DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

SEMESTER – III Subject Code: 15CS36

CREDITS – 04

Course objectives: This course will enable students to

• Prepare for a background in abstraction, notation, and critical thinking for the mathematics most
directly related to computer science.
• Understand and apply logic, relations, functions, basic set theory, countability and counting arguments,
proof techniques,
• Understand and apply mathematical induction, combinatorics, discrete probability, recursion, sequence
and recurrence, elementary number theory
• Understand and apply graph theory and mathematical proof techniques.

Module -1 10 Hours

Fundamentals of Logic: Basic Connectives and Truth Tables, Logic Equivalence – The
Laws of Logic, Logical Implication – Rules of Inference. The Use of Quantifiers,
Quantifiers, Definitions and the Proofs of Theorems, Textbook 1: Ch 2

Module -2 10Hours

Properties of the Integers: Mathematical Induction, The Well Ordering Principle –

Mathematical Induction, Recursive Definitions. Fundamental Principles of Counting:
The Rules of Sum and Product, Permutations, Combinations – The Binomial Theorem,
Combinations with Repetition. Textbook 1: Ch 4: 4.1, 4.2 Ch 1.

Module – 3 10 Hours

Relations and Functions: Cartesian Products and Relations, Functions – Plain and One-to-
One, Onto Functions. The Pigeon-hole Principle, Function Composition and Inverse
Functions. Properties of Relations, Computer Recognition – Zero-One Matrices and
Directed Graphs, Partial Orders – Hasse Diagrams, Equivalence Relations and Partitions.
Textbook 1: Ch 5:5.1 to 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, Ch 7:7.1 to 7.4

Module-4 10 Hours

The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion: The Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion,
Generalizations of the Principle, Derangements – Nothing is in its Right Place, Rook
Polynomials. Recurrence Relations: First Order Linear Recurrence Relation, The Second
Order Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relation with Constant Coefficients.
Textbook 1: Ch 8: 8.1 to 8.4, Ch 10:10.1 to 10.2

Module-5 10 Hours

Introduction to Graph Theory: Definitions and Examples, Sub graphs, Complements,

and Graph Isomorphism, Vertex Degree, Euler Trails and Circuits , Trees: Definitions,
Properties, and Examples, Routed Trees, Trees and Sorting, Weighted Trees and Prefix
Codes. Textbook 1: Ch 11: 11.1 to 11.3, Ch 12: 12.1 to 12.4
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 1
Course outcomes: After studying this course, students will be able to:
1. Verify the correctness of an argument using propositional and predicate logic and truth tables.
2. Demonstrate the ability to solve problems using counting techniques and combinatorics in the context
of discrete probability.
3. Solve problems involving recurrence relations and generating functions.
4. Construct proofs using direct proof, proof by contraposition, proof by contradiction, proof by cases, and
mathematical induction.
5. Explain and differentiate graphs and trees
Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)
1. Engineering Knowledge 2. Problem Analysis
3. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems
Question paper pattern:
The question paper will have ten questions.There will be 2 questions from each module.
Each question will have questions covering all the topics under a module.
The students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
Text Book:
Ralph P. Grimaldi: Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, , 5th Edition, Pearson Education. 2004.
Reference Books:
1. Basavaraj S Anami and Venakanna S Madalli: Discrete Mathematics – A Concept based approach,
Universities Press, 2016
2. Kenneth H. Rosen: Discrete Mathematics and its Applications, 6th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2007.
3. Jayant Ganguly: A Treatise on Discrete Mathematical Structures, Sanguine-Pearson, 2010.
4. D.S. Malik and M.K. Sen: Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications, Thomson,
2004.
5. Thomas Koshy: Discrete Mathematics with Applications, Elsevier, 2005, Reprint 2008.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 2

 Module 1

Mathematical logic
Syllabus: Basic Connectives and Truth Tables, Logic Equivalence – The Laws of Logic, Logical
Implication – Rules of Inference. The Use of Quantifiers, Quantifiers, Definitions and the Proofs of
Theorems.
1.1 Basic connectives and truth tables
Introduction:

❖ Declarative statement which is either true or false but not both is called proposition or
statement.
❖ The simplest statement which cannot be broken down further is called primitive statement.
❖ The truth or falsity of a statement is called truth value.
Truth value Notation
True 1
False 0

❖ Connective words which are used to combine two or more propositions are called logical
connectives.
logical connectives Notations
and 
Or 
exclusive or 
If then →
If and only if 
❖ A proposition containing one or more connectives is called compound proposition.

Compound proposition Notation Meaning

Negation p Not p
Conjunction pq p and q
Disjunction pq p or q or both
Exclusive disjunction pq 𝑝 or 𝑞 but not both
Conditional p→q If 𝑝 then 𝑞
Biconditional pq 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞
❖ Example: Consider 𝑝: Sun is shining, 𝑞: Humidity is low
p Sun is not shining.
pq Sun is shining and humidity is low
pq Sun is shining or humidity is low or both.
pq Sun is shining or humidity is low but not both.
p→q If sun is shining then humidity is low.
pq 𝑆𝑢𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 if and only if humidity is low

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 3

 ❖ Truth table:
p q pq pq pq p→q pq

0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 1

❖ Compound proposition which is always true for all possible combinations of truth values is
called Tautology.
❖ Compound proposition which is always false for all possible combinations of truth values is
called contradiction.
❖ Compound proposition which is neither tautology nor contradiction is called contingency.

Problems:

1. Consider the following propositions concerned with a certain triangle

p:  ABC is isosceles, q:  ABC is equilateral, r :  ABC is equiangular. Write down the
following propositions in words:
(a) p  q , (b) p  q , (c) 𝑝 → 𝑞, (d) 𝑞 → 𝑝, (e) ¬𝑟 → ¬𝑞, (f) 𝑝 → ¬𝑞.
Answer:

(a)  ABC is isosceles and is not equilateral.

(b)  ABC is either not isosceles or equilateral.
(c) If  ABC is isosceles then it is equilateral.
(d) If  ABC is equilateral then it is isosceles.
(e) If  ABC is not equiangular then it is not equilateral.
(f) If  ABC is isosceles then it is not equilateral.
2. Given that p is true and q is false find the truth values of the following:
(a) p  q , (b) ( p  q)  ( p  q) , (c) ( p → q) ,
(d) ( p → q)  ( p  q) , (e) ( p  q) → ( p  q) , (f) ( p → q)  (q → p)

Answer:
(a) F  F  F
(b) (T  F )  (T  F )  T  T  T
(c) (T  T )  F
(d) (T → F )  (T  T )  F  F  F
(e) (T  F ) → (T  F )  F → T  T
(f) (T → T )  ( F → F )  (T  T )  T

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 4

3. Determine the truth values of the following:
(a) p  q is false and q is true. Find the truth value if p.
(b) p  q is false and q is false. Find the truth value of p.
(c) p → q is true and q is false. Find p.
(d) p  q is true and p is false. Find q.
(e) p → q is false and p is false.
Answer:
(a) p  T is false  p is false.
(b) p  F is false  p is false.
(c) p → F is true  p is false.
(d) p  F is true.
(e) F → q is false  q may be true or false.

4. Find the possible truth values of p,q and r in the following cases:
(a) p → (q  r ) is false (b) p  (q → r ) is true. [ July ’09 ]

Answer:

(a)
𝑝 → (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) 𝑝 𝑞∨𝑟 𝑞 𝑟
0 1 0 0 0

Truth values of p, q and r are 1, 0, 0 respectively.

(b)
𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟) 𝑝 𝑞→𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 p q 𝑟
1 1 1 0 1 or 0 1 1 1
Or 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0

5. Let p, q and r be propositions having truth values 0, 0, 1 respectively. Find the truth values of
the following compound propositions: (a) p → (q  r ) (b) p  (r → q) (c) ( p  q) → r
(d) p → (q → r ) [ Jan ’17 ]

Answer:
(a)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑞∧𝑟 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
0 0 1 0 1

(b)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑟→𝑞 𝑝 ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑞)
0 0 1 0 0

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 5

 (c)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝∧𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟
0 0 1 0 1 ¬
(d)
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑞 → ¬𝑟 𝑝 → (𝑞 → ¬𝑟)
0 0 1 1 1

6. Let p and q primitive statements for which the conditional p → q is false. Determine the truth values
of the following compound propositions: (a) p  q (b) p  q (c) q → p (c) q → p [ Jan’14

Answer: Since p → q is false, p is 1 and q is 0.

Therefore, (a) p  q is 0 (b) p  q is 0 (c) q → p is 1 (d) q → p is 0
7. Form the truth tables for the following:
(a) ( p  q)  p (b) ( p  q) (c) p → (q → r ) (d) ( p → q) → r (e) [( p  q)  r ]  p

Answer:
(a)
p q pq p ( p  q)  p
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

(b) p q q p  q ( p  q)
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0

p q r q→r p → (q → r )
(c)
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 6

 (d)
p q r p→q ( p → q) → r
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

(e) p q r pq r ( p  q)  r [( p  q)  r ]  p
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1

8. Show that for any propositions p and q the following are tautologies by constructing truth
table:

(a) [( p → q)  (q → r )] → ( p → r ) [ Dec 2012 ]

p q r p→q q→r ( p → q)  ( q → r ) p→r (1) → (2)

(1) (2)
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 7

 (b) [ p  ( p → q)  r ] → [( p  q) → r ]

p q r p→q p  ( p → q)  r pq ( p  q) → r (1) → (2)

(1) (2)
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore, it is a Tautology.

(c) {( p  q)  [( p → r )  (q → r )]} → r [ Dec ’11, Jan ’10, Jan ’17 ]

p q r pq p→r q→r ( p → r )  (q → r ) (1)  (2) [(1)  (2)] → r

(1) (2)

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 8

 (d) [𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → [(𝑝 → 𝑞) → (𝑝 → 𝑟)] [ June 2012]

p q r q→r p → (q → r ) p→q p→r ( p → q) → ( p → r ) (1) → (2)

(1) (2)
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

(e) [( p → q)  (q → r )] → [( p  q) → r ] [Dec 2012]

p q r ( p → q)  ( q → r ) pq ( p  q) → r (1) → (2)

p→q q→r (1) (2)

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.
(f) [( p  q)  (p  q)]  p
p q p pq ( p  q) p  q ( p  q)  (p  q) (1)  p
(1)
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 9

 (g) [( p → r )  (q → r )] → [( p  q) → r ] [July ‘13]

p q r ( p → q)  ( q → r ) pq ( p  q) → r (1) → (2)

p→r q→r (1) (2)

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

9. (a) S.T for any proposition p and q, ( p  q)  ( p  q) is a tautology.

(b) S.T.for any proposition p and q, ( p  q)  ( p  q) is a contradiction.
(c) S.T. for any proposition p and q, ( p  q)  ( p → q) is a contingency.

Answer:
(a) p q pq p q ( p  q)  ( p  q)

0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1

The given compound proposition is true for all possible combinations of truth values.
Therefore it is a Tautology.

(b) p q pq p q ( p  q)  ( p  q)

0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0

Compound proposition is false for all possible combinations of truth values.

Therefore it is a contradiction.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 10

 (c) p q pq p→q ( p  q )  ( p → q)

0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0

Compound proposition is neither tautology nor contradiction.

Therefore it is a contingency.

Exercise:
1. Determine whether each of the following sentences is a statement:
(a) In 2003,George W. Bush was the American President.
(b) 𝑥 + 3 is a positive integer.
(c) 15 is an even number.
(d) What time is it?

2. Determine the truth values of each of the following implications:

(a) If 3 + 4 = 12 then 3 + 2 = 6.
(b) If 3 + 3 = 6 then 3 + 4 = 9.
(c) If Thomas was the third president of United states then 2+3=5.

3. If the statement q has the truth value 1, determine all the truth value assignments for the
primitive statements:

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 11

 1.2 Logical equivalence - The laws of logic
Definition:

Two propositions u and v are said to be logically equivalent if u and v have the same
truth values for all possible combinations of truth values. It is denoted by 𝑢 ⇔ 𝑣 or 𝑢 ≡ 𝑣.

Laws of logic: Law of double negation Idempotent law

p  p p p  p
p p  p
Demorgan’s law Identity law
( p  q)  p  q p  F0  p
( p  q)  p  q p  T0  p
Associative law Inverse law
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r p  p  T0
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r p  p  F0
Commutative law Domination law

pq  q p p  T0  T0
pq  q p p  F0  F0
Distributive law Absorbtion law
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r ) p  ( p  q)  p
p  ( q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r ) p  ( p  q)  p
Problems:

4. By constructing truth tables prove the following:

(a)] [( p  q) → r ]  [r → ( p  q)] [ July ’09 ]
(b) [( p  q)  (q  r )  (r  p)]  [( p → q)  (q → r )  (r → p)]
(c) [( p  q) → r ]  [( p → r )  (q → r )] [ July ’09, Dec ’10 ]
(d) p → (q → r )  ( p  q) → r [ July ’13 ]
(e) p → (q  r )  ( p  q) → r [ July ’16 ]
Proof:

(a) [( p  q) → r ]  [r → ( p  q)] ]

Denote [( p  q) → r ] by u and [r → ( p  q)] by v.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 12

 p q r pq [( p  q) → r ]
(u)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

p q r pq r ( p  q) [r → ( p  q)]

(v)
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1

Since, and v have the same truth values for all possible combinations, 𝑢 ⇔ 𝑣.
Therefore, [( p  q) → r ]  [r → ( p  q)] ]

(b) [( p  q)  (q  r )  (r  p)]  [( p → q)  (q → r )  (r → p)]

Denote [( p  q)  (q  r )  (r  p)] by u and [( p → q)  (q → r )  (r → p)] by v.

p q r [( p  q) (q  r ) ( r  p) [( p  q)  (q  r )  (r  p)]
(u)
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 13

 p q r ( p → q) (q → r ) (r → p) [( p → q)  (q → r )  (r → p)]
(v)
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Since,u and v have the same truth values for all possible combinations, u  v .

Therefore, [( p  q)  (q  r )  (r  p)]  [( p → q)  (q → r )  (r → p)]

(c) [( p  q) → r ]  [( p → r )  (q → r )]

p q r pq ( p  q) → r
(u)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

p q r p→r q→r ( p → r)  ( q → r )
(v)
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

Since,u and v have the same truth values for all possible combinations, 𝑢 ⇔ 𝑣.

Therefore, [( p  q) → r ]  [( p → r )  (q → r )]

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 14

 (d) p → (q → r )  ( p  q) → r

p q r (q → r ) p → (q → r )
(u)
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

p q r pq ( p  q) → r
(v)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

Since,u and v have the same truth values for all possible combinations, 𝑢 ⇔ 𝑣.

Therefore, p → (q → r )  ( p  q) → r

(e) p → (q  r )  ( p  q) → r

p q r qr p → (q  r )
(u)
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 15

 p q r q p  q ( p  q) → r
(v)
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

Since,u and v have the same truth values for all possible combinations, 𝑢 ⇔ 𝑣.

Therefore, p → (q  r )  ( p  q) → r

5. Prove the following using the laws of logic:

(a) (p  q)  ( F0  p)  p  ( p  q)

(b) p → [q → ( p  q)] is a tautology.

(c) p → (q → r )  ( p  q) → r [Jan ’17 ]

(d) [p  (q  r )]  [(q  r )  ( p  r )]  r [Jan ‘10]

(e) {( p  q)  [p  (q  r )]}  {(p  q)  (p  r )} is T0

(f) [( p  q)  ( p  q)]  q  ( p  q) [ Jan ‘17]

(g) [( p  q)] → [p  (p  q)]  p  q

(h) [(p  q) → ( p  q  r )]  p  q [Jan ‘14]

(i) ( p → q)  [q  (r  q)]  (q  p) [Dec ‘12]

(j) [( P  Q)  (P  (Q  R))]  (P  Q)  (P  R) is a tautology.

[ Jan ’09, Dec ’10 ]

Proof:

(a) (p  q)  ( F0  p)  p

 (p  q)  p  p [ By Identity law

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 16

  (p  q)  p [ By Idempotent law

 (p  p)  (q  p) [ By distribution law

 F0  (q  p) [ By inverse law

 (q  p) [ By Identity law

 ( p  q) [ By commutative law

(b) p → [q → ( p  q)]
 p → [q  ( p  q)] [ By the definition of conditional

 p  [q  ( p  q)] [ By the definition of conditional

 (p  q)  ( p  q)] [By Associative law

 ( p  q)  ( p  q)] [By Demorgan’s law

 T0 [ By inverse law

(c) p → (q → r )
 p → (q  r ) [ By the definition of conditional

 p  (q  r ) [ By the definition of conditional

 (p  q)  r [By Associative law

 ( p  q)  r [By Demorgan’s law

 ( p  q) → r [ By the definition of conditional

(d) [p  (q  r )]  [(q  r )  ( p  r )]

 [(p  q)  r )]  [(q  r )  ( p  r )] [By Associative law

 [(p  q)  r )]  [(q  p)  r ] [ By Distributive law

 [(( p  q)  r )]  [( p  q)  r )] [By Demorgan’s law

 [( p  q)  ( p  q)]  r [ By Distributive law

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 17

  T0  r [ By inverse law

r [ By Identity law

(e) {( p  q)  [p  (q  r )]}  {(p  q)  (p  r )}

 {( p  q)  [p  (q  r )]}  {( p  q)  ( p  r )} [By Demorgan’s law

⇔ {(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ [𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)]} ∨ ¬{(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)} [By Demorgan’s law

⇔ {(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)} ∨ ¬{(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)} [ By Distributive law

⇔ {(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)} ∨ ¬{(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)} [ By Idempotent law

⇔ 𝑇𝑜 [ By inverse law

(f) [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 )] ∨ 𝑞

⇔ [(𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑞 )] ∨ 𝑞 [ By Distributive law

⇔ [𝑝 ∨ 𝐹0 ] ∨ 𝑞 [ By inverse law

⇔𝑝∨𝑞 [ By Identity law

(g) [¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )] → [¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )]

⇔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ [¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )] [ By the definition of conditional

⇔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ [(¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝) ∨ 𝑞 ] [By Associative law

⇔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ [¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ] [ By Idempotent law

⇔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ [𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑝] [ By commutative law

⇔ [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ 𝑞 ] ∨ ¬𝑝 [By Associative law

⇔ 𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑝 [By Absorption law law

⇔ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 [ By commutative law

(h) [(p  q) → ( p  q  r )]

 [(p  q)  ( p  q  r )] [ By the definition of conditional ]

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 18

  [( p  q)  (( p  q )  r )] [ By Demorgan’s law and associative law]
 ( p  q) [ By Absorbtion law ]

(i) ( p → q)  [q  (r  q)]

 ( p → q)  [q  (q  r )] [ By commutative law ]
 ( p → q)  q [ By Absorbtion law ]
 (p  q)  q [ By the definition of conditional ]
 ( p  q)  q [ By Demorgan’s law]
 [( p  q)  q] [By Demorgan’s law]
 [( p  q)  (q  q)] [ By distributive law ]
 [( p  q)  F0 ] [ By inverse law ]
 ( p  q) [ By identity law ]
 (q  p) [ By commutative law ]

(j) [( P  Q)  (P  (Q  R))]  (P  Q)  (P  R)

 [( P  Q)  ( P  (Q  R))]  ( P  Q)  ( P  R) [By Demorgan’s
 [( P  Q)  {( P  Q)  ( P  R)}]  ( P  Q)  ( P  R)
[ By distributive law ]
 [{( P  Q)  ( P  Q)}  ( P  R)}]  ( P  Q)  ( P  R)
[By Associative law ]
 [( P  Q)  ( P  R)]  [( P  Q)  ( P  R)]
[By idempotent law ]
 T0

6. Show that the compound propositions p  (q  r ) and p  (q  r ) are not logically
equivalent. [ Jan ‘14]
Answer:

p q r q q  r p  (q  r )
(u)
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 19

 p q r q p  q ( p  q) → r
(v)
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

u and v do not have the same truth values in all possible situations.

Therefore, p  (q  r ) and p  (q  r ) are not logically equivalent.

1.3 Duality, NAND and NOR, Converse, inverse and contra positive
Introduction:

❖ Suppose 𝑢 is a compound proposition , dual of 𝑢 is a compound proposition

obtained by replacing(i) ⋀ 𝑏𝑦 ⋁ (ii) ∨ 𝑏𝑦 ∧ (iii) 𝑇0 𝑏𝑦 𝐹0 (iv) 𝐹0 𝑏𝑦 𝑇0 [ Jan 09]

❖ (i) (𝑢𝑑 )𝑑 = 𝑢 (ii) If 𝑢 ⟺ 𝑣then𝑢𝑑 ⟺ 𝑣 𝑑 (Principle of duality)

❖ NAND is the combination of NOT and AND . NOR is the combination of NOT and OR.

Name Symbol Example Explanation

NAND ↑ 𝑝↑𝑞 ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 )

NOR ↓ p↓𝑞 ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )

❖ Truth table for NAND and NOR: [ Jan ’09 ]

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 p↓ 𝑞 𝑝↑𝑞
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 20

 ❖ Converse, inverse and contra positive of the conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 : [ July ’09 ]

Converse inverse contra positive

𝑞→𝑝 ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞 ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝

❖ Truth table for converse, inverse and contra positive:

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑞→𝑝 ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞 ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1

❖ Laws of logic in conditional:

𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 𝑞 → 𝑝 ≡ ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞

1. Write the duals of the following propositions:

(a) 𝑝 → 𝑞 (b) 𝑝 ↔ 𝑟 (c) p ∨q
(d) (𝑝 ∨ 𝑇0 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝐹0 ) ∨ [(𝑟 ∧ 𝑠) ∨ 𝐹0 ] [ Dec ’10, Dec ’12, Jan ’09 ]
(e) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∧ [(¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠)] ∨ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑠) (f) ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ [𝑝 ∨ ¬(𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑠)]
(g) 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟)

Answer:

(a) 𝑢 ≡ 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
𝑢𝑑 ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞

(b) 𝑢 ≡ 𝑝 ↔ 𝑟 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑟) ∧ (𝑟 → 𝑝) ≡ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑝)

𝑢𝑑 ≡ (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (¬𝑟 ∧ 𝑝)

(b) 𝑢 ≡ p ∨q ≡ (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞 )
𝑢𝑑 ≡ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞 )

(d) 𝑢 ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑇0 ) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝐹0 ) ∨ [(𝑟 ∧ 𝑠) ∨ 𝐹0 ]
𝑢𝑑 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝐹0 ) ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑇0 ) ∧ [(𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) ∧ 𝑇0 ]

(e) 𝑢 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∧ [(¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ (¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠)] ∨ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑠)

𝑢𝑑 ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∨ [(¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (¬𝑟 ∧ 𝑠)] ∧ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑠)

(f) 𝑢 ≡ ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ) ∧ [𝑝 ∨ ¬(𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑠)]

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 21

 𝑢𝑑 ≡ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ [𝑝 ∧ ¬(𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑠)]

(g) 𝑢 ≡ 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 → 𝑟) ≡ ¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
𝑢𝑑 ≡ ¬𝑝 ∧ (¬𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)

2. Verify the principle of duality for the logical equivalence:

[¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → ¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )] ⇔ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 [ Jan ’10 , Jan ’17 ]
Answer:
Principle of duality: If 𝑢 ⟺ 𝑣 then 𝑢𝑑 ⟺ 𝑣 𝑑
If 𝑢 ⟺ 𝑣 then
𝑢𝑑 ⟺ [¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → ¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )]𝑑 [ By data
⟺ [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ ¬𝑝 ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 )]𝑑 [ By the definition of conditional
⟺ [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ (¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝) ∨ 𝑞 ]𝑑 [ By Associative law
⟺ [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ]𝑑 [ By idempotent law
⟺ [(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑝]𝑑 [ By commutative law
⟺ [𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑝]𝑑 [ By Absorbtion law
⟺ [¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ]𝑑 [ By Commutative law
⟺ 𝑣𝑑 [ By data

3. For any proposition 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 prove the following:

(a) 𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ⇔ 𝑞 ↑ 𝑝 (b) 𝑝 ↓ 𝑞 ⇔ 𝑞 ↓ 𝑝 (c) ¬(𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬𝑞 ↓ ¬𝑝
(d) ¬(𝑝 ↓ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬𝑞 ↑ ¬𝑝 (e) 𝑝 ↑ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑟) ⇔ ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) [ Jan ’17 ]
(f) ¬(𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬𝑝 ↓ ¬𝑞 (g) 𝑝 ↓ (𝑞 ↓ 𝑟) ⇔ ¬𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) [ Jan ’17 ]

Proof:
(a) 𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) [ By the definition of NAND
⇔ ¬(𝑞 ∧ 𝑝) [ By commutative law
⇔𝑞↑𝑝 [ By the definition of NAND

(b) 𝑝 ↓ 𝑞 ⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) [ By the definition of NOR

⇔ ¬(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) [ By commutative law
⇔𝑞↓𝑝 [ By the definition of NOR

(c) ¬(𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) [ By the definition of NAND

⇔ ¬(¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) [By Demorgan’s law
⇔ ¬(¬𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑝) [ By commutative law
⇔ ¬𝑞 ↓ ¬𝑝 [ By the definition of NOR

(d) ¬(𝑝 ↓ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) [ By the definition of NOR

⇔ ¬(¬𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) [By Demorgan’s law
⇔ ¬𝑞 ↑ ¬𝑝 [ By the definition of NAND

(e) 𝑝 ↑ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑟) ⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑟)) [ By the definition of NAND

⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∧ ¬(𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)) [ By the definition of NAND

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 22

 ⇔ ¬𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) [By Demorgan’s law

(f) ¬(𝑝 ↑ 𝑞 ) ⇔ ¬¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) [ By the definition of NAND

⇔ ¬(¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) [By Demorgan’s law
⇔ ¬𝑝 ↓ ¬𝑞 [ By the definition of NOR

(g) 𝑝 ↓ (𝑞 ↓ 𝑟) ⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ↑ 𝑟)) [ By the definition of NAND

⇔ ¬(𝑝 ∨ ¬(𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)) [ By the definition of NAND
⇔ ¬𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) [By Demorgan’s law

7. Represent 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 and 𝑝 → 𝑞 using only ↑ and using only ↓. [ June ’12 ]

Answer:

(a) p  q  ( p  q)
 (p  q)
 ( p  q)
 ( p  q)  ( p  q)
 ( p  q)  ( p  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 using only ↓.

p  q  ( p  q)

 (p  q)

 (p)  (q)

 (p)  (q)

 (p  p)  (q  q)

 ( p  p)  ( q  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 using only ↑.

(b) p  q  ( p  q)

 (p  q)

 (p)  (q)

 (p)  (q)

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 23

  (p  p)  (q  q)

 ( p  p)  ( q  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 using only↓ .

p  q  ( p  q)

 (p  q)
 ( p  q)
 ( p  q)  ( p  q)
 ( p  q)  ( p  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 using only ↑.

(c) p → q  p  q
 p  q
 p  (q)
 p  (q  q)
 p  (q  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 → 𝑞 using only ↑.

p→q  p  q
 (p  q)
 ( p  q)
 (p  q)
 (p  q)  (p  q)
 (p  q)  (p  q)
 (( p  p)  q)  (( p  p)  q)

This is the representation of 𝑝 → 𝑞 using only ↓.

4. Write the converse, inverse and contra positive of the following conditionals:

(a) If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect each other.

(b) If a real number 𝑥 2 is greater than zero, then 𝑥 is not equal to zero.
(c) If a triangle is not isosceles, then it is not equilateral. [ July ’13 ]
(d) If Ram can solve the puzzle, then Ram can solve the problem. [ July ‘16]

Answer:

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 24

 (a) Let 𝑝:Quadrilateral is a parallelogram and q:Diagonals of the quadrilateral
bisect each other. The given conditional is 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Converse: (𝑞 → 𝑝) If the diagonals of the quadrilateral bisect each other, then

it is a parallelogram.

Inverse: (¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞) If a quadrilateral is not a parallelogram, then its

diagonals do not bisect each other.

Contra positive: (¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝) If the diagonals of the quadrilateral do not bisect
each other, then it is not a parallelogram.

(b) Let 𝑝: A real number 𝑥 2 is greater than zero and 𝑞: 𝑥 is not equal to zero
The given conditional is 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Converse: (𝑞 → 𝑝) If a real number𝑥 is not equal to zero, then 𝑥 2 is greater

than zero.

Inverse: (¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞) If a real number 𝑥 2 is not greater than zero, then 𝑥 is
equal to zero.

Contra positive: (¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝) If a real number𝑥 is equal to zero, then 𝑥 2 is not
greater than zero.

(c) Let 𝑝: (𝑞 → 𝑝) A triangle is not isosceles and 𝑞:Triangle is not equilateral

The given conditional is 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Converse: (𝑞 → 𝑝) If a triangle is not equilateral, then it is not isosceles.

Inverse: (¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞) If a triangle is isosceles, then it is equilateral.

Contra positive: (¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝) If a triangle is equilateral, then it is isosceles.

(d) Let p : Ram can solve the puzzle. q : Ram can solve the problem.
The given conditional is 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Converse: (𝑞 → 𝑝) If Ram can solve the problem, then he can solve the
puzzle.

Inverse: (¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞) If Ram cannot solve the puzzle, then he cannot solve the
problem.

Contra positive: (¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝) If Ram cannot solve the problem, then he cannot
solve the puzzle.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 25

 1.4 Rules of inference

Introduction:
There exist rules of logic which can be employed for establishing validity of arguments.
These rules are called rules of inference.

Modus pones Modus Tollens Rule of Rule of Disjunctive Conjunctive

syllogism disjunctive amplification simplification
syllogism

𝑝 𝑝→𝑞 𝑝→𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞

𝑝→𝑞 ¬𝑞 𝑞→𝑟 ¬𝑞 𝑝 𝑝∧𝑞

________ ________ _________ ________ ___________ ___________
∴𝑞 ∴ ¬𝑝 ∴𝑝→𝑟 ∴𝑝 ∴𝑝∨𝑞 ∴𝑝

𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝 → 𝑞

8. Test the validity for the following:

(a) If there is a strike by students then exam will be postponed. Exam was not postponed.
Therefore there were no strike by students. [ Jan ‘09]
Answer:
Let 𝑝: There is a strike by students and𝑞:exam is postponed
Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑞

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 p Modus Tollens

Therefore, there were no strike by students. Therefore, the given argument is valid.

(b) If Sachin hits a century then he gets a free car. Sachin gets a free car. Therefore Sachin
has hit a century.
Answer:
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 26
 Let 𝑝: Sachin hits a century and 𝑞: Sachin gets a free car
Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑞

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 𝑝 need not be true

∴ 𝑝 need not be true.

Therefore Sachin may not hit a century.Therefore, the given argument is invalid.

(c) If I drive to work, then I will arrive tired. I am not tired. Therefore I do not drive to
work.

Answer:

Let 𝑝: I drive to work and 𝑞: I will arrive tired

Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑞

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 p Modus Tollens

Therefore I do not drive to work. Therefore, the given argument is valid.

(d) If interest rate falls then stock market will rise. The stock market will not rise. Therefore
the interest rates will not fall. [ Jan ’06 ]
Answer:
Let 𝑝: interest rate falls and 𝑞: stock market will rise. Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑞.

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 p Modus Tollens

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 27

 Therefore the interest rates will not fall. Therefore, the given argument is valid.
(e) If Ravi studies, then he will pass in DMS. If Ravi does not play cricket, then he will
study. Ravi failed in DMS. Therefore, Ravi played cricket. [ Jan ’09 ]
Answer:

Let 𝑝: Ravi studies, 𝑞:He will pass in DMS and 𝑟:Ravi plays cricket
Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑟 → 𝑝, ¬𝑞.

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 3

3 1, 2 p Modus Tollens

4 --- r → p Premise 2

5 3, 4 r Modus Tollens

Therefore Ravi played cricket. Therefore, the argument is valid.

(f) If I study then I will not fail in exam. If I do not watch TV in the evening then I will
study. I failed in exam. Therefore I must have watched TV in the evening.
[ Jan ’10, Dec ’10, Jan’ 17 ]

Answer:

Let 𝑝: I study, 𝑞: I fail in exam. and 𝑟: I watch TV in the evening.

Given premises are 𝑝 → ¬𝑞, ¬𝑟 → 𝑝, 𝑞
S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p → q Premise 1

2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 p Modus Tollens

4 --- r → p Premise 3

5 3, 4 r Modus Tollens

Therefore I watch TV in the evening. Therefore, the given argument is valid.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 28

 (g) If Rochelle gets the supervisor’s position and work hard , then she will get a rise in
her payment. If she gets a rise, then she will buy a car. She has not purchased the car.
Therefore either Rochelle did not get the supervisor’s position or she did not work
hard.

Answer:

Let 𝑝: Rochelle gets the supervisor’s position,𝑞:Rochelle works hard

𝑟:Rochelle gets a rise in her payment,𝑠:Rochelle purchased the car.
Given premises are (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ) → 𝑟, 𝑟 → 𝑠, ¬𝑠

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- r →s Premise 2

2 --- s Premise 3

3 1, 2 r Modus Tollens

4 --- ( p  q) → r Premise 1

5 3, 4 ( p  q) Modus Tollens

6 5 p  q Demorgen’s law

Therefore either Rochelle did not get the supervisor’s position or she did not work hard.
Therefore, the given argument is valid.

(h) Let 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 be the primitive statements.𝑝: Ram studies q: Ram plays tennis, 𝑟:
Ram passes in DMS. Let 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , 𝐻3 be the premises. 𝐻1 : If Ram studies then he
will pass in DMS. 𝐻2 : If Ram does not play Tennis then he will study. 𝐻3 : Ram did
not pass in DMS. Show that q follows from 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , 𝐻3 .
Answer:

Let 𝑝: Ram studies q: Ram plays tennis, 𝑟: Ram passes in DMS

Given premises are𝐻1 : 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝐻2 : ¬𝑞 → 𝑝, 𝐻3 : ¬𝑟
S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→r Premise H1

2 --- r Premise H 3
3 1, 2 p
Modus Tollens

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 29

 4 --- q → p Premise H 2

5 4,3 q
Modus Tollens

Therefore, 𝑞 follows from 𝐻1 , 𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻3 .

(i) I will get grade A in this course or I will not graduate.

If I do not graduate, I will join army.
I got grade A.
Therefore, I will not join the army.
Is this valid argument? Prove using rules of inference. [ Jan 2008 ]

Answer:

p: I get grade A in this course. q: I am not graduate. r : I will join army.

Given premises are p  q , q → r , p

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- pq Premise 1

2 --- p → q Conditional law

3 1 q→r Premise 2

4 1, 2 p → r Rule of syllogism

5 --- p Premise 3

r need not be true.

Therefore, this argument is not valid.

(j) Test the validity of the following argument:

I will become famous or I will not become a musician.
I will become a musician. Therefore, I will become famous. [ July 2007]

Answer:

Let p: I will become famous q: I will become a musician.

Given premises are p  q , q

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p  q Premise 1

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 30

 2 --- q Premise 2

3 1, 2 p Disjunctive syllogism

Therefore, I will become a musician. Therefore, this argument is valid.

2. Test the validity of the following:

(a) 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠, 𝑝∨𝑟 ∴ ¬𝑞 → 𝑠

Answer:
Given premises are 𝑝 → 𝑞, ¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→q Premise 1

2 --- pr Premise 2

3 --- r  s Premise 3

4 1 q → p Contra positive

5 2 p → r Conditional law

6 3 r →s Conditional law

7 1,2, 3 q → s Rule of syllogism

Therefore, this argument is valid.

(b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ¬𝑝 ∨ 𝑟, ¬𝑟 ∴𝑞 [ June 2012]

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p  r Premise 2

2 --- r Premise 3

3 1, 2 p Disjunctive syllogism

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 31

 4 --- pq Premise 1

5 3, 4 q Disjunctive syllogism

Therefore, this argument is valid.

(c) 𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞, 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ∴ ¬𝑟 [Dec ’11, July ‘11 ]

Answer:
S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p  q Premise 1

2 --- p → (q → r ) Premise 2

3 1 p Conjunctive simplification

4 2, 3 q→r Modus pones

5 1 q Conjunctive simplification

6 4, 5 r or r ---

Therefore, this argument is invalid.

(d) 𝑝, 𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑠 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑟 → ¬𝑞 ∴𝑠∨𝑡 [ July ’11, Jan ’17 ]

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p Premise p1

2 --- p→q
Premise p2
3 1, 2 q
Contra positive
4 --- r → q
Premise p3

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 32

 5 3, 4 r Conditional law

6 --- sr Disjunctive syllogism

7 5, 6 s

Therefore, this argument is valid.

(e) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑟) ∴𝑟

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- pq Premise p1

2 1 p
Conjunctive simplification
3 --- p → (q → r ) Premise p2
4 2, 3 q→r
Modus pones
5 1 q
Conjunctive simplification
6 4, 5 r Modus pones

(f) 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝑞 → 𝑟 ∴ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p→r Premise p1

2 1 p  r
Conditional law
3 --- q→r
Premise p2
4 3 q  r
Conditional law
5 2, 4 (p  q)  r
Distributive law

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 33

 6 5 ( p  q)  r Demorgen’s law

7 6 ( p  q) → r Conditional law

Therefore this argument is valid.

(g) 𝑝, 𝑝 → 𝑟, 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟), ¬𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑠 ∴ 𝑠 [ June 2012 ]

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- p Premise p1

2 --- p→r
Premise p2
3 --- p → (q  r )
Premise p3
4 1, 2 r
Modus pones
5 1, 3 q  r
Modus pones
6 4, 5 q
Disjunctive syllogism
7 --- q  s
Conditional law
8 6, 7 s
Disjunctive syllogism

Therefore, this argument is invalid.

(h) 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, 𝑞 → 𝑟, 𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑠, ¬𝑠 → 𝑞 ∴𝑠 [July 2011]

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- r  s Premise p3

2 1 r → s Conditional law

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 34

 3 --- s → q Premise p4

4 --- q→r
Premise p2
5 2, 3, 4 r → r
Rule of syllogism
6 5 rr
Conditional law
7 5 r
Disjunctive simplification
8 1, 7 s need not be true
Contra positive

Therefore, this argument is invalid.

(i) 𝐶 ∨ 𝐷, (𝐶 ∨ 𝐷) → ¬𝐻, ¬𝐻 → (𝐴 ∧ ¬𝐵) and (𝐴 ∧ ¬𝐵) → 𝑅 ∨ 𝑆. ∴ 𝑅 ∨ 𝑆 [Jan ‘14]

Answer:

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- (C  D) → H Premise p2

2 --- H → ( A  B) Premise p3

3 --- ( A  B) → ( R  S )
Premise p4
4 1, 2, 3 (C  D) → ( R  S )
Rule of syllogism
5 --- CD
Premise p1
6 4, 5 RS
Modus pones

Therefore, this argument is valid.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 35

 1.5 The use of quantifiers
Introduction:

❖ A declarative sentence is an open statement if it contains one or more variables.

❖ Open statements are not propositions unless the variables are not specified.
❖ Some propositions containing words like ‘all’ , ‘for every’ , ‘for any’ , ‘for each’
‘some’ , ‘there exists’ , ‘at least one’ . These words are called quantifiers.
❖ Examples for existential quantifier (∃ ) are some, there exists, at least one, at
least.
❖ Examples for Universal quantifier (∀) are for, for each, for every, for any.
❖ ¬[∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 )] = ∃𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥) and ¬[∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 )] = ∀𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥)
❖
Universal Existential

Specification x  S , p( x)  p(a), a  S x  S , p( x)  p(a), a  S

Generalisation p(a), a  S  x  S , p( x) p(a), a  S  x  S , p( x)

❖ Logical equivalence:
∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥)] ⟺ ∀𝑥 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ ∀𝑥 𝑞(𝑥) ∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥)] ⟺ ∀𝑥 𝑝(𝑥) ∨ ∀𝑥 𝑞(𝑥)

∃𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥)] ⟺ ∃𝑥 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ ∃𝑥 𝑞(𝑥) ∃𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥)] ⟺ ∃𝑥 𝑝(𝑥) ∨ ∃𝑥 𝑞(𝑥)

Problems:

1. For the universe of all integers let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 > 0, 𝑞(𝑥 ) ∶ x is even, 𝑟(𝑥): x is a perfect
square, 𝑠 (𝑥): x is divisible by 3, 𝑡(𝑥 ): x is divisible by 7.Write the following statements
in symbolic form:
(a) At least one integer is even, (b) There exists a positive integer that is even.
(c) Some even integers are divisible by 3. (d) Every integer is either even or odd.
(e) If x is even and a perfect square then x is not divisible by 3.
(f) If x is odd or is not divisible by 7 then x is divisible by 3.
[Jan ’10 ]

Answer:

(a) ∃𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥) (b) ∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞 (𝑥)] (c) ∃𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑠 (𝑥)]
(d) ∀𝑥, 𝑞 𝑥 ∨ ¬𝑞 𝑥)] (e) ∀𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )] → ¬𝑠(𝑥)
[ ( ) (
(f) ∀𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑡(𝑥 )] → 𝑠(𝑥)

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 36

 2. Consider the universe of all polygons with 3 or 4 sides and define the following open
statements for this universe. a(x): All interior angles of x are equal, e(x): x is an
equilateral triangle, i(x): x is an isosceles triangle, p(x): x has an interior angle that
exceeds 1800 , q(x): x is a quadrilateral, r(x): x is a rectangle, s(x): x is a square, t(x): x is
a triangle.(a) ∀𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑡(𝑥 )] (b) ∀𝑥, [𝑖(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑒(𝑥)] (c) ∃𝑥, [𝑡(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑝(𝑥 )]
(d) ∃𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ ¬r(x)] (e) ∀𝑥, {[𝑎(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑡(𝑥 )] ↔ 𝑒(𝑥 )} (f) ∀𝑥, 𝑡(𝑥 ) → ¬𝑝(𝑥)

Answer:

(a) For any x, x is a quadrilateral or a triangle.

(b) For any x, x is an isosceles triangle or an equilateral triangle.
(c) For some x, x is a triangle and a quadrilateral.
(d) For some x, x is a quadrilateral and not a rectangle.
(e) For any x, All interior angles of x are equal and is a triangle if and only if x is an
equilateral triangle.
(f) For any x, if x is a triangle then x does not have an interior angle that exceeds 1800 .

3. Consider the following statements with a set of all real numbers as the universe.
𝑝(𝑥 ): 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑞 (𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 ≥ 0, 𝑟(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0, 𝑠(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3 > 0. Determine the truth
values of the following: (a) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥) (b) ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞(𝑥) (c) ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 ) → 𝑠(𝑥)
(d) ∀𝑥, 𝑟(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑠(𝑥 )(𝑒) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥). [ July ’09, Dec’10, Dec’12, Jan ‘17]

Answer:

(a) For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑝(𝑥 ): 𝑥 ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 are true.

Therefore, ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥) is true.

(b) 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 cannot be false for any real number 𝑥.

Therefore,𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞(𝑥) cannot be false for any real number 𝑥.
Therefore, ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞(𝑥) is true.

(c) For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑞 (𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 is true but 𝑠(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3 > 0is false.

Therefore, ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 ) → 𝑠(𝑥) is false.

(d) For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑟(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3 > 0 are false.

Therefore, ∀𝑥, 𝑟(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑠 (𝑥)is false.

(e) For 𝑥 = 4, 𝑝(𝑥 ): 𝑥 ≥ 0 is true and𝑟(𝑥 ): 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 is true.

Therefore, ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥) is true.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 37

 4. Negate and simplify each of the following:
(a)∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑞 (𝑥 )(b) ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) → 𝑞(𝑥 )
(c)∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → ¬𝑞(𝑥 )(d) ∃𝑥, [(𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥 )) → 𝑟(𝑥)]
[ Dec ’11, Dec ‘12]
Answer:

(a) 𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥 )

¬𝑢 ≡ ∀𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ¬𝑞(𝑥 )

(b) 𝑢 ≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞(𝑥 ) ≡ ∀𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥 )

¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ ¬𝑞 (𝑥 )

(c) 𝑢 ≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → ¬𝑞 (𝑥 ) ≡ ∀𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥) ∨ ¬𝑞(𝑥)

¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥 )

(d) 𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥, [(𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞 (𝑥 )) → 𝑟(𝑥 )] ≡ ∃𝑥, [¬(𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑞 (𝑥)) ∨ 𝑟(𝑥 )]

¬𝑢 ≡ ∀𝑥, [(𝑝(𝑥) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥 )) ∧ ¬𝑟(𝑥 )]

5. Write down the following propositions in symbolic form and find their negation:
(a)For all integers, if n is not divisible by 2, then n is odd. [ Jan ’10, Jan ’06 ]
(b)If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are any integers where 𝑙 − 𝑚 and 𝑚 − 𝑛 are odd then 𝑙 − 𝑛 is even
[ Jan ‘10]
2
(c) If x is a real number where 𝑥 is greater than 16 then 𝑥 is less than -4 or x is more
than 4.
(d) All rational numbers are real and some real numbers are not rational.
(e) No real number is greater than its square.
(f) All integers are rational numbers and some rational numbers are not integers
[Dec ’10, July ‘13]
(g) Some straight lines are parallel or all straight lines intersect. [ July ’16 ]

Answer:

(a) Let 𝑝(𝑛): n is divisible by 2 and 𝑞(𝑛): n is odd

𝑢 ≡ For all integers, if n is not divisible by 2, then n is odd.
≡ ∀ 𝑛, ¬𝑝(𝑛) → 𝑞 (𝑛)
≡ ∀𝑛, 𝑝(𝑛) ∨ 𝑞(𝑛)
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑛, ¬𝑝(𝑛) ∧ ¬𝑞(𝑛)
≡ Some integers are neither divisible by 2 nor odd.

(b) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑙 − 𝑚 is odd , 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑚 − 𝑛 is odd and 𝑟(𝑥 ): 𝑙 − 𝑛 is odd.

𝑢 ≡For any integers ,if 𝑙 − 𝑚 and 𝑚 − 𝑛 are odd then 𝑙 − 𝑛 is even
≡ ∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞 (𝑥 )] → 𝑟(𝑥 )

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 38

 ≡ ∀𝑥, ¬[𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥 )] ∨ 𝑟(𝑥)
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥 )] ∧ ¬𝑟(𝑥)
≡ For some 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑙 − 𝑚 and 𝑚 − 𝑛 are odd and 𝑙 − 𝑛 is also odd.

(c) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 2 > 16, 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 < −4, 𝑟(𝑥 ): 𝑥 > 4
𝑢 ≡If x is a real number where 𝑥 2 > 16 then 𝑥 < -4 or x > 4.
≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑝(𝑥) → [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑟(𝑥 )]
≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, ¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑟(𝑥 )]
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ¬[𝑞(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑟(𝑥 )]
≡For some real number x, 𝑥 2 > 16, 𝑥 ≥ −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≤ 4.

(d) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 is real and 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 is rational

𝑢 ≡All rational numbers are real and some real numbers are not rational
≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑄, 𝑝(𝑥) ∧ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, ¬𝑞(𝑥)
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑄, ¬ 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑞(𝑥)
≡ Some rational numbers are not real or all real numbers are rational.

(e) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 > 𝑥 2

𝑢 ≡No real number is greater than its square.
≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, ¬𝑝(𝑥 )
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑝(𝑥 )
≡ Some real numbers are greater than its square.

(f) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 is rational number and 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 is integer.

𝑢 ≡All integers are rational numbers and some rational numbers are not
integers.
≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑄, ¬𝑞(𝑥)
¬𝑢 ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, ¬ 𝑝(𝑥) ∨ ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑄, 𝑞(𝑥)
≡ Some integers are not rational numbers or every rational number is an
integer.

(g) Let 𝑝(𝑥): 𝑥 is parallel and 𝑞(𝑥 ): 𝑥 intersect.

𝑢 ≡ Some straight lines are parallel or all straight lines intersect.
≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐿, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐿, 𝑞(𝑥)
¬𝑢 ≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐿, ¬ 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ∃ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐿, ¬𝑞(𝑥)
≡ All straight lines are not parallel and some straight lines do not
intersect.

6. Prove the following logical equivalences:

(a) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) → 𝑞(𝑥 ) ≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → ∃𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 )
(b) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 ) ≡ ∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞 (𝑥 )]
(c) ¬[∃𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 )] ≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥)
(d) ∀𝑥, {𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )]} ≡ ∀𝑥, [{𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥 )} ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )]
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 39
 Proof:

(a) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) → 𝑞(𝑥 )

≡ ∃𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑞(𝑥)

≡ ∃𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ ∃𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥)

≡ ¬∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ ∃𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥)
≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) → ∃𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥)

(b) ∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥) → ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 )

≡ ¬∃𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 )
≡ ∀𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 )
≡ ∀𝑥, [¬𝑝(𝑥 ) ∨ 𝑞 (𝑥 )]
≡ ∀𝑥, [𝑝(𝑥 ) → 𝑞(𝑥 )]

(c) ¬[∃𝑥, ¬𝑝(𝑥 )]

≡ ∀𝑥, ¬¬𝑝(𝑥 )
≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 )

(d) ∀𝑥, {𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )]}

≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ∀𝑥, [𝑞(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )]
≡ ∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ [∀𝑥, 𝑞 (𝑥 ) ∧ ∀𝑥, 𝑟(𝑥 )]
≡ [∀𝑥, 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ ∀𝑥, 𝑞(𝑥 )] ∧ ∀𝑥, 𝑟(𝑥 )
≡ ∀𝑥, [ 𝑝(𝑥 ) ∧ 𝑞 (𝑥 )] ∧ ∀𝑥, 𝑟(𝑥 )
≡ ∀𝑥, [{𝑝(𝑥) ∧ 𝑞(𝑥 )} ∧ 𝑟(𝑥 )]

7. Find whether the following arguments valid:

(a) If a triangle has two equal sides, then it is isosceles.
If a triangle is isosceles, then it has two equal angles.
A certain triangle ABC does not have two equal angles.
∴ The triangle ABC does not have two equal sides. [ Jan ‘09]

Answer:

Let p( x) : x has equal sides, q( x) : x is isosceles, r ( x) : x has two equal angles.

Let c denote the triangle ABC.
By data, x,[ p( x) → q( x)]
x,[q( x) → r ( x)]
r (c)
______________
p(c)

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 40

 S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x) → q( x)] Premise 1

2 --- x,[q( x) → r ( x)] Premise 2

3 1 p(c) → q(c) Universal specification

4 2 q(c) → r (c) Universal specification

5 1, 2 p(c) → r (c) Rule of syllogism

6 --- Premise 3
r (c)
7 5, 6 Modus Tollens
p(c)

∴ The triangle ABC does not have two equal sides.

(b) No Engineering student of first or second semester studies logic.

Anil is an Engineering student who studies Logic.
∴ Anil is not in second semester. [ Jan ’07 ]
Answer:

Let p( x) : x is in first semester, q( x) : x is in second semester, r ( x) : x studies logic

and c: Anil
By data, x,[ p( x)  q( x)] → r ( x)
r (c )
______________
q(c)

S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x)  q( x)] → r ( x) Premise 1

2 1 [ p(c)  q(c)] → r (c) Universal specification

3 --- r (c ) Premise 2

4 2, 3 [ p(c)  q(c)] Modus Tollens

5 4 Demorgen’s law

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 41

 6 5 p(c)  q(c) Conjunctive simplification

q(c)

∴ Anil is not in second semester.

(c) All Mathematics professors have studied calculus.

Ramanujan is a mathematics professor.
∴ Ramanujan have studied calculus. [ Jan ’06 ]

Answer:

Let p( x) : x is a Mathematics professor, q( x) : x is studies calculus,

c : Ramanujan.
By data, x,[ p( x) → q( x)]
p (c )
______________
 q (c )
S No. Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x) → q( x)] Premise 1

2 1 p(c) → q(c) Universal specification

3 --- p (c ) Premise 2

4 2, 3 q (c ) Modus pones

∴ Ramanujan have studied calculus.

(d) All employers pay their employees.

Anil is an employer.
∴ Anil pays his employees. [ July ‘16]

Answer:

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 42

 Let p( x) : x is an employer, q( x) : x pays his employee, c : Anil
By data, x,[ p( x) → q( x)]
p(a)
______________
q(c)
Step Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x) → q( x)] Premise 1

2 --- x,[q( x) → r ( x)] Premise 2

3 1 p(c) → q(c) Universal specification

4 2 q(c) → r (c) Universal specification

5 1, 2 p(c) → r (c) Rule of syllogism

6 --- Premise 3
r (c)
7 5, 6 Modus Tollens
p(c)

8. Prove that the following arguments are valid:

(a) x,[ p( x) → q( x)]

x,[q( x) → r ( x)]
______________
x,[ p( x) → r ( x)] [ Jan ’14 ]

Answer:

Step Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x) → q( x)] Premise 1

2 --- x,[q( x) → r ( x)] Premise 2

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 43

 3 1 p(c) → q(c) Universal specification

4 2 q(c) → r (c) Universal specification

5 1, 2 p(c) → r (c) Rule of syllogism

6 5 x,[ p( x) → r ( x)] Universal generalisation

x,[ p( x) → r ( x)]

(b) x,{ p( x) → [q( x)  r ( x)]}

x,[ p( x)  s( x)]
___________________
x,[r ( x)  s( x)] [Jan ’17 ]

Answer:

Step Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,{ p( x) → [q( x)  r ( x)]} Premise 1

2 --- x,[ p( x)  s( x)] Premise 2

3 1 p(c) → [q(c)  r (c)] Universal specification

4 2 p(c)  s(c) Universal specification

5 4 p (c ) Conjunctive simplification

6 3, 5
q(c)  r (c)
7 6 Modus pones
r (c )
8 4 Conjunctive simplification
s (c )
9 7, 8 Conjunctive simplification
r (c)  s(c)
----
10 9
x,[r ( x)  s( x)] Universal generalisation

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 44

 (c) x,[ p( x)  q( x)]
x,[{p( x)  q( x)} → r ( x)]
___________________
x,[r ( x) → p( x)] [ July ’11, Dec ’12 ]

Answer:

Step Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[{p( x)  q( x)} → r ( x)] Premise 1

2 1 {p(c)  q(c)} → r (c) Universal specification

3 2 {p(c)  q(c)}  r (c) Conditional law

4 3 { p(c)  q(c)}  r (c) Demorgen’s law

5 4 { p(c)  {q(c)  r (c)} Associative law

6 --- Conditional law

{ p(c)  {q(c) → r (c)}
7 6 Premise 2
x,[ p( x)  q( x)]
8 5, 7 Universal specification
p(c)  q(c)
9 6, 8 Distributive law
p(c)  {[q(c) → r (c)]  q(c)}
10 9 Modus pones
p(c)  r (c)
11 10 Commutative law
r (c)  p(c)
12 11 Conditional law
r (c) → p(c)

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 45

 (d) x,[ p( x)  q( x)]
x, p( x)
x,[q( x)  r ( x)]
x,[s( x) → r ( x)]
___________________

x, s( x) [ Dec ’11, Jan ’17 ]

Answer:

Steps Steps used Step Rule

1 --- x,[ p( x)  q( x)] Premise 1

2 1 p(c)  q(c) Universal specification

3 --- x, p( x) Premise 2

4 3 p(c) Universal specification

5 2, 4 q (c ) Rule of syllogism

6 --- Premise 3
x,[q( x)  r ( x)]
7 6 Universal specification
q(c)  r (c)
8 5, 7 Disjuctive syllogism
r (c )
9 --- Premise 3
x,[s( x) → r ( x)]
10 9 Universal specification
s(c) → r (c)
11 8, 10 Rule of syllogism
s(c)
12 11 Universal generalisation
x, s( x)

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 46

 1.6 Proofs of theorems

❖ Direct proof of conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞:

Assume 𝑝 is true.
Prove 𝑞 is true using the laws of logic.
Conclusion: 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

❖ Indirect proof of conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞:

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
Prove ¬𝑝 is true using the laws of logic.
Therefore,¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true. 𝒑 → 𝒒 ≡ ¬𝒒 → ¬𝒑
Conclusion: 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

❖ Proof of conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 by contradiction:

Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false.That is, assume 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

By assuming 𝑞 is false, prove 𝑝 is false using the laws of logic.
This contradicts to our assumption that 𝑝 is true.
Conclusion: 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

Problems:

1. Give a direct proof for the following statements:

(a) The sum of two odd integers is an even integer.

(b) The square of an odd integer is an odd integer. [ Jan ’10, Jan ’14 ]
2
(c) If an integer 𝑎 is such that 𝑎 − 2 is divisible by 3, then 𝑎 − 1 is divisible by 3.
(d) For all positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛, if 𝑚 and 𝑛 are perfect squares, then 𝑚𝑛 is also a
perfect square.
(e) For all integers 𝑘 and 𝑙, if 𝑘and 𝑙 are both even, then 𝑘 + 𝑙 is even. [Jan ’09 ]

Answer:

(a) Let 𝑝: 𝑥 is a sum of two odd integers and 𝑞: 𝑥 is an even integer.

Assume 𝑝 is true.
⇒ 𝑥 is a sum of two odd integers ⇒ 𝑥 = (2𝑚 + 1) + (2𝑛 +
1), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 47
 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝑚 + 1 + 2𝑛 + 1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝑚 + 2𝑛 + 2
⇒ 𝑥 = 2(𝑚 + 𝑛 + 1)
⇒ 𝑥 is an even integer
⇒ 𝑞 is true.
∴ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by direct proof.

(b) Let 𝑝: 𝑥 is a square of an odd integer and 𝑞: 𝑥 is an odd integer.

Assume 𝑝 is true.
⇒ 𝑥 is a square of an odd integer
⇒ 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑥 = 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1
⇒ 𝑥 is an odd integer
⇒ 𝑞 is true.
∴ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by direct proof.

(c) Let 𝑝: 𝑎 − 2 is divisible by 3 and 𝑞: 𝑎2 − 1 is divisible by 3

Assume 𝑝 is true.
⇒ 𝑎 − 2 is divisible by 3
⇒ 𝑎 − 2 = 3𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑎 = 3𝑛 + 2
⇒ 𝑎2 − 1 = (3𝑛 + 2)2 − 1
= (9𝑛2 + 12𝑛 + 4) − 1
= 9𝑛2 + 12𝑛 + 3
= 3(3𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1)
⇒ 𝑎2 − 1 is divisible by 3.
⇒ 𝑞 is true.

∴ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by direct proof.

(d) Let 𝑝: 𝑚 and 𝑛 are perfect squares and 𝑞: 𝑚𝑛 is a perfect square.

Assume 𝑝 is true.
⇒ 𝑚 and 𝑛 are perfect squares
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑎2 , 𝑛 = 𝑏2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑚𝑛 is a perfect square.
⇒ 𝑞 is true.
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 48
 ∴ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by direct proof.

(e) For all integers 𝑘 and 𝑙, if 𝑘and 𝑙 are both even, then 𝑘 + 𝑙 is even.

Assume 𝑝 is true.
⇒ 𝑘 and 𝑙 are both even
⇒ 𝑘 = 2𝑚, 𝑙 = 2𝑛, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑘 = 2𝑚 + 2𝑛
⇒ 𝑘 = 2(𝑚 + 𝑛)
⇒ 𝑘 + 𝑙 is even
⇒ 𝑞 is true.
∴ 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by direct proof.

2. Give an indirect proof for the following statements:

(a) For any real number x, if 𝑥 2 > 0 then 𝑥 ≠ 0.
(b) If 𝑚 is an even integer then 𝑚 + 7 is an odd integer.
(c) If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are integers such that 𝑥𝑦 is odd, then 𝑥 and 𝑦are both odd.
(d) If an integer 𝑛 is such that 𝑛2 is odd then 𝑛 is odd. [ July ’16 ]
(e) If 𝑛 is a product of two positive integers 𝑎 and b, then 𝑎 ≤ √𝑛 or 𝑏 ≤ √𝑛.

Answer:

(a) Let for any real number x, 𝑝: 𝑥 2 > 0and 𝑞: 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 0, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ ¬𝑝 is true.
∴ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true and hence 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.
∴ The given statement is true by indirect proof.

(b) Let 𝑝: 𝑚 is an even integer and 𝑞: 𝑚 + 7 is an odd integer.

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
⇒ 𝑚 + 7 is an even integer.
⇒ 𝑚 + 7 = 2𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼 .
⇒ 𝑚 = 2𝑘 − 7, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
= 2𝑘 − 8 + 1, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
= 2(𝑘 − 4) + 1, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑚 is an odd integer

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 49

 ⇒ ¬𝑝 is true.

∴ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true and hence 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

∴ The given statement is true by indirect proof.

(c) Let if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are integers𝑝: 𝑥𝑦 is odd and 𝑞: 𝑥 and 𝑦 are both odd.

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
⇒ 𝑥 is even or 𝑦 is even
⇒ 𝑥 = 2m or𝑦 = 2𝑛, 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑚𝑦 or 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥2𝑛 .
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 2(𝑚𝑦) or 2(𝑥𝑛)
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 is even
⇒ ¬𝑝 is true.

∴ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true and hence 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

∴ The given statement is true by indirect proof.

(d) Let 𝑝: 𝑛2 is odd integer and 𝑞: 𝑛 is odd integer.

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
⇒ 𝑛 is an even integer
⇒ 𝑛 = 2k , 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑛2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘 2
⇒ 𝑛2 is even integer
⇒ ¬𝑝 is true.

∴ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true and hence 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

∴ The given statement is true by indirect proof.

(e) Let 𝑝: 𝑛 is a product of two positive integers 𝑎 and b, 𝑞: 𝑎 ≤ √𝑛 or 𝑏 ≤ √𝑛.

Assume ¬𝑞 is true.
⇒ 𝑎 > √𝑛 and 𝑏 > √𝑛.
⇒ 𝑎𝑏 > 𝑛
⇒ 𝑛 is not a product of a and b.
⇒ ¬𝑝 is true.

∴ ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝 is true and hence 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true.

∴ The given statement is true by indirect proof.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 50

 3. Prove the following statements by the method of contradiction:
(a) For all positive real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, if the product 𝑥𝑦>25, then 𝑥 > 5 or 𝑦 > 5.
(b) The sum of two prime numbers, each larger than 2, is not a prime number.
(c) If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive integers which are perfect squares, then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is also a
perfect square.
(d) The sum of two odd integers is an even integer.

Answer:

(a) Let Let 𝑝: 𝑥𝑦 > 25 and 𝑞: 𝑥 > 5 or 𝑦 > 5.

Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. That is, 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 5 and 𝑦 ≤ 5.
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 ≤ 25
⇒ 𝑝 is false.

Which is a contradiction to our assumption.

Therefore, the given statement is true by the method of contradiction.

(b) Let 𝑝: 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are prime numbers, greater than 2

𝑞: 𝑎 + 𝑏 is not a prime number.

Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. That is, 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a prime number.
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑏 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑎 > 2
⇒ 𝑎 is not a prime number
⇒ 𝑝 is false.

Which is a contradiction to our assumption.

Therefore, the given statement is true by the method of contradiction.

(c) Let 𝑝: 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are prime numbers, greater than 2

𝑞: 𝑎 + 𝑏 is not a prime number.

Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. That is, 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 is a prime number.
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑏 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑎 > 2
⇒ 𝑎 is not a prime number
⇒ 𝑝 is false.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 51

 Which is a contradiction to our assumption.
Therefore, the given statement is true by the method of contradiction.

(d) Let 𝑝: 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are odd integers.

𝑞: 𝑎 + 𝑏 is an even integers.

Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. That is, 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 is an odd integer.
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑏 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 − 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
⇒ 𝑝 is false.

Which is a contradiction to our assumption.

Therefore, the given statement is true by the method of contradiction.

4. Give (i) a direct proof, (ii) an indirect proof (iii) proof by contradiction for the following
statement: If 𝑛 is an odd integer, then 𝑛 + 9 is an even integer.
[Dec ’10, July ’13, Jan ’17 ]
Answer:

Let p: n is an odd integer

𝑞: 𝑛 + 9 is an even integer.

Direct proof:
Assume p is true
⇒n is an odd integer.
 n = 2k + 1, k  I
 n + 9 = 2k + 1 + 9 = 2k + 10 = 2(k + 5)
 n + 9 is an even integer.
 q is true.  p → q is true.
Therefore, the given statement is true by a direct proof.

Indirect proof:
Assume ¬𝑞 is true
 n + 9 is an odd integer.
⇒ 𝑛 + 9 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1 − 9 = 2𝑘 − 8 = 2(𝑘 − 4), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
 n is an even integer.
 p is true. q → p is true.
Therefore, the given statement is true by an indirect proof.

Method of contradiction:
Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 52
 Assume 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false. That is, 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.
⇒ 𝑛 + 9 is an odd integer.
⇒ 𝑛 + 9 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 8 = 2(𝑘 − 4)
⇒ 𝑛 is an even integer.
⇒ 𝑝 is false.

Which is a contradiction to our assumption.

Therefore, the given statement is true by the method of contradiction.

Prof. Narasimhan G, Dept. of mathematics, RNSIT Page 53