Li | APPENDIX 2 WORD-FORMATION A form of word to which a process of word-formation is applied is called a base. The chief processes of word. formation are the following: a assigning the base to a different part of speech without changing its form (examples: rescue, wish bite, which can be used both as nouns and verbs) b adding a prefix to the base with or without a change of part of speech (examples: discontent, surcharge) ¢ adding a suffix to the base with or without a change of part of speech (examples: driver, friendship, arrival) d compounding, that is, adding one base to another (examples: goldsmith, pickpocket) Sometimes a base that has undergone a word-formation } may become the base for the formation of a third word anda | fourth word. (examples: friend, friendly, unfriendly, un- friendliness). A Assigning the base to a different part of speech: There are numerous words in English which can be assigned to different parts of speech. Look at the use of the word milk in the following sentences: 1 Milk is good for health. 2 The servant-maid milks our cow. 3 I gave the baby a milk chocolate. 4 He wore a milk white turban. In sentence (1) milk is a noun. In sentence (2) milks is a verb. In sentence (3) milk is an adjective. In sentence (4) milk is an adverb. ted into ___ We see the same word assigned to or converice, i, different parts of speech. This kind of word-formate” La 1) called conversion. Here are some examples of conve hth cee’ oe 7, wORD-FORMATION aS Verb to noun conversion He desires to be an engineer. (verb) My desire is to be a doctor, (noun) T doubt his honesty. (verb) | have doubts about this honesty, (noun) Take care, he will cheat you, (verb) Take care, he is a cheat. (noun) b Noun to verb conversion Please get me a bottle of milk. (noun) The milk is bottled in a factory. (verb) A nurse is looking after my son. (noun) A lady is nursing my son. (verb) ¢ Adjective to noun conversion They are playing the final match today. (adjective) They are playing the jinals today. (noun) ‘The Hindu’ is a daily newspaper. (adjective) ‘The Hindu’ is a daily, (noun) He loves to read comic books. (adjective) He loves to read comics. (noun) d Noun to adjective conversion The hut is made of mud. (noun) He lives in a mud house. (adjective) The children are going to school. (noun) They are school children. (adjective) The chair is made of steel. (noun) This is a steel chair. (adjective) Adjective to verb conversion 2 The people were not calm. (adjective) The speaker tried to calm them. (verb) The classroom is very dirly. (adjective) Who dirtied it? (verb) Fembley (asics) He had a lot of wealth, but was po atl The sudden loss of his wealth veep verb) The pot is still not empty. 4 Empty it. (verb) 0f 256 GRAMMAR, USAGE AND COMPOSITION £ Other types of conversion The Taj is a must for all tourists. (auxiliary must to noun Don’t ask me the why of it, perposatve why to noun) In life we have to face » sand ad (adverbs to nouns) : ens He doesn’t Support communism ial}. other ism, (suffix to noun), 7 “Cialis gy any Exercise 1 The following nouns are used both as Nouns Write sentences using them first as no and verb. uns and then aS Verh. colour delay favour Mistak, . c crowd demand form Notice control end group place damage experiment judge Point question reason request Water Exercise 9 —_ The following verbs are often used both a8 verbs and nouns, Write sentences using them both as verbs and nouns, attack command dress guess smile arrest cook drink drop hurry shout attempt cry fall hope Start call cut fear limit support cause cover turn play B Adding prefix to the base A prefix is a word or syllable placed in Honea awa * add to or change its meaning or function. Prefixes are three kinds, I Prefixes that change the meanings of the bases. 2 Number prefixes. ., 3 Conversion prefixes, that is, prefixes which chang? the part of speech,fr appENnDIx 2: WORD-FORMATION 257 i Prefixes that change the meanings of the bases These prefixes can be sub-divided into various kinds: a Prefixes that reverse or negate the mi a contra de -im -in -il -ir non un leanings of (lack of) used with nouns oo _ tives: amoral, asymmetry, atheist. a (against) used with nouns or adjectives: contrasuggestion, contrasuggestible, (to reverse the action, to Ret rid of) used with nouns and verbs: decode, deform, decompose, devaluation, deforestation, decentralization. : (the opposite of) used with verbs, nouns and adjectives: dislike, disappear, dis- allow, disability, displeasure, discom- fort, dishonest, disobedient. (the opposite of) used with nouns and adjectives: inability, impossibility, illogical, invisible, illegitimate, irres- ponsible, inaccurate, irreligious. (not) with adjectives, nouns, verbs non-vegetarian, non-co-operation, nonsense, non-gazetted. (the opposite of) used with verbs and adjectives: | unnecessary, unhappy, undesirable, unexpected, uncover, untie. b_ Prefixes of degree and size arch extra hyper mini (highest, worst) with nouns: arch enemy, archbishop. (more than) with adjectives: extra- ordinary, extracurricular. (extra, specially) used with adjectives and nouns: hypersensitive, hypercriti- cal, hypertension, ite) used with nouns: mini-car, mini irt, la258 GRAMMAR, USAGE AND COMPOSITION out semi super sub ultra under (to do something | better, faster used with intransitive verl to fo, transitive verbs: outgrow, OUllive, 7m weigh. (half) used with nouns: semi-darkness. (above, more than, better) Used win nouns and adjectives: SUPermnarker, supernatural, superhuman > (under, lower than) used adjectives, nouns and verbs: sub. normal, subhuman, sub-inspector, sub. ordinate, sublet, subdivide. (over and above) used with adjectives. ultra-violet, ultra-modern, (too little) used with Mate, undervalue, SCMi-circly verbs: underestj. ¢ Prefixes of time and order fore pre vice d Prefixes of at co and nouns; co-operate, scatentt (before) used with verbs and nouns: foretell, forecast, foreknowledge, (before) used with nouns and adjec- tives: Pre-school, pre-war, pre-marital, Pre-ordained. (after) used with nouns and adjectives: Post-war, post-graduate. (former) used with nouns: ex-principal, €x-president. (again, back) used with verbs ue nouns: rebuild, rewrite, recall, hearsal, resettlement. ee (deputy) used with nouns: vice-prim pal, Vice-president, titude Eee A ith ver (with, accompanying) used rexy pix 2: WORD-FORMATION spre! ae 259 counter +: (against, in opposition’ i and nouns: cee used with verbs ‘ena » Counter-revolu- anti : (against) used with nou a 2 1 ins and adjec- tives) : anti-government, people ee (for, on the side of) used with 2 pro-communist, pro-American, ee pro : 9 Number prefixes unt : (one) used with nouns and adjectives: unisex, unilateral, uniform. (one) used with nouns and adjectives: mono-syllable, mono-acting, mono- lingual. (two) used with nouns and adjectives: bi-weekly, bicycle, bifocal, biceps. tri : (three) used with nouns and adjectives: triangle, tricycle, tripartite. multi : (many) used with nouns and adjectives: multipurpose, multi-lingual, multi- millionaire. mono : bi 3 Conversion prefixes These prefixes are used in order to change the part of speech of a base. — be : noun to participial adjectives: bespec- tacled, bedevilled. : adjectives and nouns to verbs: becalm, bewitch. : nouns to verbs; empower, endanger, en, em enslave. C Adding a suffix to the base t lable placed after a word to add e A oer a vee ae oe function. Suffixes frequently or eani change the part ‘of speech of the base. ecole: happy (adjective), happiness (noun)._ F 260 GRAMMAR, USAGE AND COMPOSITION : Noun to noun suffixes ester, cer =: gangster, trickster, engineer, teenager, three-wheeler. booklet, leaflet, rivulet. ~ess : lioness, actress. Profiteer, -hood boyhood, priesthood. -ship friendship, headship, membership, -dom : kingdom, officialdom. -ocracy democracy, autocracy, mobocracy, 7ery, -ry : slavery, drudgery, foolery, machinery, -ful : mouthful, handful, plateful, Noun|adjective to noun/adjective suffixes -an, -ian republican, Indian. ~ese Chinese, Japanese. -ist flutist, loyalist, Buddhist, socialist, com- munist. -ism : Buddhism, idealism, absenteeism, com- munism. Verb to noun suffixes er, -or writer, driver, employer, waiter, receiver, silencer, actor, |} sant inhabitant, consultant, informant. | “ce payee, employee, nominee. | -ation exploration, starvation, organization. | -ment judgement, Postponement, payment, agree- ment. val arrival, dismissal, Proposal. -ing swimming, painting, gardening. Adjective to Noun suffixes “ness happiness, kindness, neatness. -ity seniority, diversity, activity. Verb suffixes -ify beautify, classify, modify, simplify. size + sympathize, memorize, hospitalize, mode nize,_— arPENDIX 2: WORD-FORMATION | 261 ; widen. broad i en lengthens len, quicken, strengthen, Noun to adjective suffixes -ful : beautiful, useful, helpful. less si, 2 pesrales, childless, tactless. ay, -like : manly, cowardly, brother! ildli statesmanlike. la Gis, + : sandy, hairy, creamy, misty. -ish : boyish, foolish, selfish. esque 2 picturesque, statuesque. -some : troublesome, burdensome. -worthy o praiseworthy, seaworthy. -arian, -ean : authoritarian, Shakespearean. - : cultural, natural, philosophical, psycho- logical. heroic, emphatic, specific. : expansive, ‘attractive, explosive. ious, -ous, : ambitious, virtuous, famous, riotous, beau- -ic : -ive ~cous teous. Other adjective suffixes cable, -ible : readable, pardonable, commendable me- morable, laughable, convertible -ish = bluish, longish, tallish. 7 -iny running, hunting, crying: : ar ; hunted, charred, spotted, walled, blue: eyed. : atly, casily happily. a ‘ Bee ards, Y ward(s), upward(s), home: rie * wards(s), heavenward(s)- wise : clockwise, moneywis: - eer js a unit consisting of two or ~ on may be # noun, @ verb or an adjecti A compoun' pow! ; yun) er (iijective)a, | 262 GRAMMAR, USAGE AND COMPOSITION book-keeping (hyphenated word) hydrogen bomb (two words) There is no hard-and-fast rule to guide us = in doubt as to which of the three clases ome belongs to. The dictionary is the best guide if you na ti 1 Noun compound: Noun+noun i motorcycle, steam engine, bydrege, bomb, silkworm, tear gas, honey cane sugar, gaslight, sa Phone receiver, cartwi pane, Ian-servant, oak tree, pus. Cat, cowshed, flowerbed. cod; Adjective+noun : blackboard, short-han: Noun+verb : daybreak, rainfall, earth 7 Noun+verb+er : taxpayer, game keeper, language teacher. verb+noun 3 glow-worm, watchdog, driftwood. drawbridge, push-button, scarecrow verb -ing (partici- ple)+noun : washing machine, sliding scale, flying-fish. Noun+ gerund i sightseeing, dressmaking, letter-writ- ing. Gerund+noun : dining table, living room, walking z stick, sun-bathing. sleepwalking. writing, Adverb+noun =: overload, postscript, after-thought. Adverb+verb ? output, outburst, over-throw, UP Start, outlet, outcast, Pronoun+noun: he-goat, she-devil, noun 2 stone’s throw, hair’s breadth, child’s play.r apPENDIX 2; WORD-FORMATION Noun/verb + adverb 9 Adjective compounds Noun + adjective Noun +- present participle Noun + past participle Adjective + past participle Adjective +-noun Adjective + adjec- tive Adverb-+ past participle 3 Verb compounds Noun -+verb Adverb +-verb 263 breakdown, run-away, passer-by, homesick, knee-dee noteworthy, brick-red, rE NSDR breath-taking, fact-finding, Jife- giving, time-saving, record-breaking. moth-eaten, home-made, thunder« struck, heartfelt. true-born, broad-based. four-horse (carriage), ten-rupee (note). socio-economic, deaf-mute, Anglo- Indian. far-fetched, well-mcant, widespread. brainwash, lip-read, houscbreak, housekeep daydream, typewrite, spring-clean. outdo, outlive, overcome, overlook, undermine, underestimate, uphold, upset. ae