Food Hygiene

Susan Blanch

Hodder Arnold
Food Hygiene

Susan Blanch

Hodder Arnold
A MEMBER OF THE HODDER HEADLINE GROUP
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ISBN 0 340 858079

First Published 2003

Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Year 2007 2006

Copyright ©Susan Blanch 2003

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The source for the quotation on page v is BBC/Radio website. Reproduced with permission.

Photograph credits: Photo 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1 TOGRAFOX/RD Battersby; Photo 2.2 Science Photo
Library/Sinclair Stammers; Photo 2.3 NHPA/Stephen Dalton; Photo 2.4 Science Photo Library/Martin Dohrn;
Photo 3.2 Science Photo Library/Simon Fraser.

Cover photo appears courtesy of Eric Poppleton/CORBIS

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 Contents
Introduction iv
Note for teachers vi
Chapter 1: Food-related illness 1
Chapter 2: Food hazards 15
Chapter 3: Control measures 33
Chapter 4: Supervisory issues 57
Chapter 5: Food law 80
Answers to student activities 96
Answers to multiple-choice questions 105
Appendix: Useful websites 108
Glossary 109
Index 110

iii
 Introduction
You are probably reading this text because your job, or the job you intend
to do when you leave college, involves the handling of food. There are a
wide variety of job roles that involve handling food. Food hygiene doesn’t
apply only to people who work with food all the time in kitchens, for
example, of restaurants, schools, hospitals and offices. It is also important
for people who handle food as a part of their job. This includes workers
such as those in care homes or nursery workers. They may need to prepare
or serve food sometimes for residents or children in their care. It also
applies to those who handle fresh foods such as meats, fish or cheeses in
shops.

Definition
Food: anything intended for human consumption or used as an ingredient in
the preparation of food

What is food hygiene?

Food hygiene is about making sure that food is safe to eat. It’s about people being able
to buy food from a shop or café or restaurant, knowing it is safe. It’s about people
eating food at school or in a nursing home or hospital, knowing that they won’t suffer
any illness or injury from it. Food hygiene is about making sure that food is protected
from the risk of contamination at every stage in its preparation until it is eaten.

Definition
Contamination: when unwanted items or bacteria are present in food

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FOOD HYGIENE?

Everyone who handles food during their work has some responsibility for food hygiene.
All food handlers should be aware of how contamination of food can be prevented.
Supervisors and managers in food businesses are also responsible for ensuring that
their staff follow hygienic procedures for handling food.

iv
 Introduction

WHY IS FOOD HYGIENE IMPORTANT?

Food hygiene is an important and topical issue. The UK Government is concerned with
making sure that the food we eat is safe. Every year cases of food poisoning and food-
related illness are reported in the news – E. coli, Salmonella and Listeria outbreaks are
recent examples. Each time, the Government holds inquiries as to the causes.
Recommendations are made about how outbreaks can be prevented in the future. All
the outbreaks are caused by poor standards of food hygiene somewhere in the
manufacture, storage, preparation or serving of food. The law now requires training in
food hygiene for all food handlers. Managers and supervisors in food businesses are
being encouraged to take action to protect their businesses and their customers. The
Government is concerned with ensuring that food is properly handled from the time it
leaves the field until the time it reaches the plate.
There are more than just legal reasons for the importance of food hygiene, though. If
you are the chef or manager in a restaurant, it is good business sense to have high
standards of food hygiene. You will lose customers very quickly if you develop a
reputation for serving poor food. When customers complain about suffering the effects
of food poisoning they won’t complain just to you. In fact, they may not complain to
you at all, but they will tell their friends. This may mean that your customers start to go
somewhere else.

` Britney’s restaurant apologises …

Britney Spears’ new restaurant Nyla had to apologise to three diners
who claim they got food poisoning after eating there. The three girls all
complained of vomiting and diarrhoea after eating the wild striped
bass. The New York restaurant, which only opened last week, is to give
them gift certificates to say sorry.
(BBC Radio 1 News, 4 July 2002)
a
Food hygiene also makes sense from a cost point of view. If food becomes
contaminated it has to be thrown away. So it makes sense to store, handle and use
food properly so it doesn’t have to be wasted.

What does this book do?

This book provides a comprehensive and practical approach to food hygiene. It will be
of use to you as a student or a professional involved in food handling. You will find all
the information you need about food hygiene along with exercises to help you practise
and check what you have learned.
If you are taking an exam in food hygiene, you will find that the tests at the end of each
chapter will help you prepare for this. There are two types of questions:
❚ multiple-choice questions where you choose one of the given answers
❚ short-answer questions where you need to write a short answer.
You might like to practise these under exam conditions.

v
 Note for teachers
The text covers the complete syllabus for the basic (level 1) and intermediate (level 2)
levels of training offered in food hygiene by the main examining bodies in this field as
the Royal Institute of Public Health (RIPH) and the Chartered Institute of Environmental
Health (CIEH).
The test questions offered at the end of each chapter will help students prepare for
food hygiene examinations. Level 1 qualifications are usually examined by means of
multiple-choice questions. Level 2 qualifications are normally assessed through a
written exam. Examples of both types of questions for student practice are given at the
end of each chapter.
Note that the multiple-choice questions provided reflect the knowledge and coverage
for level 1 qualifications. Short-answer questions reflect the type of questions asked in
level 2 examinations.

vi
1 Food-related illness
The main problems arising from poor food hygiene are food-related
illnesses. This chapter looks at food poisoning and food-borne disease. You
will learn about:
❚ the difference between food poisoning and food-borne disease
❚ the causes of food-related illness
❚ the symptoms of food-related illness.

What is food-related illness?

Food-related illness includes food poisoning and food-borne disease. It is useful to start
by looking at the difference between the two. Food poisoning is an illness caused by
eating food that contains either harmful substances, or micro-organisms that are living
and growing on the food. Food-borne disease is caused by micro-organisms that are
carried by the food but do not necessarily need the food to grow and survive.
For someone to become ill through food poisoning, large numbers of the micro-
organisms usually need to be present in the food. Food-borne disease can be caused
by a small number of the micro-organisms.

Definition
Micro-organisms: very small life forms such as bacteria and viruses

Note that not all micro-organisms are harmful. Some can actually be helpful, such as
those used in the making of yoghurt and cheese. Those that are harmful and can cause
food-related illness are known as ‘pathogenic’ (see Chapter 2).

Definition
Pathogenic micro-organisms or pathogens: micro-organisms that
cause illnesses

Food poisoning
How many times have you, or someone you know, said ‘It must be something I ate.’?
Most of us recognise the common symptoms of food poisoning. We might also know

1
 Food Hygiene
the sorts of food that are most likely to cause food poisoning. We are better educated
than ever before about food poisoning, but it is still on the increase.
It is difficult to come up with accurate figures for food poisoning because most people
don’t report it. However, in February 2002, the Food Standards Agency published a
survey which showed that five and a half million of us believed we had suffered from
food poisoning in the last year (see Figure 1.1). That’s about 12 per cent of the
population. Of these, three-quarters believed that the cause was food prepared outside
the home.

FIGURE 1.1 12% – proportion of individuals

exhibiting food poisoning symptoms in
the last 12 months

Source: FSA Survey Feb 2002 Sufferers of food poisoning

STUDENT ACTIVITY 1
Do a mini survey among the people you know. Ask them whether they have
ever suffered from a food-related illness. Find out what symptoms they suffered,
what they believe caused the illness and whether they saw a doctor. Try to ask
at least five people.

You probably found that most people have suffered from a food-related illness at some
time. Common symptoms are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Many
will not have reported the incident to a doctor, which means that the real number of
food poisoning cases is likely to be much higher than the reported numbers.
Why is food poisoning on the increase? There are lots of reasons that could cause this:
❚ We use a lot more ‘ready meals’ than we used to. Supermarkets sell a whole range of
cooked foods that we reheat at home. As you will see later, reheating may give the
micro-organisms time to grow.
❚ A lot more of us eat at restaurants regularly or buy take-away food. Because
restaurants buy, prepare and serve lots of different foods, there are more risks for
them to control than for someone cooking in their own kitchen.
❚ The amounts and different types of imported foods are increasing all the time. There
may not be as many controls over the preparation and packaging of these foods in
other countries as we have in the UK.
❚ Incorrect storage and cooking of foods at home can also cause food poisoning. We
now have such a wide range of foods to use at home that means that we can
sometimes get it wrong.
2
 Food-related illness

PHOTOGRAPH 1.1

Our eating habits have changed

Causes of food poisoning

Many people think that food poisoning is just caused by bacteria in food. Bacteria cause
most cases of food poisoning but there are other causes as well. Food poisoning can be
caused by any of the following:
❚ pathogenic bacteria that are living on and growing in the food
❚ moulds that produce toxins in the food
❚ natural poisons that exist in the food
❚ chemicals and metals that have been absorbed into the food.

Definition
Toxins: poisons produced by some bacteria and moulds

Bacterial food poisoning

Bacterial food poisoning can be divided into two groups:
❚ Infectious food poisoning – this is where the illness is caused by eating large
numbers of the bacteria. The bacteria then multiply in the intestines causing damage
to the body tissues. You might have heard of Salmonella. Salmonella is a bacteria
that causes this type of food poisoning.
❚ Toxic food poisoning – this is where the illness is caused by toxins produced by the
bacteria rather than by the bacteria itself.
3
 Food Hygiene

Salmonella has been identified by the Food Standards Agency as the most
common cause of food poisoning in England and Wales. Ninety per cent of
reported cases of food poisoning are due to Salmonella. Here are just a few
DID examples:
YOU a 78 people suffered food poisoning symptoms following a wedding reception
KNOW b 36 people (including children) suffered illness after attending a primary

?
school function
c 29 people (including 23 elderly people) suffered symptoms at a nursing
home.
Salmonella was confirmed in each case.
(Information from Food Standards Agency Reports)

TOXINS
We have mentioned the toxins that bacteria sometimes produce. There are actually
different types of toxins. They are classified according to when and where they are
produced:
❚ Exotoxins are produced in the food as the bacteria grows and multiplies.
❚ Enterotoxins are released in the intestines as the bacteria multiply in the digestive
system.
❚ Endotoxins are released in the stomach and intestines when the bacteria die.

FIGURE 1.2

Exotoxins Enterotoxins Endotoxins

Bacteria grow and Bacteria grow and Bacteria die in the
multiply in food multiply in the intestine intestine releasing
producing exotoxins producing enterotoxins endotoxins

Bacteria can produce different types of toxins

SOURCES AND SYMPTOMS

Food poisoning sufferers will normally feel ill within a few hours, or at most a few days.
Common symptoms of food poisoning include diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting and
abdominal pain. The illness generally lasts a few days, though it can last longer.
You need to know about the more common food poisoning bacteria. Table 1.1
summarises the sources and symptoms of the most common food poisoning bacteria
in the UK. It also gives incubation periods and the average length of the illness for each
type.

4
 Food-related illness

Definition
Incubation period: the length of time normally taken for symptoms of the
illness to appear
Table 1.1 Sources and symptoms of food poisoning bacteria

Bacteria Sources Symptoms Incubation Average

period duration
Salmonella Animals (rodents, Vomiting, diarrhoea, 6–36 1–7 days
(infection) terrapins,pets), raw meat, abdominal pain, and hours
raw poultry, eggs, fever. Can be severe
untreated milk, sewage for infants, elderly or
and water infirm even leading
to death. Sufferers can
become carriers.
Clostridium Soil, dust, raw meat, Abdominal pain, 8–18 12–48
perfringens animal and human diarrhoea and nausea hours hours
(toxin in the faeces though not usually
intestine) actual vomiting. Usually
a mild illness and
deaths are rare.
Clostridium Soil, raw fish and meat, Breathing difficulties, 12–36 Several
botulinum vegetables, tinned fish difficulty in swallowing, hours months
(toxin in and corned beef slurred speech, dizziness,
food) headache, muscle
paralysis that can cause
death.
The organism produces
a toxin that causes the
symptoms.
Staphylo- Human skin, nose, mouth Abdominal cramp, 2–6 24–48
coccus and throat, infected cuts vomiting, low body hours hours
aureus and boils, animal skin, temperature. Deaths are
(toxin in raw cow or goat milk rare though the severity
food) of the vomiting may
require sufferers to be
hospitalised.
Toxins that develop in
the contaminated food
cause the symptoms.
Bacillus Soil, dust, rice, other Actually causes two
cereus cereals and cereal different types of
(toxin in products poisoning by producing
food or two different toxins,
intestine) one in the food and
one in the digestive
system:
• food toxin causes 1–9 12–24
nausea and vomiting hours hours
• digestive system toxin 8–16 24–48
causes colic and hours hours
diarrhoea.
Neither type of
poisoning is likely
to be fatal.

5
 Food Hygiene

STUDENT ACTIVITY 2
Look at Table 1.1 and identify the micro-organisms that can cause:
❚ infectious food poisoning
❚ food poisoning caused by toxin in the food
❚ food poisoning caused by toxin in the intestines.
Make yourself a list of each type.

FIGURE 1.3

Toxins in foods Toxins in intestine

Clostridium botulinum Bacillus cereus Clostridium perfringens

Straphylococcus aureus

Toxins are produced in food by some bacteria and in the intestines by others

MOULDS
Moulds are micro-organisms that can cause spoilage in food. Most moulds are
harmless and some are even used in food production such as in the making of blue
cheeses.

Definition
Spoilage: the process of food becoming damaged. Spoilage bacteria will
make food rot

A few moulds can cause illness by producing toxins in food. These toxins are known as
‘mycotoxins’. The effect of mycotoxins is not fully understood. It is thought that some
mycotoxins may be the cause of cancer in humans. One particular mycotoxin is thought
to cause liver damage. There has been insufficient research on mycotoxins to establish
a definite link.
Mycotoxins are thought to have been the cause of much illness throughout history.
Toxins in wheat and grain can cause vomiting, convulsions and even gangrene in very
serious cases. It is thought that many people may have died as a result of eating
contaminated wheat. These sorts of health problems are now very rare. Our more
varied modern diet prevents the build-up of mycotoxins. We also have a better
understanding now of the importance of protecting foodstuffs from spoilage.

6
 Food-related illness

Illness from mycotoxins is rare now in the UK because of the controls on foods
DID likely to contain them. There are strict European rules on levels of mycotoxins
YOU in foods such as peanuts and dried fruits. There are also controls over animal
KNOW

?
foods because mycotoxins can contaminate cows’ milk if the cows are fed
contaminated food. Tests are carried out on imported foods and contaminated
goods are destroyed.

NATURAL POISONS
You wouldn’t expect any food establishment to serve poisonous dishes, but there are
some foods that contain natural poisons. These can be removed in preparation or by
cooking. If the foods are not properly prepared or cooked, they can cause illness.

Red kidney beans

One example is red kidney beans. These are poisonous when raw but quite safe if they
are boiled for 10 minutes. Anyone who eats beans that have not been properly cooked
may suffer illness. The symptoms are nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea, which occur
between one and six hours after eating the beans.

Fish and seafood

There is a variety of fish and seafood that have toxic parts. These parts must be
removed before eating the fish. Fish and seafood in this group include crabs and puffer
fish. The nerve tissue of the crab – known as dead men’s fingers – should be removed
before consumption, as should the intestines of the puffer fish.
Other fish that are usually safe can occasionally cause illness. One group of fish, which
includes tuna, mackerel and bonito, can contain high levels of histamine produced by
bacteria in the fish. This is not always obvious from their appearance and smell. If the
fish is eaten it can cause facial and neck rashes, diarrhoea, headache and difficulty in
swallowing. The symptoms will appear within minutes of eating the fish. This is known
as scombrotoxic poisoning.
Contaminated shellfish may cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) or diarrhitic
shellfish poisoning (DSP). The shellfish – oysters, mussels or clams – become toxic after
feeding on toxic plankton. This plankton only blooms at certain times of the year so the
fishing season is restricted in waters where the plankton is known to grow.
PSP causes a tingling or burning sensation around the mouth, face and neck that
spreads to the rest of the body. Symptoms will appear within 30 minutes of eating the
contaminated shellfish. Death can occur within two to twelve hours where sufficient
toxin is consumed. DSP causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and chills that can
start up to twelve hours after the shellfish was eaten.

7
 Food Hygiene

The Government’s Food Standard Agencies in England, Scotland and Wales

DID constantly monitor coastal waters for shellfish poisons. They periodically ban
YOU fishing from some shellfishing areas where levels of the poisons are
KNOW

?
unacceptable. However, it is difficult to stop poachers and casual fishers who
put themselves and others at risk.

Mushrooms
Some mushrooms such as wood blewits and morels are poisonous if eaten raw. They
will cause nausea, sickness and abdominal pain if not properly cooked. These sorts of
mushrooms were, in the past, only available in the wild. Now they are cultivated and
can be bought for use in the home or catering businesses.

CHEMICALS AND METALS

Chemicals and heavy metals absorbed into food may lead to illness if consumed in
large enough amounts. Chemical contamination is usually in the form of pesticides.
Heavy metals are copper, lead, tin, aluminium and mercury.

Chemical poisoning
Crops can absorb pesticides during growth. The food might then be used in its natural
state or used to produce food products for humans or animals. Either way, the
pesticides find their way into human foods and can cause illness. Poisoning can occur
also from consumption of fish caught in waters contaminated with chemicals.
Symptoms of chemical poisoning will vary depending on the type of poisoning and the
amounts consumed. In many cases, it affects the nervous system. Where large amounts
of the toxic substance are consumed, illness will occur quite quickly. In other cases, the
effects may be cumulative. With some pesticides, for example, the poison builds up in
the body over time and it can be difficult to ascertain the cause of illness.

In 1990, 50 children from a London school were taken to the local hospital
DID emergency department suffering sudden nausea, sickness and abdominal
YOU pain. Tests showed that the most probable cause was cucumbers served at
KNOW

?
lunchtime that had been contaminated with Aldicarb.
Aldicarb is a pesticide used to control pests such as greenfly. Pesticides cause
particular problems where they are sprayed on to crops just before harvesting
and the food is not properly washed or peeled.

Chemicals are also added to foodstuffs as preservatives, colourings and flavourings for
example. These will have been tested before use and don’t generally cause health
problems though they can set off allergic reactions. Sometimes the consumption of
large amounts of a permitted food additive can cause illness. The most common of
these is monosodium glutamate, which is used as an additive in many Chinese and
other oriental foods.

8
 Food-related illness

There are more than 11 million chemical substances known to humans.

DID Around 60 000 to 70 000 of these are in regular use. Around 600 new
YOU chemical substances enter the marketplace each month. Controlling all these
KNOW

?
substances gives governments around the world a difficult job.
(Information from Department of Health website)

Metals
Metal poisoning will cause vomiting and abdominal pain within an hour, if sufficient
quantities are eaten. Toxic metals include antimony, cadmium, copper, lead, tin and
mercury. Metals can contaminate food during growth or during processing. The
following will give you an idea of how they can contaminate food:
❚ Antimony – used in the enamel coating of equipment and will not normally cause
problems unless enamel is chipped.
❚ Cadmium – used to plate utensils and some parts of electric cookers and fridges.
Can be attacked by acids in some foods and may then contaminate them.
❚ Copper – used in fittings for equipment such as drinks machines. Worn fittings may
contaminate food. Copper can also cause fats and oils to turn rancid.
❚ Lead – lead from petrol can poison foods as they grow. Lead is also used in the
glaze of some earthenware and can be released if in contact with acidic foods.
❚ Tin – if tinned foods are kept for too long, the acid in the food can begin to break
down the metal and it may be absorbed into the food.
❚ Mercury – used in a variety of industries. Its accidental release into water or on to
land may cause contamination of food.

In the 1950s and 1960s waste containing a mercury compound was released
DID into the seas off Japan. It caused plankton to become contaminated, which
YOU then contaminated fish. Fifty-two people died from eating contaminated fish
KNOW

?
but hundreds of others subsequently developed symptoms that could be
linked to the incident.

Chemical and metal poisoning are actually quite rare in the UK but the possibility
shouldn’t be overlooked.

Food-borne disease
Food-borne diseases are bacterial diseases that can be spread by contaminated food or
water. Many, such as typhoid and cholera, are now rare in this country because we have
clean drinking water and generally high standards of personal hygiene. We do however
have outbreaks of some food-borne diseases. You may have seen news items relating
to outbreaks of E. coli, which is a food-borne micro-organism causing disease.

9
 Food Hygiene

In 1996 there was an outbreak of E. coli in Scotland. There were over 500
cases and 21 deaths. The outbreak was traced back to one butcher’s shop.
DID The food involved included cold cooked meats and cooked steak with gravy.
YOU As a result, the Government set up the Pennington Group. They investigated
KNOW and made recommendations about how similar situations might be avoided in

? future. Among other things, they recommended that:

❚ There should be better food hygiene controls in butcher’s shops.
❚ Raw and cooked meats should be separated.
❚ All food handlers should be trained.

Unlike bacterial food poisoning where, usually, large amounts of the bacteria need to
be consumed, consuming very few organisms can cause food-borne disease.
Symptoms of food-borne disease can take much longer to appear, even months. Also,
the illness may last for a few days or for years, causing long-term health problems.
Symptoms vary but can be similar to those of food poisoning. Both food poisoning and
food-borne illness can lead to death in severe cases.
Table 1.2 gives details of the main food-borne diseases.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 3
In each of the following cases, check the food poisoning and food-borne disease
tables and explain which organism is most likely to be the cause of illness.
❚ Tony wakes in the night suffering from diarrhoea and vomiting, abdominal
pain and fever. He had eaten roast chicken for tea, and suspects it was not
cooked right through.
❚ Several people in a small Derbyshire town are affected by symptoms of
diarrhoea containing blood, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever. All those
affected bought and ate meat from the same butcher’s shop.
❚ Mary is suffering from flu-like symptoms after attending a continental cheese
and wine tasting.

People at risk
Anyone may become ill with food poisoning or food-borne disease if they eat
contaminated food. In most cases it is not serious and the sufferer will recover within a
few days. There are some groups of people, though, who may suffer more severe
symptoms and even die from food-related illnesses. These include:
❚ very young children
❚ elderly people
❚ people who are ill or frail
❚ pregnant women and mothers who are breastfeeding.
These groups of people – or their carers – need to be particularly careful about food.

10
 Food-related illness
Table 1.2 Causes and symptoms of food-borne diseases

Illness Bacteria/Cause Sources Symptoms Incubation

period
Typhoid and Salmonella typhi Human carriers are Headache, fatigue, 1–3 weeks
paratyphoid and Salmonella main source of fever, constipation,
fevers paratyphi disease through water spots. Paratyphoid
or food contaminated has similar but less
by human faeces or severe symptoms.
handled by a carrier. The illness may last
Contaminated several weeks and
shellfish and insects relapses are common.
may be a source of Can result in death.
infection.
Hepatitis A Hepatitis virus Contaminated Anorexia, nausea, 7–40 days
(infective shellfish and water vomiting, fever, fatigue,
jaundice) supplies. Poor hygiene abdominal pain, jaundice,
of a carrier. Carriers swelling of liver. Can
may not experience cause liver damage and
symptoms. sometimes death. Illness
lasts several weeks and
liver may take up to six
months to recover.
Children and young
adults are most at risk.
Bovine Mycobacterium Raw milk and dairy Lung congestion, 4–6 weeks
tuberculosis bovis products from night sweats, wounds
infected animals. fail to heal, damage
Airborne transmission to body by the
between humans. organisms. Sufferers
can be affected for years.
Giardiaisis Giarda lamblia Water contaminated Cysts penetrate 5–25 days
(parasite) by human faeces intestines causing
containing the cysts. discomfort, nausea,
diarrhoea. Not very
common. People can
carry the disease without
having symptoms.
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium Water contaminated by Diarrhoea, vomiting, 10 days
(parasite) infected human or animal fever,abdominal pain
faeces. Direct contact
with infected animals.
E. coli infection Escherichia coli Water, raw/undercooked Bloody diarrhoea, 12–24 hours
meat, human and animal vomiting, abdominal pain,
gut, sewage, untreated fever, kidney damage or
dairy products. Lives in failure. Old people and
the intestines of cattle young children are
and can contaminate particularly susceptible
meat. and may experience
cramps and confusion.
Dysentery Shigella sonnei Water, milk, salads, flies Diarrhoea with or without 1–7 days
and cockroaches blood, fever, abdominal
pain, vomiting

11
 Food Hygiene
Table 1.2 Causes and symptoms of food borne diseases – continued

Illness Bacteria/Cause Sources Symptoms Incubation

period
Enteritis Campylobacter Raw poultry, raw meat, Abdominal pain, 48–82
jejuni (Note that milk, offal, animals diarrhoea with hours
there are many or without blood,
causes enteritis of headache, fever, nausea
which this is one)
Viral gastro- Virus Shellfish Fever, abdominal pain, 12–72
enteritis vomiting and diarrhoea hours
Listeria Listeria Pâté, salads, soft Flu-like symptoms. In 7 days to
infection monocytogenes cheeses, cheeses made pregnant women can several
with unpasteurised milk, cause miscarriage or weeks
chilled ready meals illness in the foetus.
Can cause death.

Chapter review
This chapter has given you an introduction to food-related illness. Food-related illness
is a major concern for the Government and the general public. It is the main reason for
food hygiene legislation. You have learned about the causes and symptoms of food
poisoning and food-borne disease. You have also learned about the likely food sources
of different types of food poisoning and food-borne disease. In the next chapter you will
look at how micro-organisms grow in food and at other ways food can become
contaminated.

Multiple-choice questions
1 Which of the following best describes ‘food hygiene’?
A Keeping yourself clean as food handler
B Keeping the kitchen and equipment clean
C Keeping food clean at all stages during processing
D Keeping food safe at all stages of processing

12
 Food-related illness

2 Which of the following is the best definition of ‘food poisoning’?

A Poisoning caused by chemicals or metals in the food
B Spoilage of food
C Illness caused by harmful substances or micro-organisms in the food
D Toxins in the food

3 Which is the best definition of ‘contaminated food’?

A Food that contains anything that is harmful to health
B Food that contains micro-organisms that are harmful to health
C Food that has started to rot
D Food that has been touched by food handlers

4 Which of the following statements is true about micro-organisms in food?

A They are sometimes helpful
B They are never helpful
C They are always harmless
D They are always harmful

5 Which of the following best describes ‘pathogenic micro-organisms’?

A Micro-organisms that live on food
B Micro-organisms that are used in the processing of food
C Micro-organisms that cause food to rot
D Micro-organisms that cause illness and disease

6 Which of the following describe the most common symptoms of food poisoning?
A Vomiting and cramp
B Abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting
C Symptoms similar to flu
D Headache, blurred vision and vomiting

7 Which of the following is most likely to cause shellfish to become toxic?

A Pesticides
B Toxic plankton
C Natural poisons in the fish
D Chemical pollution

13
 Food Hygiene
8 Which of the following types of food poisoning bacteria causes illness by producing a
toxin in the intestines after being eaten?
A Salmonella
B Clostridium botulinum
C Clostridium perfringens
D Staphylococcus aureus

9 Which of the following best describes the symptoms of Salmonella infection?

A Vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and fever
B Breathing difficulties, slurred speech and headaches
C Abdominal pain, vomiting and low body temperature
D Abdominal pain, diarrhoea and nausea

10 Which of the following is most likely to be a source of Salmonella?

A Shellfish
B Corned beef
C Peanuts
D Eggs

Short-answer questions
1 Explain the terms ‘food-related illness’, ‘food poisoning’ and ‘food-borne disease’.
2 Describe the main causes of food poisoning.
3 Identify three foods which may contain natural poisons and explain any procedures
required to eliminate them.
4 Describe the principle symptoms and likely sources of the following illnesses:
Salmonella infection, hepatitis A, Clostridium botulinum infection.
5 Explain the difference between infectious and toxic food poisoning.

14
2 Food hazards
Food hazards are anything that could contaminate food and make it unsafe
to eat. In this chapter you will learn about:
❚ how micro-organisms contaminate food
❚ how you can recognise pest infestation and the hazards this may cause
❚ physical and chemical contamination of food
❚ how food becomes contaminated or cross-contaminated.

Definition
Hazard: anything that could potentially cause harm. Generally divided into
biological, physical or chemical hazards

Microbiology
In Chapter 1 you learned about the illnesses that micro-organisms in food can cause. In
this chapter, you will learn more about micro-organisms and how they contaminate
food.
Micro-organisms are very small life forms. They are so small that they cannot be seen
normally without using a microscope. Micro-organisms are everywhere. They are on
and in our bodies. They are in the air we breathe. They are in water and soil. They are
on animals and plants. Fortunately, most of these micro-organisms are harmless. You
may remember that the ones that can cause illness are called ‘pathogenic’. We are
interested in the micro-organisms that can contaminate food. These include bacteria,
viruses and microscopic fungi (moulds and yeasts).
Like any living organisms, micro-organisms need certain conditions in order to grow
and survive. These include the following:
❚ Food – all micro-organisms need some form of nutrition. All of the bacteria we are
interested in and the moulds and yeasts require foodstuffs comprising sugars,
protein, vitamins and minerals.
❚ Water – few micro-organisms can survive without an available water supply.
❚ Correct oxygen level – most micro-organisms require oxygen to grow. Some will only
grow where there is no oxygen. This last group can grow in foods which have been
canned, bottled or vacuum-packed.
❚ Correct acidity/alkalinity level – levels of acidity are measured on the pH scale. The
scale measures from 0 to 14, where 0 is the most acid, 7 is neutral and 14 is the
most alkaline. Most micro-organisms prefer a pH that is around the neutral mark.

15
 Food Hygiene
There are no bacteria that can grow in conditions where the pH is below 3.5. Moulds
and yeasts are more tolerant and can grow in very acid conditions.
❚ Correct temperature – micro-organisms grow best in the temperature range between
5 °C and 63 °C. Some prefer colder temperatures than others. Outside this range,
there are micro-organisms that can survive in very hot or very cold conditions but
they will not grow and reproduce at these temperatures.
❚ Enough time – micro-organisms can reproduce quite quickly under ideal conditions.
It may only take a few hours, for example, to develop dangerous levels of food
poisoning bacteria in food.
❚ Lack of competition – if more than one type of micro-organism is present in a
particular food, they will compete for nutrients. In favourable conditions, bacteria will
grow fastest, followed by yeasts and then moulds. However, as the food spoils, the
conditions may become less favourable for bacteria – more acidic, for example – and
the other micro-organisms will take over.

FIGURE 2.1 Inputs needed for growth

Food
Water
Time

Correct oxygen levels

Correct temperature
Correct pH levels
Lack of competition
Co n d
itions for growth
The growth requirements for micro-organisms

16
 Food hazards

STUDENT ACTIVITY 4
Look at the information above about the growth needs of micro-organisms.
Which of the following foods do you think are most at risk from contamination
by micro-organisms and which are least at risk? Explain the reasons for your
answer in each case:
❚ raw meat left at room temperature
❚ pickled onions
❚ rice pudding left in a saucepan on the hob to cool down
❚ dried mushrooms.

BACTERIA
Bacteria are single-cell organisms. They multiply by splitting into two. Given ideal
conditions, they can double their number every 20 minutes. This means that within a
few hours, one organism can multiply to millions. It takes about one million organisms
per gram of food to cause food poisoning.

FIGURE 2.2

10-20 minutes

10-20 minutes

10-20 minutes

Bacteria multiply very quickly by splitting into two

Spores
Some types of bacteria can produce spores where the conditions for multiplication are
unfavourable, for example where they run out of food, or where temperature or acidity
levels change.

Definition
Spore: a hard, resistant body formed within the bacterial cell

When spores are formed within the bacterial cell, the remainder of the cell dies. The
spore then remains dormant until conditions once again become favourable for growth.
Spores can survive very unfavourable conditions for long periods of time. They are
resistant to heat and cold so can survive cooking and freezing. They are also resistant
to many of the chemical disinfectants used to kill bacteria.
17
 Food Hygiene
There are two main types of bacteria found in food that form spores:
❚ bacilli
❚ Clostridium.

Bacteria come in different shapes. In fact they are classified according to

DID shape:
YOU ❚ cocci are spherical, for example Staphylococcus aureus
KNOW
❚ bacilli are rod shaped, for example Salmonella

? ❚ vibrio are curved rods, for example Vibrio cholerae which cause cholera
❚ spirochaetes are spiral shaped, for example Leptospira which are found in
dirty water and can cause Weil’s disease.

FIGURE 2.3

Cocci Bacilii

Vibrios Spirochaetes
Bacteria come in different shapes

VIRUSES
Viruses are the smallest micro-organisms. They cannot reproduce in food, but some
can be carried by food. One example is hepatitis A virus. Viruses attach themselves to
the living cells of a host organism and combine with them to produce further virus
particles. The new particles attack further cells and the host will suffer disease. Viruses
are always pathogenic. Host organisms can be humans, animals or plants.

18
 Food hazards

Definition
Host organism: the person, animal or plant infected with the micro-
organism

Most viruses are brought into food premises by food handlers who are carriers of the
virus or by contaminated shellfish.

MOULDS
Moulds are multi-cellular organisms. They will grow on most foods whether they are dry
or moist, high in sugars or salt, acid or alkaline. They can also grow in a wide range of
temperatures. They grow fastest in humid conditions at temperatures between 20 °C
and 30 °C.

Definition
Multi-cellular: consisting of more than one cell

Few moulds cause illness in humans but food affected by mould is generally considered
to be unfit for consumption. Some moulds can produce mycotoxins that are dangerous
to humans and animals (see Chapter 1).
Moulds reproduce by ripening and releasing spores into the air. Where these spores
find a suitable food they will grow. Moulds commonly affect bread and other bakery
products. They are difficult to avoid because – although cooking can destroy spores –
they survive in the air and can contaminate food once it is cooked.

Some moulds are used in the production of food. For example, cheeses such
DID as Roquefort, Danish blue and camembert are ripened by introducing moulds.
YOU
KNOW

?
YEASTS
Yeasts are very simple, single-cell fungi. They reproduce by ‘budding’. This is where part
of the cell bulges out of the cell wall, grows and then separates to form a new cell.
Yeasts break down the sugars and carbohydrates in food. Where there is no oxygen, the
breakdown produces alcohol and carbon dioxide. Where oxygen is present, water and
carbon dioxide are produced. The best growth temperature for yeasts is around 25 °C
and 30 °C but they can grow in temperatures as high as 47 °C and temperatures below
0 °C.

19
 Food Hygiene

FIGURE 2.4

Yeasts reproduce by ‘budding’

Yeasts are used in the production of vinegar and alcoholic drinks and in bread making.
They can cause spoilage in foods such as fruit juices, jams, honey, meats and wines.

Spoilage
In Chapter 1 we looked at the different illnesses caused by micro-organisms in food
and how this is the main hazard related to micro-organisms. However, anyone involved
in the preparation of food should also be concerned with food spoilage. It is an offence
to sell spoiled food, even though the spoilage organisms are not necessarily
pathogenic.
Spoilage takes place in two different ways. The first is the natural decay process that
starts when the food is harvested or slaughtered. Enzymes within the food start to
break down the cellular structure and, if allowed to continue, will make the food unfit
for consumption. The second method is where food is damaged or bruised and is then
attacked by micro-organisms. These micro-organisms break down the food and may
change its taste, smell and appearance. Bacteria, yeasts and moulds can all spoil food.

To some extent, the decision on whether food is spoiled or not depends upon
DID the person who is preparing or eating it. For example, the Icelanders prepare a
YOU dish called ‘hakarl’ which is actually shark meat that has been buried for three
KNOW
months. Most people would consider it to be inedible but in Iceland it is a

? delicacy! A less extreme example is the British tradition of hanging game, such
as pheasant and hare, to allow a stronger flavour to develop. In America, such
meat would be discarded as spoiled.

In most cases, food spoilage will be obvious from the appearance, smell or taste of the
food. Spoilage usually occurs as follows:
❚ Fruit is usually spoiled by moulds or yeasts which can grow in acidic conditions, after
being damaged during storage or transportation.
❚ Vegetables can be spoiled by moulds or bacteria. Again, this is often as a result of
damage during storage or transportation.

20
 Food hazards
❚ Meat is broken down by enzymes in the meat, and can also be spoiled by bacteria.
❚ Fish is spoiled in a similar way to meat, though the process is usually much more
rapid.
❚ Milk and milk products are usually spoiled by bacterial growth that causes the
product to sour. These bacteria are present in the raw milk and survive processing. If
left, moulds can also grow.
❚ Bread and other flour products are usually affected by moulds and yeasts because of
the high sugar levels.
❚ Canned foods can spoil where bacteria have not been properly destroyed before
canning, where the can is not properly sealed, and where the can itself is eroded by
acids in the food.

PHOTOGRAPH 2.1

Mouldy food is generally considered unfit to eat

STUDENT ACTIVITY 5
Identify three foods that you have seen spoiled and describe the effects of
spoilage on texture, taste and appearance.

Table 2.1 describes common signs of spoilage in different foods.

Table 2.1 Signs of spoilage in food

Type of food Common signs of spoilage

Milk Smells and tastes ‘off’. Starts to curdle so bits are found in the milk
Vegetables Become soft and discoloured. May have black spots. Smell rotten
Fish Smells ‘off’ and discolours
Processed/cooked meats Surface slime and discoloration. Smells ‘off’. Produces gases that
may burst vacuum packs
Fresh meats/poultry Surface slime. Green discoloration. White spots. Smells ‘off’
Bread Fruity, sickly smell. Soft sticky texture. Internally bread discolours to
yellow or brown

21
 Food Hygiene

Micro-organism facts
DID ❚ Most micro-organisms are harmless.
YOU ❚ Some micro-organisms are beneficial and used to produce food and drinks.
KNOW
❚ Pathogens are micro-organisms that cause illness.

? ❚ Bacteria and moulds can cause illness and spoilage of food.

❚ Yeasts only cause spoilage of food.
❚ Viruses only cause illness.

Food pests
Another hazard in food premises is the presence of food pests. Food pests include
rodents, insects or birds that cause damage to, or contamination of, food products.
They are attracted by the presence of food and the warmth and shelter offered by food
premises. Bodies or body parts, fur, eggs and droppings can all contaminate food.
Pests can also carry pathogenic and spoilage bacteria and viruses that will contaminate
the food. Note that raw foods may already be contaminated by food pests when they
arrive at the premises. Any deliveries need to be checked on arrival and rejected if they
are contaminated.
Table 2.2 (on pages 24–25) gives details of the most common food pests. It describes the
hazards from each type of pest and the signs to look for when you suspect infestation.

Most of the food businesses that are closed down each year by Environmental
DID Health Departments are closed due to the presence of food pests. Many
YOU complaints made to Environmental Health Departments about food businesses
KNOW
are to do with pests.

?
STUDENT ACTIVITY 6
What might the following signs indicate in food premises and what hazards
might they present?
❚ dead, brown flat insects and egg cases around food storage areas
❚ gnawed wiring on equipment and woodwork, and droppings in food
premises
❚ dead bluebottles around food preparation areas.

22
 Food hazards

PHOTOGRAPHS 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

Pests are attracted to food premises

23
 Food Hygiene

Table 2.2 Sign of food pests and related hazards

Pest Characteristics Hazards Signs of infestation

Rodents
Black rat An agile animal with • All rodents can carry • Dropping and urine smears
pointed nose, long tail and pathogenic and spoilage • Fur
large ears. Also known as organisms which will • Dead bodies
the ships’ rat and tends to contaminate foods • Sightings of live animals
be confined to areas around • Droppings, urine, fur or • Runways – worn tracks to
ports. Prefers fruit and dead bodies may be feeding points
vegetables. deposited in food • Footprints and tail marks
• Damage to premises by • Damage to premises and
Brown rat Larger and more common
gnawing woodwork, metal equipment due to gnawing
than the black rat with
pipes, electric cables, etc • Smell from nests
small ears and shorter tail.
Also known as the Norway
or common rat. Lives in
sewers and drains, wall or
floor cavities or in piles of
rubbish. Prefers cereal
foods.
House Small with pointed head,
mouse large ears and a very long
tail. They breed rapidly and
will nibble food and non-food
items. They prefer cereal foods.
Flying insects
Flies Houseflies, bluebottles, • Carry pathogens or spoilage • Live or dead insects in and
greenbottles, and fruit flies bacteria on their bodies around food
are all of concern in food • Defecate on food as they • Maggots or pupae on food
premises. They feed by eat
regurgitating enzymes on to • Regurgitate parts of
the food to break it down, previous meals which could
then suck up the food. They be contaminated
feed on rubbish, and human • Lay eggs in food
and animal faeces as well as • Maggots hatch, eat and
foodstuffs. They breed very pupate in the food
rapidly in warm weather. • Adult flies may die in the
food
Wasps Wasps favour sweet foods • Can carry pathogens • Live or dead insects in or
and are particularly common picked up from rubbish around food
around food premises in late • Can cause panic among
summmer and early autumn. staff in busy food premises
Crawling insects
Ants Food premises attract black • Spread pathogenic • Live or dead insects in or
ants (garden ants) and organisms around food
pharaoh’s ants. Black ants • Dead bodies may • Presence of nests in
will infest food premises in contaminate food premises though these may
their search for sweet foods. be difficult to detect
Pharaoh’s ants are smaller
and pale yellow. They live in
warm premises and, as well
as sweet foods, will feed on
high protein foodstuffs such
as meat.

24
 Food hazards
Table 2.2 Signs of food pests and related hazards – continued

Pest Characteristics Hazards Signs of infestation

Cock- Two types are found in the • Carry pathogenic organisms • Live and dead insects
roaches UK: the oriental cockroach including Salmonella • Faecal pellets
and the German cockroach. • Egg cases, faecal pellets • Egg cases or larvae
The oriental cockroach is and bodies in food • Odour
brown with a flat body and
about 25 mm in length. They
are often found in damp
conditions. The German
cockroach is about 15 mm in
length, yellowish brown, with
a flat body and prefers
humid conditions. Neither
species can fly and both
feed on waste food.
Silverfish Fish-shaped, grey bodies • Don’t contaminate food • Live and sead insects
with very long antennae. directly but can fall into
Live in damp conditions and food
often found under carpets or
wallpaper.
Stored product insects
Psocids Also known as book lice, • Not a direct health hazard • Live and dead insects
they are very small and but they can infest food • Poor storage conditions
brown or cream in colour. particularly where it is
Generally feed on moulds poorly stored
from walls, containers and
food, though will eat
foodstuffs such as flour.
Breed quickly in warm,
damp conditions.
Grain The most common of the • Not a direct health hazard, • Live and dead insects
weevils weevils, they are generally but can leave eggs, pupae
found in stored grain on and bodies in foodstuffs
farms but will infest foods
such as pasta and flour.
Lay eggs in food and the
pupae feed on it as they
hatch.
Birds
Birds Any birds that gain access • Carry pathogenic bacteria • Live and dead birds
to food premises are a pest. including Salmonella • Droppings
Most often they are pigeons • Leave contaminated • Nest sites
and sparrows, but other droppings and feathers in • Feathers
birds can cause problems. food
• Can contaminate water
supplies, particularly where
dead birds fall into water
tanks

25
 Food Hygiene

Contamination
Food is said to be contaminated when it contains any unacceptable matter. This can be
in the form of micro-organisms, poisons, or physical contaminants. Physical
contaminants might include items such as pieces of glass or metal. Contamination is
generally divided into three types:
❚ microbiological
❚ physical
❚ chemical.

FIGURE 2.5

Microbiological

FOOD
C
al

h
sic

em
y

ica
h P

The three main groups of food contaminants

MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION

FIGURE 2.6

Microbiological

FOOD
Ch
cal

e
ysi

mi
Ph

cal

26
 Food hazards
Much raw food does contain harmful micro-organisms, but these are generally
destroyed or reduced to safe levels during preparation. It is contamination during and
after preparation that often causes problems. This largely occurs as a result of:
❚ poor personal hygiene
❚ poor food handling
❚ inadequate food preparation
❚ poor storage areas
❚ presence of pests in food premises
❚ pets – can also carry pathogenic bacteria and should not be allowed in food
premises.
Humans are probably the most common source of bacterial contamination of food.
Inadequately washed hands, dirty clothes, and cuts and sores on hands can all be a risk
to food safety. Some people may be carriers of a particular disease or virus, though
they show no signs of illness, and may contaminate the food they handle. The risk from
human sources is not just that from food handlers. Anyone who enters the food
preparation area may be a source of bacterial contamination. People other than food
handlers may be more of a risk as they will not be adequately dressed or prepared for
handling food.

High-risk foods
There are some foods that are particularly attractive to microbiological growth. They
tend to be foods that are moist and rich in protein. They include meat, fish, shellfish,
poultry, eggs, milk and dairy products, cooked rice and pasta. Particular care is needed
in handling these foods.

Definitions
High-risk foods: these include those that are high in protein and moist,
such as meat, fish, shellfish, poultry, eggs, milk and dairy products, cooked

Times change! It used to be that babies and young children, elderly people and
DID those who were ill were often given soft-boiled eggs. They were considered
YOU easy to digest and full of goodness. Since the scare about eggs and
KNOW
Salmonella in the late 1980s, the Government has recommended that none of

? these groups of people should be given raw or undercooked (including soft-

boiled) eggs. Eggs are now considered to be one of the main sources of
Salmonella and are classed as a high-risk food.

rice and pasta

Cross-contamination
Micro-organisms cannot move from one place to another on their own. Cross-
contamination is where bacteria are transferred from one place to another on a vehicle.
An example is where a knife or cutting board is used for raw meat and cooked meat.
The organisms in the raw meat are transferred to the cooked meat on the knife and
cutting board. The knife and cutting board act as vehicles for the micro-organisms.

27
 Food Hygiene

Definition
Cross-contamination: when micro-organisms are moved from one place
to another on a vehicle
Vehicle of contamination: any object (including persons and animals) on
which micro-organisms can move from one place to another

Bacteria are transferred from their sources to prepared foods in a variety of ways:
❚ raw and cooked foods being stored together and touching
❚ drips and splashes from raw foods such as meat contaminating cooked foods
❚ air currents carrying organisms from raw food preparation areas
❚ kitchen equipment and utensils being used for raw and cooked foods without being
properly cleaned
❚ raw and cooked foods being prepared on the same work surfaces
❚ cloths used for wiping equipment and surfaces
❚ bacteria carried on hands and clothing of food handlers
❚ food pests carrying bacteria from raw food and waste to cooked foods.

Of the people who attended a buffet at a Masonic lodge, 45 out of 55 became

DID ill. Investigations showed that the likely source of contamination was the egg
YOU whites used to make meringue for a lemon meringue pie. The meringue was
KNOW only lightly cooked so the organisms were likely to have survived the cooking

?
process. It is also likely that there was cross-contamination because the bowl
used to beat the raw eggs was then used to blend commercially bought
mayonnaise and salad cream without being properly cleaned. This mayonnaise
mixture was used to dress a number of salad dishes. These factors could
account for the high rate of illness among the party.

PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION

FIGURE 2.7

Physical

FOOD
Mi
cro
l
ica

bio
em

lo
Ch

gic
al

28
 Food hazards
Physical hazards are any foreign objects that fall into the food at any stage during its
production or preparation. There are a variety of sources of physical contamination:
❚ People – physical contamination from people may include things that fall into food
from clothing such as buttons; things falling from pockets such as combs, money
and pens; jewellery; cigarette ends; or matter from the person such as hair or
fingernails. Plasters used to cover cuts on hands may also fall into food. Persons
other than food handlers who enter the food preparation area may be more of a risk
as they may not be adequately dressed or aware of the risks they present. These
might include maintenance engineers and delivery people.
❚ Food – unwanted parts of food such as bones, pips, stalks can remain in the food
after preparation.
❚ Packaging and containers – paper, glass, string, plastic and polythene from food
packaging and damaged storage containers may contaminate food.
❚ Equipment and machinery – pieces of metal, glass, wood or plastic from damaged
equipment or machinery can get into food as it is being prepared. Moulds or stale
food from equipment that has been inadequately cleaned might also contaminate
food.
❚ Premises – where premises are not adequately maintained, or where work being
carried out is not properly separated from food preparation areas, there is a risk of
contamination by bits of plaster or brick, flakes of paint, screws and nails, or broken
glass. Where premises are not adequately cleaned, there is a risk of dirt and waste
being transferred to food.
❚ Food pests – we have already mentioned the risks from food pests. Fur, feathers,
bodies, faeces, eggs, or young of rodents, insects, and birds may all contaminate
food.

CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION

FIGURE 2.8

Chemical

FOOD
l
ica

Ph
log

y
bi o

sic
al
i cro
M

We mentioned two sources of chemical food poisoning in Chapter 1. Food can be

poisoned by pesticides used during growing that have not been destroyed by the food
preparation or chemical pollution in the environment.

29
 Food Hygiene
There are also risks in food premises. Chemicals used in food premises may
contaminate the food during storage or preparation. These include materials such as:
❚ cleaning materials
❚ lubricants or fuels for equipment and machinery
❚ substances such as fly sprays or pesticides.
These can contaminate food when they are not correctly stored and used.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 7
Look at this picture of a kitchen. How many hazards can you identify?

FIGURE 2.9

Chapter review
In this chapter you have learned about microbiological, physical and chemical hazards
to food. You have learned about food pests and how to recognise pest infestations. You
have learned about how food can become contaminated and cross-contaminated. The
next chapter looks at how these hazards can be controlled.

30
 Food hazards

Multiple-choice questions
1 Which of the following best describes how bacteria multiply?
A They grow buds which then separate off
B They release spores into the atmosphere
C Each cell splits into two
D They lay eggs in the food

2 Which of the following best indicates the time taken for bacteria to multiply into
millions of organisms?
A A few minutes
B A few hours
C A few weeks
D A few days

3 Which of the following reflects the temperatures at which bacteria are most likely to
multiply?
A Under 5 ºC
B Between 5 ºC and 63 ºC
C Above 63 ºC
D Between zero and 70 ºC

4 Which of the following best describes a food pest?

A Rodents
B Birds
C Insects and mites
D All of the above

5 Which of the following is an example of a chemical contaminant?

A Pathogens
B Pesticides
C Insect eggs
D All of the above

31
 Food Hygiene
6 Which of the following is true about moulds?
A They are always pathogenic
B They are always harmless
C They are used in some food production
D All food with mould should be discarded

7 Which of the following is true of bacterial spores?

A They can survive in adverse conditions
B They are the main way of reproducing
C They cause food spoilage
D They are produced by all pathogens

8 Which of the following is an example of a physical contaminant?

A Pesticides
B Pathogens
C Insect eggs
D All of the above

9 Which of the following is considered to be a high-risk food?

A Bread
B Eggs
C Uncooked rice
D Vegetables

10 Which of the following is most likely to be spoiled by yeast growth?

A Jam
B Beer
C Vinegar
D Bread

Short-answer questions
1 Explain how food becomes contaminated with micro-organisms.
2 Describe sources of chemical contamination.
3 Explain the effect of spoilage organisms on food.
4 What conditions are required for bacterial growth?
5 How do flies spread food poisoning and food-borne disease?

32
3 Control measures
This chapter looks at how food hazards can be controlled and reduced. You
will learn about:
❚ how microbiological, physical and chemical hazards can be reduced and
prevented
❚ how temperature control can be used to eliminate, reduce or prevent
hazards and risks to food safety
❚ the different methods of food preservation and storage
❚ procedures for disposal of unsound foods
❚ how food pests can be discouraged or eliminated and the risks involved
in chemical control methods.

Reducing and preventing contamination

of food
In Chapter 2, we looked at the hazards that can exist in food premises and contaminate
food. All food handlers are responsible, to some extent, for controlling or eliminating
these food hazards to ensure that the food they prepare and serve is fit for human
consumption. In this chapter we will look at how that reduction or elimination can be
achieved. We will first consider some general methods of reducing risks before looking
specifically at temperature control, storage and preservation of food, and control of
food pests.

GENERAL CONTROLS FOR BACTERIAL RISKS

Precautions that can be taken to prevent bacterial contamination and cross-
contamination include:
❚ Purchasing foods – especially high risk foods – from reputable suppliers. These
companies should have good controls to prevent contamination.
❚ Good standards of personal hygiene, particularly with regard to hand washing.
Hands should be washed after handling raw food, before handling cooked foods,
after handling waste or visiting the toilet (see Chapter 4).

33
 Food Hygiene

PHOTOGRAPH 3.1

Food purchases should be made from reputable suppliers

Almost all bacteria can be removed from the hands by washing thoroughly
DID with soap and water. Handwashing is, therefore, very important in the
YOU reduction of microbiological contamination.
KNOW

?
❚ Minimising food handling wherever possible and using disposable gloves or clean
utensils to handle, where appropriate. This will reduce the risk of bacteria being
transferred from hands or utensils to food.
❚ Keeping raw and cooked foods apart in storage areas and food preparation areas.
Raw foods are more likely to be contaminated but can cross-contaminate cooked
foods if they are not separated.
❚ Using separate equipment and utensils for raw and cooked foods or thorough
cleaning between uses. This avoids cross-contamination between raw and cooked
foods.
❚ Making sure equipment, utensils and surfaces are properly cleaned between uses.
Bacteria may survive on equipment, utensils and surfaces especially if they are dirty.
❚ Proper disposal of empty food containers that may contain spoiled or contaminated
waste. Spoiled or waste scraps of food on empty containers could contaminate other
foods.

34
 Control measures
❚ Keeping displayed and stored foods properly covered. This prevents contamination
by airborne micro-organisms.
❚ Keeping food areas free from waste. Bacteria will build up in waste and can then
contaminate foods being prepared or served.
❚ Preventing staff with health problems from handling food – this includes anyone
suffering from diarrhoea and sickness, anyone with severe nose and throat infections
or coughs, anyone with skin disease or infected cuts or boils. Pathogens can easily
be transferred to food from infected persons.

GENERAL CONTROLS FOR CHEMICAL RISKS

When it is necessary to keep chemicals on food premises, they should be properly
stored in their appropriate containers. They should be kept in locked cupboards away
from food storage and preparation areas, used in accordance with given instructions,
and disposed of carefully and safely after use.

GENERAL CONTROLS FOR PHYSICAL RISKS

Food handlers need to take precautions to ensure that they do not contaminate food
with any foreign bodies. These precautions include the wearing of appropriate clothing,
including hair coverings, not wearing jewellery and not carrying objects in pockets which
could fall into food. Managers can reduce risks by ensuring the proper maintenance of
premises and equipment, preventing smoking in food preparation areas, and controlling
the entry of non-food handlers to food preparation and storage areas.
In larger food premises, such as food-processing plants, the use of metal detectors
may help to eliminate some contaminants. Filters and sieves may help to remove some
contaminants. The prevention of many physical hazards in food depends on the vigilance
of the food-handling staff who should be properly trained to deal with these problems.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 8
Imagine you were asked to start work in the kitchens at your college or
workplace in half an hour. List the preparations you would need to carry out in
order to avoid or reduce risks of physical contamination of food.

TEMPERATURE CONTROLS
The most effective way of controlling the growth of micro-organisms in food is by the
use of temperature. We saw in the last chapter that micro-organisms thrive at
temperatures between 5 °C and 63 °C. Foods, especially high-risk foods, should be kept
out of this danger zone as much as possible. Risks arise where foods are:
❚ left at room temperature
❚ left in sunlight, such as in a shop window
❚ heated or cooled slowly.
Micro-organisms can be destroyed by heating food. It is important that foods are
cooked and heated using appropriate methods and temperatures.
35
 Food Hygiene

FIGURE 3.1

63°C

Microbiological growth:
the danger zone

5°C

Food should be kept out of the ‘danger zone’

The rules for heating and cooling foods

❚ Liquids should be cooked in amounts small enough to ensure even temperatures
throughout, and stirred frequently.
❚ Re-heating of cooked foods is best done quickly in infrared units, microwave ovens
or forced air-circulation ovens.
❚ Food should be cooked or reheated to at least 75 °C to destroy any organisms. This
should destroy most organisms but spores may survive.
❚ If food is to be eaten cold, it should be cooled quickly to prevent new bacterial
growth.

The best way to cool food is in a blast chiller or a separate refrigerator

DID specifically used for cooling. It should never be placed in a refrigerator, freezer
YOU or chiller cabinet with other foods as it may raise the temperature of the
KNOW
refrigerator and of other foods allowing bacteria to grow. It can also cause

? condensation that would increase the risk of cross-contamination.

Using frozen foods

There are also risks when thawing frozen foods.
❚ It is important to ensure that food is completely thawed before cooking. Sufficient
time must be allowed for this. If the centre of the food is still frozen when cooking is
begun, it will warm up slowly and provide an ideal breeding ground for bacteria. This
is particularly dangerous with foods such as poultry that can carry Salmonella.
❚ Food that is being thawed should be kept separate from other foods as the liquid
from the item being thawed can contaminate other foods. Thawing should ideally
take place in a thawing cabinet or room, or refrigerator set aside for the purpose.
❚ Microwave ovens can be used to thaw some foods.
❚ Food should not be re-frozen once thawed.

36
 Control measures
Table 3.1 summarises the temperatures and methods of storage and preparation of
foods that should minimise the microbiological risks.

Table 3.1 Temperature controls for food

Chilling These must be stored at a temperature below 8 ºC and it is safer to store them at a
temperature below 5 ºC. Opening doors on chill cabinets or fridges will raise the
temperature so must be kept to a minimum. Hot foods should not be put into chill
cabinets with chilled foods, as this will also raise the temperature.
Freezing Frozen foods must be stored at a temperature of –18 ºC or below. Again, opening
freezer doors should be kept to a minimum as this will raise the temperature and hot
foods should not be put into the freezers as this may cause frozen foods to defrost.
Thawing Food should be placed in cold conditions to thaw (usually between 10 ºC and 15 ºC)
not allowed to thaw at room temperature. It must be completely thawed before
cooking.
Cooling Where foods are to be served cold or cooled for later reheating, they must be cooled as
rapidly as possible. They should then be stored at temperatures below 8 ºC.
Hot holding If food needs to be kept hot (for example on a carvery or hot buffet), it should be held
at 63 ºC or above. Food should be kept hot for the minimum amount of time.

There are government regulations about temperature control of food which say
DID that no person should keep food products that are at risk from pathogenic
YOU micro-organisms or toxins at temperatures that might result in a risk to health.
KNOW
Food here includes raw materials, ingredients, intermediate products or

? finished products.
(The Food Safety (Temperature Control) Regulations 1995)

FIGURE 3.2
Hot holdng
63°C

8°C
Chilled
-18°C
Frozen

There are regulations about food storage temperatures

CHECKING TEMPERATURES
Checks should be carried out to make sure all foods are being stored at the right
temperature. Temperatures should be checked using appropriate measuring
equipment. Records should be kept of the readings.

37
 Food Hygiene
There are all sorts of equipment available for checking temperatures. Any equipment
such as freezers, chill cabinets, etc. should show temperatures but they only show a
general reading for the equipment. The food temperature should also be checked.
Measuring the surface temperature of foods will not always give an accurate picture as
food won’t necessarily be at the same temperature all the way through. If there is any
concern that food is not at the right temperature, then further checks must be done.
Probe thermometers can be used to check the temperature at the centre of food. A
sharp probe attached to a thermometer is pushed into the food. The problem with
probe thermometers is that they need careful washing between checks to avoid cross-
contamination, and some foods will not be useable after testing. For example, testing
foods that are sealed, such as vacuum-packed fish or cartons of yoghurt, will puncture
the packaging – making the food unsaleable.

FIGURE 3.3 Air temperature

Surface temperature

Internal temperature

Food
Three levels of temperature testing

Infrared thermometers are now widely used for checking food temperatures.
DID These can scan foods rapidly and identify any problems. For example, if you
YOU had a large delivery of frozen foods, traditional temperature-checking
KNOW
equipment would involve carrying out several checks on different boxes to

? ensure they were all at the appropriate temperature. With an infrared

thermometer the whole order can be scanned quickly and the equipment will
pick up any hotspots that need to be checked further.

When to check temperature

The number of temperature checks carried out will depend on the process or storage
method:
❚ Throughout the day, food on display – either hot or cold – should be checked
frequently.
❚ Daily checks should be carried out on refrigerators, refrigerated display cabinets and
freezers.
❚ Other checks should be carried out as required. These include checks on food that is
delivered, food that is thawed, food that is cooked, food that is reheated, food that is
cooled.

38
 Control measures
You will learn more about the importance of temperature in storage and preservation of
food later in this chapter.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 9
Explain the risks in each of the following cases and describe how you would
ensure food safety:
❚ thawing a frozen chicken
❚ cooking a previously frozen chicken
❚ storing seafood
❚ serving food from a hot holding area.

FOOD STORAGE
The proper storage of foods is essential to ensure good food hygiene. If food is not
stored correctly, there is risk of contamination and spoilage. As well as being a risk to
health, this can also lead to unnecessary wastage of foods.

Dry food stores

Dry foods include pasta, rice, dried fruits, dried milk, flour and cereals, and canned
foods. The storage area needs to be dry, cool and well ventilated. Internal surfaces
should be well finished so that they are easy to clean. The store should restrict any
access by pests. If the area is well-lit, this will allow users to properly check for any
deterioration or damage to food. Storage of food should be on open shelving which is
raised from the floor. Cupboards with doors can provide hiding places for food pests
and so should not be used.
Flours and cereals should be stored in lidded bins rather than their original sacks which
can allow access by pests. These bins should be regularly cleaned and checked for
signs of pest infestation. Canned foods should be regularly checked to identify
damaged, dented or rusty cans. Other boxed foods will need checking for signs of
deterioration, damage or infestation. Any spillage of food should be cleared up
immediately to avoid attracting pests.
Stock rotation is particularly important. A ‘First In, First Out’ (FIFO) system should be
adopted. Foods that were bought first, should be used first and all foods should be
used or discarded by their use by/best before date. For items such as flour that are
stored in containers, new stock must not be added to older stock in a container. The
container should be emptied and cleaned before being re-filled with the new stock.
Stores should be organised so as to prevent old stock being lost at the back of shelves.

Definition
FIFO stock rotation: first in, first out. Foods that were obtained first should
be used first

39
 Food Hygiene

Fruit and vegetable stores

Salads, fruit and vegetables need to be kept in cool, well-ventilated areas away from
other foods. Many of these foods are purchased daily and stored for short periods. Root
vegetables may be stored for longer periods. Fruit and vegetables should be stored in
their boxes or containers. This reduces handling that can damage the food. The boxes
should be stored on stainless steel shelving.
Boxes should be inspected on receipt for spoiled items that might damage the
remaining fruits or vegetables. Checks should also be carried out for any pests that
may have been delivered with the food. Salad and fruits which are served without being
cooked or peeled can be sanitised in a very weak chlorine solution to destroy any
micro-organisms.

Refrigerated stores
Refrigerated stores include refrigerators, freezers, walk-in chill stores and chill cabinets.
They should be used to store high-risk foods – those most prone to bacterial
contamination and spoilage.
Refrigerators and chill stores are used for storing perishable foods such as meat and
dairy products for short periods. They should be set to operate at temperatures
between 0 °C and 4 °C. Their temperature should be checked daily. This will minimise
the risks of bacterial growth.

Some bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes, are able to grow slowly at low
DID temperatures so chilling food will not stop growth. Provided the storage period
YOU is short, this should not be a problem because growth will be slowed down.
KNOW

?
Refrigerators should be sited away from direct sunlight, and from any other source of
heat. Motors should be readily accessible, regularly cleaned and well ventilated. Chill
stores should be fitted with self-closing doors and plastic strip doors so the correct
temperature can be properly maintained. It is important to keep refrigerators and chill
stores clean, inside and out. Door seals should receive particular attention in order to
prevent the build-up of dirt and damage.
Foods should be stored in refrigerators so that air can freely circulate. There should be
enough refrigerated storage to deal with maximum demand and where possible there
should be separate refrigerators for raw and cooked foods. Where this is not possible,
foods should be stored as follows:
❚ top shelves – butter, lard, margarine, cheeses, eggs, convenience foods, cooked
items, preserves, salad dressings, spreads and sauces
❚ centre shelves – cooked meats, milk products
❚ bottom shelves – raw meats, poultry and fish (this minimises the risk of cross-
contamination by juices dripping on other foods)
❚ salad drawer – salad
❚ door racks – milk and fruit juices.
40
 Control measures
It is a good idea to label shelves according to use. If a shelf previously used for raw
foods is to be used for cooked foods, it should first be disinfected. All foods should be
stored in clean, labelled, covered containers. Canned foods should never be stored in
open cans but should be transferred to appropriate containers. As with dry foods, stock
rotation is important. All foods should be used or discarded by their use by/best before
date. Foods obtained first should be used first.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 10
Look at this picture of a fridge and identify the hazards.

FIGURE 3.4

Freezers
Freezers should operate at around –18 °C or lower. Foods should be wrapped and can
be tightly packed into freezers as this will prevent warm air entering when the freezer is
opened. Freezers are generally designed to store ready-frozen foods. If they are to be
used to freeze fresh foods, check the manufacturer’s instructions about use. When
frozen foods are delivered, the temperature should be checked. Any foods above –15 °C
should be rejected.
Freezers should be fitted with an automatic temperature device and preferably an
alarm. It is wise to keep the telephone number of the maintenance company to hand in

41
 Food Hygiene
case of emergencies. All staff should be aware of procedures to be followed if freezers
break down. If this happens, the freezer should not be opened and should be covered
with newspapers or thick blankets as insulation. This will help to maintain the
temperature. Food that has partially or fully thawed should never be re-frozen, though
some items may be frozen again after cooking.

Ice-cream products are stored at higher temperatures than other frozen foods
DID (generally between –7 °C and –4 °C). This is because they are eaten frozen and
YOU normal freezer temperatures would cause damage to the mouth and tongue.
KNOW
The law states, though, that they should never be stored above –2 °C.

?
Chill cabinets
Chill cabinets are refrigerated display units used in shops to display foods for sale. The
food is cooled by cold air being circulated over the food. Draughts, sunlight and
lighting in the cabinet can all affect food temperature and need careful control. Many
need to be fully loaded to operate efficiently. The highest temperature allowed by
Department of Health (DoH) regulations is 8 °C but a lower temperature should be used
if it is thought necessary for the foods being stored. Different foods will require different
temperatures. For example:
❚ milk needs to be stored at below 6 °C
❚ red meat at 7 °C
❚ red meat offal at 3 °C
❚ poultry at 4 °C.

FIGURE 3.5
8°C
7°C Red meat
6°C Milk
5°C
4°C Poultry
3°C Offal

Different foods need to be stored at different temperatures

Hot holding
Hot cupboards are used to hold foods prior to serving. They are for foods that are
already hot, not for re-heating food. Cabinets and containers should be heated prior to
use to ensure food is not inadvertently cooled. Foods should be held for the minimum
amount of time and must be kept at a temperature of at least 63 °C. The temperature
should be checked frequently.
42
 Control measures

Delivery of food
Managers need to ensure that delivery areas are kept clean and free from pests to
reduce the risk of contamination. Food should be transferred to proper storage areas as
soon as possible after delivery. All foods should be checked before being moved to
storage areas. Checking should cover:
❚ ensuring the correct foods have been received
❚ sell by/use by/best before dates
❚ checking for damage to packaging or food
❚ looking for any signs of pest infestation
❚ checking that foods – particularly frozen and chilled foods – are supplied at the right
temperature.

STORAGE OF NON-FOOD ITEMS ON FOOD PREMISES

The storage of non-food items on food premises is unavoidable. These include cleaning
and maintenance materials, personal items belonging to employees, and waste from
food production and preparation. All of these are hazards in food-handling areas and
need to be properly stored.

Cleaning and maintenance materials

Cleaning and maintenance materials can taint and poison food if allowed to
contaminate it. All chemicals used in food-handling areas should be stored in suitable
containers. These will usually be the ones in which they are supplied. They should be
clearly labelled and securely stored away from the food-handling areas. All materials
and equipment used for cleaning and maintenance should be locked away when not in
use. Care should also be taken not to store together any chemicals which could react if
mixed. The control of such items should be the responsibility of a designated staff
member.

Personal items
Personal items include outdoor clothing, money, jewellery, handbags, etc. which might
present micro-biological or physical hazards in food-preparation areas. Any food-
handling establishment should provide storage facilities (usually lockers) in which staff
members can store personal items. Clothing to be worn in food-handling areas will
normally be stored close to the entry to those areas. Dirty clothing should be stored
separately until it is sent to be laundered.

Waste
Waste in food-preparation areas can present microbiological and physical hazards if not
properly stored. Suitable waste bins with tight fitting lids should be provided inside and
outside food premises. Inside waste bins should be emptied several times during the
day and always at the end of the day. They should be thoroughly cleaned before being
re-used.
External waste-storage areas need to be kept clean and tidy to prevent infestation by
pests. Surfaces should be regularly hosed down and waste bins washed out.

43
 Food Hygiene

STUDENT ACTIVITY 11
Explain how you would ensure safe storage of the following items and list the
risks of not storing them properly:
❚ raw meat
❚ flour
❚ canned foods
❚ cleaning materials.

FOOD PRESERVATION
We have seen that the growth of micro-organisms in food can cause changes to texture,
smell, appearance and taste, as well as being a cause of illness in anyone who
consumes the food. Preserving food extends its shelf life by limiting the growth of
micro-organisms. There are many different methods of preserving foods. There are no
methods which can preserve foods indefinitely. At some point, food will start to break
down, micro-organisms will start to grow, or the packaging container may start to
deteriorate.
In order to ensure people are informed about safe periods to keep foods, the Food
Labelling Directive and Regulations require labels on pre-packed foods to show ‘use by’
or ‘best before’ dates. ‘Best before’ dates are used on foods that may become stale if
kept for too long, but that don’t present a problem with regard to the growth of
dangerous micro-organisms. ‘Use by’ dates are required on foods that, if kept too long,
may present a health risk if consumed. These are perishable foods which are at risk
from the growth of dangerous micro-organisms.
While it is useful to be able to prolong the shelf life of foods, the method of
preservation often changes the taste, texture or nutritional value of the food. In some
cases this is quite acceptable. For example, pickled foods and fruit jams are popular in
this state. Other foods will be acceptable to some people only as a matter of necessity.
‘Long-life’ milk has a different taste to fresh pasteurised milk, and lower nutritional
value due to the treatment process. It may only be acceptable where there are no
refrigeration facilities, or access to a milk supplier is very difficult.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 12
Make a list of at least five preserved foods that you eat and find acceptable
even though the taste or texture is different from that of fresh produce. Are
there any preserved foods you would not eat because the texture or taste has
been changed by the preservation method?

If you compare your list to someone else’s, you will probably find that there are
differences. It’s all a matter of personal taste! You might also find that you have
identified a number of the preservation methods that we will look at here. Most of us
buy at least some preserved foods, and many people today eat more preserved foods
than fresh ones.

44
 Control measures

STUDENT ACTIVITY 13
List all the methods of preserving foods that you know.
Check your list against the preservation methods described below. Are there
any you didn’t include in your list?

Do you remember the list of requirements that pathogens and spoilage micro-
DID organisms need to grow? Water, oxygen, correct pH levels, etc. Many methods
YOU of food preservation work by eliminating one or more of these so that the
KNOW

?
micro-organisms cannot survive.

FIGURE 3.6 Inputs needed for growth

Food
Water
Time

Correct oxygen levels

Correct temperature
Correct pH levels
Lack of competition
Co n d
itions for growth
The growth requirements for micro-organisms

Removing or reducing moisture

In Chapter 2, we discovered that micro-organisms need moisture in order to grow and
multiply. By reducing the moisture in food, it is possible to make conditions intolerable
for micro-organisms. This can give items a longer shelf life.

45
 Food Hygiene

Drying has been used as a method of preserving food for hundreds of years.
DID Traditional methods of drying include sun drying. This is still used today for
YOU foods like tomatoes and fruits. Some sausages and salamis are also allowed to
KNOW
air dry and, on some, specific moulds are encouraged because they help

? reduce the moisture content further.

Modern methods of drying include the following.

❚ Tunnel drying – food is placed on a conveyor belt and moves through a warm air
tunnel. This is used for vegetables.
❚ Fluidised bed drying – warm air is blown up through the food particles and they are
kept moving. This method is also often used for vegetables.
❚ Roller drying – food is applied to a heated roller as a thin paste. As the roller rotates,
the food dries and is then removed from the roller by scraping. Usually used for
potatoes and breakfast cereals.
❚ Spray drying – food in liquid form is sprayed into a drying chamber. As the spray
mixes with warm air, the moisture evaporates leaving a powder residue. This is used
to dry milk and eggs.
❚ Freeze drying – food is frozen, then heated in a vacuum. This causes the ice crystals
to evaporate without first becoming liquid. The final product is porous so can be
easily reconstituted in water. The method causes less change to the appearance,
taste and nutritional value of the food than other drying methods. This method is
used for a wide variety of foods including coffee, herbs, vegetables, shellfish and
meats.

Lowering the pH value

While there are a few yeasts and moulds that can grow in very acidic conditions, most
micro-organisms cannot tolerate a pH outside the neutral range (6 to 7). The addition
of acid to the food, or of acid-producing organisms, will lower the pH value and limit
the growth of dangerous micro-organisms. Both are traditional methods of food
preservation.

FIGURE 3.7
Acid

pH Neutral

Alkali
Micro-organisms usually only grow in the neutral range

46
 Control measures
❚ Pickling – the addition of vinegar (acetic acid), has been long used as a method of
preserving foods such as vegetables and fish.
❚ Natural acids – fruit drinks such as orange juice contain citric acid and other natural
acids that serve as preservatives.
❚ Carbonising – fizzy drinks are protected by carbonic acid that is produced when the
carbon dioxide is added to the drink.
❚ Acid-producing organisms – a culture of specific, harmless micro-organisms is
added to the food and produce acid that flavours and preserves the food. Yoghurt
and sauerkraut (a German cabbage dish) are two examples of foods that are
prepared using the addition of acid-producing organisms.

Smoking
Another traditional method of preserving food is smoking. As with some other
traditional methods, smoking has been modified to meet modern tastes. Foods
preserved in this way include fish, meat, poultry and cheese. The food is treated with
brine or vinegar and then smoked over smouldering wood. The woods used are usually
oak or ash and they must be free from any chemical preservatives. The smoke contains
substances which inhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria. There are two different
smoking processes:
❚ hot smoking – used to cook foods as they are smoked. Used for fish and some
cooked smoked meat
❚ cold smoking – used for foods that will be cooked before eating such as smoked
haddock.
PHOTOGRAPH 3.2

Smoking haddock

47
 Food Hygiene
Traditional smoking gave a very strong flavour and modern smoking is a much less
intense procedure that gives a better flavour but loses some of the preservative value.
Modern smoked products should still be refrigerated, particularly when they have been
vacuum packed.

Treating with chemicals

Natural and artificial chemicals are both added to food as preservatives.
Traditional methods using natural substances are:
❚ Curing or brining – meat and fish are cured by mixing dry salt with the raw food,
soaking the food in brine, or injecting the brine into the meat through hollow
needles. The salt limits the growth of micro-organisms. Some products such as
bacon and herring are smoked in addition to curing. Producers today use less salt
than was traditionally used by this method because current health concerns suggest
that too much salt in the diet is not good for us. However, reducing the amount of
salt used increases the risk of bacterial growth. It is important that food producers
strike the right balance.
❚ Preserving with sugar – jams and crystallised fruits are two products that use sugar
as a preservative. A large amount of sugar is required in order to preserve the food
and prevent bacterial growth.
❚ Addition of spices or herbs – the essential oils in some spices and herbs have the
effect of limiting bacterial growth when used in high concentration. Substances
commonly used include cloves, cinnamon, mustard, onion and garlic. As with the
use of salt, modern taste limits the use of these substances. Herbs and spices can
themselves be a source of contamination where they have not been dried in hygienic
conditions.

The addition of salt or sugar to foods has a dehydrating effect. It reduces the
DID moisture that would be available to micro-organisms. In effect, it binds the
YOU water molecules to the food making them unavailable to micro-organisms.
KNOW
Adding salt or sugars to foods are ancient methods of preservation which are

? still used today.

The use of artificial chemical preservatives is controlled under government regulations.

There are 35 permitted preservatives in the UK. Each one is identified by an ‘E-number’.
Table 3.2 shows the more common preservatives and gives an indication of the wide
variety of foods to which they are added.

48
 Control measures
Table 3.2 Food preservatives

Preservative Examples of foods in which preservative is used

E200 sorbic acid Yoghurts, sweets, soft drinks, processed cheese
E201 sodium sorbate Frozen pizza
E202 potassium sorbate Margarine, cheese spreads, salad dressings, glacé cherries, pre-packed
cakes
E210 benzoic acid Jams, beer, fruit juice, pickles, yoghurt
E211 sodium benzoate Prawns, margarine, soft drinks, barbecue sauce, orange squash
E220 sulphur dioxide Dried fruits, packet soups, fruit juices and syrups, dried vegetables, beer,
wine, cider, sausage meat
E249 potassium nitrate Cooked meats, sausages
E250 sodium nitrate Cured meat, pork sausage, bacon, ham, tinned meat

Heat treatments
Micro-organisms cannot survive at very high temperatures so heat treatments can be
an effective method of ensuring food is safe. However, further action – such as sealing
the food in sterile containers – is required to prevent re-growth of any harmful
organisms. The two main heat treatments used are sterilisation and pasteurisation.
Sterilisation is used in the canned food industry and in the treatment of milk. In the
canning process, food is prepared and sealed into cans before being subjected to high
temperatures. For low acid food, temperatures used will be between 115 °C and 125 °C.
Cans need to be heated for sufficient time to ensure that every piece of has remained
at the required temperature for at least three minutes. This will achieve what is known
as ‘botulinum cook’ which kills the bacteria Clostridium botulinum.
The temperature required for sterilisation depends upon the size of the can and the
type of food it contains. Larger cans, with denser contents, will require longer cooking
times to ensure that all micro-organisms are destroyed. The addition of curing salts to
some foods before they are canned can improve the process. Curing salts added to
tinned ham, for example, will prevent the growth of bacteria so it is possible to reduce
the heat required for sterilisation. This is useful because excessive heat can cause
shrinkage of the meat.
Canned foods can be kept at room temperature for long periods as long as the cans
remain sealed and undamaged. Once cans are opened, their contents should be
treated as perishable foods.
Two different methods are used to sterilise milk. The continuous flow sterilisation
process heats milk to between 105 °C and 110 °C for 20 to 40 minutes. This destroys all
micro-organisms and most spores but affects the flavour and nutritional value of the
milk. Milk sterilised in this way will keep for at least a week without being refrigerated.
Ultra heat treatment (UHT) heats the milk to 132 °C for one second, which kills all
micro-organisms and their spores. The advantages of this process are that the flavour
and nutritional value of the milk are not much affected and the shelf life is considerably
lengthened. UHT or ‘long life’ milk can be kept for at least six months if unopened.

49
 Food Hygiene
Pasteurisation involves the use of moderate heat to destroy organisms and improve
the shelf life of foods. Most commonly used for milk, the method is also used for liquid
egg, ice-cream mix and meats. The process does not kill all micro-organisms.
Pathogenic bacteria are destroyed, but spoilage organisms and spores remain.
Pasteurised foods will require refrigeration in order to prevent new contaminating
organisms from growing. Two methods of pasteurisation are used for milk. The holder
process holds the milk at between 62.8 °C and 65.6 °C for 30 minutes, then rapidly
cools it to below 10 °C. The ‘high temperature short time process’ heats milk to 71.7 °C
for 15 seconds then cools it to below 10 °C.

FIGURE 3.8

132°C U.H.T
110°C
Sterilization
105°C

71.7°C Pasteurization (short-time)

65.6°C
Pasteurization (holding)
62.8°C

Different heat treatments are used for milk

Reducing temperature
Reducing the temperature of foods generally slows down or stops the growth of micro-
organisms. It also slows down the natural spoilage and decay of food, thereby
increasing its shelf life. Once the temperature rises again, the organisms will start to
grow. Foods can be frozen or chilled. Frozen foods are held at less than 0 °C and chilled
foods at between 0 °C and 5 °C.
Freezing controls the growth of micro-organisms in two ways. Firstly, the low
temperature slows the growth rate, and secondly, the water in the food turns to ice,
making it unavailable to the organisms as moisture. Food needs to be frozen quickly to
preserve its texture and appearance. If it is frozen too slowly, large ice crystals form
which damage the cell structure of the food. Quick freezing involves reducing the
temperature of food from 0 °C to –4 °C within a very short period (10 minutes to 2
hours, depending on the food). This is the range of temperatures at which most ice
crystals form and quick freezing ensures that only small crystals are formed which
cause little damage to the food.
The food is prepared prior to freezing by removing unwanted parts and, sometimes, by
blanching (rapidly heating for a short time). It will then be frozen using one of the
following methods:
❚ Plate freezing – food, for example fish, is compressed between plates filled with
refrigerant.
❚ Air blast freezing – a blast of cold air is blown over the food, which is often on a
conveyor belt.

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 Control measures
❚ Fluidised bed freezing – a blast of cold air is blown upwards through a moving mesh
on which the food is placed. This method is used for small foods such as peas.
❚ Immersion freezing – the food is placed into the refrigerant. The refrigerant used
depends on the food being frozen. Brine may be used for fish, and sugar solutions
for fruit and vegetables. Liquid nitrogen is commonly used in modern freezing
processes.
Foods are chilled at between 0 °C and 4 °C. Refrigerators, chill cabinets and chill rooms
are used to maintain the temperatures of chilled foods. Micro-organism growth is slowed
down at these temperatures, although there is concern that some pathogens can still
reproduce. These include Listeria, and various moulds, for example Penicillium.
In cook–chill methods, food is cooked then rapidly chilled to less than 3 °C within 90
minutes. Chilled foods need to be refrigerated until they are used and re-heated to at
least 70 °C just prior to serving. Chilled foods can be kept for up to five days.
Cook–freeze methods are similar to cook–chill systems except food is frozen instead of
being chilled. This gives a longer shelf life – up to 12 months – but there are problems
in maintaining the quality of the food, in ensuring that foods are evenly frozen and in
thawing products thoroughly before use.
‘Sous-vide’ catering uses a combination of preserving methods to improve the safety
and extend the shelf life of food. Raw or partially cooked food is packed into vacuum-
sealed plastic pouches and pasteurised. The pouches are chilled until required, then re-
heated by dropping the bags in boiling water. The pouches can be kept in refrigerated
conditions for up to three weeks and give a high quality product. Care is needed to
ensure that the acidity level of the food in the pouches is below pH 4.5 so that the
growth of Clostridium botulinum is prevented.

Excluding oxygen
Many micro-organisms require oxygen in order to grow and reproduce, so by excluding
oxygen – by vacuum packing for example – their growth can be inhibited. The method
is most effective in controlling moulds and spoilage organisms and is used for hard
cheeses and cured meats. It is important to realise that not all bacteria require oxygen
and those such as Clostridium botulinum will grow in vacuum packs if the acidity level
is above pH 4.5.
Oxygen can also be excluded by packing the foods using different gases. Increasing the
levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide and reducing oxygen will inhibit the growth of
many micro-organisms. Fish and meat products are packed in this way which is known
as ‘Controlled or Modified Atmosphere Packing’ (CAP/MAP). Foods packaged in this way
must, by law, be identified on the label by the term ‘packaged in a protective
atmosphere’.

Irradiation
Irradiation exposes food to ionising radiation, usually in the form of gamma rays or
beams of electrons. The ionising radiation transfers energy to the food particles,
generating electrically charged particles which prevent the micro-organisms from
growing and reproducing. The method also kills insects. The method can be used on a
wide variety of foods though not all foods. It is particularly useful for grains and spices.
There are regulations relating to dosage rates and a licence is required from the
Ministry for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food to carry out the process.

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 Food Hygiene

STUDENT ACTIVITY 14
Processes used in preservation of food can be split into three types:
❚ those that destroy any micro-organisms and then prevent re-growth by
sealing the food in protective packaging
❚ those that limit the growth of micro-organisms by removing one of the
growth requirements
❚ those that limit the growth of bacteria by the addition of chemical
preservatives.
Some methods use a combination of the different processes. Identify and briefly
describe the processes used to control the growth of micro-organisms in the
food.

Control of food pests

In any food premises, steps should be taken to prevent pests gaining entry and
breeding. Once pests have infested premises, they are very difficult to remove.

DISCOURAGING PESTS
Rodents
Rodents can be discouraged by:
❚ ensuring there are no holes in walls, windows, drains, and around where cables or
pipes enter the building
❚ maintaining the areas outside the building by clearing waste and weeds that could
act as nest sites
❚ fixing metal kick plates on doors to prevent rodents gnawing holes
❚ restricting access to food and water by covering water tanks and storing food off the
floor.

Birds
Birds can be discouraged by:
❚ making all openings into the building bird-proof and filling all holes. Opening may
include windows, ventilation apertures and roof spaces
❚ covering waste and clearing spillage of food.

Insects
Insects can be discouraged by:
❚ keeping doors and windows screened or closed
❚ covering all foods in preparation areas and storing food in covered containers
❚ keeping all food preparation and toilets and washing areas clean and free from
waste, cleaning up spillage immediately
❚ transferring all waste – food and any packaging or other materials – to bins as soon
as possible

52
 Control measures
❚ keeping waste in covered bins, whether inside or outside the premises and ensuring
they are emptied frequently
❚ placing dustbins off the ground
❚ checking all incoming food for signs of infestation.
Staff should be aware of the signs of infestation, remain vigilant and report any
suspicions of infestation to management.

FIGURES 3.9, 3.10, 3.11 Common pests

GETTING RID OF PESTS

If pests do gain access to and infest food premises, they will need to be destroyed. This
should normally be carried out by experts. They will first assess the extent of the
problem before deciding how it should be dealt with.
Infestations will often affect adjoining properties and all properties will need to be
treated. Rodents, cockroaches and ants are particularly difficult to eradicate and may
require that the premises be closed down during treatment.
The usual method of eradication is by use of chemicals, which can be a hazard in
themselves. It is important that they are properly used by trained professionals.
Insecticides can be used to kill flying and crawling insects, though they will not kill the
eggs of cockroaches. Generally, a second application will be required to kill the newly
hatched cockroaches. Electrified ultra violet lights are used in food premises to kill
flying insects. Poisons based on anticoagulants are normally used to kill rats and mice.
They stop the blood from clotting and cause internal bleeding which is fatal.
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 Food Hygiene

STUDENT ACTIVITY 15
Explain which areas in any food premises are most likely to attract pests and
why.

Chapter review
This chapter has looked at how the hazards associated with food can be properly
controlled. We have looked at general controls for reducing risks from micro-biological,
chemical and physical risks. We have considered how pests can be excluded and
controlled. We have considered ways of storing and preserving foods to ensure their
safety. The next chapter looks at supervisory issues in food premises.

Multiple-choice questions
1 How does freezing work as a method of food preservation?
A It kills all the bacteria
B It reduces bacteria to a safe level
C It stops bacteria reproducing temporarily
D It stops bacteria reproducing permanently

2 Which of the following statements is true in relation to cooling foods?

A They should be cooled quickly and stored at room temperature
B They should be cooled quickly and stored at below 8 °C
C They should be cooled slowly and stored at room temperature
D They should be cooled in a freezer then allowed to return to room temperature

3 Which of the following statements is true in relation to stock rotation?

A Foods purchased first should be used first
B Foods purchased first should be used last
C Foods purchased last should be used first
D Foods can be used in any order

54
 Control measures
4 Which of the following is not a method of preserving food?
A Cooling
B Drying
C Canning
D Irradiation

5 Which of the following best reflects the temperature at which food in hot holding
cabinets should be kept?
A below 63 °C
B above 63 °C
C below 75 °C
D above 75 °C

6 Which of the following is true about stacking a refrigerator?

A Raw foods should always be stored on a higher shelf than cooked foods
B Raw foods should never be stored in a refrigerator
C Raw foods should be stored at the top of the refrigerator
D Raw foods should be stored on a lower shelf than cooked foods

7 What is the main reason for not putting hot foods into a freezer with frozen food?
A Frozen foods may contaminate the hot food with bacteria
B The hot food may contaminate the frozen food with bacteria
C The hot food will raise the temperature of the freezer
D The freezer will cool the hot food too quickly

8 Which of the following is an appropriate temperature for a freezer?

A –18 °C
B –15 °C
C –7 °C
D –2 °C

9 How should flour be stored?

A In its original packaging
B In lidded bins
C In a suitable cupboard
D In a warm dry place

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 Food Hygiene
10 Which of the following could survive treatment with insecticide?
A Crawling insects
B Flying insects
C Cockroaches
D Cockroach eggs

Short-answer questions
1 Explain how temperature can help to control the growth of micro-organisms.
2 Describe suitable storage conditions for the following items: milk, flour, vegetables,
frozen meat.
3 Describe the checks that should be made on incoming deliveries of food items and
explain the reasons for these checks.
4 Explain how the different heat treatments can help in ensuring food safety.
5 Explain how pests can be prevented and eliminated from food premises.

56
4 Supervisory issues
This chapter looks at the supervisor’s role in food hygiene. You will learn
about:
❚ the supervisor’s role in the management of food hygiene
❚ the principles and application of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP) systems
❚ the functions of the Industry Guides to Good Hygiene Practice
❚ the importance and principles of good standards of personal hygiene
❚ the importance and methods of good food hygiene and safety training
for food handlers
❚ the principles for selecting hygienic food premises, designing suitable
layouts, and installing appropriate equipment
❚ the importance and methods of cleaning and maintaining food
premises.

In previous chapters, you learned about the different risks to food safety. You should
understand the importance of minimising those risks. Supervisors in food premises have
a legal and moral responsibility to ensure that food is prepared in hygienic conditions.
Recent legislation has led to a much more pro-active approach to hygiene management
in food premises. Possible hazards should be identified before food safety is affected.
Procedures and processes for ensuring food safety must be properly monitored. Most
workplaces will have written guidelines and policies relating to food hygiene. Staff will be
expected to follow these guidelines and policies. It is important that staff are trained in
food hygiene and in specific procedures relating to their workplace. In this chapter, we
will consider the supervisor’s role in relation to a number of key areas.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

Systems (HACCP)
It is important for any food business to identify possible areas of risk and minimise or
control them. This is not just out of consideration for their customers, it is also a legal
requirement. HACCP is an approach that has been developed to systematically identify
food hazards and take action to prevent, minimise or remedy them. There are other
approaches, but HACCP is the recommended one and the one used by most food-
related businesses in the UK. The aim of HACCP is to focus on potential problems and
put in place specific control measures to prevent them occurring. An appropriately
qualified person should carry out the analysis.
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 Food Hygiene

HACCP PRINCIPLES
The approach has seven principles:

1 Identify the hazards and assess the risks

The first stage is to assess the risk of any hazard occurring in the food-handling
processes. This can be done by watching each stage in the food-handling processes.
Assessment should cover micro-biological, physical and chemical hazards.

Definitions
Risk: the likelihood that a hazard will occur.

2 Identify critical control points

The next stage is to identify the points in the processes at which hazards can be
effectively controlled. These are called the ‘critical control points’. The critical control
points might be food-handling areas, processes, or practices and procedures which, if
not properly controlled, could present risks to the safety of the food.

3 Establish limits for action

Limits need to be set on each of the controls. These will allow staff to make decisions
about the safety of food items. Further action needs to be taken when anything occurs
that is outside the limits. For example, if freezer temperatures rise above –18 °C, action
needs to be taken to protect or use the frozen foods.

4 Monitor the controls

It’s no good identifying controls if they are not properly monitored. The method of
monitoring will depend on the control but might include observation, checking
temperatures, checking acidity, checking times, or even taking samples. Monitoring will
normally be carried out on batches of food rather than individual food items.

5 Taking corrective action

Monitoring food items should identify areas where the controls are not working. In
these areas, action may need to be taken to stop any risks to foods. Action might
include discarding some foods, and improving procedures or equipment.

6 Verify the procedure

Two heads are better than one! An appropriate person should be appointed to carry out
the assessment of risks. To ensure they have considered all aspects of the food-
handling processes, someone else should confirm their findings. This might be another
person involved in the business or the local environmental health officer.

7 Documenting the process

Any information about the risk analysis and monitoring process should be accurately
recorded. It can help managers analyse the situation if something goes wrong and can
also be used to show that the organisation has taken all possible actions to preserve
the safety of food. This can be useful in evidence if a legal problem occurs.

58
 Supervisory issues

FIGURE 4.1

Identify hazards and assess risks

Take corrective action

Document the process

Verify the process

Monitor controls

Identify critical control points

Establish limits for action

HACCP

IMPLEMENTING HACCP
The implementation of HACCP will depend upon the type and size of food business, but
there are some basic steps which will need to be taken in most cases.

Planning
The introduction of HACCP should be carefully planned. This will help to ensure that
interruptions to normal work are minimised, and that staff have time to adjust to new
procedures. Staff support is essential if the system is to work effectively.

Appointment of suitable persons

A suitably qualified person should be asked to take charge of the inspection procedure.
Managers, particularly in larger establishments, may wish to use a small team of people
with experience of different areas of the business to ensure that all aspects are properly
covered.

Documenting operations
All operations should be documented. This involves identifying and describing all food-
handling operations. Processes can be documented by use of a flowchart. Computer
software is now available to make the flowcharting of operations easier.
The flowchart in Figure 4.2 shows the operations involved in making an omelette.

59
 Food Hygiene

FIGURE 4.2
3XUFKDVH
HJJVDQG
RLO

6WRUH
HJJVDQG
RLO

3UHSDUH
HJJV

&RRN
RPHOHWWH

6HUYHRPHOHWWH
Making an omelette

STUDENT ACTIVITY 16
Draw a flowchart of food-handling operations for making a ham sandwich.

Introducing HACCP
When the above steps have been completed, the appointed person(s) works through
the HACCP principles. This will involve identifying hazards, assessing risks, identifying
controls, setting limits, designing procedures, appointing responsible persons for
inspection and monitoring, and designing recording systems. For each stage in food
handling, they should consider what happens to the food, what are the likely
contaminants, and what will happen to the food next. This will help them to decide the
controls required to ensure that food moves to the next stage in an appropriate state.
The team will need to decide, for each stage, whether the hazard can be eliminated or
minimised at that point or at a later stage.
Table 4.1 shows the hazards, controls and monitoring checks required for the
processes involved in making an omelette.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 17
For the ham sandwich flowchart you constructed in the last activity, prepare a
table showing hazards, controls and monitoring checks.

60
 Supervisory issues
Table 4.1 Making an omelette

Steps in the Hazards Controls Monitor

process What can go wrong? What can I do about it? How can I check?
Purchase of eggs • Bought ingredients • Use reputable suppliers • Check delivery vehicles
and oil contaminated for eggs • Check date marks
with bacteria, mould or Use eggs with ‘lion’ • Check temperatures
foreign bodies standard mark • Check food condition
• Ingredients could be • Check goods on receipt
contaminated during for damage
delivery
• Ingredients could be
at inappropriate
temperature on delivery
Store eggs and • Contamination could • Store eggs in the fridge • Check storage
oil take place during • Use proper stock rotation temperatures
storage – First in, First out • Check storage conditions
• Cross-contamination • Store oil in cool, dry place
could take place
during storage
Prepare eggs • Contamination or cross- • Limit handling • Visual checks on food
contamination from • Good personal hygiene of areas, food handlers, etc.
other foods, food food handlers • Cleaning schedules
handlers, utensils or • Food handlers properly
equipment trained
• Surfaces and utensils clean
• Use clean bowls and
utensils to prepare eggs
Cook omelette • Survival of harmful • Make sure eggs are cooked • Visual check
bacteria through • Cooking times
Serve omelette • Contamination before • Serving areas clean • Visual checks of food,
serving • Food served immediately food areas and procedures
• Good personal hygiene (check food not left before
of serving staff serving)
• No contact between raw
and cooked foods

Checking the system

Once the system is in place, checks should be made to ensure that it is operating
properly, and that staff are aware of their responsibilities. Full reviews of the system
should be carried out periodically to ensure all procedures are working as intended.
Modifications may need to be made especially where changes in processes have taken
place or where the procedures are unworkable for some reason. Note that these checks
are separate from the general monitoring that will take place on a day-to-day basis.
Businesses such as food processing plants will find the introduction of HACCP relatively
straightforward. It is likely that the raw materials are not very varied and processing is
standardised. It is harder for many catering establishments who may deal with a wide
range of different foods – some raw, some ready to eat – and processes such as
thawing, preparing, cooking, storing, serving. Table 4.2 shows examples of the hazards
that can occur in these types of establishment and the actions that can be taken to
control them. (Note that the table is not meant to be exhaustive, but highlights
common hazards.)
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 Food Hygiene
Table 4.2 Suitable controls in food-handling operations

Stage Hazard Risks Actions

Purchase • Incoming deliveries already • Food already • Purchase from reputable
contaminated, or damaged contaminated with suppliers
during delivery pathogens • Agree delivery temperatures
• Temperatures may not • Growth of pathogens with suppliers
comply with legal
requirements
Receipt • Temperatures may not • Growth of pathogens • Check temperatures on arrival
comply with legal • Spoilage of food has and reject any items not at
requirements begun required temperatures
• May be close to, or out of • Micro-biological, • Check best before/use by dates
date physical space or • Check packaging for damage
• Damaged packaging or chemical contaminants and don’t accept damaged
foodstuffs (e.g. blown cans, goods
cracked eggs)
Storage • Temperatures may not • Growth of pathogens • Check storage temperatures
comply with legal • Cross-contamination frequently to ensure they are
requirements • Spoiled foods within correct range
• Raw and cooked foods • Physical/chemical • Store raw and cooked foods
stored together contamination separately
• Out of date foods at back • Use proper stock rotation
of storage areas system
• Contamination by non-food • Store non-food items
items separately
Preparation • Food kept too long at room • Growth of pathogens • Keep food at room temperature
temperature • Cross-contamination for minimum time
• Handling of raw and cooked • Physical contamination • Wash hands between handling
foods without washing hands from damaged raw and cooked foods
• Infrequent washing of hands equipment • Wash hands frequently
• Multiple uses for sinks, • Separate sinks for dishes, food
equipment etc leading to and hands
cross-contamination • Keep equipment and utensils
• Dirty and badly maintained clean and in good repair
equipment and utensils • Ensure water supply is not
• Foods washed in contaminated
contaminated water
Cooking • Undercooked food, • Growth of pathogens • Cook or re-heat for appropriate
especially meat • Pathogens not destroyed times at appropriate
• Temperatures for cooking or • Cross-contamination temperatures in order to cook
re-heating not adequate to • Physical contaminants through and kill organisms
destroy all pathogens from clothes/body • Allow time to thaw frozen foods
• Frozen food not properly of handlers fully before cooking
thawed • Use gloves to handle cooked
• Handling of cooked foods foods where possible
• Handling raw foods and • Wearing of proper protective
cooked foods clothing
• Surfaces and equipment
used for raw and cooked
foods
• Handlers improperly dressed

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 Supervisory issues
Table 4.2 Suitable controls in food-handling operations – continued

Stage Hazard Risks Actions

Cooling • Unsuitable containers used • Growth of pathogens • Use shallow containers that
for cooling • Production of toxins are not too large for cooling
• Foods not cooled quickly • Use a blast chiller if available
enough or cool as quickly as possible
• Design or temperatures of • Check temperatures and
chill cabinets inadequate instructions for use of chill
cabinets
Hot holding • Hot holding cabinets not • Growth of pathogens • Keep food at temperatures
hot enough • Production of toxins above 63 °C to prevent growth
• Foods held for too long at of organisms
wrong temperature • Don’t hold foods for long
periods
Chilled • Wrong temperatures used • Growth of pathogens • Ensure chilled storage is at 8 °C
storage to hold perishable food or below, or lower if required by
• Food left uncovered in specific foods
display cabinets • Cover foods

Serving • Foods left too long before • Growth of pathogens • Serve foods immediately on
serving • Production of toxins cooking, re-heating or removal
• Cross-contamination from chilled storage

Guides to good practice

There are a number of guides published to help managers identify and eliminate
hazards in their food businesses. The DoH produces a general guide to food hazards
and a booklet called Assured Safe Catering which explains how the principles of HACCP
can be introduced into a business. Managers should also obtain the relevant Industry
Guides to Good Hygiene Practice. These have been produced by trade associations
along guidelines set out by the DoH to provide a framework of good practice within
which businesses can operate. Managers should also be aware of new issues arising in
relation to their own area of work and obtain any relevant information including
government reports.

Personal hygiene
Most food-related illness is due to people. It may be they are unknowing carriers of an
illness that can be transmitted by food, or that they are not careful enough in the way
they handle and prepare food. The human body acts as a habitat and as a vehicle for all
sorts of micro-organisms, some of which are harmless and others which are not. Good
personal hygiene will help to minimise the risks of contaminating food and is the legal
responsibility of every food handler. Supervisors and managers need to train and
motivate staff and set the right sort of example to them.
It is important that food handlers are generally clean and tidy, wear appropriate
protective clothing and avoid wearing heavy make-up, nail varnish, hair ornaments and
jewellery which could harbour micro-organisms or fall off and contaminate food.
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 Food Hygiene

STUDENT ACTIVITY 18
List the ways in which a food handler might transfer micro-organisms to food.

Handwashing
The most likely vehicle for micro-organisms is the hands. Hands should be washed
frequently, and handlers should avoid touching food with the hands as much as
possible.

Handwashing is generally one of the most neglected areas of hygienic food

DID operations. It’s no good taking all the right steps to protect food if you then
YOU prepare it with dirty hands! If in doubt – wash them!
KNOW

?
Hands should always be washed:
❚ before starting work and handling food
❚ between handling raw and cooked foods
❚ after handling raw food
❚ before handling cooked foods
❚ after handling dirty equipment
❚ after going to the toilet
❚ after smoking, drinking or eating
❚ after combing or touching the hair
❚ after sneezing, blowing the nose, or touching the face
❚ after handling refuse
❚ after cleaning or touching cleaning chemicals.
Hands should be washed with hot water and un-perfumed soap and dried thoroughly
using paper or roller towels. Liquid soap is preferable as bar soap can lead to
contamination.

UNHYGIENIC HABITS
Food handlers also need to avoid any bad habits that could lead to contamination such
as:
❚ picking their nose
❚ biting their nails
❚ licking their fingers
❚ spitting
❚ dipping fingers into food

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 Supervisory issues
❚ smoking
❚ coughing or sneezing over food
❚ blowing on food
❚ using a spoon to test food but failing to wash it between tastings
❚ blowing on glass or silverware to polish it
❚ eating and drinking in food-handling areas.

Staff illness
It is important that staff do not handle food when suffering from certain symptoms or
illnesses. The DoH has issued guidance about illness of food handlers and the actions
that should be taken (Food Handlers: Fitness to Work). Staff should be made aware that
they need to report the following symptoms:
❚ food poisoning or related symptoms, e.g. vomiting and diarrhoea suffered by
yourself or a member of your family
❚ heavy colds or flu
❚ cuts, wounds or spots that have become septic.

You should report vomiting and diarrhoea in family members to an employer

DID even if you are not feeling ill. It is possible to be a carrier without having the
YOU symptoms yourself.
KNOW

?
Handlers also need to inform their superiors if they suspect that, as a result of an
earlier illness, they might be a carrier of a disease that can be transmitted by food.
They should tell their doctor that they are a food handler when being treated for any
illness involving stomach or bowel problems. Doctors will be able to identify risk in
specific cases.
Managers should ensure that staff suffering from any of these symptoms are removed
from food-handling duties. The DoH recommends that managers in food businesses
notify the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control and the local Environmental
Health Department if any member of staff reports food-borne illness or infection.

First aid
Skin wounds should generally be covered with a clean, waterproof dressing. Dressings
for use by food handlers are generally dark blue to minimise the risk of them falling
unnoticed into foods. Employers should provide antiseptic wipes for cleaning wounds.
There should be a trained first aider who can apply immediate aid for anyone injured or

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 Food Hygiene
taken ill. Training should include how to deal with cuts and other wounds, burns and
chemical irritation of skin or eyes.

Protective clothing
Staff dress in a food-handling area should always be appropriate. They should wear
appropriate protective clothing to prevent food becoming contaminated. Staff should
not wear jewellery, perfume or nail varnish. Protective clothing includes overalls, hair
nets, head coverings and, where appropriate, gloves and aprons. It should always be
kept clean.

PHOTOGRAPH 4.1

Appropriate dress in the kitchen is important

Some measures to protect food from contamination by handlers include:

❚ covering hair and beards to prevent hair, and the micro-organisms that live on it,
from coming into contact with food
❚ wearing aprons, either disposable or washable, where dirty tasks are undertaken or
additional protection is required, for example in butchery trades when cutting up
meat or poultry
❚ wearing rubber or disposable gloves for further protection for specific food-handling
and cleaning tasks
❚ wearing non-slip footwear and waterproof footwear in wet areas.
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 Supervisory issues
All clothing should be light coloured to show dirt, washable, in good condition and
should only be worn in the food-handling area and never outside. Torn or frayed
clothing does not only look untidy but can present food hazards especially if fastenings
or pieces of clothing could become detached and contaminate food. Specifically,
waiting staff should wear clothing that distinguishes them from other staff and chefs’
clothing should completely cover their own underclothes. Clean and dirty clothing
should be stored in separate places provided by the company.
As with personal hygiene, managers should set the right example to staff by wearing
appropriate clothing themselves. Staff should receive appropriate training in hygienic
practices and these practices should be monitored as part of the HACCP system. Staff
should always be advised when their appearance, clothing or habits are inappropriate
for food handling.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 19
Explain the hazards that might arise from incorrect dress in food-handling areas.

Hygiene training
By law, all food handlers are required to have some food hygiene training. Managers
should ensure that training is updated at appropriate intervals or when changes in role,
tasks or processes require it.
Training should cover all general aspects of food hygiene including the causes and
prevention of food-borne illness. Staff should understand enough about microbiology to
realise why the procedures they are required to follow are necessary. Staff will always be
more motivated to follow procedures if they have an understanding of the reasons
behind them.
Managers should ensure that all training is carried out at the appropriate level, using
methods suited to the staff who are being trained. For example, technical and scientific
terms should be avoided until it is ascertained that staff are familiar with these. Updates
will be required at regular intervals and also in relation to specific new roles, processes,
tasks or products. As well as training courses, ‘on the job’ instruction will help staff
understand the importance of hygienic practices specifically in relation to their own
role. For small businesses, local environmental health offices and expert training
organisations may be able to offer help and advice on training.
Managers and supervisors will need to ensure that records are kept of the level,
coverage and date of training for each member of staff. This will provide evidence that
the legal obligation to train food handlers has been met, and will provide a reference
for keeping training up to date and relevant.

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 Food Hygiene

As a manager or supervisor in a food business, you would be responsible for

DID making sure all your staff were properly trained. There are lots of organisations
YOU that provide basic food hygiene training. You could try local colleges or
KNOW
specialist training organisations. Qualifications in food hygiene are offered by a

? number of awarding bodies such as the Chartered Institute of Environmental

Health and the Royal Institute of Public Health.

Design and construction of food

premises and equipment
Food premises are defined in legislation as any site where food is prepared, stored or
sold. This includes a wide variety of organisations at every stage of the food chain –
production, processing, preparing, serving and selling.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 20
For each of the following, give two examples of food premises which might
carry out these activities with food:
❚ production
❚ processing
❚ preparation
❚ serving
❚ selling.

Most new food businesses will set up in existing premises converted for the purpose. A
few will be in the position of designing and building food premises from scratch.
Whatever the situation, food hygiene is a principal concern when designing and
constructing food premises. Every different food business will present its own
challenges and problems in relation to design, but there are mandatory requirements
in the hygienic design of food premises which need to be applied. Up-to-date
regulations and guidance on design and construction of food premises should always
be consulted before any construction or improvement work takes place. The legal
requirements are explained in Chapter 5. In this chapter we will consider the principles
of hygienic design.

SITE
Considerations when choosing a suitable site for any food premises include the
following:
❚ access to the site for staff, for deliveries of raw materials, distribution of the product,
where appropriate, and removal of waste
❚ provision of mains gas, electricity and telephone as well as a clean water supply and
sufficient sewage disposal facilities

68
 Supervisory issues
❚ possible contamination by industrial fumes, dust or smoke, refuse sites, derelict
areas, or by flooding.
Water supplies need to be appropriate to usage. In particular, water which will be used
for drinking, washing and preparing food, and cleaning food contact surfaces and
equipment must comply with microbiological and toxicological standards set out by law.
Hot and cold running water should be available and hot water should be at least 60 °C
for washing surfaces and equipment, and 50 °C for hand washing. Where water has to
be stored in tanks, it will need to be checked regularly for contamination by micro-
organisms. Tanks should be covered, regularly emptied and cleaned, and may need to
be chlorinated. Water not intended for drinking should not be allowed to contaminate
drinking water or food preparation areas.
Premises should be sited where risks to hygiene are minimised. In addition, the impact
of the food premises on the local area should be assessed, as this will avoid any
disputes at later dates. Food premises can be noisy operations and may operate at
unsociable hours and even throughout the night. Siting the premises where they will
cause minimum disruption to others might avoid complaints at a later date.

DESIGN
Design of premises should allow for hygienic operations. A good starting point in
design is to consider the critical control points relating to the specific food business.
Premises can then be designed to make it easier to put controls in place.
Considerations should be as follows:
❚ Work flow – food should move from its raw, dirty state, to the finished state in which it
is sold or served to customers. Ideally, design of premises should take account of this
progression and physically move food from its raw state at one end of the premises,
through processing areas, to its finished state at the other end. Keeping clean and
dirty processes apart will help to reduce the risk of cross-contamination, as will
keeping cooked foods separate from raw ingredients. Where possible, physical
barriers should be used. Work flow should allow for food to move quickly through
the processing stages, minimising the time that it is left at room temperature.

FIGURE 4.3

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'HOLYHULHVRI 5DZIRRG &RRNLQJ )LQLVKHG
6WRUDJHDUHD VDOHWR
UDZPDWHULDOV SUHSDUDWLRQ DUHDV IRRGV
FXVWRPHUV

:DVWH

Premises should be designed around work flow

❚ Space – food premises should have sufficient space for each separate food-
processing task. Premises that are overcrowded with insufficient space for equipment
and for staff to work, encourage unhygienic habits and insufficient care over cleaning

69
 Food Hygiene
and maintenance routines. Consideration should also be given to providing extra
storage and workspace to deal with contingencies. Premises should be sufficient to
cope with peak periods, unusually high workloads and special events.
❚ Cleaning – premises will need to be frequently cleaned and design should allow for
this. Surfaces should be constructed from materials that are hygienic and easy to
clean, and all areas should be easily accessible for cleaning.
❚ Pests – we looked at pest control in Chapter 3 and saw that the best way to minimise
risks was to avoid infestation. Premises should be designed to restrict access to
rodents, insects and birds. Areas outside the building, especially waste areas, should
be kept clean, and clear of weeds.
❚ Storage areas – suitable storage areas will need to be provided for each different
type of food used on the premises. This may include dry storage areas, and cold
stores. Storage will also need to be provided for cleaning and maintenance materials
and equipment, refuse, and the personal belongings, clothes, etc. of staff.
Refrigerators and cold stores will need to be sited in areas with sufficient ventilation
and away from heat sources. All storage should give easy access for cleaning.
❚ Hygiene facilities – sufficient and appropriate toilet and washing facilities need to be
provided for all members of staff by law. The number of type of facilities will depend
on the size and activities of the business. General rules for toilet facilities include
separation from food preparation areas by a ventilated passage or space; notices in
toilets to remind staff to wash their hands, wash hand basins with hot and cold water
and suitable soap; hot air hand dryers, roller towels or paper towels. Hand washing
and drying facilities also need to be provided close to food preparation areas. Staff
changing facilities need to be situated with easy access to food preparation areas to
minimise the risk of contamination.
❚ Ventilation – food premises need to be well ventilated to reduce the build up of heat
and odours. In most cases natural ventilation will not be sufficient and some
mechanical help is required. This might include oven canopies, fans and filter
systems. Any ventilation openings will need screens to prevent pests gaining entry.
❚ Lighting – good lighting is essential to make working conditions safer, to allow
thorough cleaning, and to discourage pests – particularly rodents who dislike bright
lights.
❚ Refuse disposal – premises design will need to allow for the hygienic disposal of all
refuse. Waste disposal units will help disposal of some food waste. Other waste from
food areas should be collected in plastic sacks and removed from the area as soon
as possible. External waste storage areas should be paved, with lidded bins that are
raised above ground level. Facilities for washing the area will need to be available.

CONSTRUCTION
Buildings should be constructed of suitable materials and to a design that is waterproof
and minimises access for pests. Walls and foundations should be solidly built, avoiding
spaces which could harbour pests, and roof design should be such that it does not
provide roosting sites or pooled water which may attract birds. Internally all surfaces
should have non-absorbent coverings and be free from cracks and crevices in which dirt
could collect. They should be sealed at junctions between ceilings, walls and floors and
should be smooth to allow for easy cleaning. Specific considerations include:

70
 Supervisory issues
❚ Floor surfaces – should be hard-wearing, non-slip, and designed so that any water
drains away into drainage gullies.
❚ Drainage – gullies should be smooth and curved for ease of cleaning, and drains
should be able to cope at all work levels without overflowing. Grease traps will avoid
significant amounts of fat being discharged into the drainage system and grids.
Covers and traps on equipment drains will help hygiene and prevent access by
pests.
❚ Internal wall surfaces – should be easily cleaned and resistant to hot fat, or being
knocked by trolleys where appropriate. They should be light coloured to aid cleaning
and properly maintained so that there are no cracks.
❚ Ceilings – should also be washable and should be at a suitable height to allow
adequate ventilation. Where the processes produce steam, absorbent surfaces will
help to avoid condensation and dripping. Suspended ceilings should allow easy
access for inspection and cleaning.
❚ Doors – should be washable with durable surfaces, and fit closely to restrict access
for pests. They will need to open wide enough to move equipment and be self-
closing.

EQUIPMENT
Equipment in food premises may have to be moved and/or dismantled to allow for
thorough cleaning. Design of equipment and the areas where it is sited will need to
allow for these cleaning operations to take place. There should be sufficient equipment
to cope with the work levels and it should be of a suitable standard to cope with the
demands of industrial use. Domestic equipment will not normally be suitable.
Equipment should be designed so that:
❚ any surfaces do not react with food and drink or absorb any liquids
❚ it is easy to clean and there are no cracks or crevices where food could collect or
pests could hide
❚ it is easy to maintain and repair
❚ the food is protected from the external environment
❚ it is mobile, where possible, so it can be moved for cleaning.
Premises and equipment should be regularly checked for damage and wear, and well
maintained.

Cleaning
STUDENT ACTIVITY 21
Say why you think cleaning is important in food premises and list areas you
think should be regularly cleaned.

71
 Food Hygiene
Cleaning is an essential part of any food-related operation. Owners and managers of
these operations have a legal responsibility to ensure premises and equipment are kept
clean and in good repair, but everyone in food establishments needs to take some
responsibility for ensuring high standards of cleanliness are maintained. Food debris
can harbour pathogenic bacteria, contaminate food and attract pests; and dirty
premises are guaranteed to discourage customers. Cleaning and disinfecting will help
to reduce the hazards associated with food debris. Cleaning staff will carry out many
tasks, but all staff members should take some responsibility for ensuring that the
equipment and areas in which they work are clean. Cleaning is achieved by physical
effort – by people or machines – by the use of hot water, and by the use of chemicals.

Definitions
Cleaning: the process of removing dirt
Disinfection: destruction of micro-organisms to a level not hazardous to
health or likely to cause food spoilage

STAGES OF CLEANING AND DISINFECTION

There are a number of stages to the cleaning process, whether cleaning surfaces,
equipment or utensils.
1 Pre-clean – This involves removing any loose dirt and heavy soiling. Examples are
soaking cooking pots and pans, scraping plates, wiping down surfaces and sweeping
floors.
2 Clean – This stage involves washing the equipment, utensils or surfaces with hot
water and detergent. A suitable cloth or brush should be used in order to remove
grease and dirt effectively.
3 Rinse – The rinse stage is to remove any detergent and remaining dirt. Rinsing
should be done with hot water.
4 Disinfect – Disinfecting can be achieved with chemical disinfectants or hot water.
Chemical disinfectants should be appropriate for the purpose and the manufacturer’s
instructions must be followed. If disinfecting is done using hot water, the water
needs to be heated to above 82 °C. Disinfecting will ensure that micro-organisms are
reduced to safe levels.
5 Final rinse – The final rinse will make sure that any remaining detergents or cleaning
fluids are removed. It should be done using clean, hot water.
6 Dry – Air drying is the most hygienic method of drying. Drying cloths can spread
micro-organisms. If it is not possible to air dry, then use absorbent disposable
towels.
7 Clean and store cleaning equipment – Any brushes, cloths, mops, etc. used for
cleaning should be cleaned and disinfected. Disposable cloths should be thrown
away. All equipment and chemicals should be returned to their appropriate storage
areas.

72
 Supervisory issues

FIGURE 4.4
3UHFOHDQ

&OHDQ

5LQVH

'LVLQIHFW

Final rinse

'U\
Cleaning has a number of different stages

Not all surfaces and equipment require disinfection. Disinfection is appropriate for:
❚ food contact surfaces such as work surfaces and chopping boards
❚ hand contact surfaces such as door handles
❚ cleaning materials and equipment.
Cleaning should be carried out before dirt and food have had time to harden on the
surfaces as this will stop micro-organisms growing and multiplying, and make the job
easier.

CLEANING SCHEDULES
Every food-handling operation should have a written cleaning schedule. The cleaning
schedule should identify:
❚ all equipment, utensils, surfaces and areas that need cleaning and disinfection
❚ how often each of the above should be cleaned and disinfected
❚ when cleaning and disinfecting should be carried out in each case including during
food preparation, after food preparation and when spillage occurs
❚ the persons responsible for each cleaning task
❚ methods and materials that are to be used for each cleaning task, including the
amounts and types of chemicals to be used for each task
❚ any safety precautions that need to be considered with regard to the method of
cleaning, the items being cleaned and the cleaning chemicals and equipment used.
The objectives of a cleaning schedule are to ensure that cleaning is carried out as
efficiently as possible, follows a routine, and uses a minimum number of cleaning
chemicals. When preparing the schedule, the areas and equipment to be cleaned must
be considered so that appropriate cleaning materials are provided.
Equipment instructions should be checked to establish how each piece is to be cleaned.
Some equipment will need to be cleaned where it stands because it is too large and/or
difficult to dismantle. This is known as ‘cleaning-in-place’.
73
 Food Hygiene

Cleaning-in-place occurs particularly in the brewing, soft drinks and dairy

DID industries where the equipment cannot be dismantled every time cleaning is
YOU required. Special non-foaming detergents and disinfectants are used to clean
KNOW equipment and pipework by circulating them through the system. A basic

?
clean-in-place procedure will have the following stages:
❚ circulate cold water through the system to remove loose dirt
❚ circulate detergent to remove remaining dirt
❚ circulate disinfectant to destroy micro-organisms
❚ circulate clean cold water to remove any remaining disinfectant.

Managers will need to ensure that there are adequate cleaning staff and that they are
provided with appropriate materials and equipment. Cleaning operations should be
carefully planned and should not disrupt food production or contaminate food. All
cleaning staff should be aware of the following:
❚ all food should be removed from the area to be cleaned and stored in a suitable
place
❚ any electrical equipment should be switched off and disconnected before being
cleaned
❚ any chemicals should be used only according to the manufacturer’s instructions
❚ appropriate protective clothing should be worn for all cleaning tasks
❚ the set procedures for all cleaning tasks should be followed.

EQUIPMENT FOR CLEANING

Cloths and traditional string mops provide breeding grounds for bacteria and, if used,
need frequent washing and soaking in disinfectants. Sponge mops and brushes provide
a safer alternative for floors, and disposable cloths or specially designed wipers can be
used on surfaces. Different coloured equipment can be used for separate cleaning
areas to reduce the risk of cross-contamination. All equipment should be washed
between uses and sterilised.
Many food businesses now use dishwashing machines to clean pots, cutlery and
utensils, and glass washing machines are often used in pubs and restaurants. These
generally wash by spraying jets of water on to the contents, and usually rinse at above
82 °C to disinfect, though some glass washing machines use revolving brushes. Any
dried-on food will need to be removed before placing in the dishwasher. As with any
equipment, the manufacturer’s instructions should always be followed, recommended
detergents should be used, and machines should be regularly checked and serviced.
Where washing-up is carried out manually, the two sink system is most effective. One
sink is used for washing and the other for rinsing in hot water to disinfect. Washing
should use water at about 60 °C and the correct quantity of a suitable detergent. Rinsing
should be carried out at 82 °C or above and the water in the rinsing sink will need to be
replaced frequently to keep it at the correct temperature. Rubber gloves will protect
hands from the hot water. Soaking items for a short time may help to remove any food
that has dried. Pots, cutlery and utensils should be left to air dry as drying cloths can
carry bacteria.

74
 Supervisory issues

PHOTOGRAPH 4.2

A selection of cleaning materials

CLEANING CHEMICALS
Many different chemicals are used in cleaning and it is important that the right chemical
is used for each cleaning job. It is also important that they are used correctly and not
allowed to contaminate food. The use of chemicals for cleaning is controlled by the
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1994 which we will consider
along with other legislation in Chapter 5. Here we will look at the different chemical
cleaners and their uses.
Detergents are used to remove grease and dirt by enabling the grease to dissolve in
the water. They also soften the water, making it easier to use. They can be acid- or
alkali-based. Most general purpose detergents are alkaline. Acid detergents are usually
used for specific purposes. Detergents should never be mixed, and this can have quite
serious results where acids and alkali solutions are mixed as toxic fumes may be
released. Detergents will work better in hot water.
Strong acids and alkalis are sometimes used for special purpose cleaning:
❚ caustic soda (alkali) is used for oven cleaning as it will remove burnt-on grease
❚ strong acids such as sulphamic or phosphoric are used to remove limescale.
These strong acids and alkalis should never be allowed to come into contact with the
skin as they will cause severe irritation. Fumes can also irritate the eyes.
Disinfectants will destroy micro-organisms to an acceptable level but will not destroy
their spores. Water at 82 °C or above acts as a disinfectant. However, hot water cannot
75
 Food Hygiene
always be used so chemical disinfectants can help. These should be chosen with care
as some are poisonous and can taint food and corrode equipment. Hypochlorites are
most often used by food businesses; others include quaternary ammonium compounds
(QACs) and phenols. Table 4.3 gives information about chemical disinfectants.

Table 4.3 Chemical disinfectants

Hypochlorites Oxidising agents that kill germs by oxidising them. They kill bacteria and
destroy some spores, are harmless, and are cheap. Effectiveness is reduced by
too much food debris and hard water. They can corrode metals and have a short
shelf life.
QACs and diguanides Will kill bacteria, but not spores, and some micro-organisms can develop a
resistance to them. Effectiveness is reduced by too much food debris, hard
water and artificial materials. They have a longer shelf life than the
hypochlorites.
Phenols More effective against some bacteria, for example Staphylococcus aureus, than
others such as Salmonella. Do not destroy spores and are seriously inactivated
by large amounts of food debris and hard water. Also, can taint food.

Sanitisers are a combination of detergents and disinfectants and kill micro-organisms

while removing dirt. However, it is usually better to make two applications.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 22
List the responsibilities of managers and supervisors with regard to cleaning.

Chapter review
This chapter has looked at the supervisory aspects of food hygiene and safety. It is the
responsibility of managers and supervisors to ensure the hygiene of staff and premises.
In this chapter you have learned how managers can assess the risks and put controls in
place to reduce them. You have also considered aspects of personal hygiene, design of
premises and cleaning of premises. The next chapter introduces laws relating to food
hygiene and safety.

76
 Supervisory issues

Multiple-choice questions
1 Why should food handlers wear protective clothing?
A To prevent clothes from becoming contaminated
B To prevent food from becoming contaminated
C To protect own clothes from spills
D To keep them warm in cold storage areas

2 Why is it important to tell your employer about symptoms of food-related illness among
your family members even if you are not ill yourself?
A Because you could be a carrier of the illness without knowing
B Because you may become ill at work
C In case you need to go home suddenly
D In case it was caused by food prepared by you

3 In which of the following situations should you wash your hands?

A Before smoking a cigarette
B After cleaning
C Before handling raw eggs in their shells
D All of the above

4 Which of the following is important to consider when designing premises for food
handling?
A Adequate space for food preparation
B Separation of clean and dirty tasks
C Prevention of pest infestation
D All of the above

5 What is the main purpose of HACCP?

A To document food-handling operations
B To identify where food hygiene is going wrong
C To identify food hazards and prevent or minimise them
D To ensure food handlers comply with set procedures

77
 Food Hygiene
6 What is the purpose of disinfecting equipment, utensils or surfaces?
A To kill all micro-organisms
B To reduce micro-organisms to a safe level
C To remove surface dirt
D To remove food particles

7 What is the difference between cleaning and disinfecting?

A They are used for different areas and equipment
B Chemicals are used for disinfecting but not for cleaning
C Cleaning removes dirt and disinfecting reduces bacteria
D Cleaning removes dirt and disinfecting kills all bacteria

8 Which of the following would be the greatest risk to food safety?

A A broken finger
B A large bruise on the arm
C A broken fingernail
D A wound on the hand

9 Which of the following best describes the stages of cleaning and disinfection?
A Pre-clean, clean, rinse, disinfect, final rinse, dry
B Pre-clean, rinse, clean, disinfect, final rinse, dry
C Rinse, pre-clean, clean, disinfect, final rinse, dry
D Pre-clean, disinfect, rinse, clean, final rinse, dry

10 Why are wound dressings for food handlers coloured blue?

A To distinguish them from dressings for other people
B Because they have a special antibacterial coating
C So managers can see handlers are injured
D So they can be seen if they fall into food

78
 Supervisory issues

Short-answer questions
1 Explain what HACCP means and how it is used in the workplace.
2 Give three examples of critical control points in a food preparation or service situation
and identify appropriate measures to ensure food safety.
3 Describe the qualities of protective clothing for food handlers and the reasons that it is
worn.
4 Explain the importance of personal hygiene for food handlers and identify elements of
good personal hygiene.
5 Explain how cleaning should be carried out in food establishments and describe the
equipment and materials used.

79
 5 Food law
Sources of food law
UK law comes from a variety of sources. Laws about food hygiene come
from:
❚ European Directives
❚ Acts of the UK Parliament
❚ regulations
❚ Codes of Practice relating to food safety.
Each of these is described in more detail below.

FIGURE 5.1
European
Parliament

Directives

UK
Parliament

Laws

Local Government
authorities departments

Codes
of
Local Practice
by-laws
Regulations

The food industry

The sources of food hygiene law

80
 Food law

EUROPEAN DIRECTIVES
The UK is part of the European Union (EU). As such, it is subject to regulations made by
the European Commission and the Council of Ministers. Guidelines on food safety have
been in the form of European Directives. These instruct member states to introduce
laws or to change their existing laws to cover any areas agreed by the EU. European
Directives do not become law in this country until they have been confirmed by our
own Parliament.

ACTS OF PARLIAMENT
UK law is made by the UK Parliament. A ‘bill’ (a sort of draft of the law) is presented to
Parliament for consideration. It is voted on by the members of the House of Commons
and the House of Lords. It becomes law if a majority of votes are in favour.
Laws relating to food safety are usually ‘enabling’ acts. An enabling act sets out the
main principles of the required law but gives power to Government agencies to design
the detailed framework by which the law is put into practice. Government agencies
include the Civil Service and local authorities.

REGULATIONS
Acts of Parliament can authorise Government departments to draw up regulations.
Regulations explain the way that the Act is to be interpreted. These regulations then
become part of the law. This is useful because it means minor changes can be made
quickly to cover new situations without changes to the main legislation.

CODES OF PRACTICE
Under the Food Safety Act, Government departments can issue Codes of Practice that
explain how regulations will be enforced, and recommend standards for consistency of
enforcement.
The first Recommended International Code of Practice on the General Principles of
Food Hygiene was published in 1969 by the Joint Commission of the Food and
Agriculture Organisation and the World Health Organisation. The provisions of this
Code of Practice are now included in more recent food safety legislation.

LOCAL BY-LAWS
These are local laws made by local authorities and are only applicable in the
authorities’ local area. They must be approved by a minister before they become law.
In the late 1980s, there was much concern about food safety following a number of
food scares. The Government started to legislate to ensure food safety, at the same
time taking account of European Directives related to food safety. There are many
regulations relating to all areas of food safety. We will look at some of the more
common areas here.

81
 Food Hygiene

In 1988, Edwina Curry who was a junior health minister at that time, sparked
DID off a scare when she announced that most of the country’s egg production
YOU was infected with Salmonella. She lost her job over the announcement.
KNOW

?
The Food Safety Act 1990
The Food Safety Act was passed in 1990 in response to public concern over the safety
of food. The aim of the Act is to control food safety at all stages of production. It is a
criminal offence not to comply with the Act. The Act details powers of enforcement and
penalties for non-compliance. The Act is also an enabling Act, allowing ministers to
make regulations detailing requirements under the Act.
It is important that legislation is clear and cannot be misinterpreted so the Act contains
a definition of food. The definition of food under the Act includes any drinks, articles
and substances used for human consumption, or used as ingredients in the preparation
of food, as well as chewing gum and similar products, and fish that are eaten live, for
example, oysters.
The Act applies to any food supplied in the course of a business or offered as a prize or
reward. In case of any dispute, the Act states that it will be assumed that any foods
found on food premises, which would normally be consumed by humans, are for supply
to customers.

OFFENCES UNDER THE ACT

There are four main offences under the Act:
❚ making food injurious to health either deliberately or accidentally
❚ selling food that does not comply with food safety requirements being unfit for
human consumption or contaminated
❚ selling food which is not of the nature or substance or quality required by the
consumer
❚ falsely describing, advertising or labelling food and food products.

ENFORCEMENT OF THE ACT

Local environmental health officers enforce the Act. They are given the power to enter
food premises and take samples of food for analysis. Management and empoyees are
required to co-operate with officers.
Officers can gain entry at any reasonable time but must produce a document showing
authority if requested. Samples may be subjected to:
❚ chemical analysis to establish their contents in order to check labelling
❚ microbiological examination to check suitability for consumption.

82
 Food law

NOTICES AND ORDERS

Where they find a problem with food premises, environmental health officers can issue
the following notices and orders to the business owners.
❚ Improvement notices can be issued where there is a failure to comply with
hygiene or food processing regulations. An example might be where there was a
damaged work surface on which food was being prepared. The notice details how
the regulations have not been met, describes the actions required to meet
regulations, and gives a time limit for compliance. The owners can appeal against
improvement notices and request that they be allowed to take alternative actions to
those required by the notice.
❚ Prohibition orders are issued where the business owner has been convicted of an
offence under the Food Safety Act and where a magistrate believes that there is a
risk to public health. The order prevents the food business using the item, premises
or process causing the risk. So if the business failed to comply with a notice
requiring them to repair a work surface and the surface had deteriorated when the
inspector revisited, a prohibition order might be issued. A prohibition order can also
be served on an individual to ban them from running a food business for a minimum
of six months. The order must be displayed prominently on the premises.
❚ Emergency prohibition orders will be issued where an officer believes there is an
imminent risk of injury to health. The officer must then take the case before a
magistrate within three days to confirm the order. The business owners can attend
the hearing to put their case. If the court agrees with the officer, the premises or
part of them must remain closed until any required work has been carried out. The
order must be displayed on the premises in a conspicuous position. It will be lifted
when the local authority issues a certificate to say the matter has been resolved. An
emergency prohibition order might be issued where an inspector noticed infestation
by cockroaches on food premises.
In addition, the Secretary of State for Health or the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food (or relevant counterparts in Scotland and Wales) can make emergency control
orders. These stop the commercial operations of a food business and local
environmental health officers may be required to restrict the movement of food from
any business premises. One of these might be issued where the produce of a food
business was considered to be unsafe.

Emergency control orders are rarely issued. In 1998, Public Health Minister
DID Tessa Jowell signed the first ever order issued under the 1990 Act. It was
YOU issued to prevent the sale of cheese from a cheese producer whose product
KNOW
appeared to be contaminated with E. coli. It was lifted after tests had been

? carried out and the suspected sources of the contamination had been
addressed.

83
 Food Hygiene

FIGURE 5.2
Environmental Secretary of
health officer State

Application
to court

Emergency
Improvement Prohibition Emergency
prohibition
notice order control order
order

Notices and orders that can be issued under the Food Safety Act

PENALTIES
Courts have the power to impose the following penalties on business owners if they are
convicted of an offence:
❚ Fines up to £5000 and/or up to three months in prison. This is for minor offences,
such as obstructing officers in the course of their duty.
❚ Unlimited fines and/or up to two years in prison. This is used to punish serious
offences that have been tried in a Crown Court, for example selling food which is
harmful to health.
The court can also require the business to make a payment for compensation to
anyone who has been injured by their actions.
Business owners can offer a defence in court. They need to show that they did take all
reasonable steps to avoid committing any offence and to prevent any employees
committing an offence. This is known as a defence of ‘due diligence’. A successful
defence will probably show that the business has a proper control system covering all
requirements of the legislation and regulations, that staff are trained in relation to the
controls, and that the system is monitored and amended as appropriate.

STUDENT ACTIVITY 23
What records should a food business keep that may help show due diligence if
required in a court of law?

THE FOOD SAFETY (GENERAL FOOD HYGIENE) REGULATIONS

1995
The main regulations made under the Food Safety Act are The Food Safety (General
Food Hygiene) Regulations 1995. They incorporate the rules set out in the European
Food Hygiene Directive which are applied in all EU countries. The regulations apply to
anyone who handles food or works with articles that come into contact with food, such
as refrigeration engineers and contract cleaners.
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Owners of food businesses must ensure that operations are carried out hygienically,
that all food handlers are trained and that every step is taken to ensure food safety.
Operations include all stages of food preparation, distribution and sale.
The main provisions are summarised below.

Premises, vehicles and equipment

Premises, vehicles and equipment should:
❚ be of a suitable design for easy cleaning
❚ be in good working order
❚ be properly cleaned on a regular basis
❚ protect food against contamination
❚ be adequately lit
❚ be properly ventilated
❚ have suitable drainage and an adequate water supply.
In addition, surfaces in food preparation areas should be properly maintained and easy
to clean. Separate facilities must be provided for washing and disinfecting tools and
equipment, and washing food.

Facilities for waste

Waste storage and disposal must be adequate. Waste should be stored in closed
containers, removed from food-handling areas as soon as possible and regularly
removed from the premises. Refuse areas should be kept clean and tidy.

Vehicles for transporting food

Vehicles for transporting food should be specifically designed for the purpose and kept
clean. Where appropriate, they should be refrigerated. Different products should be
separated in the vehicle to prevent contamination.

Washing and sanitary facilities

Washing and sanitary facilities should be adequate for staff. Changing facilities should
be provided where necessary. Hand-washing facilities must be separate from those for
washing food and have hot and cold running water. Suitable soap and hand-drying
facilities must be provided. Lavatories must not lead directly into food rooms.

Food handlers
Food handlers should wear suitable protective clothing and maintain high standards of
personal hygiene. Staff suffering illness or infection should not be allowed to handle
food. Staff should be trained to a level appropriate to their work activities and should
be properly supervised.

Food hazards
Food hazards must be identified, controlled and monitored, for example by use of
HACCP (see Chapter 4).
Under the regulations, environmental health officers have a duty to minimise risks to
public health and stop any breaches of regulations. They must carry out regular
inspections of premises. They should assess any risks with regard to the nature of the
food and the way it is handled, packaged, processed, displayed and stored. Any
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adverse findings should be reported to the proprietor informally before any issue of a
formal improvement notice.

THE FOOD PREMISES (REGISTRATION) REGULATIONS 1991

Food premises should be registered with local authorities. This includes the registration
of vehicles and movable premises but excludes some businesses such as childminding
that operate from domestic premises.

THE FOOD SAFETY (TEMPERATURE CONTROL) REGULATIONS 1995

Generally, all foods must be held at a temperature that will prevent the growth of
pathogenic bacteria. While the regulations specify some maximum and minimum
temperatures, it is implied that if specific foods are likely to become unsafe at these
temperatures, then they should be held at more appropriate temperatures.
The regulations cover chilling, hot holding and cooling:
❚ Chilling – 8 °C is the maximum temperature except where specific foods would
become unsafe at this temperatures. Food for service or display can be kept out of
chill temperatures for up to four hours.
❚ Hot holding – food must be kept at 63 °C or above except where a lower temperature
can be shown not to harm specific foods.
❚ Cooling – food that requires cooling must be cooled as quickly as possible and then
kept at chill temperatures.
The DoH produces guidance notes on temperatures which are available to food
businesses. (Note that the regulations are slightly different in Scotland and Scottish
local authorities should be contacted for details.)

THE FOOD LABELLING REGULATIONS 1996

The principal provisions of the regulations are to require most food which is ready for
delivery to the consumer or to a catering establishment to be labelled with:
❚ the name of the food
❚ a list of ingredients
❚ best before/use by dates
❚ any special storage conditions or conditions of use
❚ the name and address of the manufacturer or packer or seller
❚ an indication of the minimum or maximum percentage of an ingredient where the
labelling of a food places special emphasis on the presence or low content of that
ingredient.
Some food labels will also need to show:
❚ particulars of the place of origin of the food
❚ instructions for use.

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The regulations prohibit the labelling or advertising of a food to claim that it has tonic
or medicinal properties, and imposes conditions for certain claims relating to foods, for
example reduced or low energy value claims, vitamin and mineral claims and
cholesterol claims. Some labelling regulations relate to specific foods.

FIGURE 5.3

Ingredients including additives listed in

C H I C K E N + M U S H RO O M P I E
order of weight at the time or preparation
INGREDIENTS
minimum 12% meat
Wheat Flour; Milk; Chicken (12%) Margarine Most additives must be listed by name
(contains Emulsifiers: E471,(Lecithin),Colours: and/or ‘E’ number as applicable
(Turmeric), Flavourings, Water, Mushrooms (4%)
Lard, Modified Starch, Salt, Chicken Bouillon,
Glazing Agent: (contains Emulsifier), Colours:
(Carotene), Stabiliser: (Guar Gum), Pepper Raising Some manufacturers may make claims
Agent: Baking Power about the ingredients such as the
exclusion of GM foodstuffs
Does not contain ingredients produced from
genetically modified products

HEATING INSTRUCTIONS: Ready to eat, Can be Instructions for safe preparation

eaten hot or cold.
of the product
To heat remove packaging, place product on baking
tray and place in pre-heated oven at 350°F / 190°C
USE BY Gas Mark 5 for 25 minutes
Instructions for safe storage
STORAGE 0 2
04 OCT
INSTRUCTIONS: Keep refrigerated of the product
:56
E39 11
The date mark must be included
NUTRITTION INFORMATION on the product
Typical Values per 100g:
Energy: 1130 kJ / 274 kcal
Protein 8.5g, Carbohydrate: 21g (of which sugars
1.6g), Fat 16g (of which saturates 7g) Fibre 2g
Name and address of manufacturer,
Sodium 0.3g
packer or retailer must be included
Packed for Mrs Tweeds Chicken Pies, 13 Arkwright
Rd, Preston, Lancs.

140g e The ‘e’ denotes that the average pack

weight must be accurate, though
individual packs may vary

Food labels need to show a large amount of information

THE FRESH MEAT (HYGIENE AND INSPECTION) REGULATIONS

1995
❚ Fresh meat covers meat from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses and farmed game
mammals but not rabbits. The regulations also cover chilled and frozen meat.
❚ Premises that come under the regulations are slaughterhouses, cutting premises
and cold stores. Premises for these purposes have to be approved and will be
supervised by official veterinary surgeons and meat inspectors employed by the
Meat Hygiene Service.
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❚ Vets must ensure that the production of meat is hygienic and can examine carcasses
and take samples. They can prohibit the slaughter of dirty animals.
❚ Any meat passed for human consumption is given a health mark which shows the
licence number of the premises.
❚ Fresh meat cannot be sold for human consumption unless it has been slaughtered in
licensed premises, bears the health mark showing it is fit for human consumption
and, where it is transported, carries appropriate documentation.
The following regulations make similar provisions in relation to other fresh meats:
❚ The Poultry Meat, Farmed Game Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat (Hygiene and Inspection)
Regulations 1995
❚ The Wild Game Meat (Hygiene and Inspection) Regulations 1995.

THE MEAT PRODUCTS (HYGIENE) REGULATIONS 1994

❚ Meat products covered are those where the meat has undergone treatment from
heat or other means so that it no longer has the appearance of fresh meat.
Examples are bacon, ham, cooked meats and meat pies.
❚ Premises are those producing meat products and are classified by local authorities
as industrial (production in excess of 7.5 tonnes per week) and non-industrial. Non-
industrial premises are relieved from some regulatory requirements. (The
regulations do not apply to establishments which sell direct to consumers, such as
butchers and bakers.)
❚ Operators of production establishments are required to ensure that critical points are
identified, controlled and monitored, any samples are sent to approved laboratories,
health marks are applied correctly, staff are properly trained, any products
presenting a health risk are removed from sale.

THE MINCED MEAT AND MEAT PREPARATIONS (HYGIENE)

REGULATIONS 1995
❚ This includes meat that has undergone treatment or contains additives which alter it
from its fresh meat state. An example is sausage meat.
❚ Premises are those producing minced meat and meat preparations and are classified
by local authorities as industrial (those that produce mince and those which produce
in excess of 7.5 tonnes per week) and non-industrial. Non-industrial premises are
relieved from some regulatory requirements. (The regulations do not apply to
establishments which sell direct to consumers such as butchers and bakers.)
❚ Compliance requirements are similar to those for meat products (above) with the
added criteria that the mince and meat preparations comply with given micro-
biological limits and that recommended storage temperatures and use by dates are
shown clearly on the packaging.

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THE DAIRY PRODUCTS (HYGIENE) REGULATIONS 1995 (AS

AMENDED 1996)
❚ Regulations cover all milk production on farms (from any milk-producing animals)
and give microbiological standards for raw milk, treated milk, cream, ice cream and
cheese.
❚ Farms producing milk must be registered with the Ministry for Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food.
❚ Premises where milk is processed or handled must be approved by the Food
Authority. To gain approval, they must meet hygiene standards. They will then be
given a health mark which must be used on products.
❚ Raw milk and raw milk products must be labelled as such and are specially
controlled.
❚ Other controls include those over storage temperatures, labelling and hazard
analysis.
Required standards for skimmed, semi-skimmed and whole milk are contained in the
Drinking Milk Regulations 1976.

THE ICE CREAM (HEAT TREATMENT) REGULATIONS 1959 (AS

AMENDED)
These give standards for treatment of ice cream made from vegetable fat and storage
temperatures for ice cream.

THE EGG PRODUCT REGULATIONS 1993 (AS AMENDED)

❚ Premises used for heat treatments of egg products should be approved by the Food
Authority, and will need to comply with hygiene requirements in order to use a
health mark.
❚ All egg products must bear a health mark.
❚ The regulations provide standards for pasteurisation and microbiology, as well as
specifying storage temperatures.
❚ Egg products can only use eggs where the membrane (beneath the shell) is not
damaged.
Owing to the problems with Salmonella and eggs, the Government recommended that
eggs were not eaten in their raw state, and that vulnerable groups (children, elderly,
the sick and pregnant women) should avoid dishes where the eggs are not cooked
through.

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PHOTOGRAPH 5.1

The ‘lion’ mark is a quality mark for eggs

CONTROL OF SUBSTANCES HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH REGULATIONS

1994 (COSHH)
FIGURE 5.4

Corrosive Toxic Explosive

Harmful or irritant Flammable

All chemicals will show a hazard warning

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 Food law

Although not specifically concerned with food, the COSHH regulations are important in
relation to chemicals used for cleaning purposes on food premises. Employers have a
legal responsibility to assess the risks to employees from hazardous substances.
Employees must be provided with appropriate protection and training as well as being
instructed as to actions required in case of accident. Chemicals will be labelled by
manufacturers as toxic, irritant, corrosive or harmful. Any warnings and instructions for
use should always be noted.

The Food Standards Act 1999

The main purpose of The Food Standards Act was to set up the Food Standards Agency.
This agency is an independent watchdog for food safety, with powers to protect the
public health in relation to food. The Agency came into existence in April 2000. It has a
similar role to the Health and Safety Executive and Commission which controls
occupational health and safety standards. Responsibilities include:
❚ developing policies relating to matters connected with food safety or other interests
of consumers in relation to food
❚ providing advice, information or assistance in relation to food safety to any public
authority
❚ obtaining, compiling and reviewing information about food safety and other
interests of consumers in relation to food such as monitoring and researching
developments in food science and technology
❚ monitoring the enforcement of food safety and related legislation including setting
standards of performance for enforcement.
The agency has set itself aims to reduce incidences of food-related illness and improve
knowledge and practice of food hygiene across the whole population.
New laws and regulations are issued all the time to regulate different areas of the food
industry. Food handlers should always be aware of legislation in the area in which they
work and have a responsibility to keep up to date. For recent legislation, check the
Government Stationery Office (HMSO) website or the website of the Food Standards
Agency (see Appendix 1).

Summary of legal responsibilities

It is useful to summarise the legal responsibilities of managers and food handlers.

MANAGER’S RESPONSIBILITIES
It is the legal responsibility of management in any business where food is prepared
and/or served to identify the specific hazards within their business and take action to
minimise or control them.
Management should:
❚ identify food safety hazards in the workplace

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❚ recognise how these hazards can be minimised
❚ implement procedures to deal with hazards
❚ review controls regularly and correct any problems.

FOOD HANDLER’S RESPONSIBILITIES

It is the responsibility of food handlers to:
❚ follow all food safety rules laid down by the employer
❚ protect food from contamination
❚ report any potential hazards or other problems to managers.

FIGURE 5.5
Identify food safety hazards in
the workplace

Recognise how hazards can

be minimised

Implement procdures to
minimise hazards

Review controls regularly and

correct problems
Management
responsibilities
Follow food safety rules
established by their employer

Protect food from

contamination

Report potential hazards or

problems to management

Staff Food hygiene responsibilities

responsibilities

Chapter review
This chapter has given you a short introduction to the main food hygiene legislation. It
has also made you aware of some of the offences that can be committed by those
involved in food-handling businesses and the penalties they may face.

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Multiple-choice questions
1 Which of the following is an offence under the Food Safety Act 1990?
A Selling food that is not properly weighed
B Selling food that is not properly wrapped
C Selling food that is not contaminated
D Selling food which is not of the quality demanded by the purchaser

2 Which of the following reflects possible penalties for a minor offence under food safety
legislation?
A Fines up to £2000
B Imprisonment up to six months
C Either of the above
D Fines up to £5000 and/or three months’ imprisonment

3 Which of the following describes an improvement notice that might be issued under
food safety legislation?
A A notice that prevents the business owners from trading
B A notice declaring the premises a danger to public health
C A notice identifying areas where regulations have not been met
D A notice that suggests general improvements to food hygiene

4 Which of the following describes where and how hand-washing should be carried out?
A Hands should only be washed in basins specifically supplied for that purpose
B Hands may only be washed in basins when washing-up has been cleared
C Hands should be washed only in basins provided in the toilet area
D Hands can be washed at any basin provided for washing food

5 What do food labels have to show?

A ‘use by’ and ‘best before’ information
B ‘use by’ or ‘best before’ information
C ‘display until’ and ‘use by’ information
D It is up to the manufacturer

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6 Which of the following is a legal responsibility of food handlers?
A To carry out a risk assessment
B To protect food from contamination
C Just to do as their employers tell them
D They have no legal responsibility, only a moral one

7 Which of the following is a power of environmental health officers in relation to food

premises?
A Entering business premises
B Taking food for analysis
C Requiring co-operation from employees of the business
D All of the above

8 Which of the following reflects the purpose of the Food Standards Agency?
A It was set up as an independent watchdog for food safety
B It was set up to advise food businesses on hygiene
C It was set up to advise the Government on food standards
D It was set up to tell the public about food

9 Which of the following reflects the legal provisions relating to vehicles used for
transporting food?
A Vehicles need to be specifically designed for carrying food and refrigerated
B Vehicles need to be specifically designed for carrying food and refrigerated if
appropriate
C Any vehicle can be used provided it is refrigerated
D Any vehicle can be used

10 In which of the following cases is a prohibition order likely to be issued?

A An inspector finds cockroaches in a restaurant
B An inspector receives a complaint about a restaurant
C The manager of a food business becomes ill with food poisoning
D All of the above

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Short-answer questions
1 Describe the basic information that is required on food labels.
2 State the hand-washing facilities which must be provided for food handlers.
3 Explain the powers of environmental health officers in relation to food premises.
4 Explain the regulations relating to fresh meat.
5 Explain the function of Government Codes of Practice.

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 Answers to student
activities
Student activity 1
You should have identified that food poisoning or food-related illness:
❚ is relatively common
❚ that most people don’t see a doctor
❚ that common symptoms are diarrhoea, sickness and abdominal pain.

Student activity 2
INFECTIOUS FOOD POISONING
Salmonella

TOXIN IN FOOD
Clostridium botulinum
Bacillus cereus
Staphylococcus aureus

TOXIN IN INTESTINES
Clostridium perfringens
Bacillus cereus

Student activity 3
You should have identified the following organisms:
Tony: Salmonella
Derbyshire Town: E. coli
Mary: Listeria.

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 Answers to student activities

Student activity 4
❚ Raw meat left at room temperature – very likely to become contaminated, provides
perfect breeding ground for micro-organisms and should be kept at chill
temperatures.
❚ Pickled onions – unlikely to grow pathogens due to high acidity level.
❚ Rice pudding left in a saucepan on the hob to cool down – milk and milk products
are very susceptible to micro-organisms and this will provide a warm, wet, nutritious
environment for them!
❚ Dried mushrooms – probably not enough moisture for bacteria to grow.

Student activity 5
Your answer will depend on the type of food you have chosen. Table 2.1 (reproduced
below) identifies common signs of spoilage.

Table 2.1 Signs of spoilage in food

Type of food Common signs of spoilage

Milk Smells and tastes ‘off’. Starts to curdle so bits are found in the milk
Vegetables Become soft and discoloured. May have black spots. Smell rotten
Fish Smells ‘off’ and discolours
Processed/cooked meats Surface slime and discoloration. Smells ‘off’. Produces gases that
may burst vacuum packs
Fresh meats/poultry Surface slime. Green discoloration. White spots. Smells ‘off’
Bread Fruity, sickly smell. Soft sticky texture. Internally bread discolours to
yellow or brown

Student activity 6
❚ Cockroaches – carry pathogenic micro-organisms such as Salmonella and can
physically contaminate food with egg cases, faeces, and dead bodies.
❚ Rodents – carry pathogenic and spoilage micro-organisms and can physically
contaminate food with droppings, urine, fur or dead bodies. Rodents can also cause
physical damage to wiring, pipes and woodwork, which causes further hazards.
❚ Bluebottles – carry pathogenic micro-organisms and spoilage bacteria on their
bodies. Defecate and regurgitate previous meals on to food as they eat. Eggs and
live or dead larvae and insects can contaminate food.

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Student activity 7
Hazards include:
❚ rubbish overflowing
❚ spills on the work surface
❚ cat sitting on work surface
❚ cat’s food dishes on the floor
❚ generally untidy and unclean
❚ open can not disposed of on draining area
❚ pie near open window attracting insects
❚ cakes next to washing-up water
❚ bleach could contaminate food
❚ someone’s shoes left on floor
❚ pan left on heating element
❚ spider and spider’s web
❚ knife left overhanging edge of work surface
❚ mouse coming out of cupboard.

Student activity 8
You may have included some or all of the following:
❚ removing any jewellery, hair ornaments or similar
❚ tying back and covering hair
❚ changing into appropriate clothing
❚ washing – at least hands.

Student activity 9
❚ Thawing a frozen chicken – risk that centre not properly thawed and may carry
Salmonella. Allow time for thawing.
❚ Cooking a previously frozen chicken – if not properly thawed, may not be sufficiently
cooked in centre to destroy micro-organisms. Allow adequate cooking times and
temperatures.
❚ Storing seafood – seafood is a high-risk food and needs to be stored at chill
temperatures to ensure micro-organisms do not grow.
❚ Serving food from a hot holding area – hot held food needs to be at above 63 °C to
ensure that micro-organisms cannot grow.

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 Answers to student activities

Student activity 10
Hazards are:
❚ open door
❚ spillage from bottle on top shelf
❚ open containers and unwrapped foods
❚ raw and cooked foods stored on same shelf
❚ raw food juices contaminating other foods on lower shelves
❚ untidily stacked – no organisation
❚ opened cans – contents not transferred to suitable containers.

Student activity 11
❚ Raw meat – needs to be kept at chill temperatures to prevent micro-organism
growth. Should be stored separately from cooked foods to prevent cross-
contamination, especially by meat juices dripping onto other food items. If stored in
a refrigerator with other items should be stored on the bottom shelf.
❚ Flour – needs to be stored in a cool, dry place in lidded containers to prevent
infestation by insects. Some infestations unavoidable when they come in contact with
the flour.
❚ Canned foods – need to be stored so they are not damaged, and properly rotated so
that earlier purchases are used first. Blown or dented cans should not be used as, if
the contents have been exposed to the air, they may be contaminated by micro-
organisms.
❚ Cleaning materials – need to be stored away from food, preferably in a locked
cupboard under the control of a responsible person. Risks are tainting and poisoning
of food if they come into contact.

Student activity 12
Obviously everyone has different tastes so your list will be different from others. There
are a wide range of preserved foods that have a different taste and texture from fresh
produce. You may have included the following among your likes and dislikes:
❚ pickles
❚ jams and preserves
❚ smoked fish or meats
❚ tinned fruits, vegetables, fish or meats
❚ dried fruits.
There are lots more examples.

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Student activity 13
These are the main methods of preservation we have identified:
❚ drying or removing or reducing moisture
❚ pickling
❚ smoking
❚ using chemical preservatives
❚ heat treatments – sterilising or pasteurising
❚ chilling – refrigerating
❚ freezing
❚ vacuum packing
❚ irradiation.

Student activity 14
These are the processes used to control the growth of micro-organisms.
❚ Drying or removing or reducing moisture – removal of one of growth requirements –
moisture
❚ Pickling – combination of removal of one of growth requirements and chemical
preservatives – changes pH by addition of chemicals
❚ Smoking – combination of removal of one of growth requirements and chemical
preservatives – changes pH and salts usually added which preserve the food
❚ Heat treatments – sterilising or pasteurising – destroy bacteria or reduce to lower
levels and seal them out. Pasteurised products will usually require refrigeration
❚ Canning – destroys bacteria and seals them out
❚ Chilling – refrigerating – too cold for most organisms to grow – need higher
temperatures
❚ Freezing – too cold for organisms to grow and moisture is turned to ice – need
higher temperatures and moisture
❚ Vacuum packing – excludes oxygen which organisms need to grow
❚ Modified Atmosphere Packing – uses gases to exclude oxygen
❚ Irradiation – electrically charges the food particles which stops micro-organisms from
growing

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 Answers to student activities

Student activity 15
❚ Dry storage areas – provide food, shelter, and warmth.
❚ Cracks and holes in fabric of building – provide shelter and nest places.
❚ Waste storage areas – provide food, and nest sites.

Student activity 16
Your flowchart should look something like this:

FIGURE A.1
Purchase
bread, ham
and butter

Store
bread,
ham and
butter

Prepare
sandwich

Serve sandwich
Making a ham sandwich

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Student activity 17
Table A.1: The hazards of ham sandwiches

Steps in the Hazards Controls Monitor

process What can go wrong? What can I do about it? How can I check?
Purchase of • Bought ingredients • Use reputable suppliers for • Check delivery vehicles
bread, butter could be contaminated breads, meats and dairy • Check date marks
and ham with bacteria, mould or products • Check temperatures
foreign bodies • Check goods on receipt for • Check food condition
• Ingredients could be damage
contaminated during
delivery
• Ham and butter could
be at inappropriate
temperature on delivery
Store bread, • Contamination could • Store bread wrapped and • Check storage temperatures
butter and take place during in suitable container • Check storage conditions
ham storage • Use proper stock rotation
• Cross-contamination – First in, First out
could take place during • Store butter on top shelf
storage of fridge, ham on middle
shelves
• Keep separate from raw
meat products
Prepare • Contamination or • Limit handling • Visual checks on food
sandwich cross-contamination • Good personal hygiene areas, food handlers etc.
from other foods, food of food handlers • Cleaning schedules
handlers, utensils or • Food handlers properly
equipment trained
• Surfaces and utensils clean
• Use separate utensils and
surfaces for cutting meat
and buttering bread
• Don’t cut ham on surfaces
or with utensils used for
raw meats
Serve • Contamination before • Serving areas clean • Visual checks of food,
sandwich serving • Food served immediately or food areas and procedures
covered and stored in a cool (check food not left before
place serving)
• Good personal hygiene of
serving staff

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 Answers to student activities

Student activity 18
You should have identified some or all of the following:
❚ not washing hands before starting work
❚ not washing hands between tasks, for example touching waste, then food; touching
raw foods, then cooked foods.
❚ not washing hands after visiting the toilet
❚ handling food when suffering from food-borne illness
❚ sneezing or coughing over food
❚ touching hair, face, nose or mouth before handling food
❚ using dirty utensils, especially those used for raw foods, on cooked foods
❚ not cleaning work surfaces between food preparation tasks.

Student activity 19
Hazards include:
❚ microbiological hazards from dirty clothes, outdoor clothes, non-protective clothing
worn in food preparation areas
❚ physical hazards from loose fastenings or clothes in poor state of repair, hairs if not
covered, items falling from pockets or person (combs, pens, jewellery, etc.).

Student activity 20
There will be a wide variety of answers, and some will cross areas, but the following are
given as examples:
❚ production – meat, crop and dairy farms
❚ processing – frozen vegetable processors, canning factories, meat curing
❚ preparation – restaurants, establishments producing ready meals, supermarkets,
bakeries and butchers who prepare ready-to-eat foods
❚ serving – restaurants, airlines, railways, hotels
❚ selling – supermarkets, greengrocers, bakeries, butchers, vending machines.

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Student activity 21
Cleaning is important to prevent microbiological and physical contamination of food, to
prevent pest infestation and to present the right image to customers.
Areas to be regularly cleaned include:
❚ all food preparation and serving areas
❚ food storage areas including dry storage, chill rooms and refrigerators
❚ delivery areas
❚ food display cabinets – either chill or hot cabinets
❚ delivery vehicles where these are used by the business
❚ sanitary, washing and changing areas
❚ external areas where waste is stored.

Student activity 22
It is the responsibility of managers and supervisors to ensure that:
❚ proper cleaning schedules are in place and are followed
❚ proper records are kept of cleaning
❚ appropriate persons are responsible for cleaning tasks
❚ there are enough cleaning staff
❚ cleaning is carried out safely
❚ equipment is appropriate for the task, and properly cleaned and stored after use.

Student activity 23
Records should be kept of the following:
❚ risk assessment and hazard controls (HACCP)
❚ staff training
❚ cleaning schedule and the dates and times that cleaning tasks are carried out
❚ maintenance and service records for equipment
❚ temperature checks on storage, display, etc.
❚ stock control
❚ checks made on receipt of deliveries.

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Answers to multiple-
choice questions
Chapter 1
1 D Keeping food safe at all stages of processing
2 C Illness caused by harmful substances or micro-organisms in the food
3 A Food that contains anything that is harmful to health
4 A They are sometimes helpful
5 D Micro-organisms that cause illness and disease
6 B Abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting
7 B Toxic plankton
8 C Clostridium perfringens
9 A Vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and fever
10 D Eggs

Chapter 2
1 C Each cell splits into two
2 B A few hours
3 B Between 5 °C and 63 °C
4 D All of the above
5 B Pesticides
6 C They are used in some food production
7 A They can survive in adverse conditions
8 C Insect eggs
9 B Eggs
10 A Jam

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Chapter 3
1 C It stops bacteria reproducing temporarily
2 B They should be cooled quickly and stored at below 8 °C
3 A Foods purchased first should be used first
4 A Cooling
5 B Above 63 °C
6 D Raw foods should be stored on a lower shelf than cooked foods
7 C The hot food will raise the temperature of the freezer
8 A –18 °C
9 B In lidded bins
10 D Cockroach eggs

Chapter 4
1 B To prevent food from becoming contaminated
2 A Because you could be a carrier of the illness without knowing
3 B After cleaning
4 D All of the above
5 C To identify food hazards and prevent or minimise them
6 B To reduce micro-organisms to a safe level
7 C Cleaning removes dirt and disinfecting reduces bacteria
8 D A wound on the hand
9 A Pre-clean, clean, rinse, disinfect, final rinse, dry
10 D So they can be seen if they fall into food

106
 Answers to multiple-choice questions

Chapter 5
1 D Selling food which is not of the quality demanded by the purchaser
2 D Fines up to £5000 and/or three months’ imprisonment
3 C A notice identifying areas where regulations have not been met
4 A Hands should only be washed in basins specifically supplied for that purpose
5 B ‘use by’ dates or ‘best before’ information
6 B To protect food from contamination
7 D All of the above
8 A It was set up as an independent watchdog for food safety
9 B Vehicles need to be specifically designed for carrying food and refrigerated if
appropriate
10 A An inspector finds cockroaches in a restaurant

107
 Appendix:
Useful websites
As food hygiene and safety knowledge and regulations are constantly changing, the
most useful resources are those on the Internet, which are updated regularly. The
following are useful websites for information about food hygiene issues:
Chartered Institute of Environmental Health www.cieh.org.uk
Department of Health www.doh.gov.uk
Food Standards Agency www.food.gov.uk
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office www.hmso.gov.uk
Public Health Laboratory Service www.phls.org.uk
Royal Institute of Public Health www.riph.org.uk
Glossary
Cleaning the process of removing dirt Incubation period
the length of time normally
Contamination
taken for symptoms of the
when unwanted items or
illness to appear
bacteria are present in food
Micro-organisms
Cross-contamination
very small life forms such as
when micro-organisms are
bacteria and viruses
moved from one place to
another on a vehicle Multi-cellular
consisting of more than one
Disinfection
cell
destruction of micro-organisms
to a level not hazardous to Pathogenic micro-organisms or
health or likely to cause food pathogens
spoilage micro-organisms that cause
illnesses
FIFO stock rotation
first in, first out. Foods that Risk the likelihood that a hazard will
were obtained first should be occur
used first
Spoilage the process of food becoming
Food anything intended for human damaged. Spoilage bacteria
consumption or used as an will make food rot
ingredient in the preparation of
Spore a hard, resistant body formed
food
within the bacterial cell
Hazard anything that could potentially
Toxins poisons produced by some
cause harm. Generally divided
bacteria and moulds
into biological, physical or
chemical hazards Vehicle of contamination
any object (including persons
High-risk foods
and animals) on which micro-
these include those that are
organisms can move from one
high in protein and moist, such
place to another
as meat, fish, shellfish, poultry,
eggs, milk and dairy products,
cooked rice and pasta
Host organism
the person, animal or plant
infected with the micro-
organism

109
 Index
abattoirs 87 from 65 chill rooms 40, 51
acetic acid (vinegar) 20, 47 blue cheeses 6, 19 chilling 37, 51, 86
acid-producing organisms bluebottles 24 cholera 9, 18
47 bonito 7 clams 7
acidity levels 15–16, 46–7, book lice 25 cleaning
51 ‘botulinum cook’ 49 chemical materials 30,
acids bovine tuberculosis 11 72, 75–6, 91
acetic acid (vinegar) 20, bowel illness, of staff 65 design for 70
47 bread equipment for 72, 74
benzoic acid 49 making 20 schedules 73–4
contamination from 9 spoilage 21 storage of materials 43,
natural acids 47 breastfeeding 10 72
phosphoric acid 75 brining 48 supervisor’s role in 71–6
sorbic acid 49 brown rat 24 ‘cleaning-in-place’ 73–4
sulphamic acid 75 brushes, cleaning 74 clostridium 18
used in cleaning 75 budding 19 clostridium botulinum 5,
see also acidity levels burns, contamination from 49, 51
Acts of Parliament 81 66 clostridium perfringens 5
air blast freezing 50 by-laws 81 clothing
air currents 28 protective 35, 66–7, 85
air temperature 38 cadmium 9 storage of 43
air-drying 72, 74 cancer 6 cloths 28, 74
alcohol 19, 20 canned foods 41, 49 cocci 18
aldicarb (pesticide) 8 spoilage of 21 cockroaches 25, 53
alkali, used in cleaning 75 carbonising 47 codes of practice 81
alkalinity levels 15–16 cattle meat 87 cold smoking 47
aluminium 8 caustic soda 75 cold stores 70, 87
animal foods 7 ceilings 71 see also chill cabinets;
antimony 9 cereal bins 39 chill rooms; freezers;
ants 24, 53 Chartered Institute of refrigerators
appointment of staff, for Environmental Health colds 65
HACCP 59 (CIEH) vi, 68 colourings 8
aprons 66 checking common rat 24
Assured Safe Catering delivered food 43 competition (between
booklet 63 HACCP system 61 micro-organisms) 16
temperatures 37–8, 41, condensation 71
bacillus 18 42 conditions, for growth of
bacillus cereus 5 cheeses, blue 6, 19 micro-organisms 15–16
bacteria 17–18 chemical contamination construction, of premises
bacterial food poisoning 29–30 70–1
3–6 chemical irritation 66 Consultant in
bacterial risks, control of chemical poisoning 8–9 Communicable Disease
33–5 chemical risks 35 Control 65
barriers, physical 69 chemicals containers 29
beans, red kidney 7 cleaning materials 30, see also storage
benzoic acid 49 72, 75–6, 91 contamination iv, 26–30
‘best before’ dates 44 disinfectants 72 reducing 33–53
birds 25, 52 for pest control 53 continuous flow
black rat 24 as preservatives 48 sterilisation 49
blanching 50 children 10, 89 control measures
blowing, contamination chill cabinets 42, 51 bacterial risks 33–5

110
 Index
chemical risks 35 micro-organism 1 53
food preservation 44–51 multi-cellular 19 emergency control orders
non-food items 43 pathogenic micro- 83
pests 52–3 organisms 1 emergency prohibition
physical risks 28–9, 35, risk 58 orders 83
65, 66 spoilage 6 enamel coating 9
storage of food 39–43 spore 17 endotoxins 4
temperature 35–9, 40, toxins 3 enforcement, of Food Safety
41–2, 86 vehicle of contamination Act 1990 82
control orders, emergency 28 enteritis 12
83 delivery of food 43, 68 enterotoxins 4
control points, critical 58, Department of Health (DoH) Environmental Health
69–70 63, 65, 86 Departments 22, 65
Control of Substances derelict areas 69 environmental health
Hazardous to Health design, of premises 69–70 officers 82, 85–6
Regulations 1994 (COSHH) detergents 75 enzymes 20
75, 90 diarrhitic shellfish equipment
‘Controlled Atmosphere poisoning (DSP) 7 cleaning 72, 74
Packing’ (CAP) 51 diguanides 76 design of 71
cook-chill method 51 dipping fingers into food food law and 85
cook-freeze method 51 64 physical contamination
cooked meats, spoilage of directives, European 7, 81, from 29
21 84 for raw and cooked foods
cooked and raw foods 28, disease, food-borne 1, 28, 34
34 9–10 essential oils, as
cooling foods 36, 37, 86 dishwashing machines 74 preservative 48
copper 8, 9 disinfection 72, 75–6 European directives 7, 81,
corrective action, taking see also cleaning 84
58 disposable cloths 74 examinations, food hygiene
coughing 65 disposal of waste 34, 35, vi
covering food 35 43, 52–3, 68, 85 exotoxins 4
crabs 7 documentation, of process
critical control points, 58, 59 fans 70
identifying 58, 69–70 DoH (Department of Health) FIFO (First In, First Out)
cross-contamination 27–8, 63, 65, 86 stock rotation 39, 41
34, 69, 74 doors 71 filters 35, 70
cryptosporidiosis 11 drainage 71 fingers, licking 64
curing 48, 49 dressing wounds 65 first aid 65–6
cuts 27, 65, 66 dried fruits 7 fish
cutting premises 87 drinking, in food-handling as high-risk food 27
areas 65 natural poisons in 7–8
dairy products Drinking Milk Regulations spoilage of 21
food law and 89 1976 89 flavourings 8
as high-risk food 27 drips, from raw foods 28 flies 24
see also ice cream; milk dry food storage 39 flooding 69
Dairy Products (Hygiene) drying 45–6, 72 floor surfaces 71
Regulations 1995 89 drying cloths 72, 74 flour bins 39
dead men’s fingers 7 ‘due diligence’ 84 flowcharts 59–60
decay process 20 dust 69 flu 65
definitions dysentery 11 fluidised bed drying 46
cleaning 72 fluidised bed freezing 51
contamination iv e. coli v, 9–10, 11 fly sprays, chemical
cross-contamination 28 ‘E-numbers’ 48–9 contamination from 30
disinfection 72 eating, in food-handling food, definitions of iv, 82
FIFO (First In, First Out) areas 65 Food and Agriculture
stock rotation 39 Egg Product Regulations Organisation 81
food iv, 82 1993 89 Food Handlers: Fitness to
hazard 15 eggs, as high-risk food 27 Work 65
high-risk foods 27 elderly people 10, 89 Food Labelling Directive
host organism 19 electricity supply 68 44
incubation period 5 electrified ultra violet lights Food Labelling Regulations

111
 Food Hygiene
1996 44, 86–7 fuels, chemical Regulations 1959 89
food law contamination from 30 ice cream products 42, 89
Food Safety Act 1990 fungi 19 illness
82–91 of food handler 27, 35,
Food Standards Act game 65, 85
1999 91 food law and 87, 88 food-related 1–14
responsibilities under hanging 20 as risk factor 10, 89
91–2 gas supply 68 immersion freezing 51
sources of 80–1 gastroenteritis 12 implementation of HACCP
see also legal giardiaisis 11 59–63
requirements glass washing machines 74 imported foods 2, 7
food pests see pests gloves 66, 74 improvement notices 83
food poisoning goat meat 87 incubation period 5
bacterial 3–6 good practice, guides to industrial fumes 69
causes of 3 63 infectious food poisoning
chemical 8–9 government 3
frequency of 2 Acts of Parliament 81 infective jaundice (Hepatitis
FSA survey 2 role of v, 10, 83 A) 11, 18
increase in 2 grain weevils 25 influenza 65
metal 9 greenbottles 24 infrared thermometers 38
moulds 6–7 guides, using 63 insecticides 53
natural poisons 7–8 Guides to Good Hygiene insects 24–5, 52–3
sources of 5 Practice 63 inspection see
in staff 65 environmental health
symptoms 4–5 habits, unhygienic 64–5 officers; Hazard Analysis
Food Premises HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(Registration) Regulations Critical Control Point Systems (HACCP); meat
1991 86 Systems) 57–62, 67, 85 inspectors
Food Safety Act 1990 hair, covering of 35, 66 internal temperature 38
82–91 ‘hakarl’ (Icelandic dish) 20 irradiation 51
Food Safety (General Food hand washing 33, 64, 85
Hygiene) Regulations 1995 hanging game 20 jam 20
84–6 Hazard Analysis Critical jewellery 35, 66
Food Safety (Temperature Control Point Systems
Control) Regulations 1995 (HACCP) 57–62, 67, 85 kidney beans, red 7
37, 86 hazards 15
Food Standards Act 1999 head coverings 66 labelling 44, 86–7
91 health, of food handler 27, law see food law; legal
Food Standards Agency 35, 65, 85 requirements
(FSA) 2, 4, 8, 91 heat treatments 49–51, 89 lead 8, 9
footwear 66 heating foods 36 legal requirements
frailness, as risk factor 10 heavy metals 8 HACCP 57–62
freeze drying 46 hepatitis A 11, 18 training v, 67–8
freezers 41–2 herbs, as preservative 48 see also food law
freezing 37, 50–1 high-risk foods 27, 40 legislation see food law;
frequency, of food histamine 7 legal requirements
poisoning 2 honey 20 leptospira 18
Fresh Meat (Hygiene and horse meat 87 lice 25
Inspection) Regulations host organism 19 licking fingers 64
1995 87–8 hot holding 37, 42, 86 lighting 70
fridges see refrigerators hot smoking 47–8 limescale 75
frozen foods 36 house mouse 24 limits for action 58
see also freezers; freezing houseflies 24 ‘lion’ mark (eggs) 90
fruit human sources, listeria v, 12, 51
dried 7 contamination from 27, liver damage 6
juices 20 28, 29 local by-laws 81
spoilage of 20 hygiene, personal 27, 33, location, of premises 68–9
storage 40 85 ‘long life’ milk 49
fruit flies 24 hypochlorites 76 lubricants, chemical
FSA (Food Standards contamination from 30
Agency) 2, 4, 8, 91 Ice Cream (Heat Treatment)

112
 Index
machinery, physical Act 1990 82 Poultry Meat, Farmed Game
contamination from 29 operations, documenting Bird Meat and Rabbit Meat
mackerel 7 59 (Hygiene and Inspection)
maintenance materials 43 orders issued 83 Regulations 1995 88
manhole covers 71 oven canopies 70 practice
meat overalls 66 codes of 81
food law and 87–8 oxygen 15 guides to good 63
as high-risk food 27 excluding 51 pre-cleaning 72
spoilage of 20, 21 oysters 7 pregnant women 10, 89
Meat Hygiene Service 87 premises
meat inspectors 88 packaging 29 chemical contamination
Meat Products (Hygiene) paralytic shellfish poisoning from 30
Regulations 1994 88 (PSP) 7 construction of 70–1
mercury 8, 9 paratyphoid fevers 11 cutting 87
metal detectors 35 pasta, as high-risk food 27 design of 69–70
metal poisoning 9 pasteurisation 50 food law and 85, 86
mice 24, 52, 53 pathogenic micro-organisms physical contamination
micro-biological 1 from 29
contamination 26–8 peanuts 7 site of 68–9
micro-organisms 1, 15–20 penalties, under Food preservation, food 8, 44–51
microbiology 15–20 Safety Act 1990 84 probe thermometers 38
milk penicillin 51 procedure, verifying 58
as high-risk food 27 Pennington Group 10 process, documenting 58
pasteurisation of 50 perfume 66 processed meats, spoilage
spoilage of 21 personal hygiene 27, 33, of 21
sterilisation of 49 85 prohibition orders 83
milk products personal items 43 protective clothing 35,
food law and 89 pesticides 8, 29 66–7, 85
as high-risk food 27 chemical contamination protein 15
see also ice cream from 30 psocids 25
Minced Meat and Meat pests 22–5, 27, 28 puffer fish 7
Preparations (Hygiene) control of 52–3
Regulations 1995 88 design of premises and quaternary ammonium
minerals 15 70 compounds (QACs) 76
Minister of Agriculture, physical contamination
Fisheries and Food 83 from 29 rabbits 87, 88
‘Modified Atmosphere petrol 9 rats 24, 52, 53
Packing’ (MAP) 51 pets 27 raw and cooked foods 28,
moisture, reducing 45–6 pH values 15–16, 46–7, 51 34
monosodium glutamate 8 phenols 76 re-heating foods 36
mops 74 phosphoric acid 75 ‘ready meals’ 2
morels 8 physical contamination recommendations
moulds 6–7, 19 28–9 (government) v
multi-cellular organisms physical risks, control of see also food law
19 28–9, 35, 65, 66 Recommended International
multiplication, of bacteria pickling 47 Code of Practice on the
17 pig meat 87 General Principles of Food
mushrooms 8 pigeons 25 Hygiene 81
mussels 7 plankton, toxic 7 record-keeping 67
mycotoxins 6–7, 19 planning, in HACCP 59 red kidney beans 7
plasters, wound 65 refrigerated stores 40–2
nail varnish 66 plate freezing 50 refrigerators 40–1, 51, 70
nail-biting 64 poisoning see food refuse disposal 34, 35, 43,
natural acids 47 poisoning 52–3, 68, 85
natural poisons 7–8 pollution 29 refuse sites 69
non-food items 43 potassium nitrate 49 regulations 81
nose picking 64 potassium sorbate 49 see also food law
notices issued 83 poultry reputations, business v
Nyla restaurant v food law and 88 responsibilities
as high-risk food 27 food handler’s iv, 92
offences, under Food Safety spoilage of 21 legal 91–2

113
 Food Hygiene
manager’s iv, 91–2 splashes, from raw foods 89
supervisor’s iv, 57 28 reducing to preserve food
restaurant eating, increase spoilage 6, 20–1 50–1
in 2 sponge mops 74 thawing foods 36, 37
restaurants, reputation of spoon, testing food with thermometers 38
v 65 timing, of contamination
rice, as high-risk food 27 spores 17–18, 19 16
rinsing 72 spots 65 tin 8, 9
rinsing sink 74 spray drying 46 tinned foods 9
risk see control measures; staff toilet facilities 70, 85
high-risk foods; risk in HACCP 59 toxic food poisoning 3
groups; risk identification illness 27, 65, 85 toxins 3, 4, 6–7, 19
risk groups 10, 89 see also responsibilities; training v, vi, 67–8
risk identification 58 supervisor’s role tuberculosis 11
rodents 24, 52, 53 staphylococcus aureus 5, tuna 7
roller drying 46 18, 76 tunnel drying 46
rotation of stock 39, 41 steam 71 two sink system 74
Royal Institute of Public sterilisation 49 typhoid 9, 11
Health (RIPH) vi, 68 stock rotation 39, 41
rubber gloves 74 stomach illness, of staff 65 UHT (ultra heat treatment)
storage 49
salad, storage of 40 as control measure ultra violet lights 53
salmonella v, 3, 4, 5, 11, 18, 39–43 unhygienic habits 64–5
76, 89 design of premises and ‘use by’ dates 44
salt, as preservative 48, 49 70 utensils, for raw and cooked
sanitary facilities 70, 85 poor 27, 29, 2 foods 28, 34
sanitisers 76 of raw and cooked foods
scombrotoxic poisoning 7 28, 34 vacuum packing 51
seafood 7–8 string mops 74 vegetables
Secretary of State for sugar 15, 48 spoilage of 20, 21
Health 83 sulphamic acid 75 storage of 40
sewage disposal facilities sulphur dioxide 49 vehicle of contamination
68 sun drying 46 28
shellfish 7–8 supervisor’s role vehicles, food law and 85
as high-risk food 27 cleaning 71–6 ventilation 70
ships’ rat 24 first aid 65–6 veterinary surgeons 88
sieves 35 Hazard Analysis Critical vibrio 18
silverfish 25 Control Point Systems vinegar (acetic acid) 20, 47
sinks 74 (HACCP) 57–62, 67 viral gastroenteritis 12
site, of premises 68–9 hygiene training 67–8 viruses 18–19
slaughterhouses 87 personal hygiene 63–5 vitamins 15
smoke 69 premises 68–71
smoking protective clothing 66–7 wall surfaces 71
cigarette 35, 65 staff illness 65 washing hands 33, 64, 85
of foods 47–8 using guides 63 washing-up 74
sneezing 65 suppliers, choosing 33 wasps 24
soap 64, 85 surface temperature 38 waste, disposal of 34, 35,
sodium benzoate 49 suspended ceilings 71 43, 52–3, 68, 85
sodium nitrate 49 symptoms, of food water
sodium sorbate 49 poisoning 4–5 for growth of micro-
sorbic acid 49 organisms 15
sources take-away food 2 leptospira in 18
of food law 80–1 telephone provision 68 supply of 68, 69
of food poisoning 5 temperature see also moisture
‘sous-vide’ catering 51 checking 37–8, 41, 42 websites, for food law
space, in premises 69–70 control of 35–9, 40, information 108
sparrows 25 41–2, 86 weevils 25
Spears, Britney v for growth of micro- Weil’s disease 18
spices, as preservative 48 organisms 16 wheat, contaminated 6
spirochaetes 18 for growth of yeasts 19 Wild Game Meat (Hygiene
spitting 64 heat treatments 49–51, and Inspection)

114
 Index
Regulations 1995 88
wine 20
wipers, cleaning 74
wood blewits 8
work flow 69
World Health Organisation
81
wounds 65–6

yeasts 19–20

115