in v-e syllables (acquire, beguile) or before an ending consonant (acquit); ue,
too, is found frequently in forms or positions other than as a phonogram, as an analysis of
the following shows: afflu/ent, antique, fatigue, bequest, and cru/elty.
10
The schwa (E) is used frequently to represent the vowel sound in unaccented syllables made by a and o
especially (cadet, polite), sometimes e (regard), and less frequently u and i (superb, clarity).
The last, more difficult C-le syllables can now be taught, beginning with: stle—
more common than sle but sometimes problematic because its t is silent. Teach sle, and
cle (found mostly in words of three
or more syllables) with the following augh/aught and ough/ought
four exceptions: uncle, circle, cycle,
A favorite way for many teachers and students
and chicle. The cle requires special
to remember when to use augh/aught instead
teaching to avoid confusion with cal
of ough/ought is to memorize the following
in numerous words like musical,
aught sentence (also found in LessonPlanner’s
historical, electrical, and cubical,
Grapheme Information): The (distraught)
which are all adjectives. Cubicle,
farmer caught his haughty, naughty daughter
article, and particle with cle are all
and taught her not to slaughter with laughter.
nouns.
Laughter should be pronounced with an exag-
The ligatures du, tu, and su gerated British accent, and you should explain
may also be taught, but usually not why laughter does not quite fit with the other
with cards; di is considered a liga- aught words. When students hear \o$t\ in a word
ture, too, as in the words soldier and they can use a process of elimination to decide
cordial. whether the spelling will be augh(t) or
How augh and ough are in- ough(t). The same applies when augh(t) or
troduced differs from program to ough(t) appear in reading. You can teach the
program and within programs. You remaining ough(t) words with different pho-
may teach ough with several phonemes as sight words. Expect to progress more
nemes using hand-made visual quickly with non-SLD students than with SLD
cards, and augh at this time. Refer to students.
the sidebar on this page for teaching
aught versus ought.
Advanced Group II Graphemes

As viewed in table 3–16, new digraphs should include ti, ci, si, xi, ce, su, which all spell
\sh\, as well as the trigraph sch; que and qu that provide the fifth and sixth spellings for
\k\; sc and ps for the third and fourth ways to spell \s\, and pn for the fourth spelling for
\n\. It is not recommended that you make cards for any of these graphemes. They should,
however, be included in auditory yellow card exercises described in Chapter 4.
Table 3–16. Ad- Definitely teach from the previous tables: ough, augh or aught,
vanced Group II ought
Graphemes
Also possibly introduced previously: ear, our, al
Gradually teach: ti, si, ci (as \sh\, not \s\)
Less frequent: xi, su \sh\
ce (as \sh\, not \s\)
sch
Teach: que, sc and ps, pn
Maybe teach: yr, et, é
Teach second phonemes for: ir, er, ei
Teach second and third phonemes: z - \s\, x - \gz\ and \z\
u \ooB\ and \w\
su as a ligature
Teach second and/or third phonemes: ei, ar
Maybe not for: ie
Teach using Choice I or II: w(a) and qu(a)
w(ar) and qu(ar)
w(or)
If not yet introduced, teach second pho- qu \k\
neme:
Begin to teach vowels at the end of unac- a and o \E\
cented, open syllables:
Continue: e and i \˛û\
Definitely all three phonemes for: y
Another one or two phonemes: i \e@\ and \y\
How ough is taught differs among Orton-based programs. Note that in the Ad-
vanced Gillingham Checklist (table 3–6), ough is given six sounds whereas in this book,
it is given four (table 3–15 and table 3–16).
Here, and in Schupack’s Advanced Checklist, augh is designated as having just

one phoneme. Schupack’s six phonemes for ough include four that many Slingerland and
other Orton-based teachers use as well: \o$\ as in ought, \o@\ as in although, \ou\ as
drought, and \oob\ as in through. In the last two of Schupack’s list, the final gh is pro-
nounced \f\. One contains words such as tough and rough, which advanced Slingerland
students decode by isolating the ou as \u*\ and recognizing gh as one grapheme represen-
tation for \f\, especially at the end of several common words (enough, tough, laugh).
Words such as cough and trough can be included in the same category as the ought
words without the ending t, or perhaps as sight words. As an informed teacher, you de-
cide.
A few teachers teach ght (drought) as another spelling for \t\. This is perplexing
because igh has already been presented as a spelling for \˛â\ and eigh as \a@\. In both in-
stances the gh may be considered silent. Thus, ght - \t\ is not recommended. Because bt -
\t\ and pt - \t\ appear infrequently, it is better to include them also with sight words (debt,
doubt, subtle, and receipt, ptarmigan, pterodactyl, Ptolemaic, ptomaine).
Other new phonograms to be taught if not introduced previously include those

that are r-controlled: ear (earth), our (journey), and yr (zephyr) with the phoneme \ur\.
Found primarily in French words, é and et provide the ninth and tenth ways to spell long
\a@\. You can teach al with its \o$l\ sound as a phonogram if you have not done so earlier.
Certainly you would have taught al as a word family or with sight words for the most
common al or all words (halt, malt, ball, call, fall).11
Teach the second phoneme for ir, the second and third for ei, and the third pho-
neme for ar. The respective phonemes are \˛ûr\; \˛â\ and \e@\; and \a*r\. Consider carefully
whether you wish to teach the third phoneme for ie. Some teachers prefer not to apply
more than two key words and phonemes because the third, short \˛û\, is found in so few,
although relatively common words: mischief, mischievous, kerchief, handkerchief, and
sieve. Including ie as the fourth or fifth spelling for \˛û\ in yellow cards only, is usually
sufficient (i, y, ai, ie, and e at the end of an unaccented syllable). You should also intro-
duce the second phoneme for er, \˛e*r\.
Single consonants requiring additional instruction include z and its second pho-
neme, \s\, and x as \gz\ (exam and existence). Later, or at this point, you can teach x pro-
nounced \z\ (xerox and xylophone) from the Greek, also.
Gradually teach students to understand the influence of letters that follow w and
qu in the same way that they learned the influence of e, i, and y upon c and g. Since the u
most frequently acts as the consonant w when it follows q, teach your students to respond
to the w and qu cards with either Choice I or Choice II (See table 3-17).
11
A vowel followed by an l (l-controlled) is affected similarly to a vowel followed by an r (r-controlled).
With er, ar, and ir, there are dictionary diacritical and spoken differences similar
to those described for w and qu followed by a. With careful discussion, students rarely
have difficulty accepting and learning such differences.
Referring again to table 3–16, you can introduce another spelling for u, as u - full
- \ooB\. Also, u with its corresponding \w\ sound can be introduced, and the second or third
phoneme for su, as \sh\ or a ligature, can be given, if not introduced previously. It is not
recommended that a visual card be made for su.
Table 3–17. Choices Choice I Choice II

for Teaching w and
w - wagon - \w\ w - wagon - \w\
qu
w followed by a often says w-a - watch - \wo*\
\wo*\12
w followed by ar says \wo$r\ w-a-r - war - \wo$r\
w followed by or says \wur\ w-o-r - world - \wur\
qu - queen - \kw\ qu - queen - \kw\
qu followed by a often says qu-a - quad - \kwo*\
\kwo*\
qu - followed by or says - qu-a-r - quart - \kwo$r\
\kwo$r\
qu - quiche - \k\ (in French qu - quiche - \k\ (in French
words) words)
Now that the second long vowel phonemes for all the vowels have been intro-
duced, it is time to introduce the third phonemes. The third occurs at the end of unac-
cented, open syllables and requires careful instruction before students respond to any vis-
ual vowel card by (1) naming the vowel, (2) giving the key word, (3) giving the short
vowel sound in closed syllables, (4) renaming the vowel, (5) naming the second key
word, (6) giving the long vowel sound at the end of accented (open) syllables (ex: a -
baby - \a@\, at the end of an accented syllable), (7) renaming the vowel, (8) giving the third
key word, and (9) for a, e, i, and o, giving the unaccented vowel sound (ex: o - polite -
12
Different dictionaries use different diacritical notations for the pronunciation of wa (and qua). Further-
more, some dictionaries distinguish between the wa pronunciation in words such as wad, wallet, want and
walker, walrus, water. If you discuss these differences, after perhaps having your students discover them
themselves, wa words should not pose as much difficulty.
\E\, at the end of an unaccented syllable). For a, the third response is: a - cadet - \E\, at the
end of an unaccented (open) syllable; for e, it is e - sedan - \˛û\ or \E\, at the end of an un-
accented syllable; for i, i - Tibet - \˛û\, at the end of an unaccented syllable. For u, recall
that u says \u@\ or \oob\ at the end of an accented syllable. Often the unaccented u is simply
not taught because it occurs so infrequently, as in the word superb. (The response to
vowel y has already been discussed at the end of the previous Level.) All three vowel
phonemes for y should usually have been introduced by now.
The letter i spells two additional sounds that are usually not introduced until an
advanced level of instruction. They are \y\ and long \e@\. An excellent warning to students
is: i can do anything y can do, and y can do anything i can do, but never rely on i (there-
fore also y). Eventually, your students should respond confidently to the i card in the fol-
lowing ways:
i - inch - \˛û\
i - tiger - \˛â\, at the end of an accented syllable
i - Tibet - \˛û\, at the end of an unaccented syllable
i - million - \y\ (i acting as the consonant y)
i - maniac - \e@\ (i before another vowel often says \e@\ when the syllabifica-
tion occurs between two vowels, and also in French-based words such
as boutique and machine.)
You will likely choose not to teach unaccented u, or ght as \t\, for the reasons al-
ready given. They are thus not included in table 3–16. The digraphs bt (debt) and pt (re-
ceipt) representing \t\ and gm representing \m\ are not included because of their infre-
quency and because it is recommended that they be included in the instruction of sight
words instead. Refer to the prior discussion when deciding the number of corresponding
phonemes to teach.
A Note About Visual Card Verbalizations

Verbalization for the use of visual cards (hand pack) will vary somewhat in different Or-
ton-based programs. The preceding, strongly Slingerland influenced verbalizations have
been provided as a guide. Adaptation is expected and encouraged providing the
verbalizations are kept consistent within each program.
Rationale for Changes in Pronunciation of Graphemes 71
Rationale for Changes in Pronunciation of Graphemes

It should be noted that the pronunciations—particularly of unaccented vowels—are not
always the same as those found in the Gillingham-Stillman Manuals or in Slingerland’s
textbooks. It is not just a matter of dictionary preferences and styles. It stems, too, from
the fact that our beautiful English language is constantly changing. The first published
Green Manual reflects changes that occurred since the publication of the earlier Red
Manual, and Slingerland’s work reflects changes that she noted since the publication of
the first Green Manual.13 In one of this writer’s last conversations with Beth Slingerland,
shortly before her death in 1989, the question was posed whether the time had come to
change the designated pronunciation of “the half-short, half-long e”14, since so many
modern dictionaries indicate the pronunciation of unaccented e with \˛û\ or \E\. She re-
sponded by saying that she was happy that she no longer had to make such decisions and
could leave those and similar responsibilities to the many good teachers she had trained.
Her response was accepted as both a challenge and compliment.
Advanced Oddities
Under the category of Advanced Oddities (table 3–18) are the most advanced, less com-
mon phonemes that may or may not be introduced with cards visually, auditorily, or in
decoding or spelling, or not introduced at all. You can place several of the already pre-
sented graphemes into the Advanced Oddities category if you so choose. For instance, ui
as in build and guild, and also in biscuit and circuit, discussed in Advanced Group I,
might be better placed in Oddities, or presented in a different way completely. With gui
or just gu, instead of ui, explain that the u is inserted to prevent the soft \j\ pronunciation
that occurs frequently when i follows g, at least in guild, guilt, guide, and guitar and
several other common words. Then treat the other ui words (built, biscuit, etc.) as non-
phonetic (learned) words to be copied, traced, and memorized. Also, su with the \sh\ and
\zh\ sounds, might be best taught as oddities and not included in visual cards at all. The
same applies with sia (Asia) and sc (science) that spell \zhE\ and \s\, respectively.
13
The most recently published Gillingham Manual also has a green cover, but with a yellow band which
distinguishes it from the earlier publication. Revised and published by Educators Publishing Service, Inc., it
reflects changes that have occurred over the course of time and since the publication of the earlier Manuals
in 1936, 1940, 1946, 1956, and 1960.
14
as in event, depend, reply, sedan, etc.; often represented by “e” with a macron and dot above that.
Other Oddities in Schupack’s Advanced Gillingham Checklist (table 3–6), include

how the pronunciation of th changes from the unvoiced \th\ enunciation (breath and
bath), when an e is added to the end, to the voiced \th\ enunciation (breathe and bathe).
(Note that the e changes the sound of the vowel graphemes ea and a from short to long.)
She includes eo, with possibly three phonemes, as a phonogram in words such as people,
luncheon, and leopard, and also in bludgeon, pigeon, and surgeon, where the e in the
eo retains the soft \j\ sound of the g. Many of the advanced oddities are discussed further
in the main discussion of yellow cards for spelling in Chapter 4, and in the decoding dis-
cussion of this chapter.
When you teach at an advanced level, you will certainly come across oddities that
have not been included in this book, but with a solid foundation, you will know how and
when to include them for the benefit and enjoyment of your students. One might be uy as
in buy or ae in algae and aesthetic. How would you teach oe in Phoenix or in amoebae?
And what about that ae ending on amoebae?
Table 3–18. Ad- If not taught previously, teach: yr, et, é

vanced Grapheme the last phoneme for i, \y\
Oddities
Complete the introduction of a, e, i, o, y with slight differences
the unaccented vowels in open (usually not u)
syllables:
Perhaps teach a second or third ui \˛û\ and \E\
phoneme for:
Maybe teach: sia, th(e) where e changes the th
phoneme, eo with three phonemes
Teach affixes and Latin and See discussion in decoding in
Greek roots with or without Chapters 3 and 4.
cards:
Rationale for Eliminating Prompts in Visual Cards

Students must be extremely automatic in their responses to visual card review and prac-
tice before key words can be dropped. Certainly, in the first grade, key words should not
be eliminated at all, and in the second grade continuum, only key words for the conso-
nants with not more than one corresponding phoneme should be eliminated. In a third
grade continuum and beyond, the objective should be for students to establish such auto-
Rationales for Differences in the Introduction of Graphemes in Different Grades 73
maticity that they are eventually able to pronounce only the phoneme or phonemes for
each grapheme, in what is often referred to as “sound only” card review. Again, the easi-
est graphemes will be those with only one corresponding phoneme, beginning with con-
sonants, consonant digraphs, letter combinations, C-le syllables, phonograms, and so on.
Graphemes that require additional verbalization to reinforce generalizations, such as ck at
the end of a word, ar in an unaccented syllable, or verbalizations for any of the single
vowels, should be the last that you present in “sound only” card review.
Rationales for Differences in the Introduction of Graphemes in

Different Grades
Assuming that manuscript instruction is confined to first, second, and perhaps the begin-
ning of the third grade, and that cursive instruction is for third grade and above, the dif-
ferences in scope and sequence for the presentation of graphemes stem from several
sources. First, the older cursive-level students learn more quickly than younger manu-
script-level students. Second, especially in cursive instruction, the introduction of letters
is determined to some extent by letter formation similarities and dissimilarities. Third,
younger children are frequently not conceptually ready to acquire some of the more ad-
vanced skills and concepts that older students learn capably.
Table 3–19 and table 3–20 compare manuscript and cursive scope and sequences.
They differ slightly from those presented in Chapter 2, and are compatible with most Or-
ton-based programs where graphemes are introduced visually with cards or in Slinger-
land’s Learning to Write.
Before moving on to the next comparison table, remember that scope and se-
quence differences also depend on the factors previously discussed: the number of stu-
dents being instructed at one time, age, motivation, intelligence, previous schooling,
achievement levels, as well as the degree and kind of their disabilities—particularly those
related to visual modality strengths and weakness.
Specific graphemes may be introduced legitimately at any of several levels de-

pending on the many factors discussed, and particularly on the performance, progress,
and success of the students.
In grade three and above, Level II and Level III graphemes are gradually intro-
duced with visual cards.
Table 3–19. Manuscript Level I Cursive Level I

Manuscript and
Cursive Com- First trimester First three or four lessons
parison–Level I l, h, s, b, t, a, c l, h, k, b or f, a
m, k, f, g, ck Next several lessons
b or f, c, g, d, maybe t
e for writing only
Second trimester Second and third weeks at least
i, j, d, p, sh, ch, th i, s, r, t, j, ck
maybe w and wh Third week—end of month or earlier
w, p, u, sh, ch, th, wh
Before start of second month
o, qu, maybe ph and tch
Third trimester Before end of second month
u, w, wh, n, r, m n, m, (e), v, y, z, x
v, x, y, z, o, oa, ee ing, ang, ong, ung
ing, ang, ong, ung maybe kn
ink, ank, onk, unk perhaps ink, ank, unk, onk, eng
ai, ay, oo several phonograms: oa, ee, ai, ay
a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e, etc.
maybe qu second phoneme for s - \z\
e for writing at least
Table 3–20. Manuscript Level II Cursive Level II

Manuscript and
Cursive Com- Second Year Second or Third Month
parison–Level Review of first year including Possibly ph, wr, kn, tch,
II oa, ee, ai, ay, ou, oo dge, gn, gh, mb, mn,
Definitely qu, e, but not all with cards
a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, u-e The second phoneme for
Plus oi, oy, ow, igh, ar, or, er, ch - \k\
ir, ur, ea, ie, eigh, aw, au, ew oa, ee, ai, ay, oo, ar, etc.
Maybe ue, eu, eng, tion, sion, All vce’s except y-e
kn, ph, wr, gh, tch, dge, eng, tion, sion, ture
o - honey - \u*\ Maybe o - honey - \u*\
ce, ci, cy, ge, gi, gy,
or only ce, ge
ble, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, tle, zle
with only ple and tle on card
ey
Rationales for Differences in the Introduction of Graphemes in Different Grades 75
Table 3–21. Cursive Levels III

Cursive Con-
tinuum–Level Continuing in the first year—Level III
III and IV Certainly gn, gh, ch - \sh\, dge
ble, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, tle, zle, u-e y-e, oi, oy, igh, ow, ie
ey (both phonemes)
Soft c and soft g with or without individual cards
Maybe open syllables for: a - baby - \a@\, e - meter-\e@\,
i - tiger - \˛â\, o - pony - \o@\, all at the end of accented syllables
Cursive Levels IV
First Year or Continuum—Level IV
y - \˛û\ and y - \˛â\ (my, shy, etc.); y-e for sure, and most of the fol-
lowing: gn, gh, mb, mn, dge, gh, eng, ture, tion, sion, oo, ar,
or, eigh, er, ir, ur, ea, aw, au, ui, ew, eu, and ue
maybe ei as \a@\
soft c and soft g definitely
all open syllables including u - music - \u@\, and u - lunar - \oob\,
plus y - cycle - \˛â\
ar and or in unaccented syllables, \Er\
The phonogram ey with both phonemes, shown in table 3–20, may be introduced
at any point in the manuscript continuum. In an exceptionally fast-paced class, a few of
the following graphemes might conceivably also be introduced with great care: y as \˛û\,
sc, gn, mb, mn, gu, que, gue, ture, cle, stle, sle, y-e, ui, su as \sh\, al, ei, rh, ear, oe,
our, augh(t), and ough(t). Presentation depends on relevance to every area of instruction.
Table 3–22 contains the graphemes that may or may not be included in your own
teachers’ hand pack. Corresponding to the graphemes are key words and phonemes. Key
words can be easily changed if your school or language arts program uses different key
words, or if you want to change key words because of personal preferences. It is impor-
tant, however, to be consistent within programs. Once you select a key word, do not
change it, or your students will become confused.
The grapheme ght is not included because it is not recommended that it be taught
as a spelling for \t\ since, as discussed before, it is too easily confused with igh and ight.
Table 3–22. Advanced Group I

Grapheme Checklist
unaccented ar and or as \Er\
ai as \˛û\ (or \E\) in mountain, or taught as the ending ain
sc, rh, gu, gue, que
ei with all three phonemes (\a@\, \e@\, \˛â\)
ei with one, two, and three phonemes (\a@\, \e@\, \˛â\)
ear and our as \ur\, ui, and oe with two phonemes
ou as \oob\ and \E\
stle, sle, and cle versus kle (also cal)
ligatures du, tu, su, di
augh, ough or aught, ought
Group II
ti, si, ci, xi, ce, su, all as \sh\
a bit later, sch as \sh\, and que and qu as \k\
definitely ps and sc
maybe pn
ough, augh or ought, aught if not taught previously
definitely ear and our, and al as a phonogram
maybe z with its second phoneme, \s\
x with its second and third phonemes, \gz\ and \z\
é and et, and perhaps yr
the second phonemes for er and ir and the third for ar
w, wa, war, wor and qu, qua, quar, plus qu as \k\
the second and third phonemes for u, \oob\ and \w\
ligature su as \zh\
unaccented open syllables:
a - cadet - \E\
e - sedan - \˛û\ or \E\
i - Tibet - \˛û\
o - polite - \E\
i - \˛û\, \˛â\, \˛û\, \e@\, and \y\
Decoding 77
Table 3–22 is intended for use with students beyond the third grade in a contin-
uum program, and not as a guide for the instruction of first and second grade stu-
dents.Table 3–23, Advanced Grapheme Oddities to Ponder and Perhaps Teach, is most
useful for instruction of continuum students in at least the fourth grade and beyond.
Table 3–23. Ad- al as a phonogram \o$l\ (although) if al was not introduced previ-
vanced Grapheme ously in a different context
Oddities to Ponder
ui as \˛û\ in build and \E\ as in circuit
and Perhaps Teach
gu to maintain the hard \g\ sound in words like guitar and guest
ge to maintain the soft \j\ sound in words like pigeon and gentle
u as \w\, not only in qu, but also in words such as suave and lan-
guish
w sometimes as a vowel (like y) as in saw (and correspondingly
play)
sia as \zhE\ (Asia)
i-n-e as \e@n\ (machine)
x as \gz\ (exist) if not introduced before
z as \s\ (waltz) if not introduced
age not only as the suffix or ending pronounced \˛ûj\ but also \a·zh\
in French-based words (mirage, camouflage, bon voyage)
perhaps bt (debt) and pt (receipt) as \t\
- the change from the unvoiced to the voiced th phoneme when e
is added (breath - breathe)
- not in LessonPlanner, eo as in people, luncheon, and leopard,
and also in bludgeon where the e maintains soft \j\
The reverse of the grapheme table in Appendix A is that for phonemes, key
words, and graphemes in Appendix B.
Decoding
Research indicates that poor decoding skill in the first years of school correlates signifi-
cantly with poor comprehension and decoding in the higher grades. Thus, it is crucial that
decoding be taught and that teachers learn effective decoding techniques (Brady and
Moats, 1997). In Orton-based instruction, the smallest units of sight, sound, and feel are
presented first for their introduction, practice, and review in visual cards. Next, slightly
larger visual units, words, are presented for decoding. The words contain the graphemes
introduced or reviewed in visual cards.
Decoding involves the application of skills to unlock words in order to name or

pronounce them correctly. These skills include the systematic identification of graphemes
with corresponding phonemes, syllabification, and accenting. Decoding is not reading.
Reading occurs only when students read and derive meaning from sentences, paragraphs,
and pages from a variety of texts. However, the inclusion of explicit decoding instruction
and practice is supported by research as an essential prerequisite to reading if we want all
children to learn to read.
When a student makes a mistake or miscalls a word in decoding, it is important to

print the misnamed word or word approximation, so that the student can compare it visu-
ally with the miscalled decoding word. If a teacher simply pronounces the correct word
for a student, the student is suddenly presented with an auditory stimulus that prevents
him from detecting a visual error visually within the visual task of decoding. Although
responses are ultimately multisensory, i.e., visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), and kines-
thetic-motor (saying and writing), simultaneously, the initial stimulus and the techniques
for decoding are visual. Sudden auditory interference causes a breakdown in the visual
process of decoding.
In Orton-based programs, graphemes are first introduced with visual cards and
decoding follows. In most programs students decode across words from the beginning of
each word, left to right. In Slingerland, a student first underlines the vowel unit (a) of a
word (fat), then names it (a), before giving its corresponding phoneme (\a*\). Finally the
student sounds out or decodes the word from left to right. The techniques for decoding
are not the main focus here. Instead, the purpose is to provide the rationale behind the
recommended order for the presentation of decoding words. From the rationale and the
sequence, it is easier to determine how many words and word types you can introduce
daily and throughout the school year with success to accommodate scope.
When decoding begins, reference to the visual card grapheme sequence will be
helpful. The first words to use in decoding are the same or similar to those that are first
encoded or spelled. Decoding, therefore, begins with one-syllable short a words (closed
syllable) that contain only the letters that have been taught. When using LessonPlanner,
you can select words from the 1-syllable, short vowel pull-down menus in Decoding.
Decoding 79
Decoding should be limited to one-syllable short a words until the techniques for
decoding become automatic. The first words selected from the numerous short a options
should follow a specific sequence that begins with the easiest word pattern and continues
to the next slightly more difficult pattern. The easiest are cvc words, where a represents
the first vowel. In some reading and spelling programs, further distinction is made regard-
ing the difficulty of the first consonant in cvc word, as discussed following table 3–24.
Table 3–24. Begin- - a – words hat, fat

ning Decoding with In LessonPlanner, select from the one-
cvc (- a -) One-
syllable, short vowel pull-down menu and
Syllable Words
the vowel a, in Decoding.
- a - - words cast, hand
- a — words (with digraphs) back, mash
- - a – words glad, flap
— a - words (with digraphs) shad, than
- - a - - words (also with digraphs) blast, grant, whack
- - - a - or - - - a - - words sprat, scrap, splash
Review: words with x having two conso- wax, has

nant sounds—\k\ and \s\-\ks\, and s with
two corresponding phonemes—\s\ and \z\
Be sure to include words that begin with at, ask
the recently introduced vowel a.15
Some educators feel that a consonant represented by a phoneme with a continuous

sound is easier than one made with a stop sound consonant. A continuous sound is one
that can be pronounced and maintained for several seconds without distortion; a stop
sound is one that can be pronounced (spoken, said, or enunciated) only for an instant. The
continuous sound consonants are f, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, y (yellow), and z. The more diffi-
cult stop sound consonants are b, c, d, g, h, j, k, p, q, t, and x. This distinction is helpful
for understanding why young children, or those with severe specific language disabilities,
might falter more on a word beginning with a b than an m. Stop sound consonants should
15
In most word lists, vc words are not listed separately because of their infrequency. They are often in-
cluded in the cvc lists.
be avoided initially when working with students who have phonemic awareness weak-
ness and/or significant specific language deficits.
Decoding word lists may be extracted as needed from LessonPlanner or from

published word books intended specifically for that purpose (Akin, 1941; Slingerland and
Murray, 1987; Bowen, 1980). How and where to retrieve them in LessonPlanner is noted
in the tables. Another source is from the day’s reading, from which decoding words are
selected for reinforcement of previous learning or the acquisition of new learning.
Table 3–25. Decoding - i – words wig, kid

with cvc (- i -) One-
Syllable Words
In LessonPlanner, select from the one-
syllable, short vowel pull-down menu and
the vowel i, in Decoding.
- i - - words tint, milk
- i — words (with digraphs) dish, lick
- - i - words clip, slid
— i - words (with digraphs) ship, chin
- - i - - words (also with digraphs) twist, thick
- - - a - or - - - a - - words (with digraph) sprig, script, thrift
with i at the beginning and with s - \z\ is
with x fix
ff, ll, ss, and zz words sniff, grill, miss, frizz
- i - - -, - - i - - - , or pinch, clinch, stitch,
- - - i - - - (also with di- and trigraphs) wrists
Review: Mix one-syllable short a words rapt, rift, grass, fifth,
for discrimination with one-syllable short i scratch, snitch
words. Adherence to the - v -, - v - -
sequence need not be as strict.
Including Nonsense Words

Nonsense or pseudowords should frequently be included in your students’ decoding. You
can use your own favorite resources or create your own nonsense decoding word lists. Be
Decoding 81
sure to create words that look like real words, but are not. If, for instance, you are teach-
ing cvc decoding, then include words that follow the cvc pattern (fam, bip) or cvcc pat-
tern (fint, samp) and so forth. Many should be real syllables such as sis in the word sis-
ter. It is not suggested that you combine letters that will not look like real words.
Rationale for Introducing the Vowel “a” Before “i”

Discriminating the difference between the easiest to pronounce vowel phoneme \a*\ and
the slightly more difficult \˛û\, is easier than among the other short vowels because there is
greater distinction or variation in their sounds than between any other pair of vowels.
Short \e*\ and \˛û\ are the closest in sound and therefore taught far apart from each other.
Also, there is more difference in how \a*\ and \˛û\ are formed and feel as they are enunci-
ated, another reason they are not as difficult, and thus taught first.
Table 3–26. Decoding - u - words sun, lug

with cvc (- u -) One- In LessonPlanner, select from the one-
Syllable Words
syllable, short vowel pull-down menu
and the vowel u, in Decoding.
- u - - words hunt, duct
- u — words (with digraphs) gush, luck
- - u - words smug, spun
— u - words (with digraphs) thug, chug
-- u - - words (with digraphs) thump, stuck
- - - u - or - - - u - - words (with digraph) crutch, thrust, thrush,
struck
- u - - -, - - u - - -, or hutch, crunch, scrunch
- - - u - - - words
with u at the beginning up
with x flux
with s - \z\ bugs
Review:
mixed double f, l, s, and z stuff, still, crass, whizz
mixed short a, i, and u yam, film, stuff, splash,
script, brunch
Be sure to include words that begin with
the recently introduced vowel (i). it, itch
Decoding is much like weaving, for one must constantly review words and con-
cepts while carefully intertwining new concepts and words for added shade and texture.
Three categories of words should be presented almost daily from the sources mentioned:
(1) words that introduce new graphemes or concepts, (2) review words, (3) and words
from the day’s reading. Words from the day’s reading may be considered separately or
included in the “new” and “review” lists.
Words with suffixes, usually introduced in Spelling, may now be included for de-
coding. In LessonPlanner, use the pull-down suffix prompt menus in Decoding to recall
which suffixes were introduced and which can be added to base words. Type the new
word into the User Entry window and add it to the Selections decoding list. As digraphs
are introduced visually, they are included in the decoding lists. If you just want a list of
one-syllable words ending in ck or that contain sh, ch, or th, select them from the one-
syllable, di/tri pull-down menu in Decoding.
Table 3–27. Decoding words with suffixes jump, thrill, jumps, thrills,
with cvc (- u -) Suf- jumping, thrilling
fixes and Digraphs
include words with digraphs ck - duck, trick, whack

sh - ship, shack, shush
ch - chap, crunch, chinch
voiced and unvoiced th th - thud, with, that, thin
Depending on the abilities of the
children, just one phoneme might
be presented for th.
If the double f, l, s, z spelling generalization was introduced in Spelling, use one-

syllable short i words ending in ff, ll, ss, and zz initially to reinforce the generalization. In
LessonPlanner, words of this type can be retrieved in Spelling under Rules and Generali-
zations, designated as “f, l, s, z” in the menu. After they have been placed in the Spelling
Selections, they can be brought over for decoding by selecting them from Spelling in the
Other Sources pull-down menu, in the Decoding panel.
A Note About the Suffix “ed”

Although the ed suffix was introduced for decoding in table 3–28, it is easier to teach af-
ter short e has been introduced, as shown in table 3–29. The ed suffix requires special
Decoding 83
instruction because it has three corresponding phonemes: \d\, \t\, and \e*d\. In Lesson-
Planner, ed, pronounced \d\, and \t\ can be retrieved from the “Phoneme Spelled As”
panel in Blending and then brought over to Decoding by using the Other Sources pull-
down menu on the Decoding panel and Blending. Pronounced \e*d\, the suffix ed can be
retrieved by searching multisyllabic \e*\ and \˛û\ words in Decoding.
Table 3–28. Decoding - o – words top, box

with cvc (- o -) One-
In LessonPlanner, select from the
Syllable Words
one-syllable, short vowel pull-down
menu and the vowel o, in Decoding.
-o-- cost, pomp
- o - - (with digraphs and trigraphs) dock, botch
--o- smog, clod
- - o - (digraphs) shod, chop
- - o - - (digraphs) chomp, clock
- - - o - or - - - o - - (with a digraph) phlox
- o - - -, - - o - - -, or botch, blotch, off, ox, throbs
---o---
Review: gruff, spill, glass, jazz, boss
mixed ff, ll, ss, zz words ham, fist, stub, stump
mixed short a, i, u, o words stomp, stomps, stomping,
with suffixes stomped
Adding Soft c and Soft g Words

Words with soft c and soft g, depicted in table 3–29, may be included for decoding soon
after the vowel e has been taught with second grade continuum students or beginning
third or fourth grade students. In LessonPlanner, use the pull-down “soft c; g” prompt
menus in Decoding to obtain separate lists for ce, ci, cy, ge, gi, gy words. Perhaps begin
only with ce, and then ge.
Note that table 3–29 shows the introduction of the first homonyms. In Lesson-
Planner, use the pull-down Special Words menu to find Homonyms, in Spelling. Select
the homonyms you wish to include in your decoding lesson, and then return to Decoding
to retrieve them from Spelling in Other Sources.
Table 3–29. Decod- - e - words net, vex

ing with cvc (- e -)
One-Syllable Words In LessonPlanner, select from the
one-syllable, short vowel pull-down
menu and the vowel e, in Decoding.
- e - - words next, kelp
- e — words deck, mash
- - e - words sled, step
— e - words them, shed
- - e - - words crest, dwelt
- - - e - or - - - e - - words stress
- e - - -, - - e - - -, or depth, wrench, elf, hex,
- - - e - - - words sheds
Review:
mixed ff, ll, ss, zz words staff, spell, loss, fuzz, hiss
mixed short a, i, u, o, e words jam, list, wrap, quest (with
care), splotch
1-syllable phonetic homonyms its, it’s
several with suffixes
Introduce words with other common stretch, stretching,

suffixes that have been introduced stretches, stretched,
in Spelling by this time. Include: stretcher, stretchless,
est, ful, ly, ness, y, and ment. End- stretchable (for more ad-
ings s, es, and ed require careful in- vanced students)
struction.
ce and g e cent, cell, since, chance,

gent, gem, fringe, lunge
More sophisticated students will be interested in knowing that c is the most com-
mon spelling for \k\, and that less frequently (twenty-five percent of the time in words in
which it appears) c has the \s\ pronunciation, especially when followed by e, i, or, y. The
letter g, on the other hand, represents the \j\ sound with somewhat greater frequency than
c as \s\ (Carnine, et. al., 1990).
Rationale for Letter Combination and Phonogram Sequences in Decoding 85
Table 3–30. Begin- letter combination words

ning Decoding with In LessonPlanner, select from
Letter Combinations the one-syllable, letter combi-
nation (l.comb) pull-down
menu in Decoding.
ang sang, slang
ing sing, string
ung sung, swung
ong song, thong
with suffixes fangs, thronging, longed, stronger,
stingless, singable, twangy
Rationale for Letter Combination and Phonogram Sequences in

Decoding
Once decoding is secure with several vowels, then decoding one-syllable letter combina-
tion words (table 3–30) and one-syllable phonogram words (table 3–31 through table 3–
38) can be included, even before short e decoding (table 3–29). The first phonogram is
usually oa.
Table 3–31. Decoding oa phonogram words boat (- oa - )

with Phonogram oa In LessonPlanner, select from the coast (- oa - - )
one-syllable, phonogram oa pull- poach (- oa — ) (digraph)
down menu in Decoding. float (- - oa - )
throat (— - oa - ) (digraph)
oath (oa at the beginning)
hoax (with an x)
with suffixes groans, poaches, roasting,
toaster, moaned, foamy (if suf-
fix y has been introduced),
coatless, floatable (perhaps)
A few prefixes would also have unclip, misspell, tripod, bisect,
been introduced in Spelling by dislike, retoasted
this time, including the common
ones such as un, mis, tri, bi, dis,
and re.
Review: mixed short a, i, u, o, graphs, wrenches, twisted,
and e words, digraphs, tri- fussing, splotchy, shifty,
graphs, letter combinations, and thumping, blackness (if suffix
oa with new and review suffixes ness has been introduced),
bringing, soapless
Recall that for the introduction of graphemes, the following are usually taught by
the end of the first grade and included in decoding:
♦ all the vowels except perhaps e

♦ all the consonants except perhaps qu
♦ the phonograms oa, ee, and maybe ai, ay, oo, and ou
♦ letter combinations ing, ang, ung, ong, ink, ank, unk, and onk
♦ digraphs ck, ch, sh, th, and perhaps wh.
In the first trimester of a third or fourth grade class, additional graphemes are usu-
ally taught. These may include wh, tch, kn, eng, ar, er, eigh, ey, a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-
e. Very quickly more graphemes are added that can be included in decoding one-syllable
words. They are: ph, wr, and maybe dge, gn, gh, mb, mn, and eng.
Table 3–32. Decoding ee words feed (- ee - )

with Phonogram ee In LessonPlanner, select fromweeds (- ee - - )
the one-syllable, phonogram ee teeth (- ee — )
pull-down menu in Decoding. greet (- - ee - )
speech (- - ee —)
screech (- - - ee — )
with suffixes jeeps, queens, speeches, screen-
It is important that suffixes be ing, weeded, greener, greenest (if
added only to words where no suffix est has been introduced),
spelling rule (1-1-1-Vowel, needful (if suffix ful has been
Consonant-Y, Silent-E) is ap- introduced), cheerless, greedy,
plicable first. (See Chapter 4.) sweepable, meekly (if suffix ly
has been introduced), sheepish (if
suffix ish has been introduced),
deepness
Review: short vowels, di- tracks, quenches, quickly, floss-
graphs, trigraphs, letter ing, patchy, French, crushing,
combinations, with double f, thinness, graphable, whiffing,
l, s, and z; also oa and ee with knits, strongest, tweeter, poaches
suffixes
Choosing Which Phonograms to Introduce Next

After decoding at the level depicted in table 3–33, there are options for what to introduce
next, depending on all the factors discussed previously. With both manuscript continuum
and beginning cursive SLD students, you may continue to introduce new phonograms
gradually. These include any of those previously listed (oo, oi, oy, ou, ow, igh, etc.) in
the Level II categories.
Table 3–33. Decoding ai words rain (- ai - )

with Phonograms ai In LessonPlanner, select from faint (- ai - - )
and ay
the one-syllable, phonogram ai faith (- ai — ) (with a digraph)
pull-down menu in Decoding. claim (- - ai - )
sprain (- - - ai - ) (with a digraph)
aim (ai at the beginning)
ay words say, sway, stray
ai and ay words with suffixes pails, stains, draining, chained,

painful, airless, grainy, waistless,
trainable, faintly (if suffix ly has
been introduced), plays, player,
playing, playable
Challenge: As a challenge to replay, misplayed, unplayable,
more advanced students, ai/ay underplayed, displayed, dis-
words with prefixes and two mayed, dismayingly
suffixes may also be included.
Review: wrist, less, elf, staff, fetched,
short vowel dredge, crunchable, scratches,
digraphs knocker, scriptless, thrushes,
trigraphs hinge, glanced, sprayable, hairy,
letter combinations gents, centless, junky, singing,
double f, l, s, z singe, soapy, greeted, ailment,
oa, ee, ai, ay shrunken, blanket, impish, wish-
words with suffixes fully, blackest, sadness
homonyms be and bee
Phonogram ay and ai words are often introduced at the same time. Note that the
less common ay occurs most frequently at the end of one-syllable base words whereas ai
is usually found at the beginning or middle of one-syllable words, often followed by n or
l. Words with ai in unaccented syllables will be introduced later.
Several additional digraphs could also be introduced, particularly at the cursive

level to non-SLD or to more adept SLD students. The same applies for the introduction of
soft c and soft g words for decoding. Some teachers teach how to decode words that end
in y with its corresponding long \˛â\ phoneme, first (table 3–34). There are a handful of
common, one-syllable y - \˛â\ words. You may also introduce v-e words around this time.
Decoding V-Consonant-E Words

First and second grade students should be instructed that when (magic) e is added to
words like hat, pin, tap, cup, and hot, the pronunciation of the first short vowel will
change. It becomes long or says its own name. It is called a silent-e because the e has no
sound. For further discussion review the lesson plans in Chapter 5.
Table 3–34. Decoding y - my - \˛â\ cry, why

with y - \˛â\ and v-e with suffixes shyness, trying
Words
In LessonPlanner, select from the one-
syllable, long vowel y pull-down menu in
Decoding
Review: Constantly review words with
the already taught short vowels, di- tri-
graphs, letter combinations, phono-
grams, the double f, l, s, and z spelling
generalization, soft and hard c and g, and
words with affixes, as well as homo-
nyms.
vcv or v-e words gave, trace (soft c),
In LessonPlanner, select from the one- craze (hard c), rage
syllable, phonogram pull-down menus in (soft g), glade (hard g);
decoding with only a-e, i-e, o-e, and e-e, write (twisty wr),
at first. scribe; chrome (with
the \k\ phoneme for
ch); stoke, core
Although e-e appears less frequently in here, these, mere, eve,
one-syllable base words than the other v- theme, breve, scene,
e’s listed, here and these are common. sphere, we’ve (with
punctuation)
with suffixes blameless, merely,
spiteful, choked
At this early stage of decoding, when trying to decide which letter combination or
phonogram to teach next, ask yourself whether the grapheme you have in mind appears
frequently, if it spells only one, easy sound, if it occurs frequently in one-syllable base
words, and whether your students are sufficiently prepared to learn them without diffi-
culty. You should use the same type of questioning when deciding which digraphs and
trigraphs to include in decoding.
You again have several options. You might choose to continue with phonogram
words and introduce several from table 3–35 and table 3–36. In LessonPlanner, select
from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-down menu in Decoding.
Table 3–35. De- ou words loud, round

coding with More
oo words with the long \oob\ swoop, tooth
Phonograms
phoneme
oo words with the short \ooB\ cook, shook
phoneme
ow words cow, scowl, brown, vowel, tower,
how, snow, thrown
oi and oy words toil, choice, joy, Troy
igh words sight, knight
ar words spark, march
or words force, north
er words nerve, merge
ir words shirt, squirt
ur words burst, church
ea with the long \e@\ phoneme eat, wheat
ea with short \e*\ spread, breadth
ea with its long \a@\ phoneme great, swear
mixed ea list with affixes realms, real, unreal, tear, weakling,
steady, unsteady, greatness, creamer,
deafen, treatment, retreat, wearable
The ow words can be taught at the same time as ou with only the \ou\ phoneme
and noting, perhaps, that ou is usually found at the beginning or middle of words; ow is
at the end of base words or when followed by a single l, n, el, er. If ow is not introduced
with ou, then ow should be introduced with both corresponding phonemes, \ou\ and long
\o@\.
The long \a@\ phoneme for ea is the least common. Some educators claim that ea
spells \a@\ in only four words, contained in the following: Yea, we enjoyed a great steak
at our break. If ear words pronounced \a@r\ or \a*r\ are included, then the list lengthens
(pear, bear, tear, wear, swear).
Table 3–36. Decoding ie with the long \˛â\ phoneme pie, cries
with Yet More Pho-
ie with long \e@\ thief, shriek
nograms
eigh sleigh, eighths
aw and au law, drawl, dawn, squawk,
fault, Paul (an exception
because au—not aw—is
followed by a single l)
ew words with the long \u@\ phoneme few, skew
ew words with the long \oob\ phoneme grew, shrewd
Phonograms aw and au are taught together or closely. Note that au is usually

found at the beginning or middle of words; aw is at the end of base words or when fol-
lowed by a single l, n, or k, always with exceptions, of course.
Phonogram ew is usually not taught at the same time as eu because of how fre-
quently eu is confused with ue and ew. The spellings for long \u@\ and \oob\ are difficult,
even for teachers.
You again have options for what to introduce next. You can continue with some
or all of the preceding phonograms in words, or, as shown in table 3–37, you can intro-
duce u-e and the letter combination eng into decoding as well as several new digraphs
and trigraphs and/or soft c and soft g. You may also introduce scribal-o for decoding. In
LessonPlanner, all are selectable from the one-syllable, pull-down menus in Decoding.
Constantly review words in decoding that were introduced previously. Include

words with several short vowels, digraphs, trigraphs, letter combinations, phonograms,
doubled f, l, s, and z; ck, tch, dge; soft and hard c and g; scribal-o; homonyms; and
words with a variety of affixes.
Table 3–37. Continu- new digraph ph graph, phone

ing Mixed Decoding u-e words with the long \u@\ phoneme mule, pure
u-e words with \oob\ crude, spruce

eng words length, strength
soft c and soft g words cinch, gist, fancy, stingy
scribal-o words ton, month, and love, not
as a v-e word, but instead
with the final ve acting as
a consonant ending16
Decoding Word Families and Homonyms

Continuing with the options you have for what to weave into decoding, new homonyms
can be added or the first selection from Word Families, as shown in table 3–38. In Les-
sonPlanner, use the pull-down Special Words menu to find Homonyms or Word Families
in Spelling. You can select the homonyms you wish to teach from one lengthy list of 420
words, and then return to Decoding to retrieve them from Spelling in Other Sources.
Table 3–38. Decoding homonyms son (containing the newly

Homonyms, Word introduced scribal-o) and
Family Words, Pho- sun
nograms, and Plurals ind word family mind, kind
al phonogram or word family mall, stall, ball, call, fall,
hall, tall
oo word family (or phonogram) blood, bloodless, flood,
flooded
-s plural or third person singular strings, loves
-es after the sibilants s, x, z, ch, hisses, taxes, fizzes,
and sh branches, dishes
irregular plurals oxen, feet, teeth, sheep
For Word Families there are several choices (ol, old, ind, ost, ild, ign, and oo
pronounced \u*\) before selections can be made and brought into Decoding. Word Family
16
In English, e is usually added to words that end with the consonant v.
words are not difficult. As used in this textbook, the vowel in word families usually is
represented with an unexpected phoneme. For example, in ind words, it is expected that
the vowel i followed by two consonants in a closed syllable would be pronounced \˛û\ in-
stead of \˛â\.
Students will not have difficulty decoding word family words if they are carefully
taught to recognize word families. For example, when decoding the word blind, from the
ind word family, students should identify ind first and then pronounce it before pro-
nouncing the whole word, blind.
Although al is designated as a phonogram in LessonPlanner, it could just as easily

be taught as a word family—all or al—especially in common one-syllable all words. The
l is actually doubled because of the double l, f, s, z generalization. When treating al as a
phonogram, do not introduce it too soon. In this book, it is included in the most Ad-
vanced Oddities list. However, the smaller, easy al/all words can be taught much earlier
(salt, waltz, alter). Decide for yourself how and when to teach al or all. Remember that
many al words are more sophisticated and multisyllabic (although, almhouse, antiballis-
tic) and that l in each word controls the preceding vowel.
In LessonPlanner, oo is designated as a phonogram with two common phonemes,

\oob\ and \ooB\, and in Word Families with its least common phoneme, \u*\. Some teachers
prefer to teach oo only as a phonogram with all three phonemes in visual card drill. Most
teachers find that middle and junior high students enjoy, and have no difficulty with, the
oo -\u*\- blood/flood words of which there are more than expected. They are retrievable
from the Spelling Word Family pull-down menu.
Another appropriate option to weave into decoding is the introduction and review
of plurals. Although plurals might have been introduced elsewhere in a lesson, to help
your students understand when plural s is used instead of plural es, words from each
category can be brought from Spelling into Other Sources of Decoding. Plurals are found
in Spelling in the pull-down Rules/Gen’s menu. S, es, and irregular plurals are entitled
“add-s”; “s,x,z,ch,sh-es” and “irreg. plural,” respectively.
Depending on what you decide to teach from the various options, review now in-
cludes the newer teachings from those options (plurals, perhaps all as a word family, and
ind). Include words with short vowels, some digraphs, trigraphs, letter combinations,
phonograms, double f, l, s, or z, ck, tch, dge, soft c and soft g, scribal-o, some homo-
But Where Do You Teach Vocabulary and Grammar? 93
nyms, and words with a variety of affixes. The task of weaving new and review material
into decoding is becoming more complex, but not less important. Also, visual instruction
will notably outpace what you are presenting auditorily for encoding and spelling.
But Where Do You Teach Vocabulary and Grammar?

It should be clearly understood that once decoding begins, vocabulary must be included,
too. It is useless for students to decode and pronounce words that have no meaning for
them. You can teach vocabulary at almost any time during your instructional day and in
any part of your daily plan. For example, you often teach vocabulary in math lessons,
even though you might not be fully cognizant that you are doing so. You can also teach it
in specific lessons during or after a decoding exercise. As you teach vocabulary, you will
find LessonPlanner’s homonym list in Special Words beneficial. At a more advanced
level, the word lists for advanced suffixes and endings, in Decoding, are useful. In par-
ticular, suffixes often indicate parts of speech, an important factor in vocabulary devel-
opment. Other LessonPlanner sources for words that expand vocabulary are the Latin and
Greek roots, also found in Decoding. You can begin teaching them to fourth and fifth
graders as well as to older students.
An important component of vocabulary development is the instruction of diction-

ary skills. The development of dictionary skills usually begins with instruction for alpha-
betization and continues gradually to the study and use of synonyms, antonyms, idioms
and colloquialisms. It also includes etymology, the study of words and their origins, and
morphology, the study of the meaningful units in words (morphemes), and how they are
combined. How to use a thesaurus must also be taught. No matter where you introduce
these skills, they should constantly be reviewed and reinforced throughout the day in
reading, speech, composition, and in other subjects.
Learning to read, itself, broadens students’ opportunities to build vocabulary. Re-

search indicates that the majority of new words that students learn yearly are learned by
encountering them while reading (California Department of Education, 1996a). Thus, the
more that children read, the more their vocabularies will expand and improve.
Grammar instruction is similar to teaching vocabulary: Teachers need not set

aside only one specific segment of a lesson to teach grammar exclusively. Since grammar
is such an integral part of language and communication, it can and should be taught and
reinforced where and when it will be learned most effectively and meaningfully. At times
this might be when reading phrases in Preparation for Reading, when reading aloud di-
rectly from text, or, auditorily, when writing phrases and sentences from dictation.
Grammar should not only be integrated throughout language arts instruction, it should
also be reinforced in other subject areas. For example, parts of speech can be identified
from, say, a science textbook just as readily as from a reader. Or, grammar can be taught
and reinforced in oral discussions when speaking in complete sentences should be
mandatory.
The study of grammar, like that for many subjects, is cumulative. It must begin
with the smallest units and gradually progress to larger, more complex units. This pro-
gression or sequence should begin with the identification and definition of parts of
speech, beginning with concrete nouns, and continuing with instruction and acquisition of
the following, and beyond:
♦ concrete nouns
♦ nouns as simple subjects
♦ singular and plural nouns (number)
♦ the first irregular plurals
♦ action verbs
♦ present tense (using the ing suffix)
♦ past tense (using the ed suffix)
♦ regular verbs
♦ introduction to irregular verbs
♦ proper and common nouns
♦ verbs as nouns, too (test, dock, trust)
♦ verb endings to designate the time of an action
♦ simple sentences
♦ definition of a phrase (already familiar because of those written in dic-
tation)
♦ beginning punctuation (period and capital letter to begin a sentence)
♦ subject and predicate
♦ use of ? and !
♦ adjectives (to tell which, what kind of, how many)
But Where Do You Teach Vocabulary and Grammar? 95
♦ adjectives (to describe color, size, and shape)

♦ the use of an apostrophe to designate possession for nouns
♦ irregular verbs (begin with the most common—to be)
♦ punctuation for abbreviations
♦ helping verbs
♦ quotation marks
♦ irregular “to have”
♦ base predicates
♦ verb phrases
♦ irregular “to do”
♦ future tense (with will and shall)
♦ first person (the speaker)
♦ second person (one spoken to)
♦ third person (one spoken about)
♦ informal language
♦ formal language (especially for writing)
♦ pronouns
♦ possessive pronouns (always without an apostrophe)
♦ pronoun number
♦ first, second, and third person pronouns
♦ indenting
♦ past, present, and future
♦ subject, object, and possessive pronouns
♦ prepositions that tell when
♦ use of could and would
♦ direct and indirect object (answering whom? or what?)
♦ sentences with compound subjects
♦ sentences with compound predicates
♦ the use of ; and :
♦ compound sentences
♦ structure of paragraphs
♦ compound words for decoding, spelling, and vocabulary

♦ moving prepositional phrases to vary and enhance writing
♦ adverbs (beginning with words ending with ly)
♦ adverbs to designate when, where, how, how much, how often
♦ adverbial prepositional phrases
♦ comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs
♦ active voice
♦ passive voice
♦ use of hyphens
♦ learning to proof using proofers’ symbols
♦ more irregular plurals
♦ the apostrophe in contractions (representing the missing letter or letters)
♦ clauses
♦ dependent and independent clauses
♦ common Anglo-Saxon suffixes
♦ inflectional endings that change a verb’s form (ed, es, ing)
♦ inflectional endings that change an adjective’s form (er and est)
♦ inflectional endings that change a noun’s form (s and es)
♦ Latin suffixes (ist, age, ible, etc.)
♦ derivational suffixes that change a word’s function (great, an adjective,
becomes a noun when ness is added)
♦ the use of commas to set off clauses
♦ commas in lists
♦ relative clauses (usually beginning with a relative pronoun—who,
which, what, that)
♦ complex sentences
♦ continued study and use of semantics
♦ form versus function
♦ ize and ify as verbal functions
♦ present tense and present progressive tense
♦ more uses of commas
♦ conjunctions in sentences
♦ punctuating conjunctions
♦ sentence patterns
♦ compound and complex sentences
♦ sentence combining to vary sentence patterns
Two-Syllable Decoding 97
♦ using commas in direct quotes

♦ many more uses for commas (in direct address and to set off independ-
ent clauses, dates, addresses, geographical names, introductory phrases
and clauses, appositives, restrictive phrases and clauses, and with salu-
tations)
♦ punctuation with quotations
♦ past participles
♦ theme development in reading and writing
♦ continued study and use of syntax
♦ Greek combining forms for vocabulary, decoding, and spelling
♦ writing formal and informal letters
♦ indefinite pronouns
♦ reflexive pronouns
♦ intensive pronouns
♦ case (nominative, possessive, objective)
♦ similes
♦ figurative language
♦ metaphors
♦ dialogue in reading and writing
♦ other pronouns (interrogative, demonstrative, and reflexive)
♦ oral and written paraphrasing
As grammar skills are gradually introduced, they must be put to functional use as
soon as possible; previous skills must constantly be reviewed and reinforced in language
arts lessons, and in other subjects whenever feasible. Within the visual presentations,
many grammar concepts and skills can be introduced and reinforced in decoding, in Slin-
gerland’s Preparation for Reading, and when reading. Within the auditory presentations,
grammar must be put to functional use as writing skills are introduced, practiced, and re-
viewed.
Two-Syllable Decoding
Two-syllable decoding can begin either earlier or later than at this point. Begin two-
syllable decoding when students appear ready to learn the letter combinations tion, sion,
and ture (for older students), and when they are able to learn the C-le or silent-e sylla-
bles (ble, tle, zle, etc.) Some teachers prefer introducing two-syllable decoding using
words that end in C-le (sim/ple and rum/ble). Others prefer doing so with words where
the division or syllabification is between two dissimilar consonants (cac/tus). Wolf17 rec-
ommends the following sequence when introducing syllabification for the first seven
word types:
1. short vowel, like consonants (muf/fin)

2. second syllable ends in er (ham/mer)
3. short vowel with unlike consonants (cac/tus)
4. short vowel and silent-e syllable (bat/tle)
5. phonograms and silent-e or C-le syllables (mar/ble)
6. short vowel with v-e (stam/pede)
7. phonogram and short vowel (seam/stress)
In LessonPlanner, two-syllable words for syllabification can be retrieved by se-

lecting from the 2-Syllable menus in Decoding. The first pull-down menu identifies the
four ways in which words can be syllabified, designated for easy identification for teach-
ers, as Rule I, Rule II, Rule III, and Rule IV. The second pull-down menu lists the sylla-
ble combinations for each rule that is used when searching the database. The order in
LessonPlanner is slightly different from Wolf’s for syllabification between two conso-
nants, and the computer searches provide more variation. For example, if you want a list
of two-syllable words with like consonants or a list with unlike consonants, you can se-
lect them from the LessonPlanner category designated as “v or E:v or E” that contains
words from Wolf’s 1 and 3 types, above. On the other hand, in LessonPlanner it is possi-
ble to search for two-syllable words with a short vowel in one of the syllables and a letter
combination in the other. You can, within the broader range of syllabification between
two consonants, use your own judgment for the sequence to present. Either Wolf’s or the
LessonPlanner two-syllable decoding sequence can be used comfortably by both Slinger-
land and other Orton-based teachers, as well as whole language teachers with phonics
training.
Often in Orton-based programs, including Slingerland, emphasis is placed on the

importance of vowels for syllabification, accenting, and pronunciation. In the decoding
sequence presented in this book, it is recommended that students be encouraged to focus
17
Beverly Wolf worked closely with Beth Slingerland when writing her Instructional Sequence for SLD
Classrooms (Wolf, 1982).
Pronunciation and Accenting Two-Syllable Words with Short Vowels in Both Syllables 99
upon where the action is or where the division (syllabification) is made for Rules I, II,
and III: between (table 3–39), before (table 3–44), and after (table 3–43) consonants in
medial positions, and between vowels (table 3–45) for Rule IV.
Decoding with Double-Duty g and k

To decode words like jungle is more challenging than decoding other C-le words be-
cause the g provides two phonemes. The first is the final sound in the ung letter combina-
tion, and the second is the begin-
ning sound of gle, a C-le syllable. Learn: Word Division
Similarly, when decoding wrin-
Rule I: The most common way to divide a
kle, the k is what is often referred
word is between two consonants. (C/C)
to as a “double-duty” k. It is
amusing to observe students, on Although many instructors begin decoding of
their own, cleverly divide the k, or two-syllable words with those that contain like
g, carefully down their centers in- consonants, others find that because one of the
stead of underlining the letter “like” consonants—the one in the unaccented
combination first and then slightly syllable—is usually silent, this can be perplex-
below it, the C-le syllable. (The k ing (muffin - \muf' in\); therefore, they prefer
or g then have two lines with the beginning with two-syllable words containing
second line extending to the end of “unlike” consonants.
the C-le and beginning slightly
beneath the one underscoring the letter combination in the first syllable.) This is often
trickier for teachers than for children. Other examples include shingle and twinkle.
Pronunciation and Accenting Two-Syllable Words with Short

Vowels in Both Syllables
Younger children, while decoding two-syllable words, usually pronounce each syllable as
an accented syllable or one-syllable word. Then they pronounce the whole word as spo-
ken in normal speech with one syllable more heavily accented or stressed, and the short
vowel sound in the accented or stressed syllable more distinct. In the unaccented syllable
the vowel sound is less distinct for most of the vowels. The vowels a and o in unaccented
syllables are pronounced \E\, and e, i, and y are pronounced \˛û\. Unaccented e and i are
sometimes pronounced \E\ as well.
Table 3–39. C/C Divide between 2 unlike conso- vel/vet, campus, pastel
Syllabification nants with a single vowel in each
(closed) syllable.
between 2 like consonants with a rab/bit, muffin, success (a bit
single vowel in each (closed) syl- more challenging for stu-
lable dents who are secure with
soft and hard c), and suggest
(equally challenging)
between 2 consonants—like and lit/tle, hum/ble
unlike—with a single vowel in the
first (closed) syllable and a C-le
second syllable
between 2 consonants with a sin- fic/tion, vulture
gle vowel in the first (closed) syl-
lable and a letter combination in
the second syllable
between 2 consonants with a pho- mar/ble, gurgle
nogram in the first syllable and
C-le in the second
between 2 consonants with a sin- thank/less, ginseng
gle vowel in either the first or sec-
ond (closed) syllable and a letter
combination in the other syllable
between 2 consonants with a sin- duct/work, journal
gle vowel in either the first or sec- 3 consonants are together in
ond (closed) syllable and a pho- ductwork. Usually, the divi-
nogram in the other syllable sion is between the first 2
consonants, but in ductwork,
the ct is a consonant blend
that is not separated.
between 2 consonants with a sin- sin/cere, expose, and distaste
gle vowel in the first (closed) syl- (vowel, consonant, conso-
lable and v-e in the second sylla- nant, e or v- -e)
ble
between 2 consonants with a pho- mar/gin, weakling, vouch-
nogram in one syllable, and in the safe, saunter, dawdle, dollar,
other syllable, a single vowel, let- thankless, graveyard, eastern
ter combination, v-e, another
phonogram, or C-le
It is not necessary for students to refer to how words are syllabified or divided by
rule numbers. It is more important that they learn that syllabification between two conso-
nants (Rule I) is the most frequent, that syllabification between two vowels (Rule IV) is
the least frequent, and that when they have a word with a single consonant (or consonant
digraph or blend) in a medial position, they should try syllabifying before the single con-
sonant (or consonant digraph or blend) in the medial position (Rule II) first, and after the
single consonant (or consonant digraph or blend) in the medial position (Rule III) second.
Syllable pronunciation is determined by the rules, generalizations, and accenting

hints that govern decoding. The first two accenting hints are discussed in table 3–40.
Table 3–40. Accent- Accenting hint 1

ing hints 1 and 2 In two-syllable words, the accent will usu- campus, velvet,
ally fall on the first syllable (three-quarters humble, dollar, pas-
of the time). Now go back and accent the tel
preceding two-syllable words (table 3–39)
and note that, indeed, approximately 75% of
the words are accented on the first syllable.
Accenting hint 2
Affixes are usually not accented; silent-e or thankless, misspell,
C-le syllables never are; Latin and Greek bubble, success, ex-
roots frequently are accented. pose
If you are working with older or more advanced students, you can begin teaching
accenting as soon as initial two-syllable decoding techniques are secure. Teach the first
two accenting hints, shown in table 3–40, first.18
Since we have not discussed “roots” yet, only the first part of hint 2 can be ap-
plied. Soon, however, and especially with students in the upper elementary grades and
beyond, the second part of hint 2 is beneficial.
Typical Review of Two-Syllable Word Decoding, Beginning with One-

Syllable Words
Daily decoding review, as shown in table 3–41, should now include, initially at least,
one-syllable words with several short vowels, a variety of digraphs, trigraphs, phono-
grams, double f, l, s, and z, as well as ck, tch, and dge immediately after one short vowel
at the end of a one-syllable word, soft c and soft g, scribal-o, homonyms, and affixes.
18
Another resource that covers syllabification and accenting in depth is Patterns for Reading (Hoover and
Fabian, 1975).
Table 3–41. Review beginning with con- hat (- v - )

One and Two- sonant-vowel- fist, can’t (- v- - )
Syllable Word De- consonant (cvc) bath (- v —) ( a digraph)
coding words grid (- - v-)
thin (— v - ) (a digraph)
trust (- - v - - )
splash (- - - v —) or (- - - v - -)
fifth, drench, crutch (- v- - - ) and (- - v - - -)
ce and ge cell, binge
homonyms seen and scene
letter combina- slang, trunk
tions
with suffixes thronging
phonograms and strings, sweltering, conked, boasted, foamy,
letter combination blackness, bringing, meanest, sweepable,
words with more greedy, meekly, sweetish, knits, draining,
suffixes chained, replayed, toothless, powerfully,
hoisted, northern, merged, thirty, curling,
breached, pears, tries, chiefly, weighty
y - \˛â\ words dry
more phonogram crawlers, vaulted, strewed, mews
words with affixes
v-e (phonogram) grace (soft c), stage (soft g), blameless,
words merely, spiteful, choked, puled, fluted
scribal-o lovers
alk family talk, walk, calk—also spelled caulk, chalk,
stalk
al or all wall
irregular plural child – children
Additionally, weaving in new and review material should include two-syllable

words with short vowels, soft c and soft g, double-duty g and k, scribal-o, v-e, C-le, letter
combinations, phonograms, affixes, as well as homonyms, word family words, and vo-
cabulary development. Confusables are words that are readily “confused,” particularly by
students with learning disabilities. In LessonPlanner, Confusables are retrieved from the
Special Words menus in Spelling, as are Homonyms and Word Families. They must then
be moved to Decoding.
If you are teaching accents, include hint 1 and hint 2 words for review too. A
good review exercise at this point is to go back and accent some of the words in table 3–
41 and table 3–42, where either hint 1 or hint 2 is applicable. Applying hint 1: floodlight,
fracture, and system are accented on the first syllable, whereas sincere and compiled are
accented on the second syllable. Applying hint 2: gymnast is accented on the first sylla-
ble—not on the affix. Also, humble is not accented on the C-le syllable (hint 2). The
word success is accented on the second syllable or on the Latin root cess but not on the
prefix suc.
Table 3–42. Two- between unlike consonants ban/dit

Syllable C/C Decod- between like consonants tun/nel
ing
between consonants with a C-le second bub/ble, pimple
syllable
between consonants with a phonogram tur/tle
and C-le
between consonants with a letter combi- trac/tion, juncture
nation in one-syllable
Note that juncture has a letter combina-
tion in both syllables.
In LessonPlanner, unc is found in the
same letter combination list as unk.
mixed C/C junc/tion, miscall,
disband, unjust
trickle, system, sup-
pose, comply, accuse,
gardener, harpooned,
version
singular possessive Jor/dan’s, gymnast’s
contraction did/n’t
plural possessive gym/nasts’
ac/cess, gypsy, cyg-
net, fracture, factoring
double-duty g and k single, sprinkler
2-syllable homonyms as/cent and assent
word family blood/sucker, flood-
light
confusables com/piled, complied
Syllabification — Rules II, III, and IV

Rule III should be taught before Rule II because students have fewer new techniques to
learn when syllabifying with Rule III than they do when decoding Rule II words. The
only decoding difference between Rule I and Rule III occurs with the actual syllabifica-
tion. Students syllabify, or divide, after a single consonant, digraph, or consonant blend
(C/) rather than between consonants (C/C). Then they decode or unlock the separate
closed syllables that resemble closed one-syllable words, as shown in table 3–43.
Table 3–43. C/ Syl- Divide after a single consonant in a medial po- sol/id, famish
labification sition.
or after a consonant digraph with/er,
plumber
or after a consonant blend front/age,
pointer
Review: Beginning with one-syllable decoding, review should now
also include two-syllable decoding with Rule I and III words. Con-
stantly weave into both the one- and two-syllable lists a variety of
words with short vowels, digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, letter
combinations, doubled f, l, s, and z, ck, tch, and dge, hard and soft
c and g, scribal-o, homonyms, word families, confusables, and
words with affixes. If you are teaching accents, include hint 1 and
hint 2 words.
In LessonPlanner, words for Rule III syllabification can be retrieved by selecting

from the third of the Decoding 2-Syllable menus. There are three categories of words:
♦ short vowel or schwa in the first syllable and “arb”19 in the second
♦ phonogram in one syllable and “arb” in the other syllable
♦ letter combination in one syllable and “arb” in the other
When Rule II decoding begins, syllabification occurs before a single consonant

(or consonant digraph or blend) in a medial position, as depicted in table 3–44. Now stu-
19
“Arb” is an abbreviation for arbitrary and includes short and long vowels, schwa, v-e, C-le, letter com-
binations, and phonograms.
dents must be secure with the difference between long and short vowel sounds, at least,
and understand the concept and difference between closed and open syllables.
In a closed syllable, the vowel is followed by, or closed by, at least one consonant
(m in ham and ham/mer, and v in sev/en);
Learn: Word Division
and in an open syllable, the vowel is at the
end of the syllable or word (o as in no),
Rule II: The second most common way to
and thus the syllable is left open. In ac-
divide a word is before a single consonant
cented open syllables (no/ble), the vowel
(or consonant digraph, blend, or C-le) in a
sound is long (no@' ble). In unaccented open
medial position. (/C)
syllables the vowel sound is usually half
Rule III: The third most common way to di-
long and half short, or schwa, as the a is in
vide a word is after a single consonant (or
cadet (\cE det'\). Thus, decoding Rule II
consonant digraph or blend) in a medial po-
words requires more complex decoding
sition. (C/)
techniques and skills than decoding Rule I
Teach Rule III before Rule II.
and III words. Teach Rule II decoding af-
ter Rule III decoding.
Rule IV: The least common way to divide a
Teaching syllabification before a word is between two vowels (often recog-
single consonant in a medial position (con- nized as unstable diphthongs.20 (V/V)
sonant digraph, blend, or C-le syllable)
requires additional teaching so that your
students understand the concept of an open syllable. Accenting is more important, too.
Teach accented open syllables first. Introducing unaccented open syllables causes confu-
sion at this early stage.
In LessonPlanner, words for /C syllabification can be retrieved by selecting from

the second of the Decoding 2-Syllable menus. There are two categories of words:
♦ long vowel or \E\ in either syllable and “arb” in the other
♦ phonogram in the first syllable and “arb” in the second
20
An unstable diphthong is a pair of vowels that appears to be a diphthong but which is actually syllabified
or divided between its two vowels (cre/ate, archa/ic). Recall that diphthongs are speech sounds made by
gliding one vowel phoneme to another in one syllable (boil, crouch). Another way to define a diphthong is
to say that a diphthong is comprised of two consecutive vowels, each of which contributes to its sound.
Table 3–44. /C Syl- Divide before a single consonant in a me/ter, baby

labification medial position; the vowel is long.
or before a consonant digraph; the se/quel, either

vowel is long
or before a consonant blend; the vowel is se/cret, cypress
long
or before a C-le syllable; the vowel is ti/tle, cycle, bicycle
long (more challenging),
tricycle (adding the
two new prefixes bi
and tri)
Divide before a single consonant in a pa/rade, cadet, sedan
medial position; the vowel has its unac-
cented sound.
or before a consonant digraph; the a/scend, re/quire
vowel is unaccented
or before a consonant blend; the vowel is re/fresh, degrade
unaccented
Review: Begin your review with one-syllable decoding, but in-
clude two-syllable decoding with Rule I, II, and III words. Con-
tinue to weave into your word lists short vowels, digraphs, tri-
graphs, phonograms, letter combinations, words where spelling
generalizations apply, homonyms, word families, confusables, the
two new prefixes bi and tri, and suffixes. Include accent hints 1
and 2 words, too.
Initially, be careful to select only words where the vowel at the end of the open
syllable is long and accented. Students can begin to decode such words once they under-
stand the difference between closed and open syllables and are secure with card review of
short vowels (in closed syllables) and long vowels (at the end of accented syllables).
Teaching students to decode open syllable (/C) words where the vowel is in an unac-
cented syllable is taught later (Refer to the grapheme card sequence). It is discussed here
because students come across such words in their reading and may ask about them, or
you might mistakenly include several in your decoding lists. It’s easy to do because hear-
Words With More Than Two Syllables 107
ing accents and the difference between short and unaccented vowel sounds is difficult for
teachers as well as students.
Since all the words in LessonPlanner have been provided with their corresponding
dictionary notations for pronunciation, it is easy to select only words where the open syl-
lable is accented.
Table 3–45 shows Rule IV syllabification. In LessonPlanner, Rule IV words can

be retrieved by selecting from the last of the Decoding 2-Syllable menus. There is only
one category from which selections can be made, “arb” in either syllable. Begin by select-
ing from the options only words where the vowel at the end of the open syllable is long.
Table 3–45. V/V Divide between two vowels. po/et, cha/os, stray/ing
Syllabification
(reminder: in ay the y,
i’s twin, is a vowel and
not a consonant)
thaw/ing (reminder: in
aw the w, u’s twin, is a
vowel and not a con-
sonant)
Review: Beginning with one-syllable decoding and continuing to

two-syllable decoding with Rule I, II, III, and IV words, weave into
your review lists short and long vowels (at the end of accented syl-
lables), digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, letter combinations, words
where spelling generalizations apply, homonyms, word families,
confusables and affixes. Include hint 1 and 2 words for accenting
review.
Words With More Than Two Syllables

Once two syllable decoding begins, then syllabification with words of more than two syl-
lables can be introduced providing that the syllabification does not include rules, hints,
and generalizations that have not been taught. First are two-syllable words to which af-
fixes are added, as shown in table 3–46. The “count back three” accenting hint (hint 3,
table 3–47) should be taught.
Table 3–46. Decoding (C/C)

Words With More
Than Two Syllables
with 2-syllable words with affixes, dis/mis/sable, admittedly
dividing between 2 consonants
between two consonants with a C-le (un)gar/bled, candlelight
second syllable
between two consonants with a letter in/ven/tion, suspension
combination in one syllable
between two consonants with a pho- re/mar/bling, turtledove
nogram and C-le
(/C)
before a single consonant re/lo/ca/ted, demonize
before a consonant digraph ci/pher/able
(re)sequencing
before a consonant blend re/trace/able, cyclotron
before a C-le syllable no/ble/ness, recabled
(C/)
after a single consonant pol/ish/ing, venomously
after a consonant digraph fath/om/ing, (re)graphable
after a consonant blend stand/ee, unroastable
(V/V)
between 2 vowels li/on/ize, triumphantly
Table 3–47. Accent- Accenting hint 3 in/cu/bate or inc/u/bate

ing hint 3
If the other accent hints do not apply, sobbingly
count back three syllables from the end (un)roastable(“able” is a
of a word to accent, even if the accent 2-syllable suffix)
falls on a prefix. This often applies to candleless
words ending in v-e. demonize,
ciphering
If you now accent the preceding three
(re)graphable
and four-syllable words, you will see
lionize
that the majority are accented on the
triumphantly
third syllable from the end of the word.
venomous(ly)
Decoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes

Your students should be ready now to decode multisyllabic words not only with a variety
of affixes but also where more than one of the four syllabification rules apply with one of
the first three accenting hints.
In LessonPlanner, a good way to retrieve multisyllabic words of this type is from

the Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu. The selections can then be brought over to
Decoding from Other Sources. The word list in table 3–48 was compiled by scrolling the
Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu from the top downward, stopping to do word
searches, and then selecting words to review.
Another way to obtain lists of multisyllabic words for decoding is to select them
from the last two Decoding menus. The first of these contains words with advanced suf-
fixes and endings and is shown as “suf’x/end’s.” It is a good plan to review the prompt
lists that contain the more common suffixes and prefixes before selecting words from this
menu. The last list contains Latin and Greek roots with accompanying word lists. It is
shown as word roots. They are presented after suffixes and endings. The affix prompt
lists are also available for use in Decoding.
Not yet available in LessonPlanner are Greek combining forms that are not the
same as Latin and Anglo-Saxon roots and affixes. Connecting Greek combining forms is
somewhat similar to connecting smaller words to form compound words. Most Greek
combining forms are found at the beginning of words: telegram, biography, hydrometer,
psychology, to name just a few.21
Example lists of affix and root words from LessonPlanner can be found in the
running sidebars on the last several pages of this chapter. These lists were compiled by
scrolling from the top downward and adding a base to each affix (in bold) in the suffix
and prefix prompt lists. The words selected are those that students should have sufficient
skills and techniques to decode successfully.
Additional suffixes are planned for the next version of LessonPlanner including
those contained in the following words: handsome, knighthood, bracelet, as well as oth-
ers. Among Greek prefixes or combining forms are: hyperactive, macrofile, phonogram,
photograph, astrolabe, and televise, plus others. The Lexia Institute welcomes sugges-
tions for what to add to LessonPlanner from users and others.
21
Both Jane Fell Greene (Green, 1997) and Marcia Henry (Henry, 1990) have produced excellent materials
for teachers and students to learn and use Greek combining forms.
Table 3–48. Selected Words Hints Notes

Decoding smoke/stacks 1 ck at the end of a compound word
Mixed Multi-
syllabic Words mech/an/ize 3 ch as \k\
with Affixes hint 3, or count back 3, particularly from v-e
or/phan/age 3
chlor/o/phyll 2, 3 Greek-based with ch as \k\, ph as \f\, y as\˛û\,
and the common Greek connective o
sledge/ham/mer 3 with dge seemingly in the middle, but actually
at the end of the first half of a compound word
nos/tal/gic 4 c at the end of a multisyllabic word, not ck.
nos/talg/ic You should help accent since hint 4 has not
been introduced yet—accent the syllable pre-
ceding ic.
gym/na/si/um 3 Rule I, II, and IV.
Help with the pronunciation of i as \e@\ when
syllabification occurs in a reversed (or trans-
posed) diphthong, iu, not ui.
cam/paign 1 Note gn as \n\ and that the accent falls on the
second syllable infrequently.
re/de/signed 3 Two prefixes and the ign family where “never
rely on i” is evident
script/wri/ter 3 twisty wr in twisty writing
trans/lu/cen/cy 2, 3
hop/scotch 1 tch at the end of a compound word
strength/en 1 infrequent eng
streng'then
ex/tinc/tion 2, 4 inc as a letter combination like ink
hint 2: accent the root
hint 4: accent the syllable before one that be-
gins with \sh\ or \zh\
con/clu/sion 2, 4
ex/clu/sion/ist 2, 3, 4 ist, meaning a person; not est, the superlative
bam/boo/zle 2 an inexplicable accent—it happens
tur/tle/dove 3
pro/nounce 1, 2
par/en/tage 3
thread/bare 1
in/ter/lude 3 hint 3 especially when counting back from v-e
Decoding Words with Three or More Syllables

If you and your students have followed the progression provided in this book, you should
both now be able to decode words with three or more syllables that contain a variety of
roots and affixes. To assist with accenting, it is beneficial to teach two more accent hints
as shown in table 3–49.22 Words with four or more syllables can be retrieved from Les-
sonPlanner’s Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu. Selections can then be brought
over to Decoding from Other Sources.
Table 3–49. Accent- Accenting hint 4

ing hints 4 and 5
Accent the syllable immediately before flex'/i/bil/i/ty (hints 3, 5)
suffixes beginning with i (ity, ic), in- prag/mat/ic
cluding those where i is pronounced \y\ ci/vil/ian
(ian, iel, ier, ial), before connective i span/iel
(flexibility), and before any suffix be- fa/mil/ial or fa/mil/i/al
ginning with a \sh\ or \zh\ sound (tial, ep/i/sode (hints 3, 4)
cious, tious, cian, cial, tion, and sion spa/tial
with both phonemes). ca/pa/cious
In ep/i/sode, the connective i connects nu/tri/tious
two syllables; it helps to make words e'/lec/tri/cian
easier to pronounce. com/mer/cial
de/ter'/mi/na/tion
vi/sion/ary
con'/ver/sa/tion/al
Accenting hint 5
In words of five or more syllables, sec- flex'/i/bil/i/ty'
ondary accents often occur on every e'/lec/tri/cian
other syllable away from the primary deter'mination
accent. The words to the right with more visionar'y
than four syllables were accented by con'versational
first finding the primary accent (in bold)
using hint 4, and then applying hint 5.
Affixes and C-le syllables are usually
not accented; Latin and Greek roots fre-
quently are.
Yet another way to retrieve words to which the third, fourth, and fifth accenting
22
Eight accenting hints are presented in 30 Roots to Grow On—A Teacher’s Guide for the Development of
Vocabulary (Murray and Munro, 1989). Only the first five, most important accenting hints are presented in
this book.
hints apply, is to select them from the Decoding “word roots” Common
Affixes from
menu.
LessonPlanner
Last Gigantic Review playable

haunted
For all intents and purposes, you and your students will now have snowing
hits
developed excellent decoding skills. To secure and maintain them,
boxes
it is important to review frequently, beginning with the smallest cvc slasher
words and gradually progressing to ever larger and more complex greater
smartest
words. Over a period of several weeks the following word types thankful
should all be reviewed—those with each of the short vowels and all yellowish
smokeless
the digraphs, trigraphs, letter combinations, and phonograms (in- swiftly
cluding v-e). agreement
frankness
Additionally, words to which various spelling generaliza- foamy
tions and rules apply should be included, beginning with the first around
abstract
generalizations learned (the double f, l, s, z and ck, tch, or dge gen- advice
eralizations) as well as the generalization governing soft and hard c allow
antechamber
and g in words. antibiotic
bequeath
All the suffixes and prefixes that have been introduced must
beneficial
be included as well as all phonetic homonyms that have been complete
taught. Scribal-o should not be omitted. connect
collect
Continuing to two-syllable decoding, review will include C- co-author
correct
le words, more advanced letter combinations (sion, ture), phono-
contraindicate
grams, affixes, homonyms, word families. There should be an in- decide
crease in focus on vocabulary development. demigod
discharge
Be sure not to neglect words that require difficult or more engulf
exit
advanced decoding techniques: for example, double-duty g or k eject
words (jungle, tinkle); those containing w or qu followed by a eccentric
effective
(watch, quad), ar (war, quarter), or or (world); and words with the
extracurricular
seemingly myriad of phonemes for i. forbidden
forefront
Include a variety of words to which the four Syllabification injection
Preparation for Reading 113
Rules and the first five accenting hints apply. If you are reviewing Common
Rule I, C/C words, then be sure to have words with a short vowel Affixes from
LessonPlanner,
in each syllable and like consonants (muf/fin), words where the continued
second syllable ends in er (ham/mer), those with a short vowel in intercede
each syllable and unlike consonants (cac/tus), words with a short intramural
vowel and C-le-syllable (bat/tle), words with a variety of phono- malpractice
misapply
grams in the first syllable and ending with C-le (mar/ble), those outside
with a short vowel and v-e syllable (stam/pede), and finally, words overcast
perceptive
with a phonogram and short vowel (seam/stress). The same applies
postscript
to each of the four Syllabification Rule types. Rule II words are prescribe
particularly important because of the inclusion of accented and un- protest
recreate
accented open syllables. secede
self-service
Of equal importance in review are any and all of the pre-
semicircle
fixes, advanced suffixes and endings that have been taught, as well subway
as Latin and Greek roots, and “confusables.” Always be as com- superscript
translation
prehensive as possible in your reviews. undecided
underscore
Preparation for Reading nonfunctional
_________________
In the published document written by the California Read-
Advanced
ing Program Advisory and California Education Commission on Suffixes and
Teacher Credentialing, Teaching Reading, A Balanced, Compre- Endings from
LessonPlanner
hensive Approach to Teaching Reading in Prekindergarten
voyage
Through Grade Three (California Department of Education,
dressage
1996b), the following statement is made: external
appliance
Research shows that children are naturally inclined to view truancy
words as holistic patterns, rather than pictures. The draw- servant
burglar
back to this approach is that learning to recognize one word
momentary
as a picture offers no advantage toward learning to recog- dictate
nize the next. Toward developing children’s word recogni- private
facial
tion abilities, it follows that among the first and most criti- absorbefacient
cal challenges is that of persuading children to go beyond ferocious
employee
this tendency. . . . Research shows that it is important for Advanced

children to practice the phonics they have learned. It is Sufffixes and
Endings from
therefore essential that the initial books that children read LessonPlanner,
on their own be composed of decodable text. continued
The genuine and legitimate concern of whole language and tunnel

conference
other literacy and meaning-based proponents with the above state- consistency
ment is twofold. First, there is the question of whether it is advis- respondent
gaseous
able or even possible for teachers to “persuade” their students to go
variety
beyond their tendency to view words as pictures and instead apply magnify
and practice supposedly “boring” code-emphasis techniques and confine
quarantine
strategies. Second, there is the concern that phonics instruction
ermine
with its initial use of controlled or decodable text diminishes the glorious
opportunity to develop an appreciation of “true” quality literature. spacious
barbarism
Slingerland had the same concern for she, too, recognized the ignite
benefits of exposing children to rich literature that reflects the favorite
captivity
sound, rhythm, and flow of natural language as it is spoken, heard
survive
in speech, and written. Slingerland therefore developed techniques nonexplosive
and strategies for teachers and students that combine the best of reflector
factory
literacy-based reading instruction with phonics-based (code-
poisonous
emphasis) reading instruction. With appropriate preparation in essential
Preparation for Reading and Reading from the Book, Slingerland Martian
quotient
teachers enjoy the freedom to use literacy-based texts, controlled cautious
(phonics) readers, or almost any text, to their best advantage. Slin- seventy
gerland’s Preparation for Reading and Reading from the Book inconspicuous
______________
constitute the most significant adaptations of the original Orton-
Latin and Greek
Gillingham approach. Roots from
LessonPlanner
Preparation for Reading follows Decoding in the Daily
projector
Lesson Plan Format. Recall that the smallest units of sight, sound, dejected
and feel—single letters—are presented first (in Learning to Write), portage
while slightly larger units or graphemes—digraphs, trigraphs, pho- deportee
inflexible
nograms, etc.—are presented next (in Visual Cards). In Decoding, genuflection
Preparation for Reading 115
are yet larger visual units—individual words. Within Decoding Latin and Greek
Roots from
there is also a sequence that begins with the smallest word units—
LessonPlanner,
one-syllable cvc words—that gradually progresses to one-syllable continued
words with affixes, two-syllable words, two-syllable words with prediction
affixes, and ultimately to decoding the most complex multisyllabic abdication
compulsive
words.
expelled
In Preparation for Reading, the next larger visual units, intractable
attractive
phrases, are selected by the teacher from the students’ required insecticide
reading. This is an instructional time when students learn to read decision
extrovert
phrases to acquire meaning, where they have the opportunity to
adversity
practice effective eye-span and initial, preparatory, oral reading compendium
skills, and where words from Decoding, within the phrases, are pre- pendulous
inspector
sented for recognition, comprehension, and for integrated practice
perspicacious
to further strengthen recall. This is also a time to teach and learn monogram
concepts or expected meaning from the phrases. These may include autobiographical
perfidious
the concepts of singular and plural, possession, the various uses of federal
commas and other punctuation, tense, case, and so on. The purpose referee
of Preparation for Reading is to prepare students to successfully insufferable
retrograde
read their daily reading assignments, the next and largest and most progression
complex visual units, in Reading from the Book. envision
evident
For the most comprehensive instruction in the Slingerland recede
approach to reading, Slingerland teacher education is recom- ancestor
submit
mended. For background, techniques, and discussion of Prepara- missionary
tion for Reading and Reading from the Book, Slingerland’s Books 2 tendency
and 3 are recommended. concurrently
discourse
Briefly, in Preparation for Reading, the teacher carefully souvenir
preventative
selects six to eight phrases from the day’s reading. The phrases are
evocative
then printed on a blackboard, put on sentence strips and placed in a vociferous
card chart, or printed on chart paper. After Visual Cards and superscription
scribble
Decoding, four steps are followed in Preparation for Reading, sum- decadent
marized and edited slightly from Slingerland’s For Uniformity in casualty
Practices to be Followed by Staff Members of Summer School Ses- Latin and Greek
23
sions for the Introductory Courses (Slingerland, 1977), as fol- Roots from
lows: LessonPlanner,
1. Keep pointer under the phrase and read aloud for child continued
(children) to hear and see and then repeat . . . needed deciduous
clarification for meaning should be given at this time; conducive
productive
all phrases should be introduced in this way. captivating
acceptable
2. The teacher reads a phrase (at random) aloud for a des-
deposition
ignated child to find and read. Class repeats if correct. impound
The teacher continues, giving many individual children progenitor
the opportunity to participate in this important step. genuine
defective
3. The teacher gives the meaning only, a clue, and one putrefaction
child finds the phrase, underlines it with a pointer, and efficacy
reads it aloud. The class repeats if correct. Who, what,
when, where, why, how, how many, typify and guide the clues and questions
used by the teacher to convey the meaning or concept of each phrase.
4. The children take turns reading phrases, with the class repeating.
The way Slingerland developed the four steps of Preparation for Reading was by
observing how mothers enhance their children’s language skills by using baby books.
Corresponding to Step 1, a mother, or father, points to a picture in a book and names it
(object, animal, person, place) such as “chair” or “cat.” She/he then waits for the child to
point and repeat the word named (chair or cat) before naming something else. As in Step
2, the parent goes back through the book, without pointing, and names the pictures on
each page. The child then finds, points to, and names. Corresponding to Step 3, the parent
gives a clue for what the child is instructed to find and name. He or she might say, “Find
the one that says meow.” Finally, as in Step 4, the child eagerly goes through the book
naming each picture with the parent, aunt, big brother, or other capable reader as guide,
teacher, and class, repeating the child’s correct responses.
23
Available only to Slingerland teacher-education staff teachers and directors. The Slingerland Institute,
Bellevue, WA.
Reading from the Book 117
Reading from the Book

Reading from the Book comprises the largest and most complex visual units
(phrases, sentences, paragraphs, pages, chapters, and more). It follows Preparation for
Reading, and it is the portion of the visual lesson when students learn to perceive phrases
and practice reading phrases and sentences with correct rhythm and understanding from
new material. During Reading from the Book, students are reminded to read phrases to
derive their meaning, i.e., for information that tells when, how, who, where, etc. Teach-
ers, as in any effective reading program, help or guide their students not only with read-
ing phrases and sentences, but also with techniques for reading and comprehending larger
paragraph units. Anticipation of what specific paragraphs will convey is often based on
the content of the first sentence that must first be carefully read, comprehended, reflected
upon, and interpreted. As techniques for projection of thought are acquired, decoding and
other skills are reinforced at the same time, as needed.
As students learn to read, meaning occurs in two key ways. In the first, text con-
veys a literal understanding of what the author has written, i.e., literal comprehension. In
the second, reading involves what the reader brings to reading as an individual. It in-
volves reflection for purposeful understanding related to why the reader is reading a spe-
cific text and determining, while reading, what the author intended to convey and
whether the author’s perspective is similar or dissimilar to the reader’s. (For example:
this selection is literary criticism.) This higher-order analysis and thinking process24 is
enhanced by reading fluency, which in turn, is enhanced by one’s overall command of
language, including vocabulary. In both Preparation for Reading and Reading from the
Book, the ability of students to reflect, evaluate, synthesize, and analyze is improved with
direct instruction in comprehension which is precisely what is so strongly recommended
by educational researchers (California Department of Education, 1996b).
Briefly, Reading from the Book, like Preparation for Reading, has several steps
that require teacher planning and guidance. In the first, the teacher structures oral reading
for individual students to develop correct eye-span, phrasing, rhythm, etc. In the second
step, students study and read aloud with the teacher providing guidance in decoding,
24
For an interesting and enlightening discussion of thinking, analyzing, and asking questions beyond the
level of merely finding facts, read Jane Healy’s discussion, in Endangered Minds: Why Our Children Don’t
Think, chapter 13, on how to ask questions that require application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
skills (Healy, 1991). You will be compelled to read the entire book!
phrasing, and comprehension. In the third and fourth steps, there is less teacher interven-
tion and more independence on the part of the students. In each of the steps, it is impor-
tant that students respond to carefully constructed questions that stimulate thought.
Preparation for Reading and Reading from the Book can be applied when teach-
ing any subject that requires reading. This includes science, social studies, and word
problems in arithmetic to name just a few. Other reading material may include student
compositions, biographies, class anthologies, chapter books, poetry, reference materials,
recipes, cartoons, emails and other correspondence, magazines, core works of non-fiction
and fiction, technical documentation, household labels, environmental print, newspapers,
read-alouds, trade books, and, yes, even comic books. In Preparation for Reading and
Reading from the Book, grammar can be taught and reviewed easily, as suggested earlier.
For example, students can be taught to identify parts of speech, figurative language,
clauses, compound sentences, tense, number, the use of punctuation, and distinctions be-
tween sentences written in the passive and active voice. Students can also apply their de-
coding skills to improve reading fluency and overall reading comprehension, paraphrase
what they read, develop stronger vocabularies through incidental and direct instruction,
and identify the exposition, complications, conflict, climax, and denouement (resolution)
in literature. In Preparation for Reading and Reading from the Book, students can be
taught not only to answer questions but also to generate questions, which the NRP Report
emphasizes as being of particular importance.
Quoting directly from Teaching Reading, A Balanced, Comprehensive Approach

to Teaching Reading in Prekindergarten Through Grade Three:
. . . the single most valuable activity for developing children’s com-

prehension is reading itself. . . . Through reading, students encounter
new words, new language, and new facts. Beyond that, however,
they encounter thoughts and modes of thinking that might never
arise in their face-to-face worlds. In the interest of their own greatest
potential and fulfillment, all students should be encouraged to read
as frequently, broadly, and thoughtfully as possible.
4
Auditory Presentations
What Are Auditory Presentations?
Auditory presentations begin with alphabet card practice and review and are followed by
blending, spelling, and writing from dictation. Movement progresses from the smallest
units of sound (phonemes), feel, and sight and progresses to the next slightly larger units,
words for encoding or blending and words for spelling with the application of spelling
generalizations and rules. The largest auditory or sound units include written phrases,
sentences, and dictations that lead to the composition of paragraphs, essays, and so on,
until the goal of independent writing mastery is achieved.
Phoneme Awareness
We now know from research that lack of phoneme awareness contributes to poor levels
of literacy. In the IDA position paper entitled Informed Instruction for Reading Success:
Foundations for Teacher Preparation (Brady and Moats, 1997), the following is stated:
. . . a major problem for children with reading problems is that they

have not yet attained adequate awareness of the sound structure of
words. That is, they have insufficient phoneme awareness. . . . Com-
plete awareness of speech sounds in words typically develops over a
number of years. . . . This awareness gradually progresses to the in-
dividual speech sounds in words (i.e., phoneme awareness) (e.g.,
sheep has three phonemes).
Most Orton-based programs include considerable alphabetics instruction, includ-

ing both phoneme awareness (PA) and phonics instruction. From recent research find-
ings, however, PA is not taught as directly or extensively as it should be to be as effective
as possible. It is thus recommended that literacy teachers carefully access whether and
how they should or should not augment their teaching with more contemporary direct
119
120 Chapter 4: Auditory Presentations
phonemic awareness skill instruction. One of the most comprehensive sources for such
instruction can be found in the extensive work of Jane Fell Greene (Green, 1997) which
includes textbooks, classroom instruction, compatible readers, teacher education, and
teacher-trainer courses. Another educator who has adamantly taken to heart the impor-
tance of providing current research-based literacy instruction and is the developer of
similar up-to-date teacher education and teacher-trainer courses is the author of Teaching
Our Children to Read: The Role of Skills in a Comprehensive Reading Program, Bill
Honig (Honig, 1996).
Phoneme awareness, usually defined as the understanding that spoken words and
syllables are made up of sequences of speech elements, includes the ability to recognize
the number of individual phonemes in words and syllables, the ability to distinguish the
number of syllables within words, and the ability to hear and count the number of indi-
vidual words in sentences. It also includes the ability to recognize rhymes, to create
rhymes, to identify and substitute phonemes – graphemes at the beginning, end, and mid-
dle of words—and to blend words.
Auditory Cards
Auditory cards provide a time for students to practice with simultaneous auditory-
kinesthetic-visual association phonemes that are put to functional use in acquiring skills
of language (including encoding and writing). Auditory card introduction, review, and
practice are essential in establishing the foundation for the sequential development of
subsequent auditory presentations. It is also a time to lay the foundation for phonics in-
struction that focuses on phoneme – grapheme correspondences.
Once the name, key word, and sound of a grapheme have been introduced with
visual cards in an Orton-based program, the same grapheme can be reviewed in auditory
cards. The procedure for the presentation of auditory cards is essentially the reverse of
how cards are presented visually. For example, with auditory cards the teacher asks,
“What spells \h\ as in house?” The student’s response is, “\h\ - h,” while writing h on pa-
per or, as in Slingerland, “h - while forming h in the air - house - \h\.” The h card is then
exposed visually to complete the simultaneous auditory, kinesthetic-motor, visual re-
sponse. In most Orton-based programs, auditory card practice is done in oral and written
review. Regarding the latter, the teacher instructs students to write, for example, what
spells \k\ as in cat, \r\ as in wrench, or \b\, sometimes without naming a key word.
Yellow Auditory Cards 121
The purpose of auditory cards is to ensure automatic association from a given

auditory stimulus for simultaneous auditory-visual-kinesthetic association. It is important
to integrate your auditory card review with your blending, spelling, and written lesson.
The difference between auditory and visual cards is primarily in the scope of what can be
presented. Once decoding is introduced, the visual card pack will gradually become lar-
ger than the auditory card pack because students progress more quickly visually in decod-
ing and reading than auditorily in spelling and writing. To see why this is the case, imag-
ine a student decoding the word beast. He has three options for the pronunciation of ea,
\e@\, \e*\, or \a@\. Now, imagine that same student attempting to spell beast. There are at
least nine ways to spell \e@\—e, e-e, ea, ee, ie, ei, i, y, ey. The student must decide which
would be the most logical from those he has learned. This narrows the choices somewhat,
perhaps to ee, ea, ie, and even ei, but still the opportunity for error is greater than when
trying to decode a word that is presented visually.
The visual task of decoding and reading is less difficult than the inner auditory
task of spelling and writing, so expect to progress more slowly auditorily, while follow-
ing fairly closely the same sequence for visual cards and decoding.
Refer to Appendix B for a comprehensive list of phonemes with corresponding

key words and graphemes. This list, originally developed for LessonPlanner, should help
teachers become more secure in the use of auditory cards.
Yellow Auditory Cards

Since the recommended scope and sequence for visual cards applies immediately to audi-
tory cards, and we are not teaching precise techniques for use with either auditory or vis-
ual cards, we will move quickly to a discussion of what are referred to as Slingerland yel-
low cards.1 Similar exercises are done in other Orton-based programs, but usually without
visual yellow card reinforcement. Visual reinforcement is provided when students see
their written responses on their papers. Slingerland developed the larger yellow cards for
classroom use from Gillingham and Stillman techniques. In traditional Orton-based in-
struction, the smaller Phonics Drill Cards box includes yellow cards.2
1
The Slingerland Yellow Card Pack for classroom use are comprised of either single 8" by 5" or 8" by 10"
yellow cards. They are available from EPS.
2
Gillingham Phonics Drill Cards are also available from EPS.
Yellow cards are introduced during instruction as soon as students learn that there
is more than one way to spell a specific phoneme, especially for vowels, since vowels
usually constitute the difficult part of spelling.3 The purpose of the yellow card exercises
is to help students make wise, educated, logical choices when trying to spell and apply
correct graphemes for corresponding phonemes.
In using yellow cards, the teacher gives a phoneme, \k\ for example, without a key
word, for students to name and/or write the different graphemes they have learned to
spell that phoneme. In Slingerland, students name the corresponding graphemes, saying
the key word for each, and giving the phoneme last (c - cake - \k\, k - kite - \k\, ck - jack -
\k\). Then the teacher exposes the yellow card visually for the class to respond to in the
order in which the graphemes are arranged on the card, for those that have been intro-
duced or taught only. In other Orton-based programs, the teacher says, “What spells \k\?”
The student echoes the sound and writes c, k, ck, ch, etc. while naming the letters as they
are written.
Yellow Auditory Card Scope and Sequence

Usually, the first auditory yellow card exercise begins when students have learned the
first three spellings for \k\ made with c, k, and ck. When the second phoneme for ch is
introduced, \k\, then ch is added to the \k\ yellow card. Eventually, que and qu are also
added, ordinarily one at a time. The same procedure is followed with all the yellow cards.
In the following, they are grouped into phonemes spelled with consonants and consonant
digraphs and trigraphs; short vowels and phonograms; long vowels, diphthongs, phono-
grams including v-e; r-controlled syllables or phonograms; and phonemes spelled with
C-le.
Frequency and difficulty are determining factors in deciding how to sequence the
multiple spellings (graphemes) for each phoneme. Adherence to the order for phoneme-
graphemes should not be rigid for all the reasons explained throughout this book, includ-
ing whether instruction is to a class, to a small group, or to an individual student in tutor-
ing. Other important factors include the age, maturity, motivation, and intelligence of the
3
The first yellow card exercises that students usually do is not for a vowel; it is for the /k/ phoneme. Vowel
yellow card exercises cannot begin until students learn more than one spelling for a vowel phoneme.
Yellow Auditory Card Scope and Sequence 123
students—their grade level, prior educational experience, and the degree and type of
learning disabilities they might have—in particular their auditory modality strengths and
weaknesses.
How many graphemes you include on each yellow card will depend on the Orton-
based program you use. Some programs strongly recommend limiting the number of
graphemes to only those that constitute the most common spellings for each of the vari-
ous phonemes.
Phonemes Spelled with Consonants, Consonant Digraphs, and Trigraphs
\k\ First, teach your students to respond with c (the most common spelling
for \k\), k (often before e, i, or y to maintain the hard \k\ sound), and ck
(immediately after one short vowel in one-syllable words); next, include
ch (in Greek-based medical and scientific terms), then que (in French-
based words), and finally, qu (also in French words). Some teachers
combine qu and que by teaching them together and adding them to the
yellow \k\ card in the following way: qu(e). Determining how much of
the parenthetical information you should give to your students depends
on your sound judgment, and whether such information will enhance or
complicate learning.
\s\ Younger students should respond with s, ce, ci, and cy, learned with key
words. (A \s\ card is included in the EPS yellow card deck.) Older, more
advanced students should say, “s - sun - \s\ and c - followed by e, i, or y
says \s\.” You might also want your students to write: s, ce, ci, and cy or
s and c (e, i, y). For the latter, you must make a new yellow card. Next,
you can have your students add sc and eventually ps and perhaps even z
(or tz) as in waltz. These you must gradually add to the \s\ yellow card.
\ch\ Teach ch first, and then tch (immediately after one short vowel at the
end of a one-syllable word). Eventually more advanced students will
learn that ti, especially after an s, is pronounced \ch\. The ti is usually
part of the letter combination tion (question), tial (celestial), tian (Chris-
tian).
\z\ Teach your students to respond with z and s. (z will be learned first, but
is not as common as s for spelling \z\.) Include x (xerox) later.
\j\ Younger students should respond with j and dge; next, include ge, gi,
and gy. The latter must be added to the EPS yellow card.
Older, more advanced students learn to say, “j - jam - \j\; dge - bridge
(fudge) - \j\, comes directly (or immediately) after one short vowel at the
end of a one-syllable word; and g - followed by e, i, or y sometimes says
\j\.” When writing their responses they should write: j, dge, and ge, gi,
and gy or g (e, i, y). Students should also learn that j is not even close to
being the most common spelling for \j\; ge is by far the most common.
Also, j precedes the vowels a, o, and u more frequently than e, i, and y
where g is the more common spelling. A frequent exception is found in
words that contain the Latin root ject (rejection, projector).
In some programs the ligatures du (educate) and di (soldier) are given to

more advanced students as additional ways to spell \j\.
\n\ First teach your students to respond with n and kn; next add gn; and fi-
nally pn (for more advanced students). It is recommended that gn and pn
be added to the yellow card, but not to the hand pack.
\f\ First have your students respond with f and ph; later with gh (often spell-
ing the \f\ sound at the end of words) as well. The latter must be added to
the EPS yellow card.
\r\ Teach your students to respond with r (the most common spelling for \r\)
and wr (found in words that pertain to twisting); and later add rh (in
Greek-based, often scientific terms).
\g\ Your students should respond with g and gh (often spelling the \g\ sound
at the beginning of words), first; later with perhaps gu (guest) and/or gue
(league), as well. There is no \g\ card in the EPS yellow card deck.
\sh\ Teach younger children only the first two spellings for \sh\, sh and ch.
Teach older, more advanced students several spellings for \sh\ in the fol-
lowing order: sh, ch (in French-based words), ti (the most common
spelling for \sh\ partially because of its frequency in the letter combina-
tion tion as in nation and elsewhere), and somewhat less frequently, ci
and si (in sion especially), and far less common, xi, ce, sch, and su.
\m\ You must make an \m\ yellow card. It can be used once two spellings for
\m\ have been presented. They could be either m and mb or m and mn.
Eventually all three spellings will be on the \m\ yellow card. One addi-
tional infrequent spelling for \m\ is gm (phlegm).
\shEn\ Another hand-made card is that for the two spellings of \shEn\, tion and
sion. Later add the frequently used cian (electrician, musician).
\y\ There are two spellings for \y\. They are the more common consonant y
and infrequent i (million). You will want to make a \y\ yellow card, par-
ticularly if you have a group of students who competitively relish such
detail.
\w\ There are two spellings for \w\. They are the common w and the far less
common u (suave). Since you teach the second spelling for \w\ at quite
an advanced level, you might choose not to make a yellow \w\ card if
your students are already familiar with most of the \w\ - u words. Re-
member, your yellow card exercises should be useful to your students, so
if they do not need a particular card, do not make one for them.
\ks\ Although you will likely not want to have a \ks\ yellow card in your yel-
low card pack, you might, for a change and a challenge, require more
advanced students to think about all the different ways \ks\ can be
spelled at the end of words. Their responses should include the follow-
ing: x (box), cks (shocks), ks (books), cs (picnics), kes (likes), ques
(techniques), ches (aches), and cts (facts).
Phonemes Spelled with Short Vowels and Phonograms
\e*\ There are two common spellings for \e*\. They are e and ea.
\˛û\ Two common spellings for \˛û\ are i (in accented and unaccented sylla-
bles—never rely on i) and y (especially in multisyllabic Greek-based

words). Far less common is ai (usually in unaccented syllables if not
taught as \˛ûn\ or \En\ with ain). The least frequent \˛û\ spelling is ie (in the
unaccented syllables of mischief, mischievous—pronounced \mis-chûv-
Es\ and not \mis-che@-ve@-Es\, handkerchief, kerchief, and in the one-
syllable word sieve). Finally \˛û\ is spelled with an e in some unaccented
syllables as designated in more modern dictionaries. Unaccented e is of-
ten pronounced \E\ as in regard, too. You can make your own yellow
card for \˛û\ if it seems appropriate for your students.
\ooB\ Two spellings for \ooB\ are oo, taught first, and u (as in pull), taught as a
phonetic spelling much later. You can make your own yellow card if you
have a class that responds eagerly to this type of reinforcement and re-
view with yellow cards. Some teachers also teach \ooB\ spelled as ou as in
would, could, and should.
\E\ In some dictionaries the diacritical notation for u in unaccented syllables

is the schwa, \E\. Perhaps in earlier times people could distinguish the
difference between \u*\ and \E\ pronunciations in speech, but rarely today.
Therefore, you will want to teach advanced students to include the dia-
critical \E\ to designate the unaccented phoneme spelled by a (as in ca-
det), o (as in polite), and e (in some unaccented syllables pronounced \E\,
as in regard, and not \˛û\, as in sedan). When the \E\ sound is heard at the
beginning of words, it is most frequently spelled with an a (around,
about, alone). A schwa at the end of words is often spelled with an a as
well (drama, banana, panda). U, as \E\ at the end of the unaccented first
syllable of supreme, should be taught last, if at all, because of its infre-
quency. By the time your students understand unaccented syllables, you
might not want to make an \E\ yellow card, but you will want to do \E\
exercises.
Phonemes Spelled with Long Vowels, Diphthongs, and Phonograms
\a@\ Although there are eight spellings for \a@\ on the EPS yellow cards, and
the first spelling listed is the letter a (at the end of an accented open syl-
lable), you can use the \a@\ card once you have taught ai, ay, and a-e. Just
cover the a at the top of the card with your hand or a Post-it when you
expose the card half with a, a-e, ai, ay, in that order.
Since you will not introduce eigh, ea, ei, and ey in a strict order, you can
either cover or not cover the graphemes that have not been taught when
exposing both halves of the \a@\ card, or you can make your own interim
\a@\ card.
If you are working with more advanced students, you will soon teach \a@\
spelled with a, and eventually et and é. You can add the last two easily to
your \a@\ yellow card.
In some Orton-based programs only half the yellow card is presented: a,

a-e, ai, and ay. The other \a@\ spellings are not considered common
enough to teach to SLD students.
\e@\ Although there are six spellings for \e@\ on the EPS yellow card, and the
first spelling listed is the letter e (at the end of an accented open sylla-
ble), you can use the \e@\ card as soon as you have taught e-e and ee.
Cover the letter e when you expose the card half with e, e-e, and ee, in
that order.
Again, since you will not introduce ea, ie, and y in a strict order, you will
need to cover up the graphemes that have not been taught or make your
own interim \e@\ card. You may soon teach e and also add ey as spellings
for \e@\, then eventually ei (as in ceiling) and i (as in maniac).
\˛â\ Although there are six spellings for \˛â\ on the EPS yellow card, you can
use the \˛â\ card once you have taught any two \˛â\ spellings. These would
likely be i-e, igh, ie, and/or y. The sequence for \˛â\ on the EPS card is i, i-
e, igh, ie, y, y-e. Teach y-e last or ei (as in Einstein) that you must add
yourself.
\o@\ Do the same with the \o@\ card as you did with the other vowels. You will
note that there are only five spellings for \o@\ on the ESP yellow card: o
(at the end of an accented open syllable), o-e, oa, ow, and oe. If you
want, you can add ough (although) as the sixth \o@\ spelling.
Once students have learned the open syllable spellings for the vowels a,
e, i, and o, it is important to impress upon them that when they are trying
to recall the spellings for long vowels, they should immediately list the
two that are the most common—the vowel itself (a, e, i, and o at the end
of accented open syllables) and v-e (a-e, e-e, i-e, and o-e). Then they
should try to recall the first phonograms that they learned. For example,
in trying to recall the spellings for \o@\, if they had written o and o-e, they
would then try to recall an early \o@\ phonogram and hopefully remember
oa, the first phonogram likely learned. Eventually students should use
the same strategy with \u@\ and \oob\, as well. Another way to recall the
first true phonogram taught for each long vowel phoneme is to think of
the name of the long vowel and add a letter. If they think a, then recall
for ai or ay may be triggered. For e, it would be ee or ea; i, igh or ie; and
for o, three phonograms, oa, ow, oe, and perhaps ough.
\u@\ In all other instances when using EPS yellow cards, additions must be
made when working in a continuum. Only on the yellow \u@\ card, is a
deletion warranted since ui is usually not, in American English, pro-
nounced \u@\ today. Thus, there are only five spellings for \u@\ although
they are not easy to learn because they are less frequently used than the
spellings for the other long vowel phonemes, and they are often confused
with the similar and more common \oob\ spellings. You can begin using
the \u@\ yellow card as soon as you teach u-e and ew or u (at the end of an
accented open syllable). The eu spelling for \u@\ is easily confused with
the slightly more common ue, found at the end of words only. Compli-
cating eu further, is the fact that many dictionaries do not represent eu
with the \u@\ pronunciation. For amusement, check several dictionaries
yourself.
As soon as possible you should teach your students to respond to the

\oob\ ways to spell \oob\ by saying or writing the following: u, u-e, oo (the first
phonogram usually taught with the \oob\ phoneme), first, and then ew, ou,
and ue in any order. (Some of the earlier EPS yellow card packs do not
include ue; therefore, it must be added.) Later you must also add ui and
eu to your yellow card once they are introduced; ui can be taught at al-
most any point, but you should be very careful not to introduce difficult
eu too soon. You might also want to add ough (through) as another
spelling for \oob\ with more advanced students. The EPS \oob\ yellow card
that you must revise includes the following: oo, ew, ou, u, and u-e.
\ou\ There are two common spellings for \ou\. They are ou (at the beginning
or middle of a word) and ow (at the end of a word (cow), when followed
by a single l (howl), a single n (town), el (vowel), or er (tower), usually.
You may add ough (drought) as another spelling for \ou\.
\o$\ There are also two common spellings for \o$\. They are au at the begin-
ning or middle of a word (auto, launch) and aw at the end of a word
(saw), when followed by a single l (awl), a single n (pawn), or single k
(hawk). Additionally, there are augh and ough that spell \o$\, depending
on how you teach the latter to more advanced students.
\oi\ There are two common spellings for \oi\. They are oi (at the beginning or
middle of a word) and oy (usually at the end of a word or syllable).
Phonemes Spelled with R-Controlled Phonograms or Syllables

There are several common spellings for \ur\ in accented syllables. They
\ur\ include er (the most common), ir and ur (the next most common), ear
and our (less common), and yr (the least common). You must add ear,
our, and yr to the EPS yellow \ur\ card when working with more ad-
vanced students. Note, too, that ar and or are included. Strictly speaking,
they should not be since their phoneme is really \Er\, in an unaccented
syllable, like the suffix er. In earlier days people could distinguish the
sound \ur\ from \Er\ in speech. Today, the most we can say is that \Er\
represents the unaccented phoneme and \ur\ the accented phoneme.
Some teachers require advanced students to include w followed by or as

another spelling to be added to the \ur\ card as (w)or (world), or wor
(work). A preferable way to learn the phonemes for w followed by a, ar,
and or is described next.
\o$r\ Teachers sometimes require advanced students to include w followed by

ar to be added to the \o$r\ yellow card as (w)ar (warm) or war; and
(qu)ar (quart) or quar.
From experimenting with many ways to teach w or qu followed by ar

and or (also a), this teacher has found that both of the “choices” dis-
cussed earlier (see table 3–17. choices for teaching w and qu) are easy
for students to learn if taught carefully. Students do remember either.
Yellow Card Exercises for C-le or Silent-e Syllables
\k'l\ There are three spellings for \k'l\. The most common is actually an ex-
tended suffix, al with the c usually included from the preceding suffix or
ending ic, as in music changed to musical. Not all teachers treat cal in
this way. They prefer separating ic from al. For those who treat cal as an
ending, teach students how to differentiate between kle (usually at the
end of two syllable words) and cle (usually at the end of words of more
than two syllables except for uncle, circle, chicle, and cycle—but not
bicycle, unicycle, and tricycle). It is helpful to note that words ending in
cal are adjectives while kle words are usually nouns or verbs. Words
ending in cle are most frequently nouns.
\f'l\ Because at times we truly are mush-mouthed Americans, students hear

no differences in the phonemes for the silent-e syllable fle, the suffix ful,
and the word full. Especially when spoken in sentences rather than indi-
vidually, all three can be pronounced and sound the same. In isolation it
is easier to detect that full is pronounced \fooBl\, and fle and the suffix ful
are pronounced \f'l\ or \fEl\, respectively.
\s'l\ There are two spellings for \s'l\. There is the more common stle (whistle)
and the infrequent sle (hassle).
Yellow Card Exercises for the Past Tense Suffix “ed”

The suffix ed has three phonemes: \e*d\, \d\, and \t\. You can ask your
\d\, \t\ students, “What are two ways to spell \d\?” The answer is d and ed.
You can also ask for the ways to spell \t\, t and ed, and, if taught, per-
haps with caution, bt, ght and/or pt. Memorizing the following sentence,
or one that you and your students compose, helps some students avoid
confusion caused by ed: I jumped into my rented boat and sailed away.
A Yellow Card Exercise for the Suffix “ous” and the Noun Ending “us”
\Es\ The ending ous in the word dangerous and us in the word campus have
the same \Es\ phoneme. The trick in knowing which to use when spelling
is to remember that ous words are adjectives and that us words are
nouns, usually. Therefore, when the adjective ending ous is removed, the
base word should be readily detected as when ous is removed from dan-
gerous, leaving danger. With words such as famous the task is a bit
more difficult because the e in the base word fame was dropped (Silent-
E Spelling Rule) when the ous suffix beginning with a vowel was added.
The e must be replaced when the suffix is removed. Similarly, the y was
changed to an i (Consonant-Y Rule) when the suffix ous was added to
the word victory to form victorious.
Before teaching students to spell \Es\ words, it is beneficial to not only

ask them to identify the two spellings for \Es\, but also to identify
whether the words you want them to spell are adjectives or nouns. Of
course, this implies that you have taught or reviewed parts of speech, at
least. A list of ous words can be retrieved from the LessonPlanner De-
coding panel in the “suf’x/end’s” menu and brought over to either Blend-
ing or Spelling from Other Sources.
Here are some relatively common nouns ending in us: bonus, cactus,
circus, focus, minus, genius, census, sinus, octopus, stimulus, hippo-
potamus.
Vowel Perception and Discrimination

In Orton-based programs, auditory card review prepares students for the more difficult
tasks of encoding and spelling. As an interim step, some Orton-based programs also in-
clude excellent perception and discrimination exercises. The vowel perception exercise
can be introduced as soon as several consonants and the first vowel have been taught; the
vowel discrimination exercise can begin after two vowels have been introduced.
In an example of an early Slingerland vowel perception exercise, the teacher

names a word with short-a (shack); the student repeats the word (shack), gives the vowel
sound or phoneme, \a*\, and then names the a, while writing a in the air. This exercise
typically includes several short-a words.
In LessonPlanner, words for perception can be retrieved from the “Phoneme

Spelled As” menus in Blending or from the “1 Syllable” short vowel menus in Decoding
that can be brought over to Blending from Other Sources.
In an example of a Slingerland vowel discrimination exercise, the teacher includes

words with the next vowel taught, i, as well as a for students to discriminate between \a*\ -
a and \˛û\ - i. What is particularly appealing about sound discrimination is that it focuses
on the most difficult part of spelling, the vowel sound and the spelling of that sound.
Later, other sound discrimination exercises are equally beneficial for reinforcing
spelling generalizations and rules. For example, you can have your students identify only
the final sound \j\ in words, and then the corresponding correct spelling, either dge or ge,
to reinforce the generalization that dge comes directly after one short vowel at the end of
a one-syllable word (bridge/fudge) while ge comes after a consonant (large), after more
than one vowel (gouge), after a long vowel sound (huge), or after one short vowel in a
multisyllabic word (refrigerator). If the teacher names bridge, the student says, “bridge
- \j\ - directly (or immediately) after one short vowel - dge.”
If the teacher then says large, the response should be, “large, \j\ - after a conso-
nant or the phonogram ar (or r-controlled syllable) - ge.”
In LessonPlanner, words for perception and discrimination can be retrieved from

the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in Blending. The first phoneme listed in LessonPlan-
ner is \b\ as in [b]all and is useful if you want a list of words with \b\ spelled with b. The
second or next phoneme is \k\ with six corresponding graphemes: [c]ake, [k]ite, ja[ck],
[Ch]ristmas, uni[que], and [qu]iche. One of the first discrimination exercises with \k\
might be with c, k, and ck words to reinforce the following spelling generalizations: ck
comes directly after one short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word; k is often used
before e, i, and y to maintain the hard \k\ sound (kettle, kitchen, frolicky); and c is the
most common spelling for \k\, particularly as part of a blend (clap, crush, fact). Later
The Auditory Card Tables 133
you might wish to add \k\-ch words and the generalization that they are typically Greek-
based and scientific (chemistry, chemotherapy) or artful French que words (unique,
boutique). Later, you could compile a list of multisyllabic words that end in ic (historic,
arithmetic), and a list of one-syllable words that end in vowel-ck (heck, struck).
Usually much work with vowel discrimination, including that with phonograms
and v-e, is done before the exercises described above are included. Work with phoneme-
grapheme discrimination helps bring sense to the ambiguities of spelling; therefore, the
auditory yellow cards that focus on ambiguous spellings are invaluable as a resource for
creating limitless discrimination exercises.
The Auditory Card Tables

If you are introducing letters in Learning to Write, you may prefer to use the manuscript
or auditory sequences provided in the text and tables of Chapter 2, Handwriting. Other-
wise, use the following tables, beginning with table 4–1 and continuing through table 4–
7, which were derived and adapted from the manuscript and cursive grapheme tables in
Chapter 3, Visual Presentations, for first, second, and third grade and above, for the in-
troduction of visual cards.
The following auditory card sequence can be adapted for instruction to non-SLD
and SLD students in the second grade and above, except where noted otherwise. The ta-
bles provide a slightly different sequence to emphasize the importance of being flexible
about how and when to introduce new phoneme – graphemes as preparation for encoding
and spelling. Your best guide for what to do auditorily is determined initially by the pro-
gress your students are making visually. Soon your students’ visually presented work will
outpace what they are doing auditorily because of the increase in the number of choices
they must make in spelling.
A Quick Review of Auditory Card, Perception, Discrimination, and

Yellow Card Techniques
Referring to table 4–1 for individual phoneme – grapheme auditory cards, imagine your-
self beginning by asking your students, “What spells \l\ (as in lamp)?” The response will
vary slightly depending on which Orton-based program is being used. After teaching the
phoneme – graphemes on the left side of the table, include the exercises on the right side,
as needed.
Table 4–1. First Pho- \l\-l, \h\-h, \k\-k,

neme-Graphemes \b\-b or \f\-f
\a*\-a As soon as a is introduced, include an \a*\-a
(consonant) perception exercise.
\b\-b or \f\-f
\k\-c and \g\-g Include a \k\ - \g\ discrimination exercise, es-
pecially if students have difficulty distin-
guishing between the similar phonemes \k\
and \g\.
\d\-d, \t\-t, \˛û\-i, Include an \˛û\-i perception exercise first and
\s\-s, \r\-r, \j\-j then an \a*\-a (consonant) with \˛û\-i (conso-
nant) discrimination exercise.
\d\-\b\, \t\-\d\, Include several other discrimination exercises
\g\-\k\, etc. to prevent confusions.
\k\-ck First yellow card exercise with \k\- c, k, ck.
\w\-w, \p\-p,
\u*\-u Remember to include \u*\-u perception on the
day \u*\-u is introduced.
Include a variety of discrimination exercises,
such as:
\a*\-a (consonant) with \u*\-u (consonant)
\˛û\-i (consonant) with \a*\-a (consonant)
\u*\-u (consonant) with \˛û\-i (consonant)
\a*\-a (consonant) with \u*\-u (consonant) and
with \˛û\-i (consonant)
\sh\-sh, \ch\-ch Possible \sh\-\ch\ discrimination.
\hw\-wh, \hw\-wh, \th\-th and/or \th\-th discrimination
\th\-th or \th\-th,
\z\-s
\o*\-o \o*\-o perception and then discrimination with
other vowels
\kw\-qu
\th\-th or \th\-th \f\-\th\ discrimination
\ch\-tch \ch\-ch and tch yellow card to aid students in
learning when to choose ch versus tch
\f\-ph \f\-f and ph yellow card
\n\-n, \m\-m, \v\-v, \e*\-e perception and then discrimination with
\y\-y, \z\-z, \e*\-e previously taught vowels
Table 4–1. First Pho- a \z\-z and s yellow card and perhaps \s\-\z\
neme-Graphemes,
continued
discrimination
perhaps \f\-\v\ discrimination
\n\-kn a \n\-n and kn yellow card
\o@\-oa, \e@\-ee
\a@\-ai and ay an \a@\-ai and ay yellow card
a \d\-d and ed yellow card especially before
spelling regular and irregular past tense words
a similar \t\-t and ed yellow card exercise
\iN\-ing, \aN\-ang,
\uN\-ung, \oN\-ong,
\aNk\-ank, \iNk\-ink,
\uNk\-unk, \oNk\-onk,
and \eN\-eng possibly
or later
For the first vowel discrimination exercise, once the second vowel has been intro-
duced, name words that contain \a*\ and \˛û\, and have your students follow the same steps
as described in the previous paragraph for perception. Remember, discrimination exer-
cises for phonemes include only those for which specific sounds have been introduced
individually first. For example, you cannot discriminate between \a*\ and \˛û\ until both \a*\
and \˛û\ have been introduced individually.
For the first yellow card exercise, give the sound \k\ for a student to tell you about
and/or write all the ways introduced to date for spelling \k\. It is advisable to include a
yellow card exercise whenever a new option for how to spell a specific phoneme is
added. In brief, as your students are taught new “options” for spelling, the burden for how
to make the correct choice increases. Thus, as a responsible teacher you must provide
considerable yellow card practice and review for success to ensue.
The auditory card tables show when individual phoneme – graphemes can be re-
viewed and where perception, discrimination, and yellow card exercises can best be ap-
plied. Auditory card tables also provide a nice review of the sequence for the introduction
of visual-auditory and auditory-visual cards.
Although perception, discrimination, and yellow card exercises provide excellent

preparation for encoding and spelling, they should not be done every day. Perception
practice is particularly important as new phoneme-graphemes are introduced. Discrimina-

tion practice prevents difficulty in encoding and spelling when new phoneme-graphemes
are introduced that can be easily confused with one (or more) that were introduced ear-
lier.
Yellow card exercises are beneficial as new phoneme-graphemes are introduced

and before encoding and spelling that require students to focus on one phoneme and the
correct grapheme spelling in different word types. Again, do not overdo perception, dis-
crimination, and yellow card practice and review.
Toward the end of the first month and beginning of the second, additional dis-
crimination exercises may include:
\o*\-o (consonant) with \a*\-a (consonant) and \u*\-u (consonant);
\˛û\-i (consonant) with \o*\-o (consonant) and \a*\-a (consonant);
\u*\-u (consonant) with \o*\-o (consonant), \˛û\-i (consonant) and

\a*\-a (consonant).
Continuing on table 4–2, note that the auditory card review becomes increasingly
difficult. In subsequent tables the word consonant will not follow the short vowels, but it
should be understood that short vowels are usually followed by at least one consonant to
form closed syllables. In some Orton-based programs, when responding to auditory or
visual cards for the first vowels that are introduced, students include the word consonant.
In visual cards they respond to an exposed card by saying, for example, the vowel name
(a) plus consonant, the key word (apple), and then the phoneme (\a*\). With auditory
cards they respond to the phoneme pronounced by their teacher, (\a*\), with: “a-consonant
- apple - \a*\.
Use the procedures described immediately before table 4–1, for the use of indi-
vidual auditory cards, for perception and discrimination, and for yellow card exercises.
At this point, as shown in table 4–3, you will do fewer perception exercises but
more yellow card exercises as the number of spelling choices increases and becomes
more complex and burdensome. How many discrimination exercises you include depends
on how much difficulty your students have discriminating between and among phonemes.
Include the exercises on the right side of the table after the phoneme-graphemes have
been introduced from the left of the table, as needed.
Table 4–2. Phoneme- \r\-wr possible \r\-r and wr yellow card now that
Graphemes for First students have two choices for spelling \r\
Trimester
possible \s\-s and \z\-s discrimination for
plurals and third person singular
discrimination for \s\ and/or \z\-s at the end
of words versus \e*z\-es after sibilants \s\,
\z\, \x\, \ch\, and \sh\ to determine whether
to use s or es for plurals or third person
singulars
\n\-gn a \n\-n, kn, gn yellow card
\g\-gh or \f\-gh a \f\-f, ph, gh
or \g\-g and gh yellow card exercise
\j\-dge a \j\-j and dge yellow card
\ch\-\sh\ or \j\ discrimination if these are
difficult phonemes for your students
\m\-mb perhaps an \m\-m and mb yellow card
\m\-mn and/or \m\-\n\ discrimination
an \m\-m, mb, mn yellow card
\f\-gh or \g\-gh
\k\-ch \k\-c, k, ck, ch yellow card exercise
\a@\- a-e \a@\-ai, ay, a-e yellow card in preparation
for spelling
\e@\- e-e \e@\-ee and e-e yellow card (plus y if taught
as a suffix)
\˛â\- i-e, \o@\- o-e \o@\-oa and o-e yellow card to aid with
spelling oa and o-e words
\u@\- u-e or \oob\- u-e, possible \shEn\-tion and sion yellow card
\shEn\-tion, and \shEn\-\zhEn\ discrimination and/or
\shEn\-sion or \u@\-\oob\ discrimination
\zhEn\-sion
chEr\-ture,
\oob\-oo or \ooB\-oo,
\ou\-ou,
\oob\-u-e or \u@\-u-e,
\zhEn\-sion or an \oob\-oo and u-e yellow card
\shEn\-sion
\a·r\-ar, \u*\-scribal-o \u*\-u and scribal-o yellow card
Table 4–3. Phoneme- \sh\-ch \sh\-sh and ch yellow card (with su if stu-
Graphemes for the dents have learned that su spells \sh\ as in
Second Trimester or
Beyond sugar and sure)
Include exercises for discrimination be-
tween long and short vowel phonemes.
Examples: between \a*\ versus \a@\ or \o*\ and
\o@\
\t'l\-tle and \p'l\-ple
(with auditory cards)
\b'l\-ble, \d'l\-dle, many discrimination exercises with C-le
\g'l\-gle, \z'l\-zle syllables
(usually not with cards)
\k'l\-kle (usually at
the end of two-
syllable words) and
\f'l\-fle (not to be con- \f'l\-fle, ful, and full discrimination and
fused with the word full yellow card exercise although the pho-
or the suffix ful) nemes are not exactly the same
\˛â\- y-e possible \˛â\- i-e and y-e yellow card exer-
cise with more advanced students (includ-
ing y when students learn that y spells \˛â\
in small words such as my, shy, and try)
\oi\-oi and oy an \oi\-oi and oy yellow card exercise in
preparation for blending now that your
students have two spellings for \oi\
\˛â\-igh \˛â\- i-e, igh, y-e, y yellow card
\ou\-ow or \o@\-ow \o@\-oa, o-e, ow yellow card
\˛â\-ie or \e@\-ie \˛â\- i-e, igh, y-e, ie, y yellow card
\e@\ or \˛â\-ie \e@\- e-e, ee, y, and ie yellow card
\o@\ or \ou\-ow \ou\-ou and ow yellow card
\a@\-ey or \e@\-ey possible \a@\-ai, ay, a-e, and ey or \e@\-ee, e-
e, y, ie, and ey yellow card exercises
\s\-c (e, i, y) \s\-s and c followed by e, i, and y yellow
card (With less capable students, teach ce,
ci, cy separately.)
Table 4–3. Phoneme-

Graphemes for the
\j\-g (e, i, and \j\-j, dge, and g followed by e, i, y yellow
Second Trimester or y-sometimes) card (With less capable students, teach ge,
Beyond, continued gi, gy separately.)
\a@\-a, \e@\-e, \˛â\-i, \o@\-o
(Each vowel phoneme
is at the end of an ac-
cented syllable.)
\a@\-a, a-e, ai, ay, ey; Note that the yellow card graphemes rep-
\e@\-e, e-e, ee, y, ey, ie; resenting long vowel phonemes are now
\˛â\-i, i-e, y, y-e, igh, ie; given a more consistent and logical order.
\o@\-o, o-e, oa, ow
As you present phoneme-graphemes to a third grade continuum SLD class, it is

especially important that you present the more logical sequence for long vowel graph-
emes noted at the end of the foregoing table, depending, of course, on the recommenda-
tions in your own program.
As you move along from level to level, pacing is crucial. When students learn the
first spelling for \ur\ (table 4–4), spelling dictated \ur\ words in phrases and sentences
should be relatively simple. When one or more additional spellings for \ur\ are intro-
duced, then the task is more difficult and requires more practice, review, and horizontal
learning than new, vertical learning. Proceed cautiously and review constantly. Include
the exercises on the right side of the table after the phoneme-graphemes have been intro-
duced from the left of the table, as needed.
Table 4–4 ends with the \u@\-\oob\ phonemes and table 4–5 begins with \oob\-\u@\. By
far, the \oob\-eu or \u@\-eu spellings are the most difficult. Because they are difficult,
teachers sometimes avoid them. One reason is that students and teachers alike often find
that discriminating between \u@\ and \oob\ is just plain hard. Another reason is that their
spellings are similar visually; ew and eu are similar in printing and in cursive. Adding to
the confusion, eu and ue are the reverse of each other, and the dictionary often does not
recognize the pronunciation of eu as \u@\. What is a poor distraught teacher to do? Be pa-
tient, introduce new \u@\-\oob\ spellings slowly, and review frequently. Include the exer-
cises on the right, as needed.
In table 4–1 through table 4–5, you will note additional yellow card and discrimi-
nation exercises that were not described in the text preceding the tables. It is easy and fun
to include a variety of such exercises. Certainly, you will devise discrimination and yel-
low card exercises of your own once you and your students begin to recognize, enjoy,
and reap the benefits. Include the exercises on the right, as needed.
Table 4–4. Phoneme- \o$r\-or, \a@\-eigh an \a@\-a, a-e, ai, ay, ey, eigh yellow card
Graphemes for Third
\ur\-er, \ur\-ur, \ur\-ir an \ur\ yellow card
Grade and Above
\e@\-ea, \a@\-ea, or \e*\-ea \e@\-e, e-e, ee, ea, y, ie, ey and
\a@\-a, a-e, ai, ay, ey, eigh, ea yellow card;
or \e*\-e and ea yellow card
\o$\-au or \o$\-aw
\a@\-ea, \e*\-ea, or \e@\-ea an \e@\, \a@\, or \e*\ yellow card exercise that
includes ea
\o$\-aw or \o$\-au an \o$\-au and aw yellow card
\u@\-ew or \oob\-ew, a \u@\-u-e and ue yellow card or \oob\-u-e,
\u@\-ue or oob\-ue oo, ew yellow card exercise
a \s\-s and c followed by e, i and y yellow
card
a \j\-j, dge, and g followed by e, i and y
yellow card exercise
\oob\-ew or \u@\-ew \oob\ or \u@\ yellow card that now includes
ew and ue
\u@\-u or \oob\-u \u@\ or \oob\ yellow card to which u, ew, and
ue are added
\˛û\-y an \˛û\-i and y yellow card
\˛â\-y (at the end of an an \˛â\-i, i-e, y at the end of an accented
accented open syllable) open syllable, y-e, igh, ie yellow card
\u@\-eu or \oob\-eu
Table 4–5. Advanced \oob\-eu or \u@\-eu an \oob\-u, u-e, oo, ew, ue, eu yellow card
Phoneme-Graphemes exercise and/or a \u@\-u, u-e, ew, ue, eu yel-
for Third Grade and
low card
Beyond
many \oob\-\u@\ discrimination exercises
since they are so difficult
\Er\-or or \Er\-ar
\˛û\-ai and/or \E\-ai \˛û\-i, y, and ai yellow card exercise
Table 4–5. Advanced

Phoneme-Graphemes
\Er\-ar or \Er\-or an \ur\-er, ur, and ir yellow card
for Third Grade and Discuss schwa \Er\ and \ur\ differences.
Beyond, continued Add \Er\-ar and \Er\-or to the \ur\ yellow
card.
\s\-sc a \s\-s, sc, and c followed by e, i, and y
yellow card
\r\-rh a \r\-r, wr, rh yellow card
\k\-que a \k\-c, k, ck, ch, que yellow card
\g\-gu and/or gue a \g\-g, gh, gu, gue yellow card
\a@\-ei an \a@\-a, a-e, ai, ay, ey, eigh, ei yellow
card
\ur\-ear and \ur\-our \r\-\ur\ discrimination, and a yellow card
exercise with \ur\ or \Er\-er, ur, ir, ear,
our, and or and ar (in unaccented sylla-
bles)
Review \Er\ versus \ur\.
\o@\-oe and maybe an \o@\-o, o-e, oa, ow, oe yellow card
\oob\-oe exercise
possible \oob\-u, u-e, oo, ew, ue, eu, oe yel-
low card
\oob\-ou, an \oob\-u, u-e, oo, ew, ue, eu, (oe), ou yel-
\u*\ or \E\-ou low card
perhaps an \u*\-u and ou yellow card
\oob\-ui an \oob\-u, u-e, oo, ew, ue, eu, ou, ui, oe
perhaps \˛û\-ui yellow card
\s'l\-stle, \s'l\-sle a \s'l\-stle and sle yellow card, and
an \Est\-est and ist suffix yellow card
\k'l\-cle a \k'l\-kle, cle yellow card (including the
ending cal if introduced)
\joob\-du, \choob\-tu, discrimination
\zh\-su, \o$\-augh, possible \o$\-au, aw, augh, and ough
\o$\-ough yellow card
\o@\-ough, \oob\-ough an \oob\-u, u-e, oo, ew, ue, eu, ui, ou, oe,
ough yellow card
Table 4–6. Advanced \o$l\-al, See foregoing discussion to decide the

Phoneme-Graphemes \sh\-ti, \sh\-si, \sh\-ci, number of phonemes to teach for ough
for Fourth Grade and \sh\-xi, \sh\-su, \sh\-ce, and augh.
Beyond \sh\-sch Another option is to use the \o$t\-aught
and ought spellings.
a \sh\-sh, ch, ti yellow card exercise first
As the other spellings for \sh\ are gradu-
ally added, expand the \sh\ yellow card
exercise with si, ci, xi, su, ce, and sch.
\s\-sc and \s\-ps a \s\-s; c followed by e, i, and y; sc; ps
yellow card
\n\-pn a \n\-n, kn, gn, pn yellow card
\ur\-yr a possible \ur\ or \Er\-er, ur, ir, ear, our,
or, ar, yr yellow card
\a@\-et and é an \a@\-a, a-e, ai, ay, ey, eigh, ei, et,
é yellow card
\˛ûr\-ir, \e*r\-er, \e@\-ei
an \e@\-e, e-e, ee, ea, y, ey, ie, ei yellow
card
\s\-z a \s\-s, c (e, i, y), sc, ps, z yellow card
\gz\-x and perhaps \z\-x discrimination as needed
\ooB\-u and \w\-u \ooB\-oo and u yellow cards,
a \w\-w and u exercise, and
\ooB\-\w\ discrimination
\zhoob\-su as a ligature
(usual)
\˛â\-ei an \˛â\-i, i-e, y, y-e, igh, ie, ei yellow card
\a*r\-ar, \˛û\-ie an \˛û\-i, y, ai, ie yellow card exercise
an \e@\-e, e-e, ee, ea, y, ie, ei, ey yellow
card
\wo*\-w(a) and Perhaps have students write 2 spellings
\kwo*\-qu(a), for \wur\-w(or) and were.
\wo$r\-w(ar) and
\kwo$r\-qu(ar),
\wur\-w(or)
an \Es\-ous and us yellow card exercise
\k\-qu (if not yet intro- a \k\-c, k, ck, ch, que, qu yellow card
duced)
Table 4–6. Advanced \E\-a and \E\-o at the end an \u*\-u, scribal-o, a and o at the end of
Phoneme-Graphemes of unaccented, open syl- unaccented, open syllables—yellow card
for Fourth Grade and
lables exercise
Beyond, continued
\˛û\-e and \˛û\-i at the end an \˛û\-i, y, ai, (ie), e and i at the end of
of unaccented, open unaccented, open syllables—yellow card
syllables
\e@\-i and \y\-i another \e@\-e, e-e, ee, ea, y, ie, ey, ei, i,
and \y\-y and i yellow card exercises
Be sure to constantly review by providing lots of yellow card and discrimination

practice as noted in the earlier tables, beginning with table 4–1, as well as the later ones.
Whenever you spot an area of difficulty in pre-spelling or spelling, check to see if addi-
tional work with perception or discrimination is required, or if additional focus on how to
choose specific correct spellings, with yellow card practice, would be of benefit. Exam-
ples are shown in table 4–7. Include the exercises on the right side of the table after the
phoneme-graphemes have been introduced from the left of the table.
Table 4–7. Phoneme- \˛û\-ui and/or ui-\E\ If not taught previously.

Grapheme Oddities Include yellow card exercises for \˛û\-i, y,
for Advanced Stu-
dents in Fifth Grade
ai, (ie), (ui), e and i at the end of unac-
and Beyond cented, open syllables, and/or
\u*\-u, scribal-o, (ui), a and o at the end of
unaccented, open syllable.
\zhE\-sia
\th\-th(e) (where e a \th\-th, th(e) yellow card exercise
changes th to \th\)
\˛ûj\-age, \a·zh\-age possible \E•b'l\-able and \E•b'l\-ible suffix
exercise or \˛ûj\-age and \a·zh\-age discrimi-
nation
\g\-gu (guilt, guest) a \g\-g, gh, gu, gue yellow card
\j\-di (soldier) and \joob\- a \j\-j, dge, g followed by e, i, y yellow
du (educate) card; and perhaps ligatures di and du
\e@\-eo (people), \e*\-eo an \El\-al and \El\-el suffix/ending exercise
(leopard) and/or \E\–eo
(luncheon), and perhaps
\jE\-geo (pigeon)
\e@n\-ine (machine)
Other phoneme-graphemes that you might want to include for discrimination with
cards are: \˛â\-uy (buy); \e@\-ae (algae) and \e*\-ae (aesthetic).
Additional suffixes or endings that provide excellent discrimination or yellow

card work include: \˛ûj\, \a·zh\, \a@j\- all spelled age; \Ens\-ance, ence, and ense; \Ent\-ant
and ent; \e@\-ee and y; \˛û•˛te@\-ity and ety; and \a@t\-ate and \Et\-ate. Locate additional ad-
vanced suffixes and endings for similar exercises in LessonPlanner’s Decoding.
In LessonPlanner, words for perception, discrimination, and yellow card practice

and review can be retrieved from the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in Blending, and in
Spelling from the “Rules/Gen’s” menus (1-1-1; sil-e; cons-y; ext1-1-1; f,l,s,z; add-s;
s,x,z,ch,sh-es; y->i; (v)o, add s; (c)o, see dict’y; f,fe -> ves; and irreg. plural) and from
the Spelling panel “Special Words” menus (Sight Words, Homonyms, Confusables,
Word Families, and Silent Letters). Words for perception, discrimination, and yellow
card exercises can also be retrieved in Decoding from the “1 Syllable” short vowel menus
or from several other Decoding “1 or >2 Syllable” word menus (di/tri, phono, l.comb, not
1-1-1, soft c;g, suf’x/end’s, and word roots). Similarly, in the two Syllable, Rules I, II, III,
and IV word menus, a variety of word types can be retrieved. Words from Decoding must
then be brought over to Blending from the Other Sources menu.
Scope and Sequence for Encoding and Spelling

Throughout this book I have mentioned both encoding and spelling—two terms that are
often confused. Strictly speaking, “encoding” is a subcategory of “spelling” that involves
a process of combining sounds or phonemes together to spell phonetic words. If words
are irregularly spelled, or in other words, cannot be sounded out by combining their pho-
netic elements, as with laugh and yacht, then the words must be learned as sight or
learned words, using a different process, to spell them.
In English there are far fewer non-phonetic or sight words than we are led to be-
lieve. The way we have been misled is by not usually being taught the phonetic structure,
morphology, spelling generalizations, and other rules that govern language and enable us
to identify the etiology of words and determine whether they are phonetic or not.
Further confusion arises when we discuss ambiguous spellings. Ambiguous

words, referred to as yellow flags in Slingerland, are phonetic but require making at least
Scope and Sequence for Encoding and Spelling 145
one spelling choice between or among their phonetic elements. For example, in the
strictly phonetic word had, referred to as a green flag word in Slingerland, no choices are
necessary when spelling it, for there is only one grapheme possible for each phoneme:
\h\-h, \a*\-a, \d\-d. The word has, on the other hand, requires making a spelling choice be-
tween s and z for spelling the final \z\ sound. Has may initially be presented as a sight
word. Later it becomes a phonetic, albeit ambiguous spelling word, when the second
phoneme for s - \z\, is taught. The fact that a choice must be made is what makes has an
ambiguously spelled (yellow flag) word.
Encoding Phonetic Words

Encoding begins when the first introduced consonants and the vowel a can be encoded to
form phonetic, one-syllable words. When encoding begins, referring to the auditory card,
phoneme sequence, beginning with table 4–1, is helpful. The first words used in encoding
are the same or similar to those that are decoded first. When using LessonPlanner, it is
best to initially select words from the one-syllable, short vowel pull-down menus in De-
coding. Next bring your selections over to Blending—referred to as encoding in the text-
book—from the Decoding “Other Sources.” Only one-syllable short a words should be
encoded until the techniques for encoding become automatic. The first words selected
from the numerous short a options should follow the same specific sequence designated
as those for decoding, beginning with the easiest type or pattern and continuing with
more difficult patterns. See table 3–24 for decoding. The easiest are cvc words wherein
the vowel sound \a*\ is spelled with a or a-consonant (a-) in a closed syllable. Further dis-
tinction can be made regarding the difficulty of the first consonant in cvc words.
As discussed previously, some educators feel that a phoneme spelled with a stop
sound consonant is more difficult than one with a continuous consonant sound. A con-
tinuous sound can be pronounced and maintained for several seconds without distorting
its sound; whereas, a stop sound can be pronounced or enunciated only for an instant. Ini-
tially, you might want to avoid stop sounds in encoding with very young children or those
who are language disabled. (Refer to page 79.)
Most of the following tables in this chapter were derived and adapted from the
decoding tables in Chapter 3, Visual Presentations, intended for students in the third
grade and above, and from selecting sample words from the Blending menus in Lesson-
Planner. The following encoding sequence can be used before the third grade with non-
SLD students and classes.
Differences in Encoding Techniques

It is important that the letters your students use in encoding have been taught in handwrit-
ing. With regard to the techniques used for encoding, in most Orton-based programs, at
the beginning, a student repeats the word to be encoded that the teacher dictates and then
encodes the word sound by sound. If the word is ham, the student says, “ham” and then
“\h\-h, \a*\-a, \m\-m” before writing it. In some programs the sound of each letter is not
given first, and in other programs, letter cards or tiles are used at the beginning. In the
Slingerland approach, a chart holder with small alphabet cards is used initially. After a
student repeats a word to be encoded (ham), he or she gives the vowel sound (\a*\) before
naming the vowel (a) while simultaneously forming the letter (a) in the air with an arm
swing. Then the student returns to the beginning of the word and sounds out the word
from left to right using the same techniques described first for encoding ham.
Slingerland recommends focusing on the vowel unit immediately to emphasize

and tackle the most difficult part of a word in encoding or spelling. In most Orton-based
programs, steps are gradually dropped so that when students encode they simply name
their word “slant” and say “s-l-a-n-t” before and/or while writing it. In Slingerland, the
student still, first, gives the vowel sound (\a*\) before naming the vowel (a) while simulta-
neously forming it in the air. See Slingerland’s Books I, II, and III for the precise recom-
mended steps for encoding and eliminating prompts.
In the sequenced lists in the tables that follow, sample words are included for
most types of words. How and where to retrieve them (options) in LessonPlanner are
noted. As with decoding, encoding resembles weaving, for one must constantly review
words and concepts while carefully intertwining new concepts and word types for added
texture, color, and enrichment.
In the tables that follow, when a second or third spelling for a particular phoneme
is introduced, view it as a recommendation to guide your students carefully so that they
will make informed choices independently when spelling ambiguous words. Other simi-
lar, but more obvious recommendations, visible from the tables or in the text immediately
surrounding the tables, help you decide when to introduce suffixes and non-phonetic
words, and when to teach spelling generalizations and rules. Incorporating new concepts
should always be viewed in the context of putting them to functional use in phrase and
sentence writing.
Table 4–8 shows the sequence for beginning encoding with cvc (- a -) one-
syllable words, beginning with - a - words. In LessonPlanner, these may be initially se-
lected from the one-syllable, short a pull-down menu in Decoding and brought over to
Blending (encoding ) from “Other Sources” and later from the “Phoneme (\a*\) Spelled As
(a-consonant)” menu in Blending.
Table 4–8. Beginning - a - words hat, fat, etc.

Encoding with cvc (- a -)
One-Syllable Words
- a - - words cast (after s is intro-
duced) and hand (after
n is introduced)
- a — words (with digraphs) lash,
hack (after the ck
generalization has
been taught)
- - a – words slap, flag
— a - words (with digraphs) shag, that
- - a - - words (with digraphs) clasp, grant,
whack (when wh has
been introduced)
- - - a - or - - - a — words sprat, scrap, splash
Include words that begin with the recently am, ant
introduced vowel a.
Include words with x having two conso- tax, has, claps
nant sounds—\k\ and \s\, \ks\, and s with
two phonemes—\s\ and \z\.
Teach the ck spelling generalization early. (See Chapter 3 for a ck discussion and
sidebar.) For a list of one-syllable words ending in ck, or containing sh, ch, or th, select
from LessonPlanner’s one-syllable, di/tri pull-down menu in Decoding and bring them
over to “Blending” from “Other Sources.” Otherwise such words can be retrieved from
the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in Blending (back, deck, kick, lock, luck).
At about this time, the first suffix, ing, should be taught for spelling with concept.
Conceivably teach the first non-phonetic (red flag, sight, or learned) word. See
techniques described in Spelling Phonetic, Ambiguous, and Non-Phonetic Words begin-
ning on page 166. Choose one from the following, based on need, for phrase and sentence
writing: a, was, want, what, perhaps any, with caution, and have or been if e has been
taught for writing. Non-phonetic words in LessonPlanner are located in Spelling in the
Sight Word menus. They include Basic I, II, III and Red Flag words.
Write phrases and perhaps a sentence to put to use words that were previously en-
coded and spelled. This may require prior instruction of capital letters and punctuation.
Discriminating Between the Phonemes \a*\ and \˛û\

As explained earlier, discriminating between the phonemes \a*\ and \˛û\ is the easiest
among the short vowels because there is more difference between their two sounds than
between any other pair of vowels. (Short \e*\ and \˛û\ are the closest in sound, and therefore
taught as far apart as possible.) Also, there is a greater difference in how \a*\ and \˛û\ are
formed and feel when enunciated that make them easier to differentiate, also.
Table 4–9 shows the sequence for encoding with cvc (- i -) one syllable words,
beginning with - i - words. In LessonPlanner, these may be initially selected from the
one-syllable, short i pull-down menu in Decoding and brought over to Blending (for en-
coding) from “Other Sources” and later from the “Phoneme (\˛û\) Spelled As (i-)” menu in
Blending.
The double f, l, s, and z spelling generalization should be taught in Spelling

around this time, and included in encoding as reinforcement. Use one-syllable short i
words ending in ff, ll, ss, and zz initially. In LessonPlanner, words of this type can be re-
trieved in Spelling quickly under Rules and Generalizations, designated as “f, l, s, z” and
brought over to Blending from “Other Sources,” or kept in Spelling.
The tch spelling generalization should be taught around this time, too. (See Chap-
ter 3 for a discussion of tch and sidebar.) For a list of one-syllable words ending in tch,
select from LessonPlanner’s one-syllable, di/tri pull-down menu in Decoding and bring
them over to Blending from “Other Sources.” Otherwise tch words can be retrieved from
the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in Blending (match, fetch, itch, scotch, clutch).
After covering the material in table 4–9, continue teaching the first non-phonetic
(red flag or sight) words per the subsequent discussion on “simultaneous oral spelling”
(S.O.S.) techniques. Choose one from the previous table, based on need, for phrase and
sentence writing. Now that i has been taught, said, give, and again may be added. Write
phrases and a sentence to put to use the words that have been encoded and spelled. This
requires prior instruction of needed capital letters and punctuation.
Table 4–9. Encoding - i – words big, lid, kid

with cvc (- i -) One- - i - - words hint, silk
Syllable Words
- i — words (with digraphs) fish, tick
- - i – words slip, brim
— i - words (with digraphs) chip, shin
- - i - - words (with digraphs) twist, chick
- - - i - or - - - i - - words (with a digraph) sprig, script, thrift
with i at the beginning and with s - \z\ is
with x mix
double f, l, s, and z words sniff, grill, miss,
frizz
- i - — , - - i - — , or finch, clinch,
- - - i - - - words twitch, sprints
Now mix one-syllable short a words with one- raft, rift, brass,
syllable short i words for discrimination. Ad- sixth, thick, scratch,
herence to the - v -, - v - - sequence need not snitch
be as strict.
Encoding Ambiguous and Phonetic Words

Words are not considered ambiguous until students have been given more than one
choice for spelling each phoneme in the words they encode. For example, in table 4–8,
the word flag is considered purely phonetic or green flag because ph had not been intro-
duced. Once ph is taught, then the word flag, strictly speaking, becomes ambiguous. If a
student has doubts about the spelling of a particular phoneme, the student should check
with his or her teacher rather than guess. For example, with the word kid in table 4–9, the
student should ask if the spelling for \k\ is c or k, at least. He might even ask if it is ck if
he is not secure with the ck spelling generalization: ck comes directly after one short
vowel at the end of a one-syllable word. You can see how important it is to include a \k\
yellow card exercise in preparation for encoding and spelling.
Be Careful About Nonsense Words in Encoding

In many Orton-based programs, it is adamantly recommended that nonsense or pseu-
dowords not be included in students’ encoding or spelling as they are in decoding and as
discussed in Chapter 3. My personal recommendation is to select true syllables, instead of
nonsense words, to encode and spell. While encoding basic cvc words, for example, in-
clude affix and root syllables that follow the cvc pattern (dis, sub) or cvcc pattern (self,
trans), and so forth. These appear within real words (dismay, subtract, myself, and
transport). Use your own favorite resources or create your own nonsense lists, if you use
them at all.
Table 4–10 shows the sequence for encoding with cvc (- u -) one-syllable words,
beginning with - u - words. In LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the one-
syllable, short u pull-down menu in Decoding and brought over to Blending from “Other
Sources” and later from the “Phoneme (\u*\) Spelled As (u-)” menu in Blending.
Table 4–10. Encod- - u - words fun, tux

ing with cvc (- u -) - u - - words bunt, duct
One-Syllable Words
- u — words (with digraphs) rush, tuck
- - u - words smug, spun
— u - words (with digraphs) chug, thud
-- u - - words (with digraphs) chump, truck
- - - u - or - - - u - - (with digraph) crutch, thrust, thrush, struck
- u - - -, - - u - - -, or - - - u - - - dutch, brunch, scrunch
with u at the beginning us
with x flux
with s - \z\ hugs
mixed double f, l, s, and z gruff, thrill, brass, frizz
mixed short a, i, and u jam, film, stuff, splash,
scrimp, branch
words with suffixes bumps, drills, pumping, drill-
ing
Include digraphs and review continu- ck - muck, brick, shack
ally. sh - ship, shack, lush
ch - champ, lunch, chinch
th - thus, width, than, thin
The plural and third person singular s ending should be introduced around this
time, if not earlier.
Introduce the “doing” suffix ing in Spelling if not already introduced. Words with
additional suffixes may be included for encoding. Use the pull-down suffix prompt
menus in Blending (encoding), Spelling, or Decoding to help recall which suffixes have
been introduced and can now be added to base words. Then type the new word into the
User Entry window and add it to the Selections Blending list.
After covering the material in table 4–10, continue teaching non-phonetic words.
Choose from the previous two tables or the LessonPlanner lists. Perhaps include sure and
says. Write phrases and a sentence to put to use the day’s encoded and spelled words.
This requires prior instruction of needed capital letters and punctuation.
Encoding and Spelling Non-Phonetic and Phonetic Words

Non-phonetic or sight words, called red flag words in Slingerland, must gradually be
woven into your word lists. They are usually introduced and reviewed in Spelling, and are
included in the text following the blending (encoding) tables. They are mentioned here as
a reminder that non-phonetic words must be woven into your plans just as phrases and
sentences must be integrated into your written lessons.
Table 4–11 shows the sequence for encoding with cvc (- o -) one-syllable words,
beginning with - o - words. In LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the one-
syllable, short o pull-down menu in Decoding and brought over to Blending from “Other
Sources” and later from the “Phoneme (\o*\) Spelled As (o -)” menu in Blending.
Teach the use of the apostrophe in contractions—first in Decoding and then in

Spelling, and include additional non-phonetic words for spelling.
In LessonPlanner, non-phonetic words can be retrieved in Spelling from the Spe-

cial Words menus. These include Sight Words, Homonyms, Confusables, Word Families,
and Silent Letters. From the Sight Words, Basic 1, 2, 3, and Red Flag words can be re-
trieved.
The suffix ed requires special instruction because there are three phonemes for
ed: \d\, \t\, and \e*d\. In LessonPlanner, words with the suffix ed, pronounced \d\, and \t\,
can be retrieved from the “Phoneme Spelled As” panel in Blending. The suffix ed, pro-
nounced \e*d\, can be retrieved by searching a variety of lists.
Table 4–11. Encod- - o - words hop, box

ing with cvc (- o -)
- o - - words lost, romp
One-Syllable Words
- o - - words (with digraphs and trigraphs) jock, notch
- - o – words smog, clot
— o - words (digraphs) shot, chop
-- o -— words (digraphs) frock
- - - o - or — - o - - words (with a digraph) phlox
- o -— , - - o —-, or botch, blotch, off,
- - - o - - words, etc. ox, throbs
1-syllable homonyms in, inn

mixed double f, l, s, and z words for re- stuff, drill, grass,
view jazz, toss
mixed short a, i, u, and o words jam, mist, stun,
tromp
words with suffixes taught to date tromp
tromps
tromping
tromped (with care)
Select from the previous tables or, when o has been taught, choose from the following as
well: of, who, one, once, only, does, come, some, gone, and move. Require students to
write phrases and sentences to put to use words that have been encoded and spelled. Do
not overlook instruction of necessary capital letters and punctuation.
Table 4–12 shows the sequence for encoding with cvc (- e -) one syllable words,
beginning with - e - words. In LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the one-
syllable, short e pull-down menu in Decoding and brought over to Blending from “Other
Sources” or from the “Phoneme (\e*\) Spelled As (e -)” menu in Blending.
The plural and third person singular es should be introduced around this time in
Spelling, if not earlier, as well as the comparative and doer suffix er, the suffix less,
meaning without, and the suffix able, meaning capable of.
Soft c and soft g words may be included soon after the vowel e has been taught to
second grade continuum students or beginning third or fourth grade students. In Lesson-
Planner, use the pull-down “soft c; g” prompt menus in Decoding to obtain separate lists
for ce, ci, cy, ge, gi, gy words. Then bring them over to Blending from “Other Sources.”
Perhaps begin only with ce and then ge as shown in table 4–12.
Table 4–12. Encoding - e – words get, hex

with cvc (- e -) One-
- e - - words belt, kept
Syllable Words
- e - - words heck, nest
- - e – words sled, stem
— e – words then, shed
- - e - - words crest, dwelt
- - - e - or - - - e - - words stress
- e - — , — e - - -, or e— depth, wrench, elm, hex,
— e - - words, etc. sheds, drench
review double f, l, s, and z words staff, spell, moss, fuzz, kiss
mixed short a, i, u, o, and e words ham, list, wrap, quest (with
care), splotch
words with suffixes stretch
stretching
stretches
stretcher
stretchless
stretchable (advanced
students)
stretched (careful with ed)
ce and ge cent, cell, fence, thence,
gent, gem, fringe, lunge
More sophisticated students might be told that c is the most common spelling for
\k\, and that less frequently (25% of the time in words in which c appears) c has the \s\
pronunciation because it is followed by e, i, or, y. Here are three exceptions to c pro-
nounced /s/ when followed by an e or i (soccer, scena, and scinkadae). Can you find
more? On the other hand, g represents the \j\ sound with greater frequency than c as \s\.
Teach red flag words selected from the previous tables or from your own re-
sources. After covering the material in table 4–12, continue writing integrated phrases
and sentences.
Encoding One-Syllable Phonogram and Letter Combination Words

Once encoding is secure and several vowels have been taught, then encoding one-syllable
letter combination and phonogram words can begin. Referring to the Manuscript Level I,
Group II category in Chapter 3, for the introduction of graphemes with visual cards, note
that the following graphemes are usually taught by the end of the first grade and included
for encoding: all vowels except perhaps e and all consonants except perhaps qu; the pho-
nograms oa, ee, and maybe ai, ay, oo, and ou; letter combinations ing, ang, ung, ong,
ink, ank, unk, and onk; digraphs ck, ch, sh, th, and perhaps wh. In Cursive Level I, in
the first trimester of a third or fourth grade, additional graphemes are usually taught that
can be incorporated into encoding. These may include wh, tch, kn, eng, ar, er, eigh, ey,
a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e, and u-e. More graphemes can be added for decoding one-syllable words
than for encoding. The following are usually appropriate for either encoding or decoding:
wr, and maybe dge, but ph, gn, gh, mb, mn, and eng should not be incorporated into en-
coding quite as quickly.
The techniques used for encoding words with phonograms and letter combina-
tions are the same as that for encoding closed syllable, short vowel words. In most Orton-
based programs, the student repeats and encodes the word from left to right. If the word is
soap, the student says, “soap” and then “\s\-s, \o@\-oa, \p\-p” before or while writing it. In
Slingerland, the student repeats the word to be encoded (soap), gives the vowel sound
(\o@\) before naming the phonogram (oa) and forming the letters (oa) in the air. Then the
student returns to the beginning of the word and encodes from left to right. Steps or
prompts are gradually eliminated so that when students blend they may only name their
word “grain” and say “g-r-ai-n” before and/or while writing. (Again, Slingerland stu-
dents focus first on the vowel sound (\a@\) before naming the phonogram (ai) and simulta-
neously forming ai in the air. Then they encode across the word from left to right.)
At an early stage of encoding, when trying to decide which letter combination or

phonogram to introduce next, ask yourself whether the phoneme-grapheme you have in
mind is used frequently, if it has only one, easy grapheme possibility, if it occurs often in
one-syllable base words, and whether it will not be too difficult for your students to learn.
You should use the same type of questioning when deciding which digraphs and trigraphs
to include.
Table 4–13 shows the sequence for beginning encoding with phonograms (oa). In
LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the “Phoneme (\o@\) Spelled As (oa)” menu in
Blending or from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-down menu in Decoding and brought
over to Blending from “Other Sources.”
Table 4–13. Begin- oa phonogram words soap (- oa - )

ning Encoding with toast (- oa - - )
Phonograms (oa) roach (- oa — ) (with digraph)
gloat (- - oa - )
throat (— - oa - ) (digraph)
oats (oa at the beginning)
coax (with an x)
with suffixes moans, coaches, boasting,
toaster, soaped,
soapy (if suffix y has been
introduced),
coatless, floatable (perhaps)
Review: mixed short a, i, u, o, graphs, trenches, twisted,
and e words, digraphs, tri- cussing, splotchy, shifty,
graphs, letter combinations, and trumping,
oa with new and review suffixes slackness (if suffix ness has
been introduced),
stringing, roachless
The suffix ness changes a word into a noun and should be introduced around this
time in Spelling, if not earlier.
Teaching the dge spelling generalization requires greater care than teaching the
ck or tch spelling generalization because it can be easily confused with ge. You must
carefully reinforce that dge comes immediately after one short vowel at the end of a one-
syllable word (badge) while ge comes after a consonant (lunge), after more than one
vowel (gouge), after a long vowel sound (stage), or after one short vowel in a multisyl-
labic word (refrigerator). The difficulty arises particularly when students confuse the
meaning or identification of short and long vowels (badge versus stage) which is not an
issue with the ck and tch generalizations.
For a list of one-syllable words ending in dge, select them from LessonPlanner’s
one-syllable, di/tri pull-down menu in Decoding and bring them over to Blending from
“Other Sources.” Otherwise dge words can be retrieved from the “Phoneme Spelled As”
menus in Blending (fudge, ledge, fridge).
After covering the material in table 4–13, continue teaching red flag words and
writing phrases and sentences. Also, include phonetic nonsense words and syllables.
Table 4–14 shows the sequence for beginning encoding with letter combinations.
In LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in
Blending or the one-syllable, letter combination pull-down menus in Decoding and
brought over to Blending from “Other Sources.”
Table 4–14. Begin- letter combination words

ning Encoding with
ang fang, slang
Letter Combinations
ing ping, sting
ung lung, swung
ong song, throng
with suffixes gangs, wronging, stronger, stringless,

swingable, twangy, and longed
To encode letter combination words in Orton-based programs, students repeat the

word to be encoded and then sound out the word letter by letter. If the word is string, the
student says, “string” and then “\s\-s, \t\-t, \r\-r, \iN\-i-n-g” before or while writing it.
Steps are gradually eliminated so that when a letter combination word is encoded, the
student names the word “trunk” and says each letter “t-r-unk” before or while writing
each. If a student says \tr\ as the first sound of the word, it is obvious that he/she recog-
nizes the blend tr and should be allowed to continue encoding the word without isolating
the \t\–t and \r\–r individually. Slingerland students focus on the letter combination, the
difficult part of the word, first, before encoding across the word from left to right.
Introduce the “describing” suffix y around this time if not earlier.
After covering the material in table 4–14, continue teaching red flag words. Select
from the previous tables or, in LessonPlanner, locate them in Spelling in the Sight Word
menus for selection. They include Basic I, II, III words and Red Flag words. Continue
writing and integrating phrases and sentences.
A Note About the Inclusion of Suffixes in Encoding

When including words in encoding with suffixes, be sure that it is not necessary to apply
any one of the four major spelling rules before spelling the word. The four rules include
the 1-1-1 Vowel (Suffix), the Consonant-Y, the Extended 1-1-1 Rule, and the Silent-E
Rule.4 They are dealt with more fully in Spelling following this discussion of encoding.
In LessonPlanner, words ending in a consonant to which the 1-1-1 Vowel (Suffix)

Rule does not apply, can be retrieved from the one or two syllable Decoding menus and
brought over to Blending from “Other Sources” for encoding.
Before naming a word for a student to encode that has a suffix (singable), Slin-
gerland teachers must be sure that the suffix has already been introduced in Spelling, with
concept. Ask your student to say the whole word first, and then only the base word (sing)
before encoding or spelling the base word with the suffix. When students are provided
sufficient practice applying suffixes, and especially if they do so using a chart holder with
alphabet and affix cards, they will be able to encode words with suffixes easily.
Table 4–15 shows the sequence forcontinuing encoding with phonograms (ee). In
LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the “Phoneme (\e@\) Spelled As (ee)” menu in
Blending or selected from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-down menu in Decoding and
The suffix ful, meaning full of, the adverb suffix ly that tells how, and ish, mean-
ing sort of, should be introduced around this time, if not earlier.
Select from the previous tables, your own resource materials, or from LessonPlanner’s
Sight Word menus in Spelling. Continue writing phrases and sentences for integration.
4
The labels of the four spelling rules differ. The 1-1-1 Vowel Rule is often referred to as the Doubling
Rule or simply the 1-1-1 Rule. By including the word Vowel in the label, students are helped to remember
that not only must the word be 1 syllable and end in 1 consonant, following 1 vowel, but the suffix to be
added to the base word must begin with a vowel as well. The Consonant-Y Rule is frequently referrred to
as the Y-Rule or Change Y to I Rule. Again, the purpose of including the word Consonant in the label is to
remind students that there must be a consonant before the y of the base word if y is to be changed to i be-
fore the suffix is added. Finally, the Silent-E Rule is called more simply the E-Rule or the Drop-e Rule.
It is important that teachers advance more slowly auditorily than visually. Learn-
ing to encode, spell, and write is far more difficult than learning to decode and read, so
the pace of instruction cannot be as swift.
Table 4–15. Continu- ee words feed (- ee - )

ing Encoding with seeds (- ee - - )
Phonograms (ee)
teeth (- ee — )
green (- - ee - )
speech (- - ee —)
screech (- - - ee — )
with suffixes peeps, queens, speeches, screening,
seeded, sleeper, greenest (if suffix est
has been introduced), cheerful (if suffix
ful has been introduced), heedless,
speedy, sweepable, sweetly (if suffix ly
has been introduced), sheepish (if suffix
ish has been introduced), deepness
short vowels, digraphs, tricks, branches, quickly, glossing,
trigraphs, letter combina- scratchy, French, brushing, slimness,
tions, with double f, l, s, graphable, stuffing, knocks, strongest,
and z; also oa and ee with sweeter, coaches
suffixes
Table 4–16 shows the sequence for continuing encoding with phonograms (ai and
ay). In LessonPlanner, these may be selected from the “Phoneme (\a@\) Spelled As (ai)”
menu in Blending or from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-down menu in Decoding and
Phonogram ay words are often introduced at the same time as ai. Note that ay oc-
curs most frequently at the end of one-syllable base words whereas ai is usually found at
the beginning or middle of one-syllable words, often followed by n or l. To assist stu-
dents to encode ai and ay words, instruct them to identify whether the \a@\ sound is at the
end of the word (stay) or syllable (playable), thus spelled with ay, or whether the \a@\
sound is at the beginning (aim) or middle (grain) of the word, thus spelled with ai.
After covering the material in table 4–16, continue teaching non-phonetic words
and writing integrated phrases and sentences with correct usage of punctuation.
ai words gain (- ai - )
Table 4–16. Con-
tinuing Encoding
paint (- ai - - )
with Phonograms (ai faith (- ai — ) (with a digraph)
and ay) drain (- - ai - )
sprain (- - - ai - ) (also with a di-
graph)
ail (ai at the beginning)
ay words may, sway, stray
ai and ay words with suffixes hails, drains, straining, painted,
gainful, hairless, grainy,
waistless, trainable, faintly (if
Prefixes would have been in-
suffix ly has been introduced)
troduced by this time. Explain-
plays
ing the meaning of the prefixes,
as with suffixes, is beneficial. player
playing
playable
As a challenge to more ad- replay
vanced students, ai/ay words misplayed
with prefixes and two suffixes unplayable
added to the base may also be underplayed
included. displayed
dismayed
dismayingly
Review with short vowels, di- wrist, mess, elm, gruff, pitched,
graphs, trigraphs, letter com- hedge, crunchable, batches,
binations, double f, l, s, and z; knockless, scripts, crushes,
oa; ee; ai and ay; and with suf- hinge, chanced, swayable, hairy,
fixes and prefixes, perhaps. gems, centless, chunky, bringing,
binge, soapy, greeted, ailments,
shrunken, trinket, wimpish, wish-
fully, thickest, gladness
homonyms be and bee
Choices for What to Introduce Next

With all students, you can continue to introduce new phonograms gradually. These in-
clude any listed previously (oo, oi, oy, ou, ow, igh, etc.). A few additional digraphs
should also be introduced, particularly at the third grade level or above for non-SLD or
faster paced SLD students. The same applies for the introduction of soft c and soft g
words for use in encoding. Introduce v-e words around this time, too, and words that end
in y with the corresponding grapheme, long \˛â\, to prevent confusion. There is a handful
of common, one-syllable y - \˛â\ words. The pace at which you can move your students
along will be determined by the many factors discussed throughout this book.
Techniques for Encoding v-e Words

The techniques used for encoding v-e words is similar to that for encoding closed syllable
short vowel, phonogram, and letter combination words. In most Orton-based programs,
students say the word to be encoded and then sound out the word letter by letter. If the
word is safe, the student says, “safe” and then “\s\-s, \a@\-a-consonant-e, a-f-e” before or
while writing. In Slingerland, students repeat the word to be encoded (safe), give the
vowel sound (\a@\) before naming the spelling for \a@\ (a-consonant-e) while forming the
letters in the air. Then the word is encoded from left to right.
Table 4–17 shows the sequence for encoding with y - \˛â\ and v-e words. In Les-
sonPlanner, these may be selected from the “Phoneme (\˛â\) Spelled As (y)” menu in
Blending or from the one-syllable, long vowel, pull-down menu in Decoding and brought
over to Blending from “Other Sources.”
Table 4–17. Encod- y - \˛â\ pry, shy

ing with y - \˛â\ and with suffixes that do not require a change shyness, crying
v-e Words
in the application of the Consonant-Y
Rule
vce or v-e words pave, brace (soft c),
crane (hard c),
stage (soft g),
grave (hard g),
write (twisty wr),
tribe, chrome (with the
\k\ phoneme for ch),
smoke, chore
A word about e-e words: Although e-e here, these, mere,
appears less frequently in one-syllable eve, theme, breve,
base words than the other v-e’s, “here” scene, sphere
and “these” are particularly common and
important.
with suffixes smokeless, merely,
hateful, stoked
Constantly review words with the already taught short vowels, di- trigraphs, letter
combinations, phonograms, the double f, l, s, and z spelling generalization, soft and hard
c and g, and words with a variety of affixes, as well as homonyms.
In LessonPlanner, vce or v-e words may be selected from the “Phoneme Spelled
As” menus in Blending, or selected from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-down menus
in Decoding, with only a-e, i-e, o-e, and e-e, at first, and brought over to Blending from
“Other Sources.”
Select from the previous and following tables depending on need in phrase and sentence
writing: lose and any of the non-phonetic numerals, such as two and four (also homo-
nyms). Continue writing phrases and sentences for integration.
Continue with phonogram words, as shown in table 4–18. In LessonPlanner, pho-

nogram words may be selected from the “Phoneme Spelled As” menus in Blending for
one and more-than-one-syllable words or selected from the one-syllable, phonogram pull-
down menus in Decoding and brought over to Blending from “Other Sources.”
Teach ow and ou at the same time with only the \ou\ phoneme and noting, per-
haps, that ou is usually found at the beginning or middle of words; ow is often at the end
of syllables, at the end of base words, or when followed by a single l or n, or by el, or er.
For oi and oy words, use an exercise similar to that for ai and ay: Students iden-
tify whether the \oi\ sound is at the end of the word (boy) or syllable (flamboyant), thus
spelled with oy, or whether the \oi\ sound is at the beginning (oil) or middle (coil) of the
word, thus spelled with oi.
Recall that au is usually found at the beginning or middle of words; aw is at the

end of syllables and base words or when followed by a single l, n, or k. There are always
exceptions, of course. For aw and au, a variation of the oi and oy exercise in this table or
the earlier ai and ay exercise is helpful in solidifying skills.
Around this time the first of the three major spelling rules should be introduced
(in Spelling), such as the Silent-E Rule. See Learning and Incorporating Spelling Rules
on page 184.
Table 4–18. Con- ou words proud, ground

tinuing Encoding
with More Phono- oo words with the long \oob\ phoneme stoop, tooth
grams
oo words with the short \ooB\ phoneme book, brook
ow words with one or both corresponding how, scowl, town,
phonemes, \ou\ and long \o@\ vowel, cower,
grow, thrown
oi and oy words boil, moist, toy, Roy
igh words fight, fright
ar words stark, parch
or words born, forth
er words verge, swerve
ir words skirt, twirl
ur words burn, church
ea with the long \e@\ phoneme heat, cheat
ea with short \e*\ tread, thread
ea with its long \a@\ phoneme, the least steak, wear
common
mixed ea words with affixes peals, unreal,
weakness, dreamer,
wearable, treatments,
retreated, steady,
unsteady, deafen,
breaker
ie with the long \˛â\ phoneme tie, tries
ie with long \e@\ chief, grieve
eigh weigh, sleighs
aw and au jaw, brawl, drawn,
squawk, vault
ew words with the long \u@\ phoneme pew, hew

ew words with the long \oob\ phoneme brew, shrewd
Scope and Sequence for Spelling 163
Continuing Mixed Encoding

Options for what to encode next should include words containing some or all of the pre-
ceding phonogram word types and/or u-e and eng words, as well as words with newly
introduced digraphs, trigraphs, and soft c and soft g, as shown in table 4–19, Continuing
Mixed Encoding. You can also encode words with something new, such as scribal-o. In
LessonPlanner, all are selectable from the Blending or Decoding menus.
Table 4–19. Con- with ph graph, phone

tinuing Mixed En-
u-e words with the long \u@\ phoneme pule, spume
coding
u-e words with \oob\ rude, spruce
eng words length, strength
soft c and soft g words cinch, gin, fancy, stingy
scribal-o words son, month, glove
In addition, continue review of encoding words. Include those with short vowels,
digraphs, trigraphs, letter combinations, phonograms, with double f, l, s, and z, also ck,
tch, dge, soft and hard c and g, scribal-o, homonyms, and words with a variety of af-
fixes. Also include Silent-E Rule words for spelling.
Continue teaching non-phonetic (learned, sight, or red flag) words. Select from
LessonPlanner, the previous tables, from your own favorite lists of non-phonetic words,
or from the following depending on need in phrase, sentence, and paragraph writing:
could, would, should, young, and laugh. Writing should be integrated with all relevant
sections of the daily lesson plan.
Scope and Sequence for Spelling

As we continue with the encoding scope and sequence, we will include words that fall in
the category of true spelling whereby students learn to spell words that are non-phonetic
(red flag, learned, or sight), and they learn to make spelling choices necessary to spell
ambiguous words (yellow flag) correctly. Particularly in the Slingerland daily lesson plan
format, Spelling is where affixes are taught with concept and put to functional use, and
where the three main spelling rules are learned and applied. As the first step in written
expression, phrases—and soon short sentences—are written using words containing the
first vowel taught (short a) and words with the first suffixes. Gradually phrase and sen-
tence writing become more sophisticated as new affixes, vowels, phonograms, spelling
generalizations, punctuation, and rules are learned.
Review the previous tables in this chapter and take note of the accompanying rec-
ommendations for how and when to teach ambiguous spellings, when to introduce affixes
and non-phonetic words, and when to teach spelling generalizations and rules. Always be
sure to think of them in the context of putting new concepts to functional use in phrase
and sentence writing. This occurs in Spelling in a Slingerland program. In a traditional
Orton-Gillingham program this constitutes the fifth section of a typical one-hour daily
lesson plan. Immediately following the various patterns for visual-auditory-kinesthetic
learning and simultaneous oral spelling, single-word dictation is expanded to phrases and
sentences.
Over the next several pages, some attention is given to the techniques for teaching
spelling with concept.
Introducing Suffixes with Concept

Recall that the first suffix usually taught is ing with short a-consonant words. The suf-
fixes or endings that follow are ed, er, s-es, added to verbs, and less, able, y, ness, ly, ish,
ful, ment, est, en, et, and ling. Teaching suffixes with concept enables students to put to
functional use the words with suffixes in order to write short dictated phrases, first, and
then sentences. This type of dictation leads to the development of myriad skills necessary
for independent written expression.
Techniques vary as to how suffixes are added to base words, beginning with the
ing “doing” suffix. Most Orton-based programs require that a student name and then en-
code a base word to which one of the key spelling rules does not apply. If the teacher dic-
tates the word mash, the student encodes mash in a chart holder with alphabet cards or
encodes it in the air and/or writes it. Next, the teacher traditionally asks how mash can be
made into a “doing” word or to show present tense—what someone is doing now. After
explaining how this is done, the student repeats the base word with the suffix added
(mashing) before adding the suffix ing to mash in the chart or writing mashing directly
beneath mash. The new extended word is then spelled before moving on.
Similar words are practiced to prompt students to apply different suffixes. For in-
stance, the teacher may ask how a base word can be changed to show what someone does
(by adding s or es), or to make a word tell about something that happened before now, to
show past time, or, with more advanced students, is past tense (by adding ed). Concept is
important, as is guiding students to understand that suffixes, in the words of Slingerland,
“lend shades of meaning” to words. To reinforce the importance of starting with a base
word (root) to build new words, students write the words with suffixes directly beneath
the base:
mash
mashing
mashed
mashes
Encoding/Spelling Non-Phonetic, Word Family, and Homonym Words

Non-phonetic words in LessonPlanner are located in Spelling in the Sight Word menus.
They include Basic I, II, III, and Red Flag words from LessonPlanner’s approximately
15,000 word bank. These words are non-phonetic unless there are spelling generaliza-
tions or rules that remove them from their non-phonetic status once the specific rules or
generalizations that govern them are learned. Then the words that were once categorized
as non-phonetic become either phonetic or ambiguous. To use the examples given previ-
ously, to spell the purely phonetic word had, no spelling choices are required, for there is
only one grapheme possible for each phoneme: \h\–h, \a*\–a, \d\–d. To spell the word has,
however, a choice between using s or z for spelling the final \z\ sound is required. Has
may initially be presented as a sight word, but becomes an ambiguous spelling word once
the second phoneme for s, \z\, is taught. The fact that a choice was required is what
makes has an ambiguous (yellow flag) spelling word.
Using a new example, the word want is usually presented first as non-phonetic
(sight, learned, or red flag) because, phonetically, want sounds as if it should be spelled
with a short o, \o*\, instead of with an a, that is, until students learn that a preceded by a w
is frequently pronounced \o*\ or \o$\. Refer to the discussion on the effect of a, ar, and or
on w; and a and ar on qu in the section on Advanced Group II Graphemes on page 66;
and table 3–17, Choices for Teaching w and qu on page 69.
Whenever students are in doubt about the correct spelling of particular phonemes,
they should not guess. It is important that the correct pattern be established rather than an
incorrect pattern. With the word want, if the student is not sure of which vowel to use,
he/she should ask if the spelling for \o*\ is o, a, or au.
Words such as has and want are found in the Basic I, II, III word lists of Lesson-
Planner as well as in other lists. The Basic I, II, III lists include several Word Family
words that some teachers have their students blend while others teach as non-phonetic.
Consider the ign word family. It can be taught as non-phonetic or as ambiguous after stu-
dents learn that gn is a spelling for \n\ and that i can never be relied upon, as in the in-
stance when i spells \˛â\ instead of \˛û\ in ign. In either case, students write the base word
first and beneath the base, they write the base again with a variety of affixes added:
sign
assign
assigned
assigner
assignee
Homonyms must also be analyzed to determine whether they are ambiguously
spelled (yellow flag) or non-phonetic (red flag). For example, the homonyms ail and ale
are clearly ambiguous spellings; whereas, the second of the homonym pairs air and heir
must be taught as a true non-phonetic spelling since the h is silent. See the procedure for
teaching non-phonetic words in the next section.
Words that are always considered non-phonetic rather than ambiguous are desig-
nated as Red Flag in LessonPlanner in the Sight Word menus of the Spelling panel. They
include words such as yacht, eye, mustache, boycott, and built. Built becomes ambigu-
ous when or if the second phoneme for ui, \˛û\ is taught. The same occurs with mustache
if che is taught as a French spelling for \sh\. No two teachers concur that all the desig-
nated red flag words in LessonPlanner are truly non-phonetic.
Spelling Phonetic, Ambiguous, and Non-Phonetic Words

Gillingham coined the term “simultaneous oral spelling” (S.O.S.) to describe the tech-
niques that are incorporated in teaching and learning to orally spell and write phonetic,
ambiguous, and non-phonetic words using kinesthetic-auditory-visual associations to
create linkages of sound with letter formations that impress and solidify recall of letter
sequences in words. With any type of word, the key is for students to simultaneously
name aloud the letters as each letter is written. In the early Green Manual, Gillingham
states:
The sequence is echo speech, oral spelling, written spelling. The

child hears the teacher’s voice—auditory. He hears his own
voice—auditory. He feels his own speech organs—kinesthetic.
He hears the name of the letters—auditory. He sees the letters—
visual. He feels his hand form the letters—kinesthetic.
Exceptionally good spellers usually use their excellent visual recall of word letter
sequences to spell correctly. Average spellers often use a combination of visual and audi-
tory recall to spell. For example, young students frequently say aloud, or at least to them-
selves, \do*k-to$r\ (for doctor), with the second syllable overenunciated using the most
common phoneme for or, \o$r\, for better recall of the or ending, rather than the more
common er. Spellers with dyslexia and weak visual recall must use all three modalities
simultaneously—auditory, visual, and kinesthetic-motor—to become adequate spellers.
S.O.S. was developed for SLD students; yet, because not many of us have perfect visual
recall, S.O.S. is an excellent spelling strategy for many students. SLD students must
study more diligently than their peers and review far more frequently.
Most of our troublesome, short, everyday, non-phonetic words (what, one, could)
come to us from Anglo-Saxon. Anglo-Saxon is the language that early tribes developed
over many years in the land that is now known as England. These tribes were comprised
of the Angles, the Saxons, the Jutes, and others. As the new language, Old English,
evolved, some of the Anglo-Saxon phonemes began to disappear until, in Modern Eng-
lish, many do not exist at all. Thus, although the pronunciation of these words changed,
their spellings often remained unchanged.
To teach non-phonetic words in most Orton-based programs, the teacher first

writes the new non-phonetic word to be learned (trouble) with large, neat letters, and
then points out the non-phonetic element or elements of the word. (Until ou as \u*\ is
taught, ou is non-phonetic and the difficult phonogram or letters to remember when spell-
ing trouble.) The teacher might then discuss ou further, and perhaps explain the etymol-
ogy of trouble—that it comes from Old French—or that it will not always be considered
non-phonetic, to whet students’ appetites. The students then pronounce the word and
copy while naming each letter while copying, in the S.O.S. manner.
To study non-phonetic words

using S.O.S. techniques, students Note on Encoding and Spelling
pronounce the word again and trace
Subsequent tables reflect the inclusion of non-
over the copied word while naming
phonetic and ambiguous words. Words to
each letter. They do this as many
which spelling rules apply are included as too.
times as necessary, or that time al-
lows, to be able to write the word As used in this book, encoding refers to the
from memory. To check if they have process of spelling phonetic (green flag) words
overlearned the word sufficiently, by sounding them out. In LessonPlanner the
they then write the word on a separate older term blending is used.
paper from memory. If their hand Spelling includes ambiguous and non-phonetic
hesitates in the least, they are alerted words as well as phonetic words to which af-
that the word has not been fully fixes are added or generalizations and rules
committed to memory and that more applied. These require attention to concept or
practice tracing while naming each cannot be sounded out without thought.
letter is required.
Continuing with the options you have for what to weave into encoding and spell-
ing, new phonetic and non-phonetic homonyms can be added, and phonetic and non-
phonetic selections from Word Families can be made.
Table 4–20 shows the sequence for spelling homonyms, word family words, plu-
rals, and words with rules. In LessonPlanner, use the pull-down Special Words menu to
find Homonyms or Word Families, in Spelling. Select the homonyms you wish to teach
from one lengthy list of 420 words and then return to Blending to retrieve them from
“Other Sources.”
Although \o$l\ spelled al is designated as a phonogram in LessonPlanner, it can

just as easily be taught as a word family—all or al—especially after the common one-
syllable all words are introduced. When treating al as a phonogram, do not introduce it
too soon for spelling. In this book, it is included in the most Advanced Oddities list.
Small, easy al/all words should be taught much earlier. Remember that al words are more
sophisticated and frequently multisyllabic (paltry, saltine, alternative, Guatemala).
Teachers find that middle and junior high students enjoy and have no difficulty
with the \u*\ - blood/flood - oo words. They can be taught as phonogram or oo word fam-
ily words. They are retrievable from the Spelling Word Family pull-down menu.
Table 4–20. Spelling homonyms sons (with scribal-o)

Homonyms, Word and suns
Family Words, Plu- ind word family find, grind
rals, and Words with
Rules al phonogram or word family gall, stall, ball, call,
fall, halls, tall
oo word family (or phonogram) blood, bloody,
floods, floodable
\s\-plural s or third person singular toys, brings, shoves
\e*z\-es, used after the phonemes made by misses, boxes, frizzes,
s, x, z, ch, and sh (sibilants) matches, fishes
irregular plurals mice, geese,
women (non-phonetic)
Teaching and reviewing plurals are appropriate options to weave into encoding
and spelling now. Plurals are found in Spelling in the pull-down Rules/Gen’s menu. S, es,
and irregular plurals are entitled “add -s”, “s,x,z,ch,sh -s” and “irreg. plural,” respec-
tively.
Review newer teachings from the above options (plurals, perhaps the al word
family, and ind). Also include words with short vowels, some digraphs, trigraphs, letter
combinations, phonograms, double f, l, s, or z; ck, tch, and dge; soft c and soft g;
scribal-o, phonetic and non-phonetic homonyms, and words with a variety of affixes. In
Spelling, review the first spelling rule that has been taught, likely the Silent-E Rule. And,
encode nonsense words or syllables that sound and look like real words and syllables, but
are not.
After covering the material in table 4–20, continue teaching sight words. Select
from your own resources, LessonPlanner, or from the previous tables as needed for
phrase and sentence writing. The second spelling rule, perhaps the 1-1-1 Vowel Rule,
should now be taught. In LessonPlanner, 1-1-1 words are retrievable from the Spelling
Rules/Gen’s 1-1-1 menu. Continue writing phrases and sentences for integration. Incor-
porate new and old learnings into dictations.
Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words with Two or More

Consonants in the Medial Position
The techniques used for encoding two-syllable words with short vowels, phonograms,
and letter combinations are similar to encoding one-syllable words with an additional
step. Among Orton-based programs there are slight variations in how students are taught
to encode two-syllable words, but, essentially, they are required to do the following:
1. Repeat the whole word dictated by the teacher to be encoded

(campus).
2. Say each syllable distinctly (cam•pus).
3. Repeat the first syllable (cam) and encoded or sound it out letter
by letter (c-a-m) while, optionally, simultaneously writing the
letters as they are named (in the air or on paper).
4. Repeat the next syllable (pus) and sound it out letter by letter (p-
u-s) while, sometimes, simultaneously writing the letters as they
are named.
5. Then the student repeats the whole word (campus) and spells it
again (c-a-m-p-u-s) letter by letter.
Slingerland students are required, as an additional step between 3 and 4 above, to

give the vowel sound (\a*\) and the name of that vowel (a) after repeating the first syllable
to be encoded (cam) and before encoding it (c-a-m). They do the same with the second
syllable, saying, “pus - \u*\ - u, p-u-s.”
Refer to table 4–21, Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words with
Two or More Consonants in the Medial Position. Some instructors prefer to begin two-
syllable word encoding with words that contain like consonants. When this is done, it is
important that they pronounce the word as they do in normal speech first (tennis) and
then overenunciate the word so that the two syllables are distinct and the two like conso-
nants (nn) are clearly heard (ten•nis). Beginning two-syllable encoding with words con-
taining “unlike” consonants is easier.
Select from LessonPlanner, the previous tables, or from the following useful words with
two consonants in medial positions: Tuesday (non-phonetic only until ue is taught) and
Wednesday (3-syllable). Continue writing phrases and sentences for integration.
Table 4–21. Encod- two-syllable words with a short vowel vel/vet, cam/pus;
ing and Spelling in each closed syllable and two unlike im/pinge and con/demn
Closed Two-Syllable consonants in the medial position for more challenge
Words with Two or
More Consonants in
with a short vowel in each syllable and tennis, gossip, pollen
the Medial Position like consonants
with a short vowel in the first syllable giggle, ramble
and C-le second syllable
with a short vowel in the first syllable friction, culture
and a letter combination in the second
with a phonogram in the first syllable garble, curdle
and a C-le second syllable
with a short vowel in either the first or chipmunk, thankless,
second syllable and a letter combina- rapture, and sanction
tion in the other syllable with two letter combina-
tions (anc and tion)
with a short vowel in either the first or Sunday, Monday, nour-
second syllable and a phonogram in ish
the other
with a short vowel in the first syllable stampede, and more
and v-e in the second challenging, exchange
(v—e)
with a phonogram in one syllable and blackbird, yearling, per-
one short vowel, letter combination, fume, whirlpool,
another phonogram, v-e, or C-le in the foible, earshot
other
Encoding and Spelling Review

Refer to table 4–22, One and Two-Syllable Word Encoding and Spelling Review. Daily
encoding review should include one-syllable words with several short vowels, a variety
of digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, double f, l, s, and z, as well as ck, tch, and dge,
spellings for soft c and soft g, contractions, scribal-o, homonyms, and with a variety of
affixes. Additionally, two-syllable words with short vowels, soft c and soft g, scribal-o,
v-e, C-le, letter combinations, phonograms, affixes, as well as homonyms, and word
family words, should be included. Be sure not to forget nonsense words and syllables,
grammar, and vocabulary development.
Table 4–22. One beginning with cvc bat (- v - )

and Two-Syllable words best, can’t (- v- -)
Word Encoding and with (- v —)(digraph)
Spelling Review grim (- - v-)
than (— v - ) (a digraph)
slump (- - v - - )
splash (- - - v —) or ( - - - v - -)
filth, brunch, scratch (- v- —) and
(- - -v -—)
ce and ge cent, fringe
homonyms seem and seam
letter combinations clang, slink
with suffixes branchless, thrillingly, drunkenness
phonograms and more rings, swinging, honked, toasted, soapy,
suffixes thickness, stringing, greenest,
sweepable, sweaty, sweetly, meanish,
knocks, straining, pained, replayed,
smoothness, spoiled, eastern, verged,
thirsty, hurling, preached, tears, cries,
eighty
y - \˛â\ words sly, sky
more phonogram words trawlers, faulted, brewed, pews
with affixes
v-e (phonogram) words brace (soft c), page (soft g), flameless,
merely, spiteful, smoked, ruled, muted
scribal-o hovers
alk family talk, walk
al or all fall, hall
irregular plural man – men
two-syllable encoding
mixed review bandit, funnel, little, simple, fraction,
lecture, gurgle
singular possessive Betty’s, player’s
contraction hadn’t
plural possessive players’
mixed success, gypsum, texture, factoring
double-duty g jingle, tangle
homonyms sealing and ceiling
word family words bloodhound, floodgate
confusables oyster, ouster
Confusables, easily confused words, are retrieved from the LessonPlanner’s Spe-
cial Words menus in Spelling, as are Homonyms and Word Families.
Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable Words with a Single Medial

Consonant
The techniques used for encoding two-syllable words with one consonant in the medial
position is only slightly different from encoding two-syllable words with two consonants
in the medial position. Among Orton-based programs there is some variation in how stu-
dents are taught to encode these words, but essentially, they do the following:
1. Repeat the whole word as dictated by the teacher to be encoded

(seven). To avoid difficulty caused because the e in the second syl-
lable (en) is not pronounced \e*\, initially, the teacher and student
should both say the word (seven), first, as it is pronounced natu-
rally and, second, with the e overenunciated so that it sounds like
an \e*\. This is a particularly important step to include before stu-
dents learn about the different phonemes for vowels in unaccented
syllables.
2. Say each syllable distinctly (sev) (en); overenunciate as recom-

mended above.
3. Repeat the first syllable (sev) and sound it out letter by letter (s-e-
v) while simultaneously writing the letters as they are named (in
the air or on paper) in the S.O.S. fashion.
4. Repeat and perhaps overenunciate the second syllable (en) and

sound it out letter by letter (e-n) while simultaneously writing the
letters as they are named.
5. Then the student repeats the word (seven) and spells it again (s-e-
v-e-n).
Again, Slingerland students are required, as an additional step, to give the vowel
sound (\e*\) and the name of that vowel (e) after repeating the first syllable to be encoded
(sev) and before encoding it (s-e-v). They do similarly with the second syllable.
Cover the material in table 4–23, Encoding and Spelling Closed Two-Syllable
Words with a Single Consonant in the Medial Position, and then review encoding of one-
syllable words as well as two-syllable words with a variety of closed syllable types or
patterns. Constantly thread and intertwine, weaving in one- and two-syllable words with
short vowels, digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, letter combinations, doubled f, l, s, and z;
ck, tch, and dge; hard and soft c and g, scribal-o, homonyms, contractions, word fami-
lies, confusables, idioms, and affixes. Include both words with two consonants and only
one consonant in the medial position. Also review the spelling rules that were introduced
(1-1-1 Vowel and Silent-E).
Continue teaching non-phonetic words. Select from LessonPlanner, the previous

tables or from the following common words: enough, women, and country (until ou
with its \E\ phoneme is taught). Write phrases and sentences to put to functional use
words that were encoded and spelled, and for integration.
Table 4–23. Encoding and two-syllable words with a single sev/en, pol/ish, com/et
Spelling Closed Two-
Syllable Words with a consonant in the medial position
Single Consonant in the and closed syllables
Medial Position
with a consonant digraph rath/er, plumber, weather
with a consonant blend front/age, sharpen
Encoding and Spelling Two-Syllable Words with One Open Syllable and
a Single Consonant in the Medial Position
The techniques used for encoding two-syllable words with one consonant in the medial
position is significantly different, and more difficult, than encoding two-syllable words
with either two consonants or a single consonant in the medial position that constitute
closed syllables. As stated several times before, Orton-based programs differ in how stu-
dents are taught to encode open syllable words, but, essentially, they do the following:
1. Repeat the whole word as dictated by the teacher to be encoded

(tulip).
2. Say each syllable distinctly (tu) (lip); overenunciate if necessary

and particularly while learning the new techniques for open sylla-
ble encoding.
3. Repeat the first syllable (tu) and sound it out letter by letter (t-u)
while simultaneously writing the letters as they are named (in the
air or on paper).
4. Repeat and perhaps overenunciate the second syllable (lip) and

sound it out letter by letter (l-i-p) while, sometimes, simultane-
ously writing the letters as they are named.
5. Then the student repeats the whole word (tulip) and spells it again
(t-u-l-i-p).
Slingerland students, as an additional step, give the vowel sound (\u@\)5, name the
vowel (u) after repeating the first syllable to be encoded (tu), and say, “u at the end” (or
at the end of an accented open syllable), before encoding it (t-u). For the second syllable,
students follow the same procedure as taught previously for encoding closed syllables.
Table 4–24 shows the sequence for encoding and spelling two-syllable words
with a single consonant in the medial position and one accented open syllable. After
teaching this material, begin your review of one-syllable encoding, but also include two-
syllable encoding with closed and open syllables. Continue to pull into your tapestry
more from word lists: short vowels, digraphs, trigraphs, phonograms, letter combinations,
long vowels in open syllables, words where spelling generalizations apply, homonyms,
word families, confusables, contractions, colloquialisms, several new prefixes (bi and
tri), suffixes, spelling rules, and if you have so chosen, a few pseudowords.
Continue teaching learned words. Select from your own resource materials, Les-
sonPlanner, or the previous tables. Perhaps teach the Consonant-Y Spelling Rule. Words
for this rule are retrieved from the “cons-y” menu in Rules/Gen’s in Spelling. Write
phrases and sentences, to put to functional use, words that were encoded and spelled in
the day’s lesson and for integration.
5
The first syllable of the word tulip is pronounced either \t@/ or \toob\.
Encoding and Spelling Words of Two or More Syllables

Once two syllable encoding is secure then multisyllabic encoding can begin by first add-
ing suffixes to two-syllable words where spelling rules are not applicable, and then en-
coding words of three and more syllables. In LessonPlanner, a good way to retrieve mul-
tisyllabic words is from the Blending (encoding) “Phonemes Spelled As” menu.
Table 4–24. Encoding two-syllable words with a single consonant ti/ger, tu/lip
and Spelling Two- in the medial position and a long vowel
Syllable Words with a
Single Consonant in the
sound in the accented open syllable
Medial Position and with a consonant digraph se/quel, ether
One Accented Open
Syllable with a consonant blend se/cret, cypress
with C-le syllables Bi/ble, title, sta-
ple, scruple, cycle
bi/cy/cle, tricycle
with open phonogram syllables and a C-le needle, steeple
syllable
with unstable or reversed diphthongs di/et, li/on, ne/on,
trying sawing
(here y and w are
vowels)
In the above, the vowel at the end of each re/fine, omit, be-
open syllable is long. If you wish to encode gin, alone, and
open syllable words where the vowel has its cadet
unaccented phoneme, pronounce the word as
you do in normal speech first and then, ini-
tially, say the word again and overenunciate
the unaccented syllable with a long vowel
sound. Refer to the phoneme card sequence
for when to introduce words of this type.
with a single consonant in the medial posi- pa/rade, po/lite,
tion; the vowel has its unaccented sound di/vine
with a consonant digraph; the vowel is un- ma/chine, bro-
accented chure
with a consonant blend; the vowel is unac- pa/trol, ablaze,
cented oblige
Encoding and Spelling Words with Common Suffixes and Prefixes 177
Since the purpose of including a scope and sequence for encoding and spelling is
not primarily to instruct teachers on encoding and spelling techniques, but rather to pro-
vide the sequence in which words should be presented, as well as to recommend the
scope to be introduced and reviewed during daily lessons, it is recommended that you
refer to Orton-Gillingham-Slingerland instructional texts for precise techniques.
With the techniques for encoding presented thus far, it is relatively easy to ex-
trapolate and apply those that are applicable to encoding words of three or more sylla-
bles. The procedures for encoding with short vowels in one- and two-syllable words, and
with vowels, letter combinations, and phonograms in both closed and open syllables pro-
vide the foundation for all encoding.
This is an appropriate time to reiterate that scope and sequence depends on

whether instruction is to a class, to a small group, or to an individual student. The design
of scope and sequence is also influenced by the age, maturity, motivation, and intelli-
gence of the students—their grade level, previous spelling and writing instruction and
practice—and the degree and type of learning disabilities they have, if any, including, in
particular, kinesthetic-motor, auditory, and visual modality strengths and weaknesses. All
these factors are important to the rationale upon which any scope and sequence for en-
coding and spelling can be recommended in order to ensure mastery.
Table 4–25 shows the sequence for encoding words of more than two syllables.
After covering the material, continue teaching non-phonetic words. Select from Lesson-
Planner, the previous tables, or from your own resources. Write phrases and sentences to
put to functional use those words that were encoded and spelled in the day’s lesson for
integration. Again, some teachers will not want to forget short nonsense/pseudowords.
Encoding and Spelling Words with Common Suffixes and

Prefixes
Note that there are prompt lists in LessonPlanner that contain the more common suffixes
and prefixes that are usually introduced in Spelling, in Slingerland instruction. Similar
common prefix and suffix prompt lists are also available in Decoding. The lists in table 4-
26 were compiled by adding an affix (in bold) from the suffix and prefix prompt lists to
base words. The words selected are those for which students should have sufficient skills
and techniques in order to encode successfully.
Table 4–25. Encod- with 2 consonants in the medial posi- mis/spell/ings,

ing Words of More tion, plus an affix in/ten/tion/al/ly,
than Two Syllables
ex/pres/sion/less
beginning with two-syllable words of/fen/ded, shel/lacking,
with short vowel or E in each closed at/tach/ments
syllable
with a C-le second syllable gen/tle/man, smug/gler,
puz/zle/ment, fee/ble/ness
with a letter combination in one syl- blank/et/ed, ex/tinc/tion
lable
with a phonogram and C-le syllable re/mar/bling, tur/tle/dove
or suffix
with a single consonant in the medial whi/ten/ing, no/bil/i/ty
position
and at least 1 open syllable, plus af- re/lo/ca/ted, de/monize
fixes
with a consonant digraph ci/pherable
(re)se/quen/cing,
with a consonant blend re/trace/able, cy/clo/tron
with a silent-e syllable no/ble/ness, re/ca/bled
with closed syllables pol/ish/ing, ven/om/ous/ly
with a consonant digraph fath/om/ing,
(re)graph/a/ble
with a consonant blend stand/ee, un/roast/able
with no consonants in the medial posi- li/on/ize, tri/umph/ant/ly
tion
Encoding Mixed Multisyllabic Words with Affixes

Your students should be ready now to encode a variety of multisyllabic word types that
include an ever increasing variety of affixes. In LessonPlanner, you can retrieve multisyl-
labic words from the Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu. The list in table 4–27 was
obtained from table 3–48 and was originally compiled for decoding. It works just as well
for encoding at this stage. Additional similar words can be obtained by scrolling the
Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu from the top downward and stopping to execute
word searches and selections.
Table 4–26. Blend- playable around demigod outside

ing with Common
Suffixes and Pre- haunted abstract discharge overcast
fixes
snowing advice engulf perceptive
hits (plural & allow exit postscript

rd
3 person sing.)
boxes antechamber eject prescribe
slasher (doer) antibiotic eccentric protest
greater bequeath effective recreate

(comparative)
smartest beneficial extracurricular secede

(superlative)
thankful complete forbidden self-service
yellowish connect forefront semicircle
smokeless collect injection subway
swiftly co-author intercede superscript
agreement correct intramural translation
frankness contraindicate malpractice undecided
foamy decide misapply underscore
nonfunctional
After covering the material in table 4–27, continue teaching sight words. Select from Les-
sonPlanner or the previous tables. Write phrases and sentences to put to functional use
those words that were encoded and spelled, and for integration.
Table 4–27. Encoding smoke/stacks ck at the end of a compound word

Mixed Multisyllabic
Words with Affixes mech/an/ize ch as \k\ and v-e
and Endings
or/phan/age
chlor/o/phyll Greek-based with ch as \k\, ph as \f\, and y as \˛û\
sledge/ham/mer with dge seemingly in the middle, but actually
at the end of the first half of a compound word
nos/tal/gic soft g, and c at the end of a multisyllabic word,
not ck
gym/na/si/um \e@\ spelled i before another vowel
cam/paign/ing gn as \n\
re/de/signed 2 prefixes and the ign word family where
“never rely on i” is evident
script/wri/ter twisty wr
trans/lu/cen/cy
hop/scotch/es tch at the end of a compound word
strength/en/ing or
streng/then/ing infrequent eng
ex/tinc/tion inc as a letter combination like ink
con/clu/sion
ex/clu/sion/ist ist meaning a person, not est, the superlative
bam/boo/zled C-le
tur/tle/dove C-le and scribal-o
pro/nounce/ments soft c
par/en/tage ar as \a*r\
thread/bare
in/ter/lude
Encoding and Spelling Words with Advanced Suffixes and Endings

Another way to obtain lists of multisyllabic words for encoding is to select them from the
last two Decoding menus and bring them over to Blending or Spelling from Other
Sources. Table 4–28 contains words with advanced suffixes and endings and is shown as
“suf’x/end’s.” Table 4–29 contains Latin and Greek roots with accompanying word lists.
It is shown as word roots. They are presented after suffixes and endings. The tables were
derived from the lists in the sidebars at the end of Chapter 3.
Table 4–28. Encoding voyage tunnel favorite

Words with Ad-
vanced Suffixes and dressage conference captivity
Endings
external consistency survive
appliance respondent nonexplosive
truancy gaseous reflector
servant variety factory
burglar magnify poisonous
momentary confine essential
dictate quarantine Martian
private ermine quotient
facial glorious cautious
absorbefacient spacious seventy
ferocious barbarism inconspicuous
employee ignite
The Ending \Es\ Spelled Ous or Us

As a reminder, ous in the word poisonous in the above table, and us in the word bonus
have the same \Es\ phoneme. To know which to use in spelling you must recall that ous
words are usually adjectives and that us words are nouns. Therefore, when the adjective
ending ous is removed, the base word should be readily detected as when ous is removed
from poisonous, leaving poison. With words such as famous the task is slightly more
difficult because the e in the base word fame was dropped (Silent-E Spelling Rule) when
the ous suffix, beginning with a vowel, was added. The e must be replaced when the suf-
fix is removed. Similarly, the y was changed to an i (Consonant-Y Rule) when the suffix
ous was added to the word glory/glorious (see above). More difficult still is the change
in words such as the noun caution to the adjective cautious (above). Understanding that
cautious is an adjective is helpful.
Do the \Es\ yellow card exercises that were recommended previously to prevent
errors before they occur. The ous words can be retrieved from the LessonPlanner Decod-
ing panel in the “suf’x/end’s” menu and brought into either Blending or Spelling from
Other Sources.
The following are some relatively common nouns ending in us: bonus, cactus,
circus, focus, minus, genius, census, sinus, octopus, stimulus, and hippopotamus.
Encoding and Spelling Words with Latin and Greek Roots

The following words with Latin and Greek roots are retrievable from the Decoding “word
roots” menu and then brought over to Blending or Spelling from Other Sources. One or
two samples are provided for each underlined root.
Diana King6, founder of Kildonan School—a college preparatory school for stu-
dents with dyslexia—recommends that prefixes be taught with key words and meanings
once students understand that Latin words consist of a prefix, a root, a connective, and a
suffix. For example, she suggests that students learn and repeat ex - exit - out, re - re-
verse - back and re - recopy - again, and so on. She also recommends that practice be
given decoding many words that contain the prefixes that are introduced. Next, she sug-
gests that Latin roots be taught similarly. For example, students learn and say ject - eject
- throw, dict - predict - say, and mis/mit - transmit, transmission - send, and so forth.
After students learn several easier Latin prefixes and approximately ten Latin roots, King
recommends that students begin to tackle the chameleon prefixes7 before moving on to
Greek based words, often comprised of two roots (Greek combining forms), frequently
joined by connective o, such as biography, monogram, photograph. Students learn, for
example, mono - monogram - one, theo - theology - God, and ped/pod - pedal, podia-
trist - foot. King also suggests that some of the Greek roots may be taught as pairs (tele-
phone - distant sound or biology - life study).
In an updated version of LessonPlanner and of this book, there will be additional

information and material for working with older, more advanced students.
6
Diana Handbury King is not only the founder of Kildonan School in Amenia, New York, but she is also a
long-time active member of the International Dyslexia Association, a recipient of their annual award, and
charter member of the Orton-Gillingham Academy, as well as mentor teacher, consultant, and author.
7
Chameleon prefixes are prefixes that change depending upon the spelling of the beginning of the root or
base to which the prefix is affixed. For example the final letter of the prefix sub changes to a c before a
base word or root that begins with a c (success), to an f before an f (suffer), and to p before p (support).
Other common chameleon prefixes include in, ex, dis, ad, ob, plus several others.
Table 4–29. Encod- projector compendium submit decadent

ing with Latin and
Greek Roots dejected pendulous missionary casualty
portage inspector tendency deciduous
deportee perspicacious contention conducive
inflexible monogram subsistence productive
genuflection autobiographical desist captivating
prediction perfidious credulous acceptable
abdication federal accreditation deposition
compulsive referee concurrently impound
expelled insufferable discourse progenitor
intractable retrograde souvenir genuine
attractive progression preventative defective
insecticide envision evocative putrefaction
decision evident vociferous efficacy
extrovert recede superscription
adversity ancestor scribble
Encoding Words with Three or More Syllables

If you and your students have followed the progression provided in this book, you should
now be able to encode words and spell words with three or more syllables that contain a
variety of roots and affixes.
In LessonPlanner, a good way to retrieve words of more than four syllables is

from the Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu. Continue teaching non-phonetic words.
Select from LessonPlanner or previous tables, or from your own resource materials.
Write phrases and sentences to put to functional use those words that were encoded and
spelled, and for integration. Refer to table 4–30 on page 185 for multisyllabic encoding of
i pronounced \˛û\ and i pronounced \y\.
Learning and Incorporating Spelling Rules

The three main spelling rules that govern spelling are:
1. the Silent-E Rule

2. the 1-1-1 Vowel Rule
3. the Consonant-Y Rule
Additionally, there is an extension of the 1-1-1 Vowel Rule aptly referred to as

the Extended 1-1-1 Rule.
The order in which the rules are taught is not as important as ensuring that they
are taught using the structured steps for teaching any new learning and that they are re-
viewed often. In the Gillingham Manuals, in Slingerland’s Book 3, the word list books for
teachers (Slingerland and Murray, 1985), there are excellent, detailed descriptions of how
to teach the spelling rules. In most Orton-based programs, they are referred to simply as
the 1-1-1, the Silent-E, and the Y-Rule. You will note wording variations for the rules
that are not as important as using consistent wording with your students within programs.
Some of the reasons for wording differences are given in the discussion of the rules indi-
vidually, particularly for the 1-1-1 Vowel and Consonant-Y rules.
The Silent-E Rule

The Silent-E Rule is stated first because it is the easiest of the three rules to teach and
learn, and because it is often taught first, as follows:
If a word ends in a silent-e, (usually) drop the silent-e before adding a suffix that
begins with a vowel (like + ing = liking). Do not drop the silent-e when adding a suffix
that begins with a consonant (like + ness = likeness).
The word “usually” is inserted to accommodate words that end in ce or ge where

the e is retained to maintain the soft \s\ and \j\ sounds, especially when adding the suf-
fixes able and ous (noticeable, outrageous). To recall the most common exceptions to the
second half of the Silent-E Rule—do not drop the silent-e when adding a suffix that be-
gins with a consonant—the following is helpful: Truly, the truth of the ninth argument
was wholly and duly awful. The base words in bold each end with an e that is dropped
Learning and Incorporating Spelling Rules 185
when a suffix beginning with a consonant (a consonant suffix) is added. At one time
judgment and acknowledgment were also included in the list, but today judgement and
acknowledgement are also acceptable spellings.
Table 4–30. Encod- words with i pronounced \˛û\ flex/i/bil/i/ty, episode,

ing Words of Three pragmatic, nutritious,
or More Syllables
with Affixes electrician, determination
visionary
words with i pronounced \y\ civilian, spaniel, clothier,
familial
There are words that retain the e when a consonant suffix is added to maintain the
meaning of the base word and to avoid confusion with similar words. These include dye-
ing and dyed not to be confused with dying and died; singeing and tingeing not to be
confused with singing and tinging; hoeing not to be confused with Santa’s ho-ho-hoing
and toeing versus toing, not quite a real word, but a plausible construction just the same.
Similarly, we have canoeing and shoeing. For a slightly different reason, the e is retained
in two forms of measurement, mileage and acreage.
Finally, the following similar exceptions must be memorized: die - dying, tie - ty-
ing, and lie - lying. Unfortunately there are a few other exceptions, too.
The 1-1-1 Vowel Rule

If a word is just one (1) syllable, and ends in just one (1) consonant, directly after just one
(1) vowel, and if the suffix begins with a vowel (V) double the final consonant when add-
ing a suffix that begins with a vowel (hit + er = hitter). Do not double the final conso-
nant if the suffix begins with a consonant (hit + less = hitless).
The word “just” has been inserted into this rule three times because experience
has shown that students frequently will say and look at a word such as hunt and think
that it ends in one consonant and double the t when adding the suffix ed (huntted). Or, in
the word stoop, they will see one vowel and double the final p. The word just emphasizes
the fact that having one consonant at the end, with another consonant preceding it, means
the word ends in two consonants.
The word Vowel has been added to the 1-1-1 Vowel Rule, again, because of the
confusion caused when it is omitted. When the simpler title 1-1-1 Rule is used, students
have nothing to prompt them when trying to remember the fourth important part to the
rule. The word Vowel (or vowel suffix, as some teachers prefer) triggers this cognition—
that the suffix must begin with a vowel.
The word directly has been inserted to emphasize that another letter cannot occur
between the final consonant and the preceding single vowel for the 1-1-1 Vowel Rule to
apply.
Exceptions exist only if students are not taught to never double w, x, and y. The
reason w and y are not doubled is that at the end of one-syllable words after a vowel, they
act as vowels. Perhaps many of you recall from your own early days at school that the
vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. A few of you will also remember that w was
included with y as a vowel. When w and y are pronounced \w\ and \y\, respectively, they
are consonants, but in phonograms they are often vowels (aw, ew, ay, ey, etc.). The letter
x does not double because it is already doubled in sound (\k\ + \s\ = \ks\).
Another case where additional instruction is required is with words such as quiz
and quizzes. Although quiz appears to have two vowels, the u following q is acting as a
consonant with the consonant w phoneme; the z is thus doubled. Again, you will find true
exceptions, as well.
The Consonant-Y Rule

If a word ends in a consonant-y, change the y to i when adding any suffix (cry + ed =
cried or lovely + ness = loveliness) except when the suffix begins with an i. Do not
change y to i when the suffix begins with an i (cry + ing = crying, copy + ist = copyist),
and do not change y to i if the base word ends in vowel-y (play + ed = played, gray + er
= grayer).
Common exceptions include daily, paid, said, laid, mislaid, lain, slain, and less
common, gaily, because of the currently popular meaning of gay.
Other Consonant-y Rule exceptions that can be grouped together for memoriza-
tion are: shyly and shyness; dryly and dryness; slyly and slyness; spryly and spryness.
Learning and Incorporating Spelling Rules 187
The Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule

If a word is more than 1 syllable, but ends in 1 consonant, after 1 vowel, and the suffix
begins with a vowel, double the final consonant if the final syllable of the base word is
accented (occur' + ed = occurred). Do not double the final consonant if the final syllable
is unaccented (o'pen + ing = opening).
The words “just” and “directly” are usually not necessary with the Extended 1-1-1
Vowel Rule because the more advanced and older students who are learning the rule
should already be secure with the simpler 1-1-1 Vowel Rule.
Some teachers feel that the extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule is too time consuming and
difficult to teach. They recommend instead that their students check the spellings of such
words with a computer spell check, in the dictionary, or with one of the most useful tools
ever produced for children and adults with dyslexia, the hand-held, speaking electronic
dictionary.8
The most difficult aspect of teaching the Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule is its pre-
requisite accenting. That is just one of many reasons why the generalizations that govern
accenting should be introduced early. The third grade level, or earlier, is not too soon to
begin to work with accents.
The Letter “l” and the Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule

Another reason that some teachers avoid the Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule, is that it ap-
pears that more than one spelling is often acceptable for Extended 1-1-1 Rule words. This
occurs because we see common Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule words ending in l doubled
despite the placement of the accent. In the word travel, the accent is clearly on the first
syllable; yet, often, the final l is doubled anyway (travelled, travelling, traveller or
traveled, traveling, traveler). The British seem to have a spelling generalization that
sometimes takes precedence over the Extended 1-1-1 Vowel Rule. The British generali-
zation calls for doubling l frequently at the end of base words. Americans spell woolen
and jewelry with one l; the British use two l’s, woollen and jewellery (plus an additional
e). Yet, both Americans and British spell many words such as cooler and toiling with
only one l.
8
One of the best on the market today is the Bookman Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 1996.
Published by Franklin Publishing, Inc. Burlington, NJ. Further information is available online at
http://www.franklin.com.
There are other exceptions to be mastered when teaching the Extended 1-1-1
Vowel Rule. It is recommended that you refer to one of the Gillingham Manuals or to
How to Teach Spelling, and the latter’s accompanying fourth workbook, How to Spell
(Rudginsky and Haskell, 1985), for exceptions to all four rules.
An Active Way to Look at Spelling Rules

If a word ends with an e, the big question is whether to drop the e or not drop the e when
adding a suffix.
If a word ends with a consonant, the big question is whether to double the final
consonant of the base word or not double when adding a suffix.
If a word ends in consonant-y, the big question is whether to change, or not

change the y to an i when adding a suffix.
Phrase and Sentence Writing to Reinforce Spelling Skills

Until students can spell, they cannot really express themselves in writing. When they
write phrases that are dictated to them by their teacher, they are taking the first steps to-
ward independent writing. For SLD students this is more difficult than it is for non-SLD
students, for they must initially concentrate so carefully on how to spell the words within
the phrases and sentences, even if the teacher has taught and reviewed the words exten-
sively beforehand. This in turn distracts SLD students from the content of what they are
writing.
Teachers are frequently dismayed and alarmed when the reverse occurs and they
see how their SLD students’ spelling deteriorates when asked to do creative, expository
or other more independent writing. While writing “independently” students focus more
on content at great cost to their spelling performance in the same way they focus more on
spelling than on content when writing carefully planned and integrated, dictated phrases
and sentences. That is why some educators feel so strongly that SLD students should be
discouraged from independent writing until they become relatively secure spellers, for the
pattern for every misspelling is carried to the brain where it stays. Spelling will become
secure only after considerable practice with cards, encoding, spelling, and phrase and
sentence writing of the type described.
Dictations 189
Then students can move on to propositional writing which is more controlled than
independent writing, but less controlled than writing teacher-dictated phrases and sen-
tences. It also leads to fewer errors in spelling.
Traditional Orton-based instructors stress that the main purpose of their dicta-
tions, comparable to phrase and sentence writing in Slingerland Spelling, is not only for
the students to apply what they have already learned, but also to stretch short-term audi-
tory memory inherently requisite of dictations. Another Orton-based teacher’s prime ob-
jective is to create a situation where students succeed at the task at hand, particularly one
toward the end of the lesson.
When spelling is taught sequentially and as recommended in this book, students

gradually begin to understand and appreciate the regularities of our English spelling sys-
tem and become alert to its patterns, how words are constructed, and to conventions of
correctness. The following quote from Teaching Reading, A Balanced, Comprehensive
Approach to Teaching Reading in Prekindergarten Through Grade Three (California
Department of Education, 1996b) lends further support for teaching spelling early as rec-
ommended, and outlined in this book:
Good spelling is much more than a literary nicety. Poorly

developed spelling knowledge is shown to hinder chil-
dren’s writing, to disrupt their reading fluency, and to ob-
struct their vocabulary development (Adams, Treiman, and
Pressley, 1996; Read, 1986). Although it is appropriate to
encourage beginners to use temporary or invented spellings
to express their thoughts in print, programmatic instruction
in correct spellings should begin in first grade and continue
across the school years. In addition, and increasingly across
the school years, children should be expected to attend to
the correctness of their spelling in writing.
Dictations
In Chapter 4, we have followed an auditory progression that began with the smallest units
of sound, sight, and feel (auditory cards) and progressed to the next larger units (words
for encoding and spelling) and on to phrase, and then, sentence writing. Now we come to
one of the last stages on the path to independent written expression, dictations. Dictations
are excellent for teaching and reinforcing vocabulary and grammar, as discussed in the
last section of this chapter.
In the Slingerland daily lesson plan format, Dictation is a time for students to
study for output with careful teacher guidance. Initially, small paragraph dictations are
presented visually for students to copy. The dictations provide guidance in review of pre-
vious learnings and as a place for new learnings. In the early elementary grades, dicta-
tions usually consist of one paragraph that conveys a single idea or thought. An introduc-
tory sentence introduces the topic; the sentence or perhaps more than one sentence of the
body enriches the topic; and the final sentence concludes or summarizes the topic.
Eventually, in the upper elementary grades most often, skilled teachers elicit dic-
tations from their students that have actually been carefully prepared and often written
beforehand by the teacher. The purpose of dictations at this level is to teach students to
verbalize and write good introductory paragraphs; to verbalize and write body paragraphs
to support the introductory paragraph and/or lead smoothly into another paragraph; and to
verbalize and write strong concluding paragraphs that tie the whole dictation together.
Dictations also teach pre-writing skills, such as gathering facts, taking notes, organizing
thoughts, and preparing progressively more precise outlines. Included, too, are other writ-
ing skills, such as, proofing, editing, and rewriting drafts so that the final drafts are ready
to be submitted for grading.
Following the Orton-Gillingham sequence of instructional activities that comprise

the one-hour daily lesson plan, the last stage of learning is usually dedicated to dictation
of the kind described in Spelling in the Slingerland daily lesson plan format. Paragraph
dictations were adapted by Slingerland from Orton-based tutorial or small group instruc-
tion for classroom use.
If you are desirous of learning to work with paragraph dictations, then it is rec-
ommended that you study the sections on dictations in Slingerland’s Books 2 and 3.
Independent Writing
Independent writing or composition is the goal of instruction beginning with an auditory
stimulus. It begins with auditory cards, and continues to the following: encoding; pho-
Independent Writing 191
netic, non-phonetic, and ambiguous spelling practice and review, including the study of
spelling generalizations, rules, and exceptions; phrase and sentence writing; and dictation
composition and study. Once students learn these skills, they are freed to express their
own thoughts in writing for a myriad of academic and personal purposes.
Integrating Grammar into Dictations and Composition

One of the best ways to integrate grammar skills and concepts that have been introduced
visually is to put them to functional use in writing. This can be accomplished in the sec-
tion of the lesson where dictated phrases and sentences are written, when composing dic-
tations, and in propositional, narrative (storytelling) and expository (factual and informa-
tional) writing.
To cite just a few skills to reinforce in writing, the following are extrapolated
from the vocabulary and grammar discussion and listed in Chapter 3: the capitalization of
proper nouns, the indentation of paragraphs, the use of correct verb tense and number, the
active voice, the writing of dialogue with correct punctuation, the variation of sentence
patterns, the use of adjectives and adverbs to write more vividly, the use of appropriate
informal writing, dictionary and thesaurus skills to enhance writing, the use of future
tense, subject and predicate agreement, the correct punctuation of complex sentences, the
application of hyphens, the correct usage of relative pronouns and clauses, combining
sentences to vary sentence patterns, the ways to offset independent clauses including the
em dash, the correct understanding and usage of similes and metaphors, the incorporation
of figurative language, composition of different types of paragraphs (introductory, body
and concluding), and the development of themes.
Written communication, like oral communication and other literacy skills, is a

worthy goal to help your students achieve. Writing reflects good thinking; it is thinking
on paper.
5
Conclusions
Three Lesson Plans
One of the primary purposes of this book is to help teachers improve their instruction of
literacy skills by providing a scope and sequence that supports successful educational
practices and research. The following three lessons show pictorially or more graphically
how language units (cards, decoding, spelling, phrase writing, etc.) are integrated as a
unified whole. The lessons are presented in three daily lesson plan formats: Slingerland,
traditional Orton-Gillingham, and whole language augmented with phonics. As you view
each plan, you will note differences, but those differences are not nearly as important as
the similarities.
Overview of the Lesson’s Content

This lesson is intended either for a beginning manuscript or cursive class—SLD or non-
SLD—at an approximate second-third grade level. It is also appropriate for tutoring. No
new letters are introduced in handwriting, but several are reviewed for integration.
Included in what we can now refer to as the visual lesson is the introduction of
how to decode v-e words. The reading selection for the Slingerland and whole language
lessons is taken from Clara McCulloch’s Selections for Teaching Reading (McCulloch,
1990). The Orton-Gillingham reading selection was written by the instructor.
The same reading selection could not be used for the Orton-Gillingham lesson be-
cause, in Orton-based instruction, reading texts and materials are usually phonetic or con-
trolled at this level of instruction. Since v-e was introduced in the lesson, the reading con-
tains an abundance of v-e words to reinforce the new teaching in decoding and cards. In
Slingerland instruction, the reading material, as in whole language, is usually not con-
trolled, but techniques to prepare students to read literature-based texts successfully are
193
194 Chapter 5: Conclusions
presented in Preparation for Reading and in Reading from the Book. In the whole lan-
guage lesson, comparable preparation was made before the students read the story.
For the spelling and written sections of the lesson, compiled from Slingerland’s
Book 1, the next new concept to be presented is for when to apply the plural (or third per-
son singular) es ending. In the Slingerland lesson it is taught the same day as v-e, but on
the auditory side of the daily format. In the Orton-Gillingham and whole language les-
sons, the teaching of es is postponed until a later lesson so as not to introduce two new
concepts (v-e and es) visually in one lesson.
Another reason two new concepts would usually not be introduced in the Orton-
Gillingham lesson is that Orton-based tutorials are usually slightly less than an hour;
whereas, Slingerland daily lessons are usually slightly less than two hours. One hour is
devoted to the visual side of the lesson and one hour is devoted to Learning to Write and
the auditory side. Although the whole language lesson is also nearly two hours, it in-
cludes so many other required activities, the teacher felt that it would not be wise to in-
troduce two new concepts, such as v-e and es, in the same lesson.
The Format of the Lesson Plans

Traditional Orton-Gillingham and whole language lesson plan formats are similar in that
they are written from the top of a page downward and usually begin with what will be
taught or reviewed first. Typically, a Slingerland lesson is written using a T-sheet format.
Learning to Write is presented along the horizontal of the T while the Visual Lesson is
placed to the right of the vertical of the T, and the Auditory Lesson is placed to the left.
For consistency and readability, and to emphasize the similarities of Orton-Gillingham,
whole language, and Slingerland, all three lessons are presented here using the same (lin-
ear) lesson plan format.
The described content of each lesson is briefer than the actual lessons in order to
highlight similarities and explain differences.
The Slingerland Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson 195
The Slingerland Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson

Question of the Day
The Question of the Day is an integral part of Slingerland instruction. Its purpose is to
help structure oral language skills. The question in this lesson is integrated into the read-
ing of the day. It is:
In what way does a newborn baby differ from you?

Students are required to respond clearly in sentences using correct syntax1 and
grammar.
Learning to Write
The letters in Learning to Write are reviewed because they will be written later in blend-
ing, spelling, and in the phrases and sentences.
Review: s
Capital: T
Letter Groupings: es, tch, zz, nd, tw, tr, ee, th, bl, uns, tches and the word a
spelled a
Visual Lesson
Cards
New: a-e, e-e, i-e, o-e
Review: a, e, i, o, u, qu, y, ck, s
Note how the graphemes in visual cards are integrated with the words that
are included for decoding and also found in the reading selection.
Decoding
Decoding words include words that reinforce the newly introduced v-e decoding skills
immediately after their introduction:2 They also include review words selected from the
story. Note the sequence of word patterns and concepts in the review list.
1
Syntax refers to the way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
2
Refer to Slingerland’s Book 1, p.226 (Slingerland, 1971) to see how Slingerland teaches children to see
the effect of the final e on the vowel in v-e words.
Decoding Words (printed in large letters on the blackboard)
New Words Words from Words from Read-

the Reading ing Requiring
Selection Teacher Assistance
lame like happy
lake home windows
raze has sister
babe Mom blanket
pale bed curtains
game will ready
wade not
haze them
shave Then
chase black
slave with
brake rug
flare fast
plane my
skate bring
shake pink
quake good
for
short
girl
play
now
too
they
see
grow
The Reading Selection

A New Baby My baby sister is tiny
Mother is coming home now, but she will grow
today. She will bring very fast. Then
the new baby with her. we can play together
I will be happy in my room.
to see them.
My room is all blue.
Mom has a room ready A blue rug
for the new baby. is on the floor.
The bed is very small. A new blue blanket
A small pink blanket is on my bed.
is in it. Pink curtains My curtains are blue,
are at the windows. but they are not new.
It is a good room My new baby sister
for a new baby. will like my room.
The new baby is a girl. Today is a happy day.

She has short black hair. My new baby sister
Her eyes are blue. is coming home.
My new baby sister MY MOTHER
is pretty. is coming home, too.
Preparation for Reading

Refer to Books I and II or this book for the Preparation for Reading techniques.
Phrases and Clues

The phrases are taken from the last three paragraphs of “A New Baby.”
1. for the new baby

♦ Find and read the phrase that tells why Mom has a new room
ready.
♦ Find and read the phrase that tells why or for whom someone
might heat milk.
2. very small
♦ Read the phrase that tells about size.

♦ Read the phrase that tells how large or tiny something is.
♦ Read the phrase that denotes size but not color.
3. short black hair

♦ Find the phrase that tells about a part of the body.
♦ Find the phrase that is what (give the name of a child in the class
with short black hair) has at the top (of his/her body/head).
4. a small pink blanket

♦ Find the phrase that describes what may be used to cover a baby.
♦ Find one of two phrases that tell about size.
5. Pink curtains
♦ Read the phrase that tells what may be at the windows.
♦ Read the phrase that begins a sentence.
6. at the windows
♦ Find the phrase that tells where curtains hang.
♦ Find the phrase that tells where you might look to find finger
smudges.
In LessonPlanner in the third DEMO plan, you can find additional clues to
apply to the above phrases, as well as an optional exercise to provide more practice
reading the phrases. Questions and topics suggested by McCulloch to pose to the
children are also included, such as, Why is there no mention of a father?
Reading from the Book
Before reading from the reader that contains the above phrases, the teacher usually
reviews the previous day’s reading, and asks review questions, such as, How did
the person telling the story feel about the new baby? . . . How do you know?3 The
teacher also asks questions to help the children project forward from the reading se-
3
The same lesson in LessonPlanner is more comprehensive than the one in this book and contains many
more how, who, what, where, when, etc. questions.
lection. For example, she might ask, Where do you think the children might sleep?
Will the baby be a brother or sister? Next, the teacher will apply the four steps of
Reading from the Book as needed.
In Step One, structured reading, the teacher “structures” the reading, for in-
stance, by asking a student to read the first two words that stay together (Mom
has), then the next three words to the end of the line (a room ready), and the next
line that tells us why the room is ready (for the new baby). After the student re-
reads the sentence in its entirety, and other students read it also, the teacher will
structure as many more sentences as are felt necessary before moving on to the next
step.
In Step Two, studying aloud, a student is asked to do his own structuring by

reading aloud with correct phrasing. In the third paragraph, a child might read The
new baby/ is a girl./ She has/ short black hair./
In Step Three, studying silently, the children read and study silently apply-
ing the skills they applied in the previous steps and other skills, such as decoding,
as needed. Then several children are called upon to read. They are guided and cor-
rected supportively.
In Step Four, studying independently and then orally, the teacher asks the
students to find out, for instance, as much as they can about the storyteller’s room
in the second to last paragraph of the story. Later the children will return to de-
scribe and read about the room.
Students may then work individually doing follow-up seatwork.
Auditory Lesson
Cards
New from the visual lesson: \a@\ as in safe (a-e), \e@\ as in these (e-e), \˛â\ as in dime
(i-e), and \o@\ as in home (o-e)
Review in preparation for words to be blended and spelled: \z\ as in zebra, \ks\ (x),
\s\ as in sun, \a*\, \e*\, \˛û\, \u*\, \k\ as in black, and \z\ as in has or was.
Yellow cards: \ch\ (chair, match) and \k\ (cake, kite, jack, Christmas or chemistry)
Note how the phonemes in auditory cards are integrated with words that are
included for encoding and spelling.
Blending
Discrimination
With short vowels: bland, flit, grunt, grant, as, grudge
For \sh\ - \ch\ endings: fish, crunch, branch, brush, fresh
Blending words
and, up, runs, black, twig, and tree and green to review ee blending
from the previous day (v-e words will not be blended until the following
week for the auditory lesson is outpaced by the visual lesson).
Spelling
The teacher directs the children to listen to what happens to words that end in s, x,
z, ch, and sh (or that end with the sounds \s\, \x\, \z\, \ch\, and \sh\) when someone
tells about another person or thing. Words: hitch - hitches, hush - hushes, smash -
smashes, buzz - buzzes, frizz - frizzes, dash - dashes, catch - catches, dress -
dresses, pass - passes, lunch - lunches, box - boxes. The students then blend the
es words with short-a and short-u, in or out of the chart, and write as many as time
allows. Various previously taught suffixes are added to at least one base word:
dash
dashing
dashed
dashes
Phrases
After a phrase is dictated by the teacher, the children are often asked to identify the
number of words in the phrase (phonemic awareness) before repeating the phrase
and writing it.
runs and pants
a dashing run
dashes and runs
catches a twig
Sentences
Sentences are used to integrate phrases, spelling, blending, auditory cards, and
Learning to Write. After reviewing the red flag word the, the teacher dictates the
first sentence for the students to write phrase-by-phrase after repeating each phrase
before writing. The second sentence is presented in the same way.
The black cat/ dashes and runs/ up a tree.
The fat cat catches a twig.
The Orton-Gillingham Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson 201
The Orton-Gillingham Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson

In a traditional Orton-Gillingham lesson, the introduction of vowel-consonant-e occurs at
the end of Level I. Some concepts from Level II were already known by the student for
whom this lesson is intended. (See tables 3.1 and 3.2.) Of the six syllable types—closed,
v-e, open, r-controlled, diphthong, and consonant-le—only the identification and division
(syllabification) of closed syllables (cvc) has been introduced previously. Generally,
when v-e is introduced, its identification as the second syllable type (v-e) will not be in-
troduced in the same lesson.
For this particular lesson, it is assumed that the student has learned one phoneme
for each letter of the alphabet. The letter y was learned only as a consonant. Digraphs th,
ch, sh, and wh were introduced as well as ck and tch. Gillingham’s first spelling gener-
alization, pertaining to words ending in ff, ll, and ss, has also been taught and mastered.
Within the past several weeks of tutoring the student learned definitions for the
following: consonant, vowel, syllable, and digraph. These definitions were written into
the student’s notebook. It is assumed that the student needs extra review of the digraph
sh. The Orton-Gillingham tutor addresses such individual needs by adding difficult ele-
ments throughout the lesson, even redesigning or adapting the lesson to fit the special
needs of the student. A particularly difficult concept might altogether be re-introduced.
For the purposes herein, it is also assumed that during the last tutoring session, the tutor
noted that her student required additional review in the division of two-syllable cvc
words.
The progression for the lesson follows:
I. Phonogram Review
Review phonogram cards (symbol-to-sound review): a, b, c as \k\, f, h, i, j, k, m, p, t, g
as \g\, o, r, l, n, th, u, ch as \ch\, e, s as \s\, sh, d, w, wh, y as \y\, v, x, z, ck, and qu.
II. Presentation of a New Concept

The tutor places a-e, e-e, i-e, and o-e cards on the desk. An explanation of the cards is
given as well as the key word and sound for each card. Information about v-e is written
into the student’s notebook with the help of the tutor. The tutor explains how the e at the
end of many words is silent, i.e., cannot be sounded out as it can at the beginning of the
word elephant or in the middle of the word get. The e at the end of the word, further-
more, makes the preceding vowel long, i.e., makes it say its name. Depending on the abil-
ity of the student, the definition for long and short vowel sounds may be added to the stu-
dent’s notebook. Syllable type v-e will be added to the notebook at a later date. Immedi-
ately following the introduction of the new concept, the tutor presents approximately ten
words to be decoded that illustrate the v-e concept. The following, presented in large
print on a separate sheet of paper, is typical.
Decoding
cvc v-e
rat rate
pal pale
can cane
hid hide
win wine
bit bite
cop cope
rob robe
mop mope
A paragraph for further exposure to v-e is read aloud by the student. Words such
as the, he, and a, containing concepts that the student has not yet learned, are treated as
learned (sight) words. They are underlined. The following story was written by the tutor
who knows her student has a penchant for kites. The tutor could have used a phonetic
reader.4
Mat’s Kite
Mat will take a bike and ride it up a big hill. With a dime, he will
get a kit and take it with him. He will take a thin rope and a bit of
tape. He will make a fine red and white kite. Then he will sit on
the site and hope that the kite will not rip.
4
EPS has an excellent selection of phonetic stories, workbooks, and readers that are compatible with Or-
ton-based instruction. A west coast resource is Academic Publications in Novato, CA 94949-6191. Aca-
demic Therapy Publications is well known for its High Noon Books series.
III. Words Read in Isolation

Decoding and syllabification of words from a prepared list is presented in order to review
concepts that were either recently learned or that need additional review or re-
introduction. A few v-e words are included in this exercise. The words can be presented
in a variety of formats, such as in a game with cards or on sentence strips to be cut into
syllables by the student. The following cvc word list and nonsense word list are pre-
sented separately.
First Word List
yell zest wish
whiff lash swish
loft slash raft
ship splash stuck
mass thick struck
less dine shone
gate drive yoke
crave vote trick
hitch chum notch
Second Word List

zesh shass plit
voth sime cruss
whid
Third Word List

rustic picnic tablet
plastic rabbit bandit
spastic dismiss confess
metric quintet canyon
cutlet fabric campus
The third word list is intended for an exercise in syllable division. The students
are asked to cut the words into syllables with scissors. This can be executed into a game
format with dice, wagering, and bingo, etc. Later, when the Doubling (1-1-1) and Silent-
E spelling rules have been taught, this simple game format involving the separation of
syllables, including affixes, will become a powerful vehicle by which to reinforce when
and when not to double the final consonant of a base word when adding a suffix or when
and when not to drop the silent-e on a word when adding a suffix. Conversely, the game
can be used to put various syllables together for further reinforcement of easily confused,
often painful spelling concepts.
IV. “What says . . . ?”

The following is based on the Gillingham (yellow) Drill Cards for sound-to-symbol re-
view. It is often referred to as “What says?” In this lesson there are the following: \a*\, \b\,
\k\ (c, k, and ck), \f\, \h\, \˛û\, \j\, \m\, \p\, \t\, \g\, \o*\, \r\, \l\, \n\, \th\, \u*\, \ch\, \e*\, \s\, \sh\,
\d\, \hw\, \y\, \z\, \a@\ (a-e), \e@\ (e-e), \o@\ (o-e), and \˛â\, (i-e).
V. S.O.S. and Dictated Phrases

Simultaneous Oral Spelling (S.O.S.) and dictated phrases are presented next. Words to be
blended or spelled with S.O.S. include the following: the, posh, chin, hiss, zip, whale,
moss, shin, van, fluff, spell, dish, shine, vane, dine.
Learned words are reviewed first. No dictated phrases will be given in this lesson;
however, the following sentences will be dictated:
The white dog will run and hide.

It will zig and zag up hill.
The sun will shine.
With a slightly more skilled student, the following little poem, composed by the
tutor, would have been dictated for the student to write:
The haze and fog will swell and fade.

It will zig and zag up hill.
A plane not made to land will win.
It will shine while in the sun.
In the next lesson, the v-e syllable type will be introduced as a new concept, and
definitions for both closed and v-e syllables will be compared and written into the stu-
dent’s notebook. Since many Orton-based tutorials are less than an hour, it is usually in-
advisable to introduce two new concepts in one lesson. The plural es will be taught after
plural s is reviewed.
VI. Oral Reading

At this point in the lesson, the student would read another phonetic story, such as the
“The Whale” from the packet of Little Stories that accompany Gillingham and Stillman’s
remedial training program.
The Whale
This is a ship. It went to get fish. A big wave broke on the ship.
The ship had a bad time. The nets tore and let the fish swim off.
A man fell from the mast. Then the mast broke.
“The men must help,” said the mate. “Get ropes! Mend the mast
and the nets!”
A big hulk swam up. “A whale!” said the mate.
The whale ate up the fish from the nets. The mate shot a gun.
The shot had a line on it. It hit the whale. The whale did not
bump the ship. It swam off with the rope and the fish.
At last the ship is home. The mate is glad the ship is safe. But he
is sad that the whale ate the fish.
The Whole Language Lesson Augmented with Phonics

This whole language lesson was written for a heterogeneous class of third graders from
approximately ten different cultural backgrounds. Integrating English instruction is par-
ticularly essential for students whose native tongue is not English as well as for students
from disadvantaged environments. The academic skill levels range from primer to fourth
grade.
I. Daily Oral Language

Every day starts with a daily oral language exercise. Today, the students are required to
read and correct a sentence or two from the following paragraph that is projected on a
screen from an overhead projector. Skills and corrections the teacher will focus upon in-
clude grammar, punctuation, capitalization, vocabulary, phonics, identification of learned
phonograms, spelling, and comprehension.
Family Paragraph
jim lives with his family in daly city he has a pesty younger
sister named maria who is chubby and has wavy black hair
his favorite pet is a frisky brown and black puppy named
coco. jim and maria enjoy playing with there puppy in the
bake yard
II. Vocabulary Development

Vocabulary instruction is preparatory to reading the story, “A New Baby.” Students are
asked to name family words. As they name each word, the teacher writes the word on a
4×6 index card. The cards are given to students to illustrate. They become a part of the
class’s permanent vocabulary board. The teacher adds additional words not named by the
students that are part of the programmed vocabulary for the family theme. These words
are also illustrated by the students and added to the vocabulary board. Later they will be
clipped together on a large ring rather than displayed individually. When students need
family words, they then know where to locate them.
The Whole Language Lesson Augmented with Phonics 207
Family Words
Some of the family words are contained in “A New Baby.”
mother father sister brother

aunt uncle cousin girl
boy man woman baby
sister stepsister stepfather stepmother
stepbrother grandmother grandfather
III. Reading
A New Baby My baby sister is tiny
Mother is coming home now, but she will grow
today. She will bring very fast. Then
the new baby with her. we can play together
I will be happy in my room.
to see them.
My room is all blue.
Mom has a room ready A blue rug
for the new baby. is on the floor.
The bed is very small. A new blue blanket
A small pink blanket is on my bed.
is in it. Pink curtains My curtains are blue,
are at the windows. but they are not new.
It is a good room My new baby sister
for a new baby. will like my room.
The new baby is a girl. Today is a happy day.

She has short black hair. My new baby sister
Her eyes are blue. is coming home.
My new baby sister MY MOTHER
is pretty. is coming home, too.
Prior to Reading
Before the story is read together the following types of questions will be asked of
the students who are required to respond in complete sentences:
1. What do you think is going to happen in the story now?

2. Who do you think the story is going to be about?
Reading
As the students read, the teacher clarifies unfamiliar vocabulary, such as the word
curtains for the ESL5 children as well as those who might not have curtains in their
homes or in the homes of friends and relatives. Every student is given the opportu-
nity to read aloud daily.
The more difficult words that the children misread will be noted and in-
cluded in the following day’s vocabulary development.
After Reading
After reading, the teacher will ask who, what, when, where, why, how, and how
many questions. When a student makes grammatical or other errors when respond-
ing, the teacher will repeat a corrected version of what the student said. Depending
on how smoothly the students read, they might be required to write their responses
to questions. When they are in doubt about the spelling of words they want to use,
they can ask their teacher or refer to the vocabulary board. The writing assignment
today or within the next few days is for each student to describe his or her own
family and then to illustrate their written text. If time is limited, the teacher will
have several students summarize the story up to the point where they stopped read-
ing. They will also be asked what they think is going to happen next in the story,
and why.
The following day, vocabulary development will include house words be-
cause they tie in nicely with “A New Baby” and the family theme.
IV. Handwriting
Cursive handwriting today will include writing v-e words.
5
ESL is the abbreviation for English as a second language.
The Whole Language Lesson Augmented with Phonics 209
V. Phonics, Spelling and Writing

In today’s lesson, the students will learn the silent-e generalization. First, the teacher will
demonstrate in a chart with alphabet cards what happens to words like pin when an e is
added: the vowel preceding the added e becomes long; the final e is silent. The students
have already been taught the breve and macron diacriticals. Additionally, they have
learned that an x above a letter indicates that it is silent. Several students come to the
chart and add a silent-e to words while explaining how and why the pronunciation of the
word changes.
Adding Silent-e
pin + e = pine
can + e = cane
rod + e = rode
cut + e = cute
pet + e = Pete
The next step for the students is to write and change a list of similar words pro-
vided by the teacher (rip - ripe, not - note, us - use, cub - cube, fin - fine, tap - tape).
As they write the words they are required to place a breve above the short vowel of the
words in the first list. In the second list, they must place a macron above the first vowel
and an x over the silent-e. Students then use the words in oral sentences to ensure knowl-
edge of their meanings.
On Thursday, the students will have a spelling test. Most of the words will be v-e
words. Super spellers (challenge words) for the more advanced students include several
of the family words (mother, father, grandmother, etc.). For either class or homework, the
students might be asked to alphabetize the spelling words, to write definitions from the
dictionary, and/or to write sentences using the v-e words. Another day, they will be asked
to write a poem using v-e or family words. The poem is placed in a folder entitled Family.
In this class, students are exposed to poetry early. A poem a day is presented after Daily
Oral Language to introduce, reinforce, and extend vocabulary, grammar, and phonics.
Although nearly two hours daily are devoted to language arts instruction, the in-
troduction of plural es must be postponed until the following day. With the introduction
of v-e and all twenty-six children reading aloud daily in this class, the teacher will not
have time to teach another new concept. Plural s will, however, be reviewed in prepara-
tion for the introduction of plural es. Words from the vocabulary board will be used to
review the s plural and to introduce the es plural. Using the new house words, the stu-
dents have the following s and es plurals.
Singular Plural s
window windows
chair chairs
door doors
rug rugs
curtain curtains
table tables
Singular Plural es
couch couches
dish dishes
glass glasses
duplex duplexes
mailbox mailboxes
mattress mattresses
latch latches
VI. Seatwork
Students are given sentences with blanks that they are to fill in with nouns or adjectives.
For example, carrying through with the family theme, the students will fill in the follow-
ing:
My ____________ is as ___________, __________ as a __________.

(noun) (adjective) (adjective) (noun)
One little girl wrote the following poem about members of her family.
My Family is a Rainbow
My father is as beautiful blue as the sky.
My mother is as pretty pink as a rose.
My sister is as graceful green as springtime.
My dog is as pillowy white as a cloud.
My brother is as brilliant black as a panther.
Referencing the Research 211
Referencing the Research

Educational research is having a significant impact on literacy. Never again is it likely
that teachers will teach literacy using either a strict phonics approach or a meaning-
emphasis approach, such as whole language. This is because teachers are gradually and
surely becoming better informed in not only how to teach literacy, but also in how to pre-
pare themselves to do so effectively.
In this book, much that is compatible with literacy research is included, but obvi-
ously not all. As discussed in Chapter 4, a myriad of different types of direct, explicit
phonemic awareness skills must be incorporated into early and later instruction, and writ-
ten expression must be sequenced and extended. The instruction of vocabulary and
grammar, as discussed and outlined in Chapter 3, must also be expanded and enhanced,
and pseudowords and or nonsense words should frequently be created and included for
decoding and perhaps cautiously for spelling development and skill. There must be in-
creased focus on fluency to improve reading, especially reading comprehension. Equally
important, teachers must teach students how to read so that they can answer questions
that pertain to the reading successfully. These skills may be taught in Reading from the
Book and in Question of the Day. They are of especial importance because they help stu-
dents learn how to generate their own questions.
As literacy teachers gradually change how they teach, they will be confronted
with the task of deciding what kinds of reading materials to use. Their selections should
not be either-or as in either meaning-based or phonics-based. Any recommended solution
should involve informed, improved compromise: Students can, for instance, review, so-
lidify, and practice recently acquired decoding skills by reading some controlled reading
texts. Alternatively, or additionally, teachers can learn and apply the techniques devel-
oped by Slingerland to prepare and assist students to read rich meaning-based literature,
as outlined in Chapter 3 in Preparation for Reading and Reading from the Book. Or, they
can adapt their own program to satisfy other research findings. Whatever the choices are,
they should be based on the results of newer, more appropriate, and accurate assessment
of literacy skills and needs.
To be an informed educator is crucial; therefore, both review and study of re-

search are necessary. Mentioned already, are the National Research Panel Report and the
International Dyslexia Association’s position paper entitled Informed Instruction for

Reading Success: Foundations for Teacher Preparation (Brady and Moats, 1997). Both
provide clearly written, up-to-date, reviews of why changes in reading instruction and
teacher preparation are necessary, what we have learned about reading from research,
what the resources are for children who struggle with learning to read, what distinguishes
them from good readers, what an informed approach to reading is, and what the signifi-
cant requirements are to become expert reading instructors or professionals in related
fields. Excellent references and resources for more in-depth study about literacy and lit-
eracy research are also provided in these works.
A Final Word
As you come to the conclusion of Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction, take a little
time to reflect upon what you learned. Do you now have a better grasp of the importance
of a carefully planned scope and sequence for the development of literacy skills? Have
you decided how you will personally use this book to enhance your own teaching? Do
you have colleagues and friends for whom such a textbook would be helpful in clarifying
the meaning of direct, explicit, phonics-based multisensory instruction or in eliminating
the fear that phonics will bore students and destroy any possibility for developing a love
of literature?
On the other hand, have you acquired a deeper appreciation of the quality and
demands of whole language instruction—including the development of skills for reading,
writing, spelling, listening, and oral communication?
As a LessonPlanner user, are you more confident about how to use your software
effectively? Do you see the advantages of becoming a member of a network of users who
learn and save time by exchanging and sharing ideas and lesson plans with each other?
If you are not a LessonPlanner user, do you recognize its advantages, not only in
preparing lessons more efficiently and quickly, but also in learning and solidifying what
you need to know about our language to make literacy instruction exciting and meaning-
ful to your students and for yourself?
As a school administrator or any educator trying to respond to the impact of edu-

cational research on literacy, do you now have a framework from which to make mean-
A Final Word 213
ingful adjustments to your own programs? While recognizing the complexity of literacy
instruction, are scope and sequence better defined and more clearly understood? Do you
see software such as LessonPlanner and WordSpring as direct boons to teachers and indi-
rectly to their students? Can you envision how introductory literacy scope and sequence
workshops will benefit most teachers and captivate the best to seek further training and
become mentor teachers?
Has the inclusion of the three lesson plans in this chapter helped to emphasize the
similarities of whole language, Orton-Gillingham, and Slingerland instructional pro-
grams? Have these lessons and the scope and sequence in the book allowed you to envi-
sion different and more options for what and how to teach literacy, as well as to whom?
Do you see yourself making changes to better match your professional and personal goals
with your teaching preferences and strengths? Are you envisioning yourself honing and
using more or your strengths as a teacher now that you have a wider scope of options?
Perhaps you desire further training and study to become a master or mentor instructor.
That choice and many others are available.
As an old, but well trained Orton-Gillingham-Slingerland teacher, this writer

hopes that Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction satisfies the requests of many dedi-
cated teachers for ways to lighten and clarify the awesome task of literacy instruction. As
an experienced or newer teacher you should now know a lot more about the subject you
teach, understand the rationales for instruction better, and be able to instruct with deeper
pleasure and expertise, and with improved results. You have taken the initial steps to be
in the mainstream of this exciting time when research in education demands change. You
can reap the benefits of contributing to a world where everyone is literate.
enjoy!
Appendix A
LessonPlanner Graphemes
with Keywords and Phonemes
b [b]all \b\ m [m]ittens \m\
c [c]ake \k\ mb co[mb] \m\
k [k]ite \k\ mn colu[mn] (au- \m\
ck ja[ck] \k\ tumn)
ch [Ch]ristmas \k\ n [n]est \n\

que uni[que] (an- \k\ kn [kn]ife \n\
tique) gn si[gn] (gnat) \n\
qu [qu]iche \k\ pn [pn]eumonia \n\
d [d]uck \d\ p [p]ig \p\
ed stay[ed] \d\ qu [qu]een \kw\
f [f]ish \f\ qua [qua]d \kwo*\
ph [ph]one \f\ quar [quar]t \kwo$r\
gh lau[gh] \f\ r [r]ug \r\
g [g]oat \g\ wr [wr]ench \r\
gh [gh]ost \g\ rh [rh]ubarb \r\
gue intri[gue] \g\ s [s]un \s\
h [h]ouse \h\ z walt[z] \s\
j [j]am \j\ ce [ce]nt \s\
dge bri[dge] (fudge) \j\ ci [ci]ty \s\
ge [ge]ntle \j\ cy fan[cy] (cycle) \s\
gi [gi]nger (gi- \j\ ps [ps]ychology \s\
raffe) sc [sc]ience \s\
gy [gy]psy \j\ t [t]urtle \t\
l [l]amp \˛l\ ed wish[ed] \t\
215
216 Appendix A
v [v]ase \v\ tu mu[tu]al \choob\

w [w]agon \w\ sia A[sia] \zhE\
u s[u]ave \w\ ang s[ang] \aN\
wa [wa]tch \wo*\ ing s[ing] \iN\
war [war]m \wo$r\ ong s[ong] \oN\
wor [wor]ld \wur\ ung s[ung] \uN\
x bo[x] \ks\ eng l[eng]th \eN\
x e[x]ist \gz\ ank s[ank] \aNk\
y [y]ellow \y\ ink s[ink] \iNk\
i mill[i]on \y\ unk s[unk] \uNk\
z [z]ebra \z\ onk h[onk] \oNk\
s wa[s] (rose) \z\ tion na[tion] \shEn\
sh [sh]ip \sh\ sion mis[sion] \shEn\
ch [Ch]icago \sh\ tion ques[tion] \chEn\
(champagne)
sion vi[sion] \zhEn\
sch [sch]wa \sh\ tle lit[tle] \t'l\
ci so[ci]al (musi- \sh\ ple pur[ple] \p'l\
cian)
kle pic[kle] \k'l\
ti spa[ti]al (partial) \sh\ cle bicy[cle] \k'l\
stle bri[stle] (whis- \s'l\
si controver[si]al \sh\ tle)
xi an[xi]ous \sh\ ble a[ble] \b'l\

ce o[ce]an \sh\ dle grid[dle] \d'l\
su [su]gar \sh\ fle waf[fle] \f'l\
ch [ch]air \ch\ gle bu[gle] \g'l\
tch ma[tch] \ch\ sle has[sle] \s'l\
wh [wh]eel \hw\ zle fiz[zle] \z'l\
th [th]imble \th\ ture pic[ture] \chEr\
th [th]is \th\ a [a]pple \a*\
du e[du]cate \j66oob\ e [e]lephant \e*\
su u[su]al \zh\ ea h[ea]d \e*\
LessonPlaner Graphemes with Keywords and Phonemes 217
i [i]nch \˛û\ u f[u]ll \ooB\

y m[y]th \˛û\ ar c[ar]ry \a*r\
ie misch[ie]f \˛û\ er ch[er]ry \e*r\
ai mount[ai]n \˛û\ ir m[ir]ror \˛ûr\
o [o]lives \o*\ a at the end b[a]by \a@\
of an ac-
u [u]mbrella \u*\
cented sylla-
o h[o]ney \u*\ ble
ou d[ou]ble \u*\ a-e s[a- f -e] \a@\
au P[au]l (author) \o$\ ai r[ai]n \a@\
aw s[aw] \o$\ ay pl[ay] \a@\
al [al]most \o$l\ eigh sl[eigh] \a@\
augh c[augh]t \o$\ ea st[ea]k \a@\
ough f[ough]t \o$\ ei v[ei]n \a@\
oi [oi]l \oi\ ey th[ey] \a@\
oy b[oy] \oi\ é souffl[é] \a@\
ou [ou]ch \ou\ et val[et] \a@\
ow c[ow] \ou\ e at the end m[e]ter \e@\
of an ac-
ough dr[ough]t \ou\
cented sylla-
or c[or]n \o$r\ ble
ar st[ar] \a·r\ e-e th[e- s -e] \e@\
age sabot[age] \a·zh\ ee f[ee]t \e@\
er h[er] \ur\ ea [ea]t \e@\
ir b[ir]d \ur\ ie ch[ie]f \e@\
ur b[ur]n \ur\ y cand[y] \e@\
ear [ear]n \ur\ ey k[ey] \e@\
our n[our]ish \ur\ ei rec[ei]ve \e@\
yr mart[yr] \ur\ i man[i]ac \e@\
er hard[er] \Er\ i-e mach[i- n -e] \e@\
or doct[or] \Er\ i at the end t[i]ger \˛â\
ar doll[ar] \Er\ of an ac-
cented sylla-
oo b[oo]k \ooB\ ble
218 Appendix A
i-e p[i- n -e] \˛â\ ew fl[ew] (grew) \oob\

igh n[igh]t \˛â\ a at the end c[a]det \E\
of an unac-
ie p[ie] \˛â\
cented sylla-
y at the end m[y] (sky) \˛â\ ble
y-e t[y- p -e] \˛â\ e at the end s[e]dan \E\
of an unac-
ei [Ei]nstein \˛â\
cented sylla-
o-e h[o- m -e] \o@\ ble
oa b[oa]t \o@\ o at the end p[o]lite \E\
ow sn[ow] \o@\ of an unac-
cented sylla-
oe t[oe] \o@\ ble
o at the end p[o]ny \o@\ u at the end s[u]perb \E\
of an ac- of an unac-
cented sylla- cented sylla-
ble ble
ough alth[ough] \o@\
u at the end m[u]sic \u@\
of an ac-
cented sylla-
ble
u-e m[u- l -e] \u@\
ew f[ew] \u@\
eu [Eu]rope (feud) \u@\
ue val[ue] (rescue) \u@\
ou s[ou]p \oob\
u at the end l[u]nar \oob\
of an ac-
cented sylla-
ble
eu n[eu]tral \oob\
u-e fl[u- t -e] \oob\
ue tr[ue] \oob\
oo m[oo]n \oob\
ui fr[ui]t \oob\
ough thr[ough] \oob\
Appendix B
LessonPlanner Phonemes
with Keywords and Graphemes
\b\ [b]all b \n\ [n]est n
\k\ [c]ake c [kn]ife kn
[k]ite k si[gn] (gnat) gn
ja[ck] ck [pn]eumonia pn
[Ch]ristmas ch \p\ [p]ig p
uni[que] (antique) que \kw\ [qu]een qu
[qu]iche qu \kwo*\ [qua]d qua
\d\ [d]uck d \kwo$r\ [quar]t quar
stay[ed] ed \r\ [r]ug r
\f\ [f]ish f [wr]ench wr
[ph]one ph [rh]ubarb rh
lau[gh] gh \s\ [s]un s
\g\ [g]oat g walt[z] z
[gh]ost gh [ce]nt ce
intri[gue] gue [ci]ty ci
\h\ [h]ouse h fan[cy] (cycle) cy
\j\ [j]am j [ps]ychology ps
bri[dge] (fudge) dge [sc]ience sc
[ge]ntle ge \t\ [t]urtle t
[gi]nger (giraffe) gi wish[ed] ed
[gy]psy gy \v\ [v]ase v
\l\ [l]amp l \w\ [w]agon w
\m\ [m]ittens m s[u]ave u
co[mb] mb \wo*\ [wa]tch wa
colu[mn] (autumn) mn \wo$r\ [war]m war
219
220 Appendix B
\wur\ [wor]ld wor \iNk\ s[ink] ink

\ks\ bo[x] x \uNk\ s[unk] unk
\gz\ e[x]ist x \oNk\ h[onk] onk
\y\ [y]ellow y \shEn\ na[tion] tion
mill[i]on i mis[sion] sion
\z\ [z]ebra z \chEn\ ques[tion] tion
wa[s] (rose) s \zhEn\ vi[sion] sion
\sh\ [sh]ip sh \t'l\ lit[tle] tle
[Ch]icago (champagne) ch \p'l\ pur[ple] ple
[sch]wa sch \k'l\ pic[kle] kle
so[ci]al (musician) ci bicy[cle] cle
spa[ti]al (partial) ti \s'l\ bri[stle] (whistle) stle
controver[si]al si \b'l\ a[ble] ble
an[xi]ous xi \d'l\ grid[dle] dle
o[ce]an ce \f'l\ waf[fle] fle
[su]gar su \g'l\ bu[gle] gle
\ch\ [ch]air ch \s'l\ has[sle] sle
ma[tch] tch \z'l\ fiz[zle] zle
\hw\ [wh]eel wh \chEr\ pic[ture] ture
\th\ [th]imble th \a*\ [a]pple a
\th\ [th]is th \e*\ [e]lephant e
\joob\ e[du]cate du h[ea]d ea
\zh\ u[su]al su \˛û\ [i]nch i
\choob\ mu[tu]al tu m[y]th y
\zhE\ A[sia] sia misch[ie]f ie
\aN\ s[ang] ang mount[ai]n ai
\iN\ s[ing] ing \o*\ [o]lives o
\oN\ s[ong] ong \u*\ [u]mbrella u
\uN\ s[ung] ung h[o]ney o
\eN\ l[eng]th eng d[ou]ble ou
\aNk\ s[ank] ank \o$\ P[au]l (author) au
LessonPlaner Phonemes with Keywords and Graphemes 221
s[aw] aw st[ea]k ea
\o$l\ [al]most al v[ei]n ei
\o$\ c[augh]t augh th[ey] ey
f[ough]t ough souffl[é] é
\oi\ [oi]l oi val[et] et
b[oy] oy \e@\ m[e]ter e
\ou\ [ou]ch ou th[e- s -e] e-e
c[ow] ow f[ee]t ee
dr[ough]t ough [ea]t ea
\o$r\ c[or]n or ch[ie]f ie
\a·r\ st[ar] ar cand[y] y
\a·zh\ sabot[age] age k[ey] ey
\ur\ h[er] er rec[ei]ve ei
b[ir]d ir man[i]ac i
b[ur]n ur mach[i- n -e] ine
[ear]n ear \˛â\ t[i]ger i
n[our]ish our p[i- n -e] i-e
mart[yr] yr n[igh]t igh
\Er\ hard[er] er p[ie] ie
doct[or] or m[y] (sky) y
doll[ar] ar t[y- p -e] y-e
\ooB\ b[oo]k oo [Ei]nstein ei
f[u]ll u \o@\ h[o- m -e] o-e
\a*r\ c[ar]ry ar b[oa]t oa
\e*r\ ch[er]ry er sn[ow] ow
\˛ûr\ m[ir]ror ir t[oe] oe
\a@\ b[a]by a p[o]ny o
s[a- f -e] a-e alth[ough] ough
r[ai]n ai \u@\ m[u]sic u
pl[ay] ay m[u- l –e] u-e
sl[eigh] eigh f[ew] ew
222 Appendix B
[Eu]rope (feud) eu
val[ue] (rescue) ue
\oob\ s[ou]p ou
l[u]nar u
n[eu]tral eu
fl[u- t –e] u-e
tr[ue] ue
m[oo]n oo
fr[ui]t ui
thr[ough] ough
fl[ew] (grew) ew
\E\ c[a]det a
s[e]dan e
p[o]lite o
s[u]perb u
Appendix C
Two Exercises for You
Just for fun, syllabify and accent the following words. See if you can identify the decod-
ing Rules and accenting hints that apply. The list was compiled by scrolling LessonPlan-
ner’s Blending “Phonemes Spelled As” menu and stopping periodically to do searches
here and there for options from which the words listed were selected.
Word Apply Syllabification Rules and Hints

chronography
parapsychologist
chemotherapy
amphitheater
astrophysics
philodendron
fragility
indigestible
vegetation
gesticulation
quartermaster
psychedelic
condescension
miscellaneous
rubefacient
sacrificial
confidential
expeditious
controversial
countermeasure
223
224 Appendix C
euthanasia
premonition
individual
contractual
retrogression
exclusionists
thistledown
irresponsible
horticulture
unmeasurable
hieroglyphic
stenographer
hypothyroid
thoroughgoing
espionage
diversified
proprietor
obliterate
communiqué
Pennsylvania
amphetamine
bilingual
philosophize
psychoanalyze
einsteinium
coincident
beatitude
euphemism
Deuteronomy
reproductive
TwoExercises For You 225
Here is another exercise. Syllabify and then accent the following words. See if you can
identify the Rules and hints that apply. This list was obtained from LessonPlanner by se-
lecting from the Decoding “suf’x/end’s” menu and retrieving words to which the third,
fourth, and fifth accenting hints apply.
Word Apply Syllabification Rules and Hints

pilgrimage
mechanical
precipitance
precipitancy
decolorant
caterpillar
contemporary
postgraduate
superficial
insufficient
perspicacious
consignee
parallel
correspondence
persistency
superintendent
contemporaneous
nondiscovery
notoriety
electrify
reexamine
illustrious
anachronism
indefinite
desirability
226 Appendix C
quantitative
illustrator
introductory
monotonous
equinoctial
Lilliputian
dissentient
superstitious
bloodthirsty
inconspicuous
Glossary
accent
prominence or stress placed on a syllable or syllables in words. Accented sylla-
bles are pronounced louder or with higher pitch than unaccented syllables in
words.
affix
a prefix added to the beginning of a base or root word that changes the word’s
meaning, or a suffix added to the end of a base word that gives a different shade of
meaning to the word. Affixes produce derivative words or inflectional forms.
base word
the smallest, real or meaningful word to which prefixes and suffixes may be
added to create derivative words.
blending
In Slingerland, blending was used synonymously with the term encoding and con-
sidered a subcategory of spelling on the auditory side of the daily lesson plan. En-
coding/blending involves a process of combining (blending) sounds or phonemes
together to spell phonetic words. Slingerland teachers are now going back to us-
ing the term encoding instead of blending since the latter means decoding more
often today. (See decoding.) In encoding, each phoneme is represented by a corre-
sponding grapheme. The techniques for encoding require the segmentation of
phonemes with their corresponding graphemes. (See encoding.)
breve
the curved diacritical mark placed above a vowel to indicate that the vowel sound
is short.
capitals or capital letters

uppercase manuscript or cursive letters.
closed syllable
In a closed syllable, the vowel in the syllable is followed by or closed by at least
one consonant (m in ham and ham/mer and the v in sev/en). It is usually short,
except when followed by r.
227
228 Glossary
code-emphasis
is a term used by some educators to distinguish phonics-based reading programs
from meaning-emphasis or literacy-based programs such as whole language.
confusables
words that are readily confused, particularly by students with learning disabilities,
such as compiled and complied, or specific and Pacific.
connective i
connects two syllables often in Latin-based words and helps to make words easier
to pronounce.
consonant blend
two or more consonants sequenced together within a syllable that flow together
and are at the beginning or end of words (br as in brand, scr as in screen, nd as
in wind, lk as in silk).
consonant-le syllable (C-le)
a final syllable in a word that begins with a consonant and ends with le (ble, cle,
dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, sle, stle, tle). In Slingerland, consonant-le syllables are re-
ferred to as silent-e syllables whereas they are called consonant-le syllables in
traditional Orton-based programs. In this book they are abbreviated as C-le sylla-
bles.
continuous sounds
in speech, those that can be pronounced and maintained for several seconds with-
out distortion. Continuous sound consonants include f, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, y (as in
yellow), and z.
controlled readers
are readers controlled by the deliberate selection of words with letters represent-
ing their most common or regular phonemes—those that are introduced in a se-
quenced, structured way.
cursive handwriting
rounded, joined letters with slanted strokes that usually do not require lifting the
pen or pencil as words are written.
decoding
the techniques required to identify word parts and then whole words by segment-
ing words and syllables into grapheme – phoneme correspondences to name or
read syllables and words.
Glossary 229
diacritical notations
dictionary symbols used to indicate the pronunciation of graphemes, syllables,
and words (breve, macron, schwa, etc.).
digraph
A consonant digraph is a combination of two adjacent consonants that express a
single sound, such as th in thimble, sh in shipment, and ph in phone; a vowel di-
graph (vowel pair or team) is a combination of two adjacent vowels that express a
single long vowel sound as ee in meet, eu in Europe, and oo in moon.
diphthong
True diphthongs are speech sounds made by gliding one vowel phoneme into an-
other in one syllable as o glided into i in oi (boil) and o and u in ou (crouch). The
produced sound occurs because of a change in the position of the tongue in the
oral cavity. Another way to define a diphthong is to say that a diphthong is com-
prised of two consecutive vowels, each contributing to its sound. Some teachers
refer to any vowel digraph as a diphthong. Others recognize only au, aw, oi, oy,
ou, and ow as true diphthongs.
discrimination
auditory discrimination refers to the ability to auditorily distinguish (hear) simi-
larities and differences between, among, and in words; visual discrimination re-
fers to the ability to visually distinguish similarities and differences in letters and
words that are graphically similar.
double-duty g and k
is a g or k that has two functions or duties in a word. For example, in the word
jungle, the g is the final letter of the letter combination ung, and at the same time
it is the first letter of the C-le syllable gle. Similarly, the k in wrinkle serves a
double-duty.
dyslexia
As redefined by a Committee of Members of the International Orton Dyslexia So-
ciety (International Dyslexia Association) in 1994, dyslexia is a neurologically-
based, often familial, disorder which interferes with the acquisition and process-
ing of language. Varying in degrees of severity, it is manifested by difficulties in
receptive and expressive language, including phonological processing, in reading,
writing, spelling, handwriting, and sometimes in arithmetic. Dyslexia is not a re-
sult of lack of motivation, sensory impairment, inadequate instructional or envi-
230 Glossary
ronmental opportunities, or other limiting conditions, but may occur together with
these conditions. Although dyslexia is life-long, individuals with dyslexia fre-
quently respond successfully to timely and appropriate intervention.
encoding
In the Slingerland approach, encoding was often used synonymously with blend-
ing in B. Blending or Encoding on the auditory side of the daily lesson plan where
phonetic words are spelled. The techniques for encoding require the segmentation
of phonemes with their corresponding graphemes to spell words. (See blending
and decoding.)
grapheme
a single letter, or more than one letter, that represents a single sound or phoneme.
Greek combining forms

are not the same as Latin and Anglo-Saxon roots and affixes. Connecting or com-
bining Greek combining forms is somewhat similar to connecting smaller words
to form compound words. Most Greek combining forms—Greek prefixes and
roots—are usually found at the beginning of words: telegram, biography, hy-
drometer, psychology, monogram, to name just a few.
higher order thinking or analysis

thinking and analyzing beyond the level of merely finding facts, particularly in
reading, by using application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills.
homograph
one, two, or more words spelled alike but which have different meanings and pro-
nunciations (the noun record and the verb record).
homonyms
as used in LessonPlanner and this book, homonyms are really homophones (one
of two or more words pronounced alike but with different meanings and spelled
differently, such as there, their, they’re. Homonyms, technically, are one of two
or more words pronounced and spelled alike but that have different meanings
(pool game and swimming pool).
homophone
one of two or more words pronounced alike but with different meanings and
spelled differently (there, their, they’re). Homophones are often referred to as
homonyms.
Glossary 231
inflection
the change of form that words undergo to mark case, gender, number, tense, per-
son, mood, or voice.
irregular plural
a plural made by not adding s or es, the common or regular way to pluralize
words (ox to oxen, foot to feet, and man to men).
key word
a word used to help trigger memory for the recall of the phoneme that is repre-
sented by a grapheme, for example, t - turtle - \t\ or \t\ as in turtle.
kinesthetic-motor
In this book, kinesthetic-motor refers to the memory for the sequence of move-
ments necessary to trigger speech or form letters in writing.
LessonPlanner
a software product developed for teachers who use an alphabetic-phonics-based
approach to teaching language arts or literacy skills to students with or without
specific language disabilities (dyslexia). LessonPlanner was developed by the
Lexia Institute, Los Altos, California.
letter combination
a group of letters which, when combined, make a sound that is different from the
expected blend of their individual sounds. Common letter combinations include
ing, ang, ung, ong, eng, ink, ank, unk, onk, tion, sion, ture, and others includ-
ing inc, unc, and onch.
ligature
two letters together (tu, du, di) that make a sound which is different from the ex-
pected blend of their individual sounds; for example, \joob\ in graduate rather than
grad-u-ate.
literacy
succinctly, the ability to read and write
literacy-based
see the definitions for meaning-emphasis and whole language
macron
the straight line diacritical mark placed above a vowel to indicate that the vowel
sound is long, i.e., pronounced the same as its name (a, e, i, o, u, etc.)
232 Glossary
manuscript handwriting
letters as independent units that frequently require lifting of the pen or pencil
when writing them and that are not connected in words. Manuscript handwriting
is sometimes referred to as printing.
meaning-emphasis
In meaning-emphasis or literacy-based programs such as whole language, com-
mon words found in print are introduced with little or no regard to their letter-
sound regularity. They include words that appear frequently in print. Students
learning to read them are taught a variety of strategies or clues to decipher them
from the content of pictures, word configurations, and the initial letters of words.
In meaning-emphasis programs there is little attempt to control words so that the
same letter represents the same sound in beginning readers. For instance, the
words some, do, don’t, hot, spoon, spoil, ouch, and hope might be presented in
one reading lesson with the “o” in each word representing a different phoneme.
The quality of the literature, not possible in controlled or phonics readers, is con-
sidered of greater importance.
memory
involves the reception, storage, and retrieval of sensory information. It is further
delineated by the terms short-term memory that refers to limited memory that lasts
only briefly and long term memory that refers to more lasting memory. Addition-
ally, there is visual memory that refers to the reception, storage, and retrieval of
visually presented information (graphemes, words, text) and auditory memory that
refers to the reception, storage, and retrieval of auditorily presented information
(phonemes, spoken words, spoken language).
monosyllable
one syllable, from the Greek mono meaning one.
morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning in words. A morpheme cannot be divided without al-
tering or destroying its meaning. Morphemes that consist of complete words (pin,
proud) are called free morphemes. Affixes (re-, -ish) and roots (ject, dict) are
called bound morphemes.
morphology
the study of morphemes; their different forms, and the way they combine in word
formation. For example, the word unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjec-
tive-forming suffix -ly, and the negative prefix un-.
Glossary 233
multisensory
the use of auditory, kinesthetic-motor, and visual channels to reinforce learning.
non-phonetic
Non-phonetic words are often referred to as sight or learned words, or as red flag
words by Slingerland teachers. They are words that do not conform to the ex-
pected grapheme - phoneme correspondences of English or by the rules and gen-
eralizations that usually govern spelling and decoding. Examples of such words
are laugh, yacht, and Wednesday.
nonsense word
sometimes referred to as a pseudoword, is a word to which there is no real mean-
ing attached, but which looks like a word because of its pattern or type; for exam-
ple, closed syllable, v-e, r-controlled, etc. Nonsense words are useful when teach-
ing elementary decoding skills because students will not recognize them and will
be compelled to apply their decoding techniques.
open syllable
a syllable in which the vowel in the syllable is at the end (o as in no and o/pen) or
open, i.e., not closed with one or more consonants. An open syllable is usually
long in an accented syllable (o'pen), but has a half long - half short or schwa
sound in an unaccented syllable (ca/det', se/dan', Ti/bet', po/lite', su/perb').
perception
the ability to isolate and identify a specific stimulus among several stimuli. In the
Slingerland approach, perception is an encoding auditory exercise where students
are required to identify the vowel phonemes and graphemes in words.
phoneme
the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes one utterance from another. As ex-
amples: the words pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds \p\ and \b\, and
ban and bun differ only in their vowels, \a#\ and \u#\. Therefore \p\, \b\, \a#\ and
\u#\ are all phonemes of English. Depending on dialect, English has approximately
45 phonemes.
phonemics
the study of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of a language and their rela-
tionship to one another.
234 Glossary
phonemic awareness
the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences of
speech elements. This understanding is necessary for learning to read an alpha-
betic language, such as English, because the elements are represented by letters.
Phonics will make no sense to a student lacking phonemic awareness.
phones
individual sounds, as they occur in speech.
phonetics
the systematic study of speech sounds or phones. There are three main areas: ar-
ticulatory phonetics deals with the way speech sounds are produced; acoustic
phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds; auditory phonetics
deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.
phonics
a reading and spelling approach to teaching literacy skills that focuses on pho-
neme – grapheme correspondences. Sometimes phonics is confused with phonet-
ics. Phonics can also be confused with phonemic awareness.
phonogram
Gillingham and Slingerland use phonogram to mean a vowel digraph (ee or ay) or
a diphthong (a speech sound made by gliding from one vowel to another, such as
oi in oil). Slingerland also includes v-e syllables as phonograms; these tradition-
ally are not viewed as phonograms by Gillingham or others.
prefix
an affix added to the beginning of a base or root word that changes the word’s
meaning (prescribe, unkind, replay).
r-controlled phonogram or syllable

a phonogram or syllable with an r at the end that alters the sound of the vowel
that precedes the r; thus, the r controls the vowel sound so that it is neither purely
long nor short, as in third, earth, and church.
red flag words

non-phonetic, sight or learned words that do not conform to the expected graph-
eme – phoneme correspondences of English or by the rules and generalizations
that usually govern spelling and decoding. Examples of such words are said and
yacht. The term red flag is used by Slingerland teachers, especially.
Glossary 235
root
sometimes referred to as a base or stem, is the smallest element of a word to
which prefixes and suffixes can be affixed. The root can stand alone as a word
(hash, fat) or not stand alone (ject, cis).
schwa
the reduced vowel sound in unaccented syllables, symbolized by \E\; frequently
spelled by a and o (cadet, polite), sometimes by e (regard), less frequently by u, i,
and by vowel digraphs (superb, clarity, famous).
scribal-o
is the vowel o in words like month, brother, love, some, and wonder, pro-
nounced \u*\. For a detailed explanation for the o - \u*\ pronunciation, refer to the
scribal-o story on page 56.
semantics
is the study of meaning; including literal, idiomatic, and colloquial meaning, as
well as figurative and other non-literal language. It also includes the way words
are organized to vary meaning.
sibilant
a speech sound such as \s\, \z\, \sh\, \zh\, \ch\.
silent-e
Although the e at the end of many English words is silent, e is a signal: It may
signal a lengthening of the sound of the vowel or vowel digraph that precedes it
(pin to pine or breath to breathe) or it may signal the softening of c and g (picnic
versus notice and hug versus huge). Since in English few words end with the let-
ters v or z, silent-e may signal the necessity to finish words such as have and
freeze, and the e signals how to prevent the plural effect in words ending with a
\z\ sound as in please and tease not to be confused with pleas and teas, respec-
tively. Because of the many functions of silent-e, as well as to sounded or voiced
e, this writer refers to e as the ubiquitous e. Silent-e should not be confused with
what Slingerland refers to as silent-e syllables (ble, dle, stle, etc.), to what Orton-
based instructors refer to as silent-e syllables (v-e as in safe, these, dime, home,
and mule or flute), or to the Silent-E Rule.
soft c, soft g
The soft sound of c is \s\; the soft sound of g is \j\. The hard sounds for each, re-
spectively, are \k\ and \g\.
236 Glossary
S.O.S.
simultaneous oral spelling, a term coined by Gillingham to describe the tech-
niques that are incorporated in teaching and learning to spell orally and write
phonetic, ambiguous, and non-phonetic words using kinesthetic-auditory-visual
associations to create linkages of sound with letter formations that impress and so-
lidify recall of letter sequences in words.
specific language disability
see the synonymous definition for dyslexia.
stop sounds
sounds that can be pronounced (spoken, said, or enunciated) only for an instant
because they are completely stopped in the oral cavity. The most difficult stop
sound consonants include b, c, d, g, h, j, k, p, q, t, and x. Voiced stop sounds are
\b\, \d\, and \g\; voiceless stop sounds are \p\, \t\, \k\.
strephosymbolia
literally means “twisted symbol” and was coined by Orton. The twisting of the
symbols pertains to the tendency of people with dyslexia to reverse, invert, and
transpose letters and syllables in words when reading or spelling.
syllable
a unit of spoken language consisting of an uninterrupted utterance and forming ei-
ther a whole word (stomp) or a commonly recognized division of a word (cat/nip,
re/ply, no/ tice/able).
syllabification, syllabify, or syllable division: the process of dividing or breaking
words into separate syllables usually for decoding or encoding and spelling.
syllable types
In many Orton-based programs, identification of the six syllable types (closed,
open, v-e, r-controlled, consonant-le, and diphthong or vowel digraph) is impor-
tant. If students can identify syllable types they have more information about the
pronunciation of the vowel units.
syntax
how words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences, including
English grammar.
trigraph
A consonant trigraph is a combination of three adjacent letters that represent a
single sound, such as dge in bridge and tch in match.
Glossary 237
voiced sounds
sounds in speech that require the vibration of the vocal chords for their produc-
tion.
voiceless or unvoiced sounds

consonant sounds that are made without vibration of the vocal chords when pro-
duced.
vowels
letters of the alphabet whose phonemes open the throat or are voiced and unob-
structed. In English the vowels, according to an old saying, are a, e, i, o, u, and
sometimes y and w. The latter are referred to as semi-vowels. The y is a vowel
when it acts as i’s twin: it is a consonant usually at the beginning of words and
syllables and when pronounced \y\. W acts as a vowel when it does not have its
consonant sound \w\, usually as u’s twin in phonograms such as aw, ew, and ow.
Traditionally each of the common vowels has a short and long sound. Short vow-
els are typically found in monosyllabic words (had, bed, inch, lot, cut) or in ac-
cented closed syllables (ap/ple, el/e/phant, inch, ol/ives, um/brel/la). Long vowels
usually occur at the end of monosyllabic words (me, hi, no) or at the end of ac-
cented, open syllables (ba/by, me/ter, ti/ger, po/ny, tu/lip).
whole language
as used throughout this book, is a currently popular term for literacy-based or
meaning-emphasis programs wherein common words found in print are intro-
duced with little or no regard to their letter-sound regularity. They include words
that appear frequently in print. Students learning to read them are taught a variety
of strategies or clues to decipher them. In whole language the intention is for the
learner to be actively, rather than passively, involved in the process of learning to
read and write; that the skills of listening, reading, writing, and speaking be inte-
grated, rather than taught separately; and that the literature used for reading and
writing instruction reflect exemplary quality for a variety of expository and narra-
tive forms.
word family words

In this book, word family words are words in which the vowel has an unexpected
phoneme. For example, in the ind word family, it is expected that the vowel i fol-
lowed by two consonants in a closed syllable would be pronounced \˛û\ instead of
\˛â\.
238 Glossary
yellow flag words

ambiguously spelled words such as has that could be spelled haz or has. Am-
biguous words are phonetic but require making at least one spelling choice be-
tween or among its phonetic elements. The term yellow flag is used by Slinger-
land teachers, especially.
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vice, Inc.
Smith, Margaret T., and Hogan, E. (1987) MTA Reading and Spelling Program. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.
Slingerland, Beth H. (1971) Book One—A Multi-Sensory Approach to Language Arts Instruction
for Specific Language Disability Children: A Guide for Primary Teachers. Cambridge,
——– (1976) Book Two—Basics in Scope and Sequence of a Multi-Sensory Approach to Lan-
guage Arts Instruction for Specific Language Disability Children: A Guide for Primary
Teachers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.
——– (1977) For Uniformity in Practices to be Followed by Staff Members of Summer School
Sessions for the Introductory Courses. Bellevue, Washington: The Slingerland Institute.
——– (1981) Book Three—A Multi-Sensory Approach to Language Arts Instruction for Specific
Language Disability Children: A Guide for Elementary Teachers. Cambridge,
Slingerland, Beth H., and C. Murray. (1987) Teacher’s Word Lists for Reference. Cambridge,
Spalding, R. B., and W. T. Spalding. (1980) The Writing Road to Reading. New York:
Quill/William Morrow.
Texas Scottish Rite Hospital. (1989) Dyslexia Training Program Video Tapes. Dallas, Texas:
Texas Scottish Rite Hospital.
Wilson, Barbara A. (1988) Wilson Reading System. Millbury, Massachusetts: Wilson Language
Training.
Wolf, B. (1982) Instructional Sequence for SLD Classrooms. Renton, Washington: Renton
School District.
Index
Auditory cards, 120 1-1-1 vowel rule, 185
phoneme-graphemes for first trimester, 136 advanced suffixes and endings, 180
phoneme-graphemes for grade 4, 142 ambiguous and phonetic words, 149
phoneme-graphemes for grade 5, 143 closed two-syllable words with 1 consonant, 173
phoneme-graphemes for second trimester, 138 closed two-syllable words with 2 consonants, 170
phonemes spelled with consonants, 123 common suffixes and prefixes, 177
phonemes with consonant digraphs, 123 consonant-y rule, 186
phonemes with dipthongs, 126 discriminating between \a*\ and \˛û\, 148
phonemes with long vowels, 126 encoding techniques, 146
phonemes with phonograms, 126 ending \Es\ spelled ous or us, 181
phonemes with r-controlled phonograms, 129 extended 1-1-1 vowel rule, 187
phonemes with r-controlled syllables, 129 homonym words, 165
phonemes with short vowels, 125 Latin and Greek roots, 182
phonemes with trigraphs, 123 mixed blending, 163
phonemes-graphemes for grade 3, 139 mixed multisyllable words with affixes, 178
review of techniques, 133 nonphonetic and phonetic words, 151
vowel perception and discrimination, 131 non-phonetic words, 165
yellow card exercises, 130 nonsense words, 150
yellow card exercises for c-le syllables, 130 one-syllable letter combination words, 154
yellow card exercises for ed suffix, 130 one-syllable phonogram words, 154
yellow card exercises for noun ending us, 131 phonetic words, 145
yellow card exercises for suffix ous, 131 review, 171
yellow card scope and sequence, 122 scope and sequence, 144, 163
yellow cards, 121 sight words, 165
Auditory presentations, 119 silent-e rule, 184
Cursive instruction suffixes, 157
completing lower case, 36 suffixes added to base words, 164
considerations for scope and sequence, 29 three or more syllables, 183
first three or four lessons, 30 two-syllable words with 1 open syllable, 174
review, 37 v-e words, 160
second and third weeks, 32 word-family words, 165
second month, 34 words, 176
third or fourth week, 33 Gillingham, Anna, 5
Decoding, 77 Grammar, 93
accenting two-syllable words, 99 integrating into dictations and compositions, 191
beginning cvc words, 78 Grapheme, 18, 230
homonyms, 91 Graphemes
letter combinations and phonograms, 85 LessonPlanner, 215
nonsense words, 80 Handwriting
phonogram introduction sequence, 86 historical perspective, 12
pronunciation of 2-syllable words, 99 importance, 11
Review, 112 Slingerland program, 11
soft c and g words, 83 Slingerland program, 14
suffix ed, 82 Handwriting instruction
syllabification Rule I, 99 cursive. See Cursive instruction
syllabification Rule II, 105 preliminary considerations, 15
syllabification Rule III, 104 Handwriting instruction grade 1
syllabification Rule IV, 107 considerations for scope and sequence, 16
Three or more syllable words, 111 first trimester, 20
two-syllable words, 97 reviewing manuscript, 26
vowel-consonant-e words, 88 second trimester, 22
word families, 91 second trimester for non-SLD, 23
words with affixes, 109 third trimester for SLD, 23
Dictations, 190 Handwriting instruction grade 2
Dyslexia, 12 continuing manuscript, 27
Educators Publishing Service, 8 Handwriting instruction grade 3
Encoding and spelling cursive. See Cursive instruction
243
244 Index
Independent writing, 191 Specific Language Disability, 5

Lesson plans Spelling. See Encoding and spelling
content overview, 193 Stillman, Bessie, 5
Orton-Gillingham simultaneous multisensory, 201 Strephosymbolia, 12
Slingerland simultaneous multisensory, 195 Syllabification. See Decoding
whole language augmented with phonics, 206 Visual cards
LessonPlanner, 7 Orton-Gillingham sequence, 40
graphemes with key words and phonemes, 215 Orton-Gillingham, Slingerland comparison, 39
phonemes with keywords and graphemes, 219 rationale for levels, 44
Lexia Institute, 8 rationale for scope and sequence, 43
Multisensory techniques, 12 rationales for introduction differences, 73
Orton, Samuel T., 5 Visual cards beginning grade 1 or 2
Orton-based adaptations, 9 graphemes for second trimester, 47
Orton-Gillingham-Stillman, 12 Visual cards for continuing grade 2, 48
Phoneme, 18 Visual cards for grade 3
Phonemes graphemes Level I, 52
LessonPlanner, 219 graphemes Level II, 55
Phonemic awareness, 119, 234 graphemes Level III, 56
Phonogram, 24 scope and sequence, 51
Phrase and sentence writing, 188 Visual cards for grades 5 and 6
Preparation for reading, 113 advanced oddities, 71
Reading from the book, 117 graphemes advanced group I, 64
Scribal-o, 56 graphemes advanced group II, 67
SLD, 5 scope and sequence, 63
Slingerland, Beth, 5 Vocabulary, 93

ScopeAndSequence Literacy

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Scope & Sequence

for Literacy Instruction

The Lexia Institute

the lives of so many

My deepest indebtedness is to my husband Bill who reformatted and beautified

Although many wonderful people helped to make this book possible—including

Unfortunately, many dedicated teachers who are proficient in whole language

Over the years, the Orton-Gillingham/Stillman Simultaneous Multisensory Tech-

Nancy L. Royal, Ed. D.

Second Trimester ...........................................................................................................21

Graphemes for Third Grade and Above............................................................................55

Reading from the Book.....................................................................................................117

Introducing Suffixes with Concept .............................................................................164

The Slingerland Simultaneous Multisensory Lesson ........................................................195

Appendix A: LessonPlanner Graphemes....................................................... 215

Appendix B: LessonPlanner Phonemes.......................................................... 219

Appendix C: Two Exercises for You.............................................................. 223

Glossary ........................................................................................................... 227

Index ................................................................................................................ 243

Table 3–23. Advanced Grapheme Oddities to Ponder and Perhaps Teach......................................................... 77

Table 4–9. Encoding with cvc (- i -) One-Syllable Words ................................................................................ 149

♦ Early phonemic awareness instruction generally does produce improvement in stu-

♦ Phonemic awareness instruction produces improvements in children of varying

♦ Explicit, systematic phonemic awareness instruction with small groups of children,

♦ Vocabulary development should be an active process requiring inten-

♦ Both repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary are important.

♦ Learning vocabulary in rich context, via incidental learning, and with

Text Comprehension Instruction

♦ Monitoring, to help students be aware of their understanding of what

♦ Cooperative learning, during which students learn reading strategies

♦ Question answering, to questions asked by a teacher who then pro-

♦ Question generation, to help students learn to ask themselves meaning-

♦ Use of graphic and semantic organizers, where readers improve com-

♦ Story summarization, where students are taught to integrate ideas and

Relationship Between Teacher Education and Reading Instruction

Computer Technology and Reading Instruction

The Purpose of This Book

Overview of Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction

Chapter 5, Conclusions, begins with the presentation of three lesson plans—

How This Book Helps Teachers

LessonPlanner™ and Scope & Sequence for Literacy Instruction

LessonPlanner is a software tool that has proven especially helpful to teachers.6

How to Best Use this Book: Categories of Users

♦ LessonPlanner users with Orton-based training

LessonPlanner Users with Orton-Based Training

ditional Orton-Gillingham-Stillman training approved by the Orton-Gillingham Academy

Orton-Based Teachers But Not LessonPlanner Users

Meaning-Emphasis Teachers with Phonics Training

Planner. For a more thorough foundation in multisensory, phonics-based instruction, Or-

School Administrators and Teachers Without Phonics

In the 1930s Orton employed Gillingham to develop a remedial approach to teach

In their pioneering instructional manual for teachers, Gillingham and Stillman

Slingerland discusses handwriting instruction extensively in two of her three ma-

Variations in Orton-Based Handwriting Programs

♦ the size and kind of pencils used4

terns on newsprint or also on chalk board, in sand or rice, on sandpaper,

Why Use Slingerland’s Handwriting Program?

Slingerland handwriting instruction clearly shows what is meant by simultaneous,

Preliminary Considerations for Handwriting Instruction

Table 3–7. Level I— Definitely teach: h, l, s, b, t, a-\a\, c, m, k, f, g