NCHRP: A Guide To Best Practices For Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions

NCHRP
NATIONAL
COOPERATIVE
HIGHWAY
RESEARCH
PROGRAM
REPORT 480
A Guide to
Best Practices for Achieving
Context Sensitive Solutions
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2002 (Membership as of September 2002)
OFFICERS
Chair: E. Dean Carlson, Secretary of Transportation, Kansas DOT
Vice Chair: Genevieve Giuliano, Professor, School of Policy, Planning, and Development, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board
MEMBERS
WILLIAM D. ANKNER, Director, Rhode Island DOT
THOMAS F. BARRY, JR., Secretary of Transportation, Florida DOT
MICHAEL W. BEHRENS, Executive Director, Texas DOT
JACK E. BUFFINGTON, Associate Director and Research Professor, Mack-Blackwell National Rural Transportation Study Center,
University of Arkansas
SARAH C. CAMPBELL, President, TransManagement, Inc., Washington, DC
JOANNE F. CASEY, President, Intermodal Association of North America
JAMES C. CODELL III, Secretary, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet
JOHN L. CRAIG, Director, Nebraska Department of Roads
ROBERT A. FROSCH, Senior Research Fellow, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University
SUSAN HANSON, Landry University Professor of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University
LESTER A. HOEL, L. A. Lacy Distinguished Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Virginia
RONALD F. KIRBY, Director of Transportation Planning, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments
H. THOMAS KORNEGAY, Executive Director, Port of Houston Authority
BRADLEY L. MALLORY, Secretary of Transportation, Pennsylvania DOT
MICHAEL D. MEYER, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology
JEFF P. MORALES, Director of Transportation, California DOT
DAVID PLAVIN, President, Airports Council International, Washington, DC
JOHN REBENSDORF, Vice President, Network and Service Planning, Union Pacific Railroad Co., Omaha, NE
CATHERINE L. ROSS, Executive Director, Georgia Regional Transportation Agency
JOHN M. SAMUELS, Senior Vice President-Operations Planning & Support, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, VA
PAUL P. SKOUTELAS, CEO, Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, PA
MICHAEL S. TOWNES, Executive Director, Transportation District Commission of Hampton Roads, Hampton, VA
MARTIN WACHS, Director, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley
MICHAEL W. WICKHAM, Chairman and CEO, Roadway Express, Inc., Akron, OH
M. GORDON WOLMAN, Professor of Geography and Environmental Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University
MIKE ACOTT, President, National Asphalt Pavement Association (ex officio)

MARION C. BLAKEY, Federal Aviation Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
REBECCA M. BREWSTER, President and CEO, American Transportation Research Institute, Atlanta, GA (ex officio)
JOSEPH M. CLAPP, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
THOMAS H. COLLINS (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard (ex officio)
JENNIFER L. DORN, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
ELLEN G. ENGLEMAN, Research and Special Programs Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
ROBERT B. FLOWERS (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commander, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ex officio)
HAROLD K. FORSEN, Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Engineering (ex officio)
EDWARD R. HAMBERGER, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads (ex officio)
JOHN C. HORSLEY, Executive Director, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (ex officio)
MICHAEL P. JACKSON, Deputy Secretary of Transportation, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
ROBERT S. KIRK, Director, Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy (ex officio)
WILLIAM W. MILLAR, President, American Public Transportation Association (ex officio)
MARGO T. OGE, Director, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ex officio)
MARY E. PETERS, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
JEFFREY W. RUNGE, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
JON A. RUTTER, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
WILLIAM G. SCHUBERT, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
ASHISH K. SEN, Director, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S.DOT (ex officio)
ROBERT A. VENEZIA, Earth Sciences Applications Specialist, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (ex officio)
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Transportation Research Board Executive Committee Subcommittee for NCHRP
E. DEAN CARLSON, Kansas DOT (Chair)
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO, University of Southern California, MARY E. PETERS, Federal Highway Administration
Los Angeles JOHN M. SAMUELS, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, VA
LESTER A. HOEL, University of Virginia ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR., Transportation Research Board
JOHN C. HORSLEY, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
NCHRP REPORT 480
A Guide to Best Practices for

Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
Prepared by CH2M Hill:
TIMOTHY R. NEUMAN
MARCY SCHWARTZ
LEOFWIN CLARK
JAMES BEDNAR
Contributors:
DON FORBES
DAVID VOMACKA
CRAIG TAGGART (EDAW)
MARIE GLYNN
KEVIN SLACK
AND
DOUG ABERE
In Association with:
Edaw, Inc.
S UBJECT A REAS
Highway and Facility Design
Research Sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in Cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

WASHINGTON, D.C.
2002
www.TRB.org
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH NCHRP REPORT 480
PROGRAM
Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective Project C15-19 FY’2000
approach to the solution of many problems facing highway
administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local ISSN 0077-5614
interest and can best be studied by highway departments ISBN 0-309-06770-7
individually or in cooperation with their state universities and
Library of Congress Control Number 2002113180
others. However, the accelerating growth of highway transportation
develops increasingly complex problems of wide interest to © 2002 Transportation Research Board
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coordinated program of cooperative research. Price $21.00
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Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research
program employing modern scientific techniques. This program is
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and support of the Federal Highway Administration, United States NOTICE
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The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative
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understanding of modern research practices. The Board is uniquely importance and appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the
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structure from which authorities on any highway transportation
The members of the technical committee selected to monitor this project and to review
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 480
ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
CRAWFORD F. JENCKS, Manager, NCHRP
B. RAY DERR, Senior Program Officer
EILEEN P. DELANEY, Managing Editor
NCHRP PROJECT C15-19 PANEL

Field of Design—Area of General Design
JAMES C. CODELL III, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (Chair)
CHARLES B. ADAMS, Maryland DOT
CARL F. BARD, Connecticut DOT
DAVID BOYD, FOCUS, St. Louis, MO
EUGENE CLECKLEY, FHWA, Atlanta, GA
DELBERT GERDES, Minnesota DOT
MEG MAGUIRE, Scenic America, Washington, DC
P.K. MOHANTY, Utah DOT
MARY ANN NABER, FHWA
SEPPO SILLAN, FHWA Liaison Representative
STEPHEN F. MAHER, TRB Liaison Representative
Author Acknowledgments
The research team acknowledges the assistance and contributions of the following individuals and agencies who
provided insights, project examples, and other information in support of NCHRP Project 15-19.
Primary Authors: Timothy R. Neuman, P.E., Marcy Schwartz, Leofwin Clark, and James Bednar
Contributors: Don Forbes, David Vomacka, Craig Taggart (Edaw), Marie Glynn, Kevin Slack, and Doug Abere
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities

Mike Downing Director, Design and Engineering Services
John R. Mazzitello Environmental
Dave McCaleb Preconstruction
Arizona Department of Transportation

Joe Salazar Landscape Architectural Design
Connecticut Department of Transportation

Jim Byrnes Chief Engineer
Carl Bard Roadway Design
David Harms Roadway Design
Simone Cristofori Roadway Design
Peter Talerico Roadway Design
Art Gruhn Construction
Federal Highway Administration

Allen Burden Eastern Federal Lands Division
Ray Krammes Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
Mike Griffith Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
Keith Harrison Western Federal Lands Division
Harold Peaks Headquarters
Illinois Department of Transportation

Kathy Ames Chief Coordination Unit
Peter Frantz Chief Environmental Section
Iowa Department of Transportation
Harry Budd Project Planning, Corridor Development, and Pre-location Studies
Kimball Olson Aesthetic Bridge Specialist, US 71 Project Manager
Marty Sankey Preliminary Development
Dennis Smith Section Leader, Urban Design Projects
Tom Welch Traffic Safety Engineer
Kansas Department of Transportation

Jim Brewer Chief Engineer
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet

Annette Coffey Director, Division of Planning
Daryl Green Planning
John L. Metille Jr. Director, Division of Environmental Analysis
Jerry Pigman University of Kentucky
John Sacksteder Director, Division of Highway Design
Ricky Young Public Involvement
Maryland State Highway Administration

Parker Williams Administrator
Doug Rose Chief Administrator
Liz Homer Deputy Administrator
Cynthia Williams Deputy Director, Office of Planning and Preliminary Engineering
Clyde Pyers Retired
Charlie Adams Director, Office of Environmental Design
Wendy Wolcott TBTP Program Director
Kirk McClelland Chief, Highway Design Division
Neil Pedersen Deputy Administrator/Chief Engineer, Planning and Engineering
Bob Douglass Deputy Chief Engineer, Office of Highway Development
Jerry Poggi Chief Learning Officer
Miami Valley Regional Planning Commission

Nora Lake Executive Director
Michigan Department of Transportation

Win Stebbins Engineer, Design Services Section
Minnesota Department of Transportation

Del Gerdes Director, OTS/State Design Engineer
Tim Quinn Manager, Design Services
Jim Reierson Manager, Site Development
Bob Johns Director, Center for Transportation Studies
Dave Ekern Assistant Commissioner, National Affairs
Dennis Adams Environmental Services
Gerry Larson Environmental Services
Frank Pafko Environmental Services
Rick Dalton Project Liaison
Amr Jabr Design Standards Engineer
Ron Erickson Geometric Engineer
Mike Spielman Tort Liability
Paul Stine State Aid Engineer
Terry Humbert District 3
Tim Henkel Metro Planning
Dave Hall Bridge
Carol Braun Site Development Unit
Joe Hudak Cultural Resources
Mary Daher Public Involvement
Lynette Rochel Metro Project Manager
Bob Works Trans Action Model
Rod Garver District 1 Project Manager
Adam Josephson Metro Project Manager
Lisa Bigham Mankato Project Manager
Mark Benson Consultant (S.E.H.)
Charleen Zimmer Consultant (S.R.F.)
Scott Bradley Landscape Architect
Mississippi Department of Transportation
Wendell Ruff Deputy Chief Engineer
Missouri Department of Transportation

Mark Kross Environmental
Jay Smith Chief Counsel
Sam Masters Environmental
National Conference of State Legislators

Melissa Savage Transportation Policy Specialist
Nevada Department of Transportation

Frank Csiga Principal Road Design Engineer
Susan Martinovich Assistant Director, Engineering
Todd Montgomery Project Manager
Ohio Department of Transportation

Elvin Pinckney Environmental Supervisor
Julie Walcoff Communications
Karen Young Major New Coordinator
Oldham Historic Properties

Sally Oldham
Oregon Department of Transportation

Terry Cole Special Project Coordinator
Utah Department of Transportation

Clare Wardle Project Manager
P.K. Mohanty Preconstruction Engineer
Tom Warne Executive Director
Clare Wardell Project Manager
Washington Department of Transportation

Shari Schafftlein Deputy Director, Environmental Services
Wisconsin Department of Transportation

John Haverberg Director, Bureau of Highway Development
Wyoming Department of Transportation

Tim Stark Environmental Services Engineer
Dave Pope Engineer
This guide demonstrates how state departments of transportation (DOTs) and other
FOREWORD transportation agencies can incorporate context sensitivity into their transportation
By B. Ray Derr project development work. The guide is applicable to a wide variety of projects that
Staff Officer transportation agencies routinely encounter. While the guide is primarily written for
Transportation Research transportation agency personnel who develop transportation projects, other stake-
Board holders may find it useful in better understanding the project development process.
Example project documents are included on the accompanying CD-ROM (CRP-CD-23).
Seven qualities of excellence in transportation design and eight characteristics of

the process that would yield excellence were identified during the seminal “Thinking
Beyond the Pavement: A National Workshop on Integrating Highway Development
with Communities and the Environment,” held in May 1998. These qualities and char-
acteristics were termed principles of “context sensitive design.” Many barriers to con-
text sensitive design were identified during the workshop, including rigid segmentation
of responsibility during project development, failure to consider the full range of design
alternatives, and lack of clear communication between the stakeholders and the trans-
portation agency.
In September 1998, a National Training Steering Committee was created to over-
see pilot efforts to institutionalize context sensitive design principles in five state
DOTs: Connecticut, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, and Utah. It was agreed that each
of these states would proceed with a policy review and a training program tailored to
its individual institutional needs, but that the five states would benefit from frequent
exchange of information about the design and progress of these pilot efforts and that
all 50 states would then benefit from understanding the experiences of these five states.
Under NCHRP Project 15-19, CH2M Hill identified approaches for adopting con-
text sensitive design principles, barriers to adoption in a transportation agency, and
ways to overcome those barriers. They met with each of the five pilot states and other
transportation agencies to learn how each is integrating context sensitive design into its
existing project development processes. The information gathered was condensed into
an easy-to-read guide that highlights the advantages of context sensitive design, identi-
fies potential disadvantages, describes a range of approaches for adopting and apply-
ing context sensitive design principles in the project development process, documents
how barriers to context sensitive design are being overcome within state DOTs, and
illustrates context sensitive design through case studies.
The CD-ROM included with this printed report (CRP-CD-23) reorganizes the
material into a matrix of project development process steps and issues related to con-
text sensitivity. It also includes significant background material drawn from actual proj-
ects (e.g., evaluation criteria, public involvement plans, aesthetic design guidelines, and
animated views of design alternatives) that provide concrete examples of context sen-
sitive solutions.
CONTENTS 1 SECTION A. Introduction
Legislative Background on Context Sensitive Design, 2
Recent Activities in Context Sensitive Design, 2
Terminology, 3
The CSD/CSS Vision, 3
Insights on CSD/CSS, 4
CSD/CSS Framework, 5
Organization of This Guide, 6
7 SECTION B. About This Guide—Multi-Disciplinary Approach
to Context Sensitive Design
CSD/CSS for Project Managers, 8
CSD/CSS for the Transportation and Highway Design Professionals, 8
CSD/CSS for the Environmental Managers, 9
CSD/CSS for Public Involvement Specialists, 9
CSD/CSS for Senior Managers and Administrators of Transportation Agencies, 9
How to Use This Document, 9
11 SECTION C. Effective Decision Making
Management Structure, 11
Develop Decision Process, 11
Form, Resource, and Charter Project Team, 15
Problem Definition, 15
Develop and Document Understanding of the Problem, 15
Project Development and Evaluation Framework, 16
Develop Evaluation Criteria, 16
Develop Evaluation Process, 16
Alternative Development, 17
Develop and Document Full Range of Alternative Solutions, 17
Ensure Education of All Parties on Innovative Solutions, 17
Portray Alternatives in an Understandable Format, 17
Alternatives Screening, Evaluation, and Selection, 18
Provide “Apples-to-Apples” Comparison of Alternatives, 18
Tailor Level of Analysis to Issue and Project, 18
Document Alternative Evaluation and Selection, 18
Decision-Making Authority, 20
Implementation, 20
Develop Project Funding Plan, 20
Monitor Changes in Design and Mitigation, 20
Key Resources and References, 21
23 SECTION D. Reflecting Community Values
Developing a Public Involvement Plan, 23
Identifying Community Issues and Constraints, 27
Confirming and Refining Problem Definition, 27
Involving Stakeholders in Framework Development, 27
Alternatives Development, 29
Engaging Stakeholders in Identification of Alternatives, 29
Identifying Opportunities for Enhancing Resources, 29
Identifying Opportunities for Avoiding/Minimizing Adverse Effects, 30
Identifying Mitigation for Unavoidable Adverse Effects, 31
Engaging Stakeholders in Alternative Evaluation, 31
Implementation, 31
Maintaining Communication Through Construction, 31
Evaluating the Public Involvement Program, 32
35 SECTION E. Achieving Environmental Sensitivity
Establish Environmental Review Process, 35
Develop Agency Outreach Plan, 36
Provide Staffing Support, 37
Develop Problem Statement, 37
Conduct Scoping to Confirm and Refine Problem Statement, 38
Involve Stakeholders in Framework Development, 38
Develop Purpose and Need, 38
Engage Stakeholders in Alternative Identification, 40
Identify Opportunities for Reducing Adverse Environmental Impacts, 40
Tailor Level of Analysis, 41
Engage Stakeholders in Alternative Evaluation, 42
Refine and Commit to Mitigation Strategies, 42
Refining and Committing to Mitigation Strategies, 42
Implementation, 42
Monitor Changes in Design and Mitigation, 42
45 SECTION F. Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions
Establishing Design Criteria—The AASHTO Policy
on Geometric Design, 45
State Design Manuals and “Standards” Related to the AASHTO Policy, 46
Design Philosophy and Background on Design Criteria (AASHTO), 46
Alternative Sources of Design Criteria and Guidelines, 47
Tort Liability, Design Exceptions, and Risk Management, 47
Overview of Tort Issues, 49
Best Practices for Risk Management, 50
Philosophical Approach to Design Exceptions, 50
Best Practices for Risk Management, 51
Project Funding, Programs, and Policies, 51
Highway Safety Problems—Understanding Substantive
and Nominal Safety, 52
Nominal and Substantive Safety Thresholds, 53
Mobility-Driven Projects, 55
Economic Development Related Projects, 55
Infrastructure Projects, 56
Selecting a Design Speed, 56
Design Traffic and Level of Service, 58
Design Vehicle(s), 59
Develop Multiple Alternatives; Start with a Blank Sheet of Paper, 59
Design Choices and Their Consequences, 60
Flexibility and Creativity, 62
Tools and Techniques for Evaluating the Safety
and Feasibility of Alternatives, 62
Visualization, 62
Traffic Operational Simulation, 64
Quantitative Safety Models and Applied Research, 65
GIS Technology, 66
Demonstrating a Commitment to Mitigate Safety Concerns, 66
Decision Making, 66
Implementation, 66
71 SECTION G. Organizational Needs
Adopting a CSD/CSS Culture, 71
Defining a Process Change/Implementation Process, 72
Policies and Procedures, 73
Project Management, 74
The Role of Community Values in Defining Problems, 74
Performance-Based Problem Definitions, 78
Asset Management, 79
Alternatives Development—Alternatives Screening, Evaluation, and Selection, 82
Project Team Technical Structure, 82
Skill Acquisition and Development, 82
Design Standards and Criteria, 83
Project Continuity, 86
Project Decisions, 87
Risk Management, 88
Implementation, 88
The Business Case for CSD/CSS, 89
Strategies for Implementing CSD/CSS, 90
95 SECTION H. Case Studies
Case Study No. 1 Merritt Parkway Gateway Project, Greenwich,
Connecticut, 95
Case Study No. 2 Minnesota TH-61, North Shore Scenic Drive, 99
Case Study No. 3 Maryland Route 108, 103
Case Study No. 4 Maryland Route 355, 107
Case Study No. 5 Washington SR99 International Boulevard, 111
Case Study No. 6 Cobblestone Street Interpretive Park, Boonville,
Missouri, 117
Case Study No. 7 U.S. Route 6, Brooklyn, Connecticut, 119
Case Study No. 8 Kentucky Proposed I-66, 123
Case Study No. 9 Towson Roundabout, Towson, Maryland, 127
131 KEY RESOURCES AND REFERENCES
137 APPENDICES
1
A. INTRODUCTION
H pen
dic
e
Ap
se
G Ca ies
d
nal Stu
atio
niz s
F Sa
fe ga
Or Need
For many years, planning, design, and construction of highways sur
ing ible
s
En Fea ns
and streets has been left mostly to the “professionals” – highway E g and lutio
vin tal So
and traffic engineers. Selection of routes, the design of the align- hie n
Ac nme
o vity
ment, location of intersections, and the roadway features were D g nvir
tin y E Sens
iti
flec t
Re muni
based primarily on engineering considerations, with the objec- C m
Co alues
ive
tive being to provide the highest quality service at the lowest ect V
Eff ision
construction cost. Solutions to mobility and safety problems B ec
D king
is Ma
t th
have been infrastructure-oriented, reflecting the training and ou
A Ab uide
G
background of those responsible for solving the problems. Sub- ion
uct
rod ure
stantive decisions regarding the design of a road itself were left Int o CSD uct
t
t Str
en
to professional engineers and planners with limited input from nag
em
n
Ma itio
the public and external agencies. De
fin
and
m nt
ble me work
Pro lo p e
eve Fram
As the nation moved into the latter part of the 20th century, tD nt
jec tion me
Pro alua lop
the automobile emerged as the predominant mode of travel for Ev D eve
es
ativ g
nin tion
both persons and goods. With growth in both the population and Alt
ern ree c
s Sc Sele
national economy, demand for travel increased, resulting in more tive nd
a a
ern tion
Alt alua
autos and more and larger trucks using the highway system. Ev
tio
n
nta
le me
Imp �
The nation’s engineers, through state and federal transportation agencies, responded to the��increase
��
��
in demand for travel
��
and to public policy directives to promote highway travel with more and “better” roads, i.e., roads that enabled traffic to
move faster and safer to the travelers’ destinations. Their efforts, foremost among them being the 42,000-mile interstate
system, have done much to shape the landscape of America. And, despite the significant increase in travel, highway travel
has become increasingly safer, with fatalities decreasing significantly over the past 20 years.
Beginning in the 1960s, strong cultural trends emerged. with unique architecture, or build a new road are now
The general public began to have concern and interest in increasingly viewed as potential threats to that sense of
the adverse environmental impacts of man’s intrusions on place and the cultural fabric of the community.
the landscape (including, but certainly not limited to road
building). Such interest culminated in the passing of what The above trends have produced what in retrospect seems
was among the most important pieces of legislation of the an inevitable result. Departments of Transportation
latter 20th century, the National Environmental Policy Act (DOTs) and professional engineers trained to provide a
(NEPA) in 1969. From this point forward, roadway design certain quality of design using traditional approaches
and construction, and indeed, all public works, became began to run into resistance from the public and commu-
more than a matter of building the most economic, short- nity interests, when highway projects were perceived as
est, widest, or fastest facility. Rather, engineers and plan- having clear, measurable adverse impacts on the commu-
ners are now required to consider features and effects such nities through which they passed. No longer are the ben-
as wetlands, threatened and endangered species, adverse efits of these “improvements” (faster travel times, greater
noise, and other environmental considerations. safety, less delay) widely accepted or perceived as worth
the costs in terms of right-of-way, community disruption,
The public also has begun to generate a renewed interest etc. No longer does the public unquestioningly accept the
and concern with the cultural, historic, and other values proposals of engineering professionals, regardless of how
that define a community. Americans have become more well thought-out they are. Roads, along with other major
aware of their sense of place and history, both locally infrastructure projects, despite being recognized as neces-
and regionally. Any changes to a community, whether to sary to the public health and economic well-being of a
develop open space, tear down a long-standing building community, are now increasingly viewed as permanent
intrusions on the landscape.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section A: Introduction

2
Context Sensitive Design (CSD) is among the most sig- resources. Most importantly, the Act extended these con-
nificant concepts to emerge in highway project planning, siderations to federally funded transportation projects not
design, and construction in recent years. Also referred to on the National Highway System.
as “Thinking Beyond the Pavement,” CSD reflects the
increasingly urgent need for DOTs to consider highway Thirty years of history in national environmental policy
projects as more than transportation. CSD recognizes that making has demonstrated a response to increasing public
a highway or road itself, by the way it is integrated within interest and concern about transportation projects’ impacts.
the community, can have far-reaching impacts (positive The public and local officials have begun to question not
and negative) beyond its traffic or transportation function. only the design or physical features of projects, but also
The term CSD refers to as much an approach or process as the basic premise or assumptions behind them as put forth
it does to an actual outcome. by the many agencies. Evidence of this trend is the great
number of major projects around the country that have
“Context
been significantly delayed or stopped, not for lack of fund-
sensitive design asks questions first about ing or even demonstrated transportation need, but for lack
the need and purpose of the transportation project, of satisfaction that the proposed solution met community
and other non-transportation needs.
and then equally addresses safety, mobility, and
the preservation of scenic, aesthetic, historic, RECENT ACTIVITIES IN
environmental, and other community values. CONTEXT SENSITIVE DESIGN
Context sensitive design involves a collaborative, By the mid 1990s a clear consensus emerged that new
interdisciplinary approach in which citizens are part of approaches to solving traditional highway projects were
”
needed. The recent laws and statements of public policy
the design team. required those charged with the planning, design, and
THINKING BEYOND THE PAVEMENT, MARYLAND STATE construction of highways to adopt a new direction. In
HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION WORKSHOP, 1998 response, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
and other agencies committed to develop a program to
change the way highway projects are performed.
LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND ON
The following activities have framed where the transporta-
CONTEXT SENSITIVE DESIGN tion profession stands with CSD:
Beginning in 1969, NEPA required that agencies perform- • The FHWA partnered with AASHTO, Bicycle Fed-
ing federally funded projects undergo a thorough analysis eration of America, National Trust for Historic Pres-
of their impacts to both natural and human environmental ervation, and Scenic America to produce a landmark
resources. Since that time, the U.S. Congress passed a publication, Flexibility in Highway Design. This
series of policy acts and regulations to strengthen and design guide illustrates how it is possible to make
increase the commitment to environmental quality. In highway improvements while preserving and enhanc-
1991, Congress emphasized the federal commitment to ing the adjacent land or community. Flexibility in
preserve historic, scenic, and cultural resources as part Highway Design urges highway designers to explore
of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency beyond the most conservative use of A Policy on the
Act. Section 1016(a) of that Act provides approval for Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (AASHTO
transportation projects that affect historic facilities or are Green Book). Within an open, interdisciplinary frame-
located in areas of historic or scenic value only if projects work, project teams should develop roadway designs
are designed to appropriate standards or if mitigation that fully consider the aesthetic, historic, and scenic
measures allow for the preservation of these resources. values along with considerations of safety and mobil-
ity—the essence of CSD.
In 1995, Congress passed the National Highway System • An invitation-only conference, “Thinking Beyond
Designation Act, emphasizing, among other things, flexi- the Pavement: A National Workshop on Integrating
bility in highway design to further promote preservation of Highway Development with Communities and the
historic, scenic, and aesthetic resources. This act provided Environment” was held in May 1998. This confer-
funding capabilities for transportation enhancements and ence, co-sponsored by the Maryland State Highway
supported applications to modify design standards for Administration, FHWA, and AASHTO, was targeted
the purpose of preserving important historic and scenic at state DOTs and environmental and community
stakeholder groups.
Section A: Introduction A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
3
• Five pilot state DOTs (Connecticut, Kentucky, TERMINOLOGY

Maryland, Minnesota, and Utah) were selected to
work with FHWA in defining and institutionalizing The principles and concepts behind CSD have many
CSD principles and practices. Policy reviews, train- advocates. Different organizations have coined their
ing, and other activities have been conducted, with own terminology to express CSD. In Maryland, the first
the results shared with other AASHTO members at state DOT to embrace and institutionalize CSD, the term
national conferences and meetings. “Thinking Beyond the Pavement” (TBTP) was adopted to
• A second conference, co-sponsored by FHWA and the express the viewpoint that a highway project in many per-
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), was spectives extends beyond just the highway itself. Scenic
held in Reston, Virginia, in June 1999. This confer- America refers to “place sensitive design,” focusing on the
ence, “Flexibility in Highway Design,” was targeted at topographic, visual, and community surroundings.
highway design professionals. It introduced the con-
cepts of CSD, presented case studies, and produced Many agencies, including most notably the Utah DOT, are
findings regarding design professional needs to meet concerned with outcomes rather than just process. Suc-
CSD demands. cessful transportation projects include not only a “design”
• Following the success of Flexibility in Highway process or task, but also construction, maintenance, and
Design, AASHTO embarked on developing their own operations. A successful project is sustainable in the sense
publication to provide further guidance on how design- that promises and commitments are maintained past any
ers can develop flexible highway designs. NCHRP construction. Thus, a context sensitive solution (CSS)
Project 20-7 (Task 114) was commissioned to prepare integrates all key functions of an agency.
a companion document (referred to as a “bridging
document”) to Flexibility in Highway Design based Another view of context sensitivity emphasizes the broad
on the work of four AASHTO Task Forces. nature of potential solutions. Not every context sensi-
• An FHWA/AASHTO International Scanning Tour tive project includes a design component. Operational
was conducted in 2000 to visit European coun- “solutions” may be appropriate.
tries and uncover their CSD problems, practices,
and solutions. For many, the term “Context Sensitive Solutions”
(rather than design) better captures the overall intent and
This report summarizes findings from National Coop- philosophy of the movement.
erative Highway Research Project 15-19, Application of
Context Sensitive Design Best Practices. The research was While no firm consensus on one set of terms has emerged,
performed to summarize activities in the CSD field, and the terms context sensitive design and context sensi-
to provide transportation planning and design practitioners tive solutions are well understood. In this document the
and their organizations with a guide for implementing acronym CSD/CSS will be used to express the concept.
CSD at both the organizational and project level.
Research tasks performed to support the findings in this THE CSD/CSS VISION
report are summarized below: The seminal national workshop held in Maryland in
• Literature on environmental process, highway safety 1998 developed a strong vision for the CSD/CSS move-
and design, community and public involvement, and ment. The vision developed by the workshop participants
related subjects was reviewed. addressed both the outcome (qualities of the project) and
• Telephone interviews were conducted with agency the process (characteristics):
staff in DOTs and other transportation agencies to
gain perspective on the extent and commonalities of A vision for excellence in transportation design
CSD problems and solutions. includes these qualities:
• Visits were made to the five pilot states and to the • The project satisfies the purpose and needs as agreed
Eastern Federal Lands (FHWA) offices to interview to by a full range of stakeholders. This agreement is
staff working on CSD initiatives, review projects, and forged in the earliest phase of the project and amended
collect materials from these agencies. as warranted as the project develops.
• National and regional conferences in Connecticut and • The project is a safe facility both for the user and
Montana on CSD were attended and further informa- the community.
tion and insights gained on national activities. • The project is in harmony with the community and
preserves environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic,
and natural resource values of the area.

4
• The project exceeds the expectations of both design- INSIGHTS ON CSD/CSS

ers and stakeholders and achieves a level of excellence
in people’s minds. As expressed by the vision statement above, the terms
• The project involves efficient and effective use of Context Sensitive Design and Context Sensitive Solutions
resources (time, budget, community) of all involved refer to an approach or process as much as it they do an
parties. outcome. What is unique and “groundbreaking” is that
• The project is designed and built with minimal disrup- CSD/CSS recognizes that road and highway projects are
tion to the community. not just the responsibility or concern of engineers and con-
• The project is seen as having added lasting value to structors, or for that matter only the responsibility of the
the community. DOT or transportation agency. Instead, CSD/CSS calls for
A vision of the process which would yield excellence the interdisciplinary collaboration of technical profession-
includes these characteristics: als, local community interest groups, landowners, facility
users, the general public, and essentially any and all stake-
• Communicate with all stakeholders in a manner that is holders who will live and work near or use the road. It is
open and honest, early and continuous. through this process and team approach that the owning
• Tailor the highway development process to the cir- agency gains an understanding and appreciation of com-
cumstances. Employ a process that examines mul- munity values and strives to incorporate or address these
tiple alternatives and that will result in consensus in the evolution of the project.
on approaches.
• Establish a multi-disciplinary team early with disci-
CSD/CSS is first and foremost about a transportation
plines based on the needs of the specific project and
agency carrying out its mission–providing for the safety
include the public.
and mobility of the public. CSD/CSS is thus all about
• Seek to understand the landscape, the community,
and valued resources before beginning engineering completing projects, whether it’s freeway reconstruction,
design. major arterial widening, local street improvements, or
• Involve a full range of stakeholders with transporta- bicycle path construction. The principles of CSD/CSS,
tion officials in the scoping phase. Clearly define the shown in Exhibit A-1, apply essentially to any transporta-
purposes of the project and forge consensus on the tion project, with the main aim being to assure that the
scope before proceeding. full range of stakeholder values is brought to the table
• Tailor the public involvement process to the project. and actively incorporated into the design process and final
Include informal meetings. result (as the project needs are defined).
• Use a full range of tools for communication about
project alternatives (e.g. visualization).
• Secure commitment to the process from top agency
officials and local leaders.
Exhibit A-1 Project Development Process
Needs
Studies
Programming
Prioritization
Outside Conduct Project Preliminary

Develop Project Final Construction
Requests Planning Engineering
Concepts Design
(Alternatives Studies) (Preferred Plans)
Long-Range
Transportation Project Data
Plan
Agency
Standards
and Criteria
��
5
CSD/CSS begins early, and continues throughout the project. These include effective decision making and
entire project development process (from project concepts implementation, outcomes that reflect community values
through alternative studies to construction), and indeed, to and are sensitive to environmental resources, and ulti-
beyond project completion. CSD/CSS means maintaining mately, project solutions that are safe and financially fea-
commitments to communities. sible. CSS savvy teams and organizations responsible for
project development employ specific processes and tools
Much literature, including most notably the publication to achieve success in each of these areas.
Flexibility in Highway Design, stresses the importance of
being “context sensitive” where a highway runs through or In terms of the project development process, there are six
adjacent to parklands, scenic areas, or special environmen- key steps that define complex projects and that must be
tal areas or viewsheds. While such facilities are clearly of considered with care. The overall management structure,
special interest, the notion of context sensitivity extends including organization and project management issues, is
beyond these “special” projects. clearly of vital importance. Problem definition – defining
the nature, scope, and severity of the transportation prob-
CSD/CSS applies essentially anywhere and everywhere. lem being solved is a key early step in the process. Refer-
That is, every project has a context as defined by the ring to Exhibit A-1 above, project proposals resulting from
terrain and topography, the community, users, and the identification of a problem or need can come from many
surrounding land use. The CSD/CSS approach applies sources (outside requests, safety, or asset needs study, long
to urban streets, suburban arterials, rural highways, low range plan implementation).
volume local roads, and high traffic volume freeways. The
particular CSS (solution) would depend on the context. The development of a solution involves a series of key
Exhibit A-2 provides examples of the diversity of roads steps that take place during the project planning and study
and contexts for which CSD/CSS applies. phases. Project development framework, alternatives
development, and alternatives screening, evaluation, and
selection are all key phases of any project. These phases
CSD/CSS FRAMEWORK are where active engagement of stakeholders, open discus-
A consensus of the research and practitioners, and review sion, creativity, and weighing of choices are accomplished.
of pilot state activities and projects confirms that there are Finally, implementation of a selected solution translates the
four essential aspects to achieving a successful CSD/CSS hard planning work to a constructed or completed project
Exhibit A-2 Diversity of Project Contexts

6
that will yield real benefits. It also includes activities and

actions of the agency after construction, including main-
tenance, operation, and monitoring of the performance of
the implemented project solution.
ORGANIZATION OF THIS GUIDE

The above discussion suggests a two-dimensional frame-
work for describing CSD/CSS. This framework is used to
organize and present recommendations and findings in the
following manner. The document has been prepared to be
interactive in a CD-ROM format.
Following brief introductory comments in Sections A and

B, the material on CSD/CSS is presented in the following
six sections :
• Effective Decision Making (Section C)
• Reflecting Community Values (Section D)
• Achieving Environmental Sensitivity (Section E)
• Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions (Section F)
• Organizational Needs (Section G)
• Case Studies in CSD/CSS (Section H)
The first four sections (C through F) are project-focused.
The text focuses on best practice discussions, with “box”
inserts integrated to highlight particular lessons learned
from projects around the country. Section G, Organiza-
tional Needs, addresses management issues and lessons
learned from those transportation agencies that have
institutionalized CSD/CSS. Section H presents a series of
case studies.
Each section is organized around the six key steps in the

project development process outlined above. For example,
in Section E, the body of knowledge related to Environ-
mental Sensitivity is organized around the process from
beginning (problem definition) to end (implementation).
Each chapter includes a bibliography of resources related
to its topic. These are combined into a master bibliography
in Appendix A/B. In the interest of keeping the presenta-
tion as brief as possible and to minimize resources needed
to produce this document, additional examples and other
supporting materials are assembled in the Appendices
located on the accompanying CD.
7
B. ABOUT THIS GUIDE –

THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH
TO CSD/CSS
The key strength of the CSD/CSS
concept and methodology is its
applicability to all of the agency
A B C D E F G H
participants in the transportation Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
development process. Because of this Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
to CSD Guide Making Values Sensitivity Solutions Needs Studies Appendices
flexibility, CSD/CSS can be applied
from numerous perspectives and, Management Structure
in doing so, bridge differing points

Problem Definition
of view to successfully implement
projects. For example: Project Development and
Evaluation Framework
• Project managers must bal- Alternatives Development

ance a wide range of budget and
resource prioritization issues Alternatives Screening
Evaluation and Selection
and determine how to efficiently
deliver the right resources at the Implementation
right times during the project. ��
• The highway engineer’s perspective focuses on the development and application of critical design criteria, and on
providing the intended performance, including safety and operational efficiency. In the CSD/CSS environment, high-
way and traffic engineers are concerned with how to develop creative, affordable design solutions that are consistent
with good engineering practice and principles.
• Environmental managers, whose staffs are responsible for assessing the impacts of project alternatives, providing
documentation, and proposing mitigation, will be concerned with interacting effectively with highway engineers,
resource agency representatives, and the public as part of the project team.
• Public involvement specialists are concerned with identifying who should be involved in the project, how best to
seek their input, and how to integrate that input so that it provides meaningful information to project technical staff.
• Senior managers and transportation agency administrators are ultimately responsible for meeting the needs of their
customers and seeing that the project is delivered on time and within budget.
All of these roles are critical to the success of transportation improvements – and CSD/CSS is an approach that enables
disciplines to effectively accommodate what otherwise might be competing interests. The interaction among these profes-
sional disciplines is complex. The management and integration of staff resources represents perhaps the greatest challenge
in effective project development for an agency, because project success will be achieved not by individual “pockets” of
professionals working independently, but by forming teams and integrating activities.
The sections in this document are designed to reflect these different perspectives, as described below.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section B: Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Context Sensitive Design
8
CSD/CSS FOR CSD/CSS FOR THE

PROJECT MANAGERS TRANSPORTATION AND HIGHWAY
Every decision maker is confronted with balancing numer- DESIGN PROFESSIONALS
ous options, stakeholders, and professional disciplines
CSD/CSS presents significant challenges – and oppor-
while delivering transportation projects. Often, this bal-
tunities – for engineers and other design professionals
ance is achieved through the day-to-day management
responsible for implementing transportation projects.
of resources and staff; in the end, effective projects are
From this perspective, CSD/CSS focuses on identifying
designed and built. As programs become more complex
problems in functional or performance terms, and arriving
and stakeholders more interested in influencing how
at solutions that address them. In developing those solu-
projects impact their communities, delivering success-
tions, the design process is presented as a series of choices,
ful projects becomes much more complex. Additional
with the designer’s task being to make effective choices
requirements come from the environmental process and
that balance the often competing interests of operational
the formal public input process required by NEPA.
efficiency, cost, serving multiple users, and achieving
environmental sensitivity.
Singly, each of the disciplines and stakeholders that must
be included in the development of a project is manageable.
Of course, designers will be concerned with how to effec-
As input from multiple sources is required, the risk of mis-
tively employ the proven design criteria and policies pub-
communication, of improper analysis or technical omis-
lished by AASHTO and their respective agency, without
sion, or of alienating a key constituent grows dramatically.
increasing the risk to their agency. Section F, Ensuring
A worst case scenario: a needed project is derailed because
Safe and Feasible Solutions, addresses these primary
a critical point of view was left unconsidered; a significant
concerns. In particular, the Problem Definition and Alter-
environmental impact was not recognized; or constituency
natives Development sub-sections present non-traditional
rallies a community against the project.
approaches that may be of special interest.
CSD/CSS is a formalized process for significantly reduc-
Many designers will also be concerned with how they can
ing the risk that a project gets derailed. The worst case
effectively present or communicate ideas to non-technical
scenarios listed above are generally avoidable – had
stakeholders, how they should interact with other fellow
there been the one public meeting to capture a previously
professionals such as environmental specialists, and how
unknown stakeholder’s point of view or better communi-
they can play an appropriate role in the overall decision
cation among designers and environmental experts, the
process. CSD/CSS provides a methodology for design-
project may have been completed without a problem.
ers to present the rationale for guidelines and criteria and
a working environment to determine which guidelines
Using CSD/CSS processes effectively takes some effort
might be adjusted while maintaining safety. While CSD/
and resources, but these are generally well worth the ben-
CSS may result in more effort than simply “going by the
efits gained from ensuring that all disciplines are work-
book,” it is unlikely that today’s community stakeholders
ing together; that they have a process for identifying and
will allow untenable projects to proceed. Since successful
resolving differences; and that decisions are documented
projects will require a level of compromise and trade-off,
and defensible.
CSD/CSS is an excellent tool for providing structure to
the process. In the end, key decisions will be documented,
Although project managers will generally not be expert in
absolutely necessary design requirements will be met,
all technical disciplines, they should have an appreciation
and guidelines that can be adjusted for the betterment of
of the duties and challenges of each discipline and the
other factors will be modified in a reasonable, defensible
ways each discipline can contribute to the project. For that
manner. Thus, individual areas of other chapters in the
reason, project managers will likely be interested in all
guide will be valuable and of interest to highway designers
content in this guide. Specifically, project managers may
as well.
want to focus on the portions of each chapter related to
management structure and specifically to Section C, Effec-
Finally, designers should be interested in how the con-
tive Decision Making. CSD/CSS is all about completing
cepts, research, and ideas are translated into real project
projects, which can be seen as completing a series of pro-
solutions. Section H, Case Studies, provides a wide range
cesses, tasks, and work efforts, each of which involves one
of CSD/CSS creative design solutions and applications of
or more key decisions.
the concepts to illustrate in real terms what CSD/CSS is
all about.
Section B: Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Context Sensitive Design A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
9
CSD/CSS FOR THE captures the body of knowledge and experience to date
from agencies that have successfully incorporated public
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGERS involvement into their transportation projects.
Since the enactment of NEPA, recognizing the importance
of natural and human environmental issues has become a Public involvement specialists may wish to consider
key component of most infrastructure projects. Obtaining making this manual available to the public-at-large.
public input and understanding community needs is a key Community stakeholders will benefit from an awareness
benefit of the environmental process that is now making that a process such as CSD/CSS exists and is available
its way into all aspects of project evaluation, development, for their participation. For the involved stakeholder, an
and implementation. CSD/CSS is a key tool for extending in-depth understanding of CSD/CSS will be of consider-
the benefits of an inclusive project development approach able benefit, especially when it comes to appreciating and
and as such, should be most familiar to environmentally understanding the roles and responsibilities of the various
focused disciplines. participants described here.
CSD/CDD offers additional opportunity beyond address- CSD/CSS FOR SENIOR

ing environmental issues. It allows all points of view,
including community concerns, questions about design MANAGERS AND
standards, and project delivery and management issues, to ADMINISTRATORS OF
be addressed in a structured, iterative process. This allows
those responsible for the environmental process to gain TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES
an understanding of engineering issues that might affect Senior managers of transportation agencies are concerned
a project’s safety or constructibility. This process also pro- with the overall performance and effectiveness of their
vides a forum for resolving conflicts in the early phases of agency in meeting the needs of their customers. Complet-
a project, as part of initial alternative development, thereby ing projects that stakeholders support, that are on time and
reducing the likelihood that they will become larger proj- within budget, and that deliver value to customers are key
ect risks or fatal flaws during the formal environmental objectives. Minimizing the potential for adverse outcomes
review. Section E, Achieving Environmental Sensitivity, from lawsuits is also a concern. While CSD/CSS offers
was prepared to provide an overview of CSD/CSS from significant opportunities to achieve these goals, its imple-
the perspective of the environmental process. Of course, mentation may require management and cultural changes,
environmental planners should also be interested in issues or may call for investments in reorganization, retraining,
addressed in other sections of the guide, including alterna- and new skill development. Such implementation mea-
tive development, screening, and decision making. sures may present serious challenges to budget-strapped
public transportation agencies.
CSD/CSS FOR PUBLIC
Section G, Organizational Needs, addresses how some
INVOLVEMENT SPECIALISTS senior managers have transformed their agencies to be
Public involvement has become a key recognized compo- context sensitive in everything they do. Section G also
nent of most successful transportation projects. Starting addresses the benefits of organizational change. In addi-
with the environmental process, stakeholder input is an tion, the management structure portions of all the guide
essential part of an overall project development effort. chapters should be of interest to administrators and
Many transportation agencies gather and use community senior managers.
input very effectively throughout the lives of projects
– and CSD/CSS recognizes and documents programs that HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENT
have turned out to be most effective. CSD/CSS integrates
the best aspects of a robust community involvement and The CSD/CSS process is aimed at capturing all necessary
public information program throughout the project devel- interactions among the various professional activities. This
opment process and across all of its technical disciplines. is often a non-linear, iterative process, ideally communi-
In addition to public, jurisdiction, and resource agency cated through Web technology that can present informa-
stakeholders, highway designers, environmental profes- tion in a non-linear, interactive format. For that reason, a
sionals, and project managers within the sponsoring key component of this report is the accompanying elec-
agency are viewed as necessary stakeholders. CSD/CSS tronic version, the home page of which is shown in Exhibit
builds on what has worked, and expands the concept to a B-1 (following page). This “e-deliverable” allows users
new audience. Section D, Reflecting Community Values, to access each report element in whatever order he or she
chooses. The e-deliverable also contains cross-reference
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section B: Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Context Sensitive Design
10
links throughout the docu-

Exhibit B-1 E-Deliverable A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
ment, including links to
The interactive version of this manual allows users to access material in a non-linear fashion. Readers may
appendices, related sections, select sections in any order, select topics that appear in each section, or select any intersection of document
and all of the exhibits. sections and sub-topics. This e-deliverable contains all of the material contain in the printed report, as well as
the associated appendices for each section.
The material contained in
this report is designed for
numerous audiences, each
with a different set of expec-
tations and responsibilities
for transportation project
development. A reader may
read the document cover to
cover or, more likely, focus
on those elements most
useful for the challenge at
hand. The printed version is
designed to facilitate naviga-
tion as much as possible—
the electronic version is ideal
for a focused approach.
The Home Page represents

the matrix shown at the
beginning of each chapter in
this document:
Other features of the electronic version of the manual

• The major topics running across the top represent the
include:
major sections of the document, starting with Section
C, Effective Decision Making, through Section G, • Exhibits. All Exhibits contained in the published
Organizational Needs (and followed by Case Stud- version or linked within the electronic document and
ies and Appendices). To read the document cover- are viewable (and printable) using the freely available
to-cover in a linear fashion, each of these sections Adobe Acrobat Reader.
may be read in order. To read the major topics that • Case Studies and Appendices. Each case study is
are of priority to you, the title of each section may be included along with accompanying exhibits.
selected for direct access. • Appendices. To reduce the paper requirements in
• The sub-topics running down the left side of the the presentation of this material, all appendices are
matrix represent the sub-sections consistently included on the CD deliverable accompanying this
addressed throughout the document. For most of the guide. Materials are viewable and printable using
major sections noted above, these sub-sections are Adobe Acrobat Reader.
repeated and contain detail relevant to the specific • Search Engine. The electronic document is fully
section topic. For example, a discussion of Manage- searchable, including all document text and text
ment Structure is contained in each section of this contained in Acrobat versions of the Exhibits
manual, each tailored for the section’s specific issues and Appendices.
and audience. To focus on each sub-topic, the sub- • Cross-links. Cross-references throughout the elec-
topic title may be selected to take the reader to its first tronic document are linked, allowing the reader to
occurrence. Subsequently, navigation is provided to jump quickly to topics of interest.
the next occurrence of the same sub-topic through the • Bibliographic Links. Citations to websites are linked
rest of the document. and may be accessed directly from any computer with
• Where the major sections and the sub-topic intersect, Internet access.
a matrix is created that illustrates the interrelation- • Added Material. The electronic document contains
ship between these key CSD/CSS concepts. In the simulation examples that cannot be shown in the
electronic version, the reader may access these inter- hard copy.
sections of major topics and sub-topics directly, going
immediately to the specific information of interest.
Section B: Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Context Sensitive Design A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
11
C. EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING
CSD/CSS implements solutions

obtained from multiple alternatives
and actions, each requiring one
A B C D E F G H
or more decisions. The manage- Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
ment and execution of a CSD/CSS Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
project should provide focus to
and support decision making and Management Structure
implementation.
Problem Definition
CSD/CSS projects are a series of Project Development and

tasks, each of which may involve a Evaluation Framework
series of decisions that result in a Alternatives Development

final project decision outlining the
ultimate action to take. Clearly, a Alternatives Screening
critical success factor for any project
is establishing and communicating at Implementation
the project outset how the project will ��
proceed, what decisions will be made
and by whom, and what analyses, processes, and documents will be produced to support important decisions. It is thus
appropriate to begin the discussion of CSD/CSS and project development with Effective Decision Making.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE Decision Points
Whether a project is small or large, simple or com- The CSD/CSS Project Development Process includes a
plex, efficiency and assurance that the decision is a recommended set of decision points. These basic steps
good one requires a process. Elements of managing an will support almost any planning process, but may need
effective decision making process are discussed in the to be refined to suit a particular project. The particulars
following sections. of the decision process should reflect the type of environ-
mental review process required under NEPA for federally
funded projects, and any other relevant state or local
DEVELOP DECISION PROCESS environmental regulatory processes. Specifics will differ
in some respects for projects requiring an Environmental
The purpose of developing a decision process is to ensure Impact Statement (EIS) vs. an Environmental Assessment
complete and accurate identification of the problem, selec- (EA) vs. a Categorical Exclusion (CE). The meshing of
tion of the best alternative, enhancement of agency cred- state or local environmental requirements with those at the
ibility, and efficient use of resourcesin short, to ensure federal level will require special attention in the design of
that good transportation investment decisions are made. A a project’s decision process.
decision process incorporates the following elements:
The focus of a decision process is often mistakenly
• The decision points in the process placed on only the final decision, overlooking the many
• Who will make each decision intermediate decisions along the way. For example, in an
• Who will make recommendations for each decision alternative selection process, the alternative development
• Who will be consulted on each decision and screening occurs prior to detailed alternative evalua-
• How recommendations and comments will be trans- tion. Whether it is explicitly stated or not, the early steps
mitted to decision makers involve decisions on compiling the list of potential alter-
natives, the manner and level of detail to which they will
be outlined or described, the feasibility criteria to be used,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section C: Effective Decision Making
12
and the list of feasible alternatives to be considered further. In many cases identification of decision makers is obvi-
Specification of each decision step in this way highlights ous—they are the regional or district managers, department
the importance of individual decisions. For example, if it heads, or management teams of the transportation agency;
is made clear that only alternatives emerging from an early or in some cases elected public officials. But sometimes it
screening process will be considered during the evalua- isn’t clear who will make a particular decision. Will this
tion phase, the importance of active participation by staff, decision be made by the district or headquarters staff? Will
stakeholders, and decision makers in the early screening it be made by the city manager, a special task force, or
process will be heightened. the city council? Will it be made by a group of mid-level
managers or the senior manager? Establishing who spe-
Breaking down larger decisions into their component cifically or what level of an agency will make decisions is
pieces also helps to identify the differences in needed important because the context for the decision is governed
stakeholder involvement at various points in the process. It by who makes the decision.
may be important for different stakeholders to be involved
at various decision points, or for different parties to make Just as the regulatory processes that govern the project
various decisions. For example, some decisions require affect the decision process, they will also affect the choice
very specific technical expertise (for example, what are of decision makers. For example, by statute, the lead and
appropriate or feasible ways of mitigating traffic noise, cooperating agencies in a NEPA process will have deci-
and what are their costs and other attributes). Others sion making authority for determining that the alternative
require broader participation and perhaps less technically evaluation is complete and accurate, and for selecting a
oriented input (for example, community inputs on the aes- preferred alternative.
thetics of special bridge designs, or on the incorporation of
public art as enhancements to a project). It is often useful to represent the groups involved in the
decision process in a diagram that can be used to explain
The nature of decisions within the process often requires the management structure. This helps to clarify the roles
clarification as well. For example, are particular decisions and responsibilities of the various groups and the con-
binding or can they be revisited later in the process, and if nections between them. Some examples of management
so, under what conditions? Is the decision dependent on structure diagrams are included in Appendix C.
data or conclusions provided from another source outside
the current project process? Can the decision be revised or
reversed as part of a concurrent or future planning activ- Agency “Buy-In”
ity? Will it be used as the basis for another upcoming
The adoption of the decision process is a decision in itself,
planning or programming activity? Knowing the answers
and is one that mandates buy-in at all levels of the orga-
to these questions at the outset of the project supports the
nizations involved in the decision, prior to presentation
credibility of the process and increases the likelihood that
to stakeholders for review. Agreement about the decision
the resulting decisions will “stick.”
steps at the outset of the project development process
improves the agency’s ability to determine where public
A diagram representing the decision process can be a very
input can be incorporated into decisions and where public
helpful management tool throughout the project. It can
input will not be sought. Agency review and buy-in to the
be used to clarify the relationship between past, current,
decision process are also useful in uncovering any major
and future activities and to show progress. Examples of
internal disagreements about how decisions should be
decision process diagrams are included in Exhibits C-1
made, and can prevent costly and time-consuming contro-
and C-2.
versies about methodology or level of public participation
that often arise later in the process.
Participants in the Decision Process
Thoughtfulness in developing a decision process and care-
Acknowledging who has the authority for each decision ful implementation of that process facilitates cost-effective
ensures that expectations are consistent with reality. An project delivery. If each step in the process is completed
advisory committee may make initial recommendations in in a thorough manner and leads logically to the next step,
the process, but elected officials or agency staff may make it is easier to resist the inevitable requests to go back to
final decisions. Stakeholders may have only an indirect the beginning, to reconsider previous steps, to commit
communication link to decision makers, and should know ever greater levels of staff and resources. Milestones can
in what form their recommendations or comments will be be established as freeze points that will not be revisited,
transmitted to decision makers, and how their input will be and momentum and adherence to schedule can therefore
weighed or used. be maintained. This is particularly important for larger,
Section C: Effective Decision Making A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480
Exhibit C-1 Decision Process – Example 1
NEWBURG-DUNDEE TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENT PROJECT

ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
TRANSPORTATION EVALUATION ALTERNATIVES FORMULATION, SCREENING,

PROBLEM DEFINITION FRAMEWORK EVALUATION AND SELECTION
NEPA DOCUMENTATION / LAND USE PERMITTING / PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Single Mode Multi-Modal Multiple Multi-Modal Single
Alternatives Corridor Alternatives Corridor Alternatives
TRANSPORTATION
Collect Available Data and Collect Needed Transportation Studies

Identify Data Gaps
Define Transportation Problems
ENVIRONMENTAL
Identify Applicable
ENVIRONMENTAL
Collect Needed Environmental Data Conduct

Collect Available Data and Corridor Studies
Identify Data Gaps
Develop
Develop Prepare Screen Develop Prepare Screen
ALTERNATIVE
Screening and Develop Weight Evaluate

ANALYSIS
Identify Issues
Evaluation Concepts Screening Concepts Concepts Screening Concepts Concepts Criteria Concepts
Data Data
Criteria
DECISION POINTS
Preliminary
�� Criteria
Problem
Selection of
��
Adoption Single Mode
Selection of
Multi-Modal
Selection of
Alternative(s)
Statement Alternative Corridor for Detailed
� �� Adoption � ��
Evaluation
RECOMMENDATION
RECOMMENDATION
RECOMMENDATION
RECOMMENDATION
RECOMMENDATION
PRESENTATION
PRESENTATION
PRESENTATION
��
Section C: Effective Decision Making
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK
PAC Meetings
AAC Meetings
SCHEDULE
Public Outreach
POST Decisions
Jurisdiction/OTC Actions FEBRUARY
Resolution on funding
partnership and next steps
DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
SOURCE: Oregon Department of Transportation
13
��
14
Section C: Effective Decision Making
Exhibit C-2 Decision Process – Example 2
PROJECT INITIATION DESIGN OPTIONS SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES STUDY REPORT

June-December January February March April May June July August
Develop Community / Agency Involvement Program
Identify Project Issues

MAJOR TASKS
Design Options
System Alternatives
Evaluate Alternatives
Develop Preferred Alternative

A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
COMMUNITY / AGENCY INVOLVEMENT
CATF CATF A CATF OH A CATF OH CATF CATF CATF A OH CATF CATF CATF CATF CATF CATF
TAC TAC TAC TAC TAC TAC
CC CC CC CC CC CC CC CC
CATF Ad Hoc Citizen Advisory TAC

Technical Advisory
CC City Council OH Open House A Announcement
Task Force Committee
��
SOURCE: City of Shoreline, Washington, Aurora Multi-Modal Pre-Design Study
15
complex projects that may take a year or more to complete tering is also an excellent way to establish ground rules
the planning and decision making. A risk inherent to such for how the team will operate and make decisions, com-
projects is changes in staff, elected officials, or other key municate internally and externally, document its activities,
stakeholders during the project. Lacking a firmly docu- and so on. Chartering of the project team with advisory
mented decision process and background, the tendency is groups, decision makers, and other groups key to project
often for new participants to want to revisit decisions or implementation can also be very helpful in successful
actions previously completed by their predecessors. project execution.
Best practices for chartering involve the holding of work-

FORM, RESOURCE, AND CHARTER PROJECT TEAM shops (which can be anywhere from a half-day to two days
depending on the size and complexity of the project) at
Forming an appropriate project team, ensuring it has the which all key stakeholders, both internal and external,
needed budget and staff resources, and chartering the proj- involved in decision making, are invited. Chartering docu-
ect team members are key elements of success in achieving ment examples are provided in Appendix C.
CSD/CSS. The literature on project delivery suggests that
the most effective project teams include representatives of
all the parts of an organization with responsibility for ulti-
PROBLEM DEFINITION
mate implementation of the project. Project teams should
remain intact and engaged throughout the project. DEVELOP AND DOCUMENT UNDERSTANDING OF
THE PROBLEM
This highlights the importance for transportation projects
of building multi-discipline teams with members experi- Initial project decisions begin with development of a list
enced in such areas as geometric design, traffic engineer- of the transportation problems to be addressed. These
ing, maintenance and operations, environmental impact problems are generally described in quantitative measures
analysis, landscape architecture, urban design, and public of accident rates, travel delays, or geometric deficiencies
involvement. Organization of such teams may run counter in relation to applicable decision standards or averages.
to typical agency organizational structures, which are dis- Many projects initiate from a need to reconstruct aging or
cussed in the chapter on Organizational Needs, Section G. deteriorating infrastructure. Some problems may be noted
as the absence or lack of a transportation service, such as
Project teams can be quite large to encompass all of the sidewalks. (See Section F for more detail on quantitatively
needed expertise, or they can be comprised of a core group defining transportation problems.)
supported by a pool of broader resources. These teams can
incorporate consultants and other outside assistance (from The list of problems can then be transformed into a com-
other agencies and organizations), or can be comprised prehensive need statement. It is critical for this statement
solely of agency staff, with outside support called upon as to reflect the full range of public values identified through
needed. In either case, it is critical for the team members to the public involvement process, and to legitimize all of the
understand they are collectively responsible for delivering affected interests without appearing to favor one particular
a successful project, and to have the resources necessary to solution. For example, a problem definition should likely
get the job done. Having a realistic sense of the available be stated as “provide for efficient movement of people
project development resources at the start helps to craft and goods from Area A to Area B” rather than “widen
appropriate methodologies for data collection, alternative Highway X from four to six lanes between Point A and
development and evaluation, public outreach, and so on. Point B.” The broader statement allows for consideration
It is less likely that promises will be made that cannot be of transportation system management and transportation
kept due to budget and staffing constraints. demand management strategies, and/or promotion of
alternate modes, as well as a variety of highway solutions.
Team chartering is a focused way to guide the project It also clearly highlights early on the nature and types of
team through the process of defining itself—its purpose, decisions that will need to be made.
scope, goals, behaviors, responsibilities, and other ele-
ments that provide the clarity of purpose essential for Successful execution of this problem definition step
high quality performance. Chartering sessions in which requires testing the need for the project as it has been
external facilitators are generally used enable all of the defined by the agency, often through extensive stakeholder
team members to participate fully. Chartering sessions can communication. It results in a common understanding and
be used to generate a common vision of the project—what public acceptance of the defined need. If a NEPA process
objectives should be achieved, what outcomes are desired, is involved, this dialogue represents the beginning of
how the project should be viewed by the community. Char- project scoping (see Section E). The end result becomes
16
the basis for the statement of purpose and need, although Feasibility criteria are used to ensure that the alternatives
the problem definition may incorporate non-transportation meet minimum performance levels, are constructible, and
elements that would not necessarily be part of the NEPA are reasonable. Reasonability criteria can be difficult to
statement of purpose and need. Examples of problem defi- formulate, but can relate to such items as proven tech-
nitions are provided in Appendix C. nologies and cost. Note that cost is generally not permitted
to be a sole criterion for eliminating alternatives from a
NEPA process.
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND
EVALUATION FRAMEWORK Evaluation criteria are used to evaluate the performance
of alternatives that emerge from the feasibility screening
After the transportation problem and need has been
against desired project characteristics. These characteris-
defined, it is possible to develop a framework for evaluat-
tics represent the full range of stakeholder values and pro-
ing alternatives. This step in the process establishes crite-
vide the “context” for CSD/CSS. In a NEPA process, it is
ria for measuring effectiveness of alternatives in meeting
helpful if these criteria incorporate the elements evaluated
the identified need, defines data needs, and focuses
under NEPA. Within the broad NEPA elements, specific
the study effort. It also determines how the evaluation
criteria can be developed to highlight items likely to differ-
will be conducted.
entiate among alternatives and issues of particular impor-
tance to stakeholders. For example, criteria can define
It is critical to develop the evaluation framework before
what specific impacts would adversely affect neighbor-
alternatives have been formulated. Otherwise, stakehold-
hood cohesion. Is it roadways bisecting the neighborhood,
ers may attempt to structure criteria to lead to selection
diversion of traffic through the neighborhood, or removal
of their preferred alternative rather than to focus on the
of neighborhood institutions? With respect to effects on
outcomes they believe to be most important.
existing businesses, do critical items relate to changes
in traffic circulation, consolidation of access points, or
Evaluation criteria can be quantitative or qualitative,
removal of parking? With respect to visual resources, is
depending on the complexity of the problem, the expected
tree removal, provision of landscaping, or roadway eleva-
level of controversy, the structure and scope of the public
tion important? Example evaluation criteria are provided
involvement process, and the preference of decision
in Appendix C.
makers. For the most part, projects involving difficult
trade-offs and high degrees of controversy benefit from the
use of quantitative measures. They can help to objectify the
DEVELOP EVALUATION PROCESS
discussion and move stakeholders from strongly held posi-
tions to consideration of specific outcomes from various
The evaluation process can be conducted simply or in an
alternatives. They can also provide decision makers with
elaborate or formalized manner depending on the needs of
a definitive rationale for trade-off decisions and alternative
the project. For example:
selection. However, the use of quantitative criteria requires
technical experience in quantitative evaluation methodol- • Staff can rate the alternatives against the criteria and
ogy, careful work with a dedicated and balanced group of provide that information for review and comment
stakeholders, and strong support from decision makers. in the public involvement process. Staff ratings and
public comments can be provided to decision makers.
Whether the criteria are qualitative or quantitative, they • Stakeholder group(s) can review information provided
help to focus the data collection and the discussion by staff and rate the alternatives. Staff and stakeholder
on the relative merits of the alternatives in relation to group ratings can be provided to decision makers.
critical issues, and on factors that distinguish among • Ratings by various stakeholder groups can be com-
the alternatives. bined by staff into an overall rating summary for con-
sideration by decision makers.
DEVELOP EVALUATION CRITERIA
Different types of criteria can be used at different points in

an alternative screening and evaluation process, to deter-
mine if alternatives are feasible, to reduce the number of
feasible alternatives that will be evaluated in detail, or to
select a preferred alternative from the reduced universe.
17
• Staff can rate the alternatives and stakeholders can featured components. This set of alternatives reflected
establish criteria weights to distinguish the relative public concerns and Oregon DOT’s commitment to thor-
importance of one criteria over another. Quantita- ough consideration of non-auto transportation elements as
tive rates and weights can be combined into an part of the total solution set. An example description of a
alternative ranking. The use of multiattribute utility multi-modal alternative from the Oregon DOT is included
analyses techniques for comparison of rankings of in Appendix C.
disparate attributes is used by some agencies for
assisting in decisions among significantly different
alternatives. Ranking information and stakeholder ENSURE EDUCATION OF ALL PARTIES ON
recommendations can be used to inform decision INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS
makers of preferences. A hypothetical case study
illustrating this process is included in Appendix C. Often stakeholders, including staff from the sponsoring
Also included is an example decision model from a agency, enter the project development process with a set of
project in Illinois and Iowa. fixed ideas about the best solution. Such ideas often vary
widely from one group to another. In some cases, poten-
The criteria and the method in which they will be used tial solutions are not even considered because they fall
to evaluate the alternatives is documented in the evalu- outside the ideas initially brought to the table. CSD/CSS
ation framework, which should reflect the results of “best practices” suggest seeking outside known channels
information exchange with project stakeholders and broad for potential solutions. This requires a willingness of all
public outreach. parties to become educated on a broad range of solution
sets. Of course, just because a concept works in one place
ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT does not automatically make it appropriate for another.
The project team should work collaboratively with stake-
holders to ensure mutual understanding of potential solu-
DEVELOP AND DOCUMENT FULL RANGE
tions and their applicability to the identified problems.
OF ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Examples of concepts that may work some places but not
others include strategies such as high occupancy vehicle
As in the developing problem definition, it is critical to
lanes, traffic calming, and unique interchange forms such
ensure that the full range of stakeholder values is reflected
as single point diamonds. In some cases, travel patterns
in the universe of alternative solutions considered at the
or local preferences work against such solutions; in other
outset. This avoids the all too common problem of sug-
cases, the topography or climate (snow and ice conditions)
gestions for viable alternatives being raised near the
may preclude certain design solutions that work well in
end of the process, resulting in a “back to square one”
the sun belt.
loop of activities.
Each proposed solution should be formulated to its best

PORTRAY ALTERNATIVES IN AN
advantage, to be as robust an alternative as possible. UNDERSTANDABLE FORMAT
“Strawmen” are not conducive to building credibility or
trust with stakeholders. Ideas from stakeholders that are Experience across the country suggests that engineering
not initially feasible as presented can be modified in a col- plan view drawings of arterial, highway, and freeway
laborative process to make them more viable rather than improvements are not understandable to non-engineer
rejected out of hand. The aim is to emerge from this step stakeholder groups. For this reason, it is important to place
with a group of alternativesany one of which could be emphasis on preparation of understandable presentation
approved for implementation. Stakeholders should be pro- formats to ensure a high quality of information exchange
vided a complete explanation of why unfeasible alterna- during the development of alternatives between the agency
tives are eliminated, to maintain their trust and minimize and stakeholders.
the chances of such alternatives resurfacing.
Photo-simulation and three-dimensional animation or
In the case of the Newberg Dundee Management Infor- simulation of alternatives represent the most effective
mation System (MIS) in Oregon, alternatives were devel- form of presentation. Note, however, that they are often
oped as multi-modal packages, each including highway, too costly to undertake early in the development process
bicycle, pedestrian, public transit, and land use elements. when many alternatives are still being considered. Less
Some alternatives were focused on major highway costly approaches for presenting alternatives in an under-
improvements with support from the other modal ele- standable way include:
ments; some featured light rail and interurban rail as the
18
• Overlaying plan drawings onto aerial photography at TAILOR LEVEL OF ANALYSIS TO ISSUE
a large scale so that landmarks and major impacts can AND PROJECT
be identified
• Eliminating unnecessary engineering detail from Depending on the nature of the project, the steps in the
plan drawings so that key features of the alternatives decision process may be repeated several times—first
are recognizable for developing conceptual alternatives for a TIP or STIP,
• Providing schematics showing the direction of traffic second for developing and narrowing down the list of
flow for projects with complex circulation patterns alternatives to be considered in an EA or EIS, and third
• Developing clear naming/numbering conventions that for evaluating those alternatives in technical reports and
help to group “families” of alternatives and facilitate the EA or EIS. During each of these processes, the level
tracking of alternatives through the entire project of analysis required to make a decision is different, as are
development process the techniques for stakeholder involvement. As a project
moves through these phases, alternatives are refined and
Where a new (to an area or community) concept is their impacts can be identified with greater precision.
proposed, such as traffic calming, or a roundabout, it Early evaluations may include qualitative measures, and
can be useful to show photos or videos from existing later evaluations more quantitative. The evaluation criteria
applications elsewhere. and methodology should vary accordingly, with lesser
degrees of specificity at the early stages.
Types of drawings, use of color, appropriate scales and
detail, and use of topographic mapping or aerial photogra- Stakeholders generally demand high levels of detail for
phy are all factors in creating good presentation graphics. their areas of concern, regardless of the project develop-
ment stage. Agencies can work collaboratively with key
Examples of display graphics for presentation of alterna- stakeholder groups (resource agency staffs, potentially
tives are shown in Exhibit C-3 (following page). affected property owners) to understand and accept the
different levels of detail appropriate for the different stages
In addition to clarity of presentation, it is also important of the project. Many of the sponsoring agency’s own tech-
to present all the alternatives in a common format for easy nical staff also desire highly detailed information, even at
and honest comparison. Alternatives prepared to differing early stages of project development. Developing protocols
levels of detail or sophistication may present an appear- for various types of analyses suited to the particular stages
ance of bias, whether intended or not. Common scales, of project development is a useful approach for matching
quality of drawings, use of common coloring schemes, and resource requirements to project needs.
presentation of supporting information should be consis-
tent among alternatives that are developed and presented.
DOCUMENT ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
ALTERNATIVES SCREENING, AND SELECTION
EVALUATION, AND SELECTION Documentation of the alternatives development process is

critical for establishing the credibility of the alternatives
PROVIDE “APPLES-TO-APPLES” COMPARISON analysis process. Establishing naming conventions at the
OF ALTERNATIVES outset of the process assists in clear tracking of alterna-
tives and their variations. Keeping careful notes of each
A key aspect of alternatives evaluation is highlighting the meeting at which alternatives are discussed, and recording
trade-offs among the various alternativeshere’s what specific reasons why each alternative was either forwarded
you get in this one, here’s what you don’t getrelating for further evaluation or rejected, provides the backbone of
back to the criteria identified earlier in the process. The this documentation.
focus is on distinguishing among the alternatives in an
“apples-to-apples” comparison of impacts or outcomes of For projects requiring NEPA compliance, this material
importance to the public and decision makers. is included in an EA or EIS to document alternatives
considered but rejected. In these projects, the alternative
evaluation and selection process ends with selection of a
preferred alternative as documented in a Finding of No
Significant Impact (FONSI) for an EA, or a Record of
Decision (ROD) for an EIS. Detailed documentation of
the evaluation process is provided in technical reports, the
Draft EA or EIS, and the Final EA or EIS.
19
Exhibit C-3 Presentation of Alternatives for Understanding and Effective Input from the Public and Non-technical Stakeholders
An effective alternatives development process employs appropriate scales and detail
Visualizations from
three-dimensional
coordinate geometry
Conceptual Plan Drawing
Conceptual Cross Section
CSD_144_3A
20
DECISION MAKING AUTHORITY MONITOR CHANGES IN DESIGN AND MITIGATION
Stakeholders, as individuals or members of advisory com- A key part of the decision process that is often overlooked
mittees, should have meaningful input to the decisions involves decisions made following completion of proj-
made during a project. Acceptance of a CSD/CSS process ect planning. For example, in projects requiring NEPA
does not mean relinquishing the authority and responsibil- compliance, formal decision tracking is often considered
ity for the owning agency. Stakeholders are owed an open complete when the FONSI or ROD is issued. However,
and honest process, and a well-documented and commu- as a project proceeds through final design and construc-
nicated decision. Final decisions on the preferred solution tion, many variations in design and mitigation can occur.
remain the responsibility of the owning agency. Stakeholders are often surprised by these changes because
they assume the project will proceed on the assumptions
included in the environmental review process documents.
IMPLEMENTATION Maintaining clear records of these changes, the rationale,
and the resulting impacts can add to the credibility of
DEVELOP PROJECT FUNDING PLAN the overall process with stakeholder groups, especially
resource agencies and affected property owners.
A critical part of the decision-making process is the fund-
ing plan. Most agencies are resource constrained. Stake-
holders should know or be informed of what the budget
constraints are and what sources of funds are available, as
well as any schedule or other “strings” attached to fund-
ing. This includes not only initial construction, but also
maintenance and preservation or other funding to operate
the solution as needed.
Development of a reasonable funding plan and continual

reference to it during the project can assure that project
alternatives remain financially feasible. This issue is dis-
cussed further in Section F, Ensuring Safe and Feasible
Solutions.
21
KEY RESOURCES AND REFERENCES

Fuller, J.W., Relevance of Economic Analysis for Decision Making: Importance of Communicating Research Results,
Conference Proceedings 21, 2000.
Guegan, D. P., Martin, P.T., Cottrell, W.D. Prioritizing Traffic-Calming Projects Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process,
Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1708, 2000.
Hauser, Ed. Guidelines for Developing and Maintaining Successful Partnerships for Multimodal Transportation Projects,
NCHRP 8-32(4),Volumes I-III, 1996.
Khasnabis, S., Naseer, M. Procedure to Evaluate Alternatives to Transit Bus Replacement, Transportation Research
Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1731, 2000.
Madanat, S. M., Lin, D. Bridge Inspection Decision Making Using Sequential Hypothesis Testing Methods (Abstract
Only), Transportation Research Circular, June 2000.
Mehndiratta, S.R., Parody, T.E., Options Approach to Risk Analysis in Transportation Planning, Transportation Research
Mehndiratta, S.R., Parody, T.E., How Transportation Planners and Decision Makers Address Risk and Uncertainty,
Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1706, 2000.
NCHRP Research Results Digest. Development of a Computer Model for Multimodal, Multicriteria Investment Analysis,
Digest No. 258, 2001.
Pickrell, S., Neumann, L. Use of Performance Measures in Transportation Decision Making, Conference Proceedings 26,
2001.
Schofer, J.L., Czepiel, E. J. Success Factors and Decision Issues for High Occupancy Vehicle Facilities, Transportation
Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1711, 2000.
Schwartz, Marcy. Opening the Black Box: The Role of a Structured Decision Process in Building Public Consensus,
Proceedings from TRB Fifth National Conference on Transportation Needs of Small and Medium Sized Communities,
Transportation Research Board, 1996.
Schwartz, M., Eichhorn, C. Collaborative Decision Making: Using Multiattribute Utility Analysis to Involve Stakeholders
in Resolution of Controversial Transportation Issues, Transportation Research Record, Issue 1606, 1997.
Schwartz, M., Merkhofer, M., Upton, R. Innovative Approach to Multiple-Criteria Evaluation of Multimodal Alternatives:
Newberg-Dundee Transportation Improvement Project Case Study, Transportation Research Record, Issue 1617, 1998.
Speicher, D., Schwartz, M., Mar, T. Prioritizing Major Transportation Improvement Projects: Comparison of Evaluation
Criteria, Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1706, 2000.
Stone, J.R., Ahmed, T., Valevanko, A. Internet-based Decision Support for Advanced Public Transportation Systems
Technology, Transportation Research Record - Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1731, 2000.
Tsamboulas, D. A., Kapros, S. Decision Making Process in Intermodal Transportation, Transportation Research
Turochy, R.E. Prioritizing Proposed Transportation Improvements: Methods, Evaluation, and Research Needs,
Transportation Research Record 1777, 2001
22
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23
D. REFLECTING COMMUNITY VALUES
Federal legislation (ISTEA and TEA-

21) established broad principles of
public involvement to be employed
A B C D E F G H
in transportation decision making. Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
The pilot states and other “context Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
sensitive” agencies involved with
CSD/CSS characterize effective Management Structure
public involvement as:

Problem Definition
• Proactive Project Development and

• Tailored to local needs and con-
ditions Alternatives Development
• Frequent and ongoing Alternatives Screening

• Inclusive
Implementation
• Innovative, using a combination ��
of techniques
• Educational on issues and technical matters
• Supported by strong leadership and institutional support
• Intended to affect the results of the planning process
These characteristics clearly differentiate between public relations (selling a fait accompli) or public information (telling
how, when, and why a project will be built) and public involvement (providing meaningful participation in the evolution
of the project and the decision process). Effective or meaningful public involvement clearly represents more than regu-
latory guidance. It serves as an important underpinning for achievement of CSD/CSS, relevant during each step in the
CSD/CSS process.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE The latter point is particularly significant. Public involve-

ment, like any other project activity such as survey, traffic
data collection, and design, requires identification and
DEVELOPING A PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT PLAN scheduling of specific resources and skills tied to other
project activities. For some projects or at certain points of
Following development of a decision process (as described a project, public involvement activities and outcomes will
in Section C, Effective Decision Making) it is possible to be on a project’s critical path.
develop a public involvement plan. All pilot states focus
much attention on internal management processes, tools, Developing a public involvement plan generally involves
and techniques aimed at development of a public involve- four steps:
ment plan. To be effective, the plan must be integrated with
the decision process and it must be strategic. The aim of a 1 Identifying stakeholders
plan is to describe the affected publics, what information 2 Interviewing stakeholders
they need in order to have meaningful input at each deci-
sion point, what information is needed from them for the 3 Selecting public involvement techniques
agency to do its work at each decision point, what tech- 4 Planning for implementation
niques will be used to achieve the required information
exchange, and what staff and budget resources are needed An example of a Public Involvement Planning Form is
to accomplish these activities. included in Appendix D.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section D: Reflecting Community Values
24
Identifying Stakeholders • Federal transportation professionals (Federal High-

way Administration, Federal Transit Administration)
A first step in achieving meaningful public involvement
• Transportation service providers (transit agencies,
in project development involves identifying the individu-
airports, marine ports)
als and groups likely to be affected by the project, those
• Neighborhood organizations
who have a “stake” in its outcome. While this stakeholder
• Business organizations (local and regional Cham-
group includes owners of property adjacent to the various
bers of Commerce, economic development agencies,
alignments, it also includes users of the facility, repre-
industry associations)
sentatives of jurisdictions in which the alternatives are
• Transportation interest groups (transit, bicycle, pedes-
located, transportation service providers in the area, and a
trian, highway)
wide range of interest groups.
• Environmental interest groups
• Historic preservation and scenic conservation groups
Stakeholders are people likely to support the project as
• Growth management interest groups
well as those likely to oppose it. Representatives of the
• Good government interest groups
sponsoring agency are also considered stakeholders—they
definitely have a stake in its outcome! A typical list of To identify potential project stakeholders it is useful to
stakeholders might include: gather together people within the sponsoring agency
familiar with the project area and with the transporta-
• Adjacent property owners (residential, commercial,
tion needs. They can identify potential issues that could
industrial, institutional—education, religious, govern-
be raised by a project in the area, the groups likely to be
ment, non-profit)
affected by those issues, key people in each group, the type
• Adjacent property renters (residential, commercial,
of impacts that might be expected, and the significance of
industrial, institutional)
that impact on the group. Exhibit D-1 displays an example
• Facility users (commuters, truckers, business custom-
of a stakeholder identification table. Blank stakeholder
ers, major regional employers)
identification forms are provided in Appendix D.
• Local jurisdiction elected and appointed officials (city
council, county commissions, township boards, plan-
Identifying stakeholders is sometimes difficult. Knowledge
ning commissions)
of local customs and local “powers” can sometimes be
• Local jurisdiction transportation or technical profes-
critical. Strong or influential community leaders may not
sionals (public works directors, traffic engineers,
always be elected or appointed officials. A lesson learned
planning directors)
by staff with Connecticut DOT on one project was that the
• Regional transportation professionals (Metropolitan
local elected official (town selectman), presumed to be the
Planning Organization transportation planners, Coun-
key local individual, was in actuality not the most influen-
cil of Government planners)
tial or important community member to include. Clearly,
• State transportation professionals (State DOT highway
knowledge and understanding of the local community is a
designers, traffic engineers, environmental planners)
critical success factor in identifying stakeholders.
Exhibit D-1 Example of Stakeholder Identification Table
Stakeholder Key Type of Significance of

Issue Group People Impact Outcome to Group
Increase traffic, noise, light pollution, Public Joan Sanchez, Noise; Potential for increase traffic
and degraded desert views Stakeholders - President aesthetics/visual; noise, light pollution, and
Sierra Vista Michael Alder, light/glare impacts to south-facing
Neighborhood Vice President homeowner's views
Association
Potential drainage issues due to Government - Melissa Moran, Drainage; May experience drainage
increased impervious surface/ runoff. City of City Engineer aesthetic/visual; problems/impacts during
Residents may experience visual and Henderson safety construction. Railroad Pass
construction impacts. Railroad Pass Interchange improvements
Interchange currently has limited sight would increase driver
distance and a high fatality rate safety
Lose summer recreation traffic. Business - Enrique Trejo, Negative The solution to traffic
However, summertime traffic gridlock Boulder City Coordinator business gridlock may result in
must be addressed. Rotary Club impacts; traffic negative business impacts.
SOURCE: Nevada Department of Transportation

CSD_112_5
Section D: Reflecting Community Values A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
25
Interviewing Stakeholders No two projects are exactly alike, and public involve-
ment tools and techniques should be tailored to reflect the
The next step is to conduct one-on-one interviews with
particular character of each project—its group of stake-
a selected set of potential stakeholders. Telephone or
holders, its geographic
in-person formats can be used. The necessary number
location, the successes and This guidebook was
of interviews will vary widely by project. Narrow down
failures of previous public prepared by the States of
the list of potential stakeholders derived from the exer-
Guidebook for Creating a Scenic Byway Corridor Management Plan

outreach programs, the California, Oregon, and
cise above, making sure to include a full range of those Washington and relates
level of complexity and
affected. This will not only include likely opposition, their experiences with
controversy, and so on.
but potential supporters, facility users, and so on. Project the Pacific Coast Scenic
Even cultural differences
sponsors often think they know all the positive aspects of Byway (U.S. 101). Drawing
in stakeholder groups will
a project, but it is easy to miss a particular stakeholder from this experience, state
be of importance in identi-
perspective. It is just as important to learn why people may transportation officials and
fying effective techniques. consultants outlined the
favor a proposed action as why they may oppose it.
For example, reliance on basic steps in the planning
websites or e-mail lists process with examples of
Interviews generally begin with a brief overview of the
for disseminating project successful approaches, les-
transportation need that is prompting the project devel-
information may not be sons learned, and potential
opment activity, and proceed to questions concerning
effective ways to reach pitfalls. It is intended for
perceived issues and concerns, level of interest, ways the use by communities and
lower income groups or
individual or group want to be included in the process, agencies who are preparing
certain segments of the
appropriate techniques for information exchange, key corridor management plans
population. Agencies
sources used for obtaining information about community under the National Scenic
working in Alaska have
activities, and other individuals or groups who may be Byways Program, and can
noted that some native
interested in the project. Example questions are included also be used more gener-
tribes prefer and react ally by any group wanting
in Appendix D.
better to formal presenta- to have increased involve-
tions from government ment in how public roads
These interviews result in an improved understanding
officials over open house and highways integrate
of stakeholder issues and characteristics, provide ideas
formats. The key, of into their neighborhoods,
for appropriate public involvement techniques, and build
course, is to understand communities, and regions.
agency credibility. People love to be listened to, and One lesson learned related
the local groups and dif-
respect the agency for taking the time and trouble to do so. to the structure for public
ferences and tailor an
The point here is to base public involvement planning on involvement in one of
approach that works for
actual consultation with stakeholders, not to speculate on the states. The original
the stakeholders, not one
their attitudes. assumption was that input
that is more convenient
from advisory groups at
for the agency. the local level would feed
Personal interviews also have the advantage of placing
staff locally in the project area, giving them an opportunity into an oversight advisory
Techniques are also likely group covering the entire
to get a sense of place and how the community functions
to differ from one decision corridor. In actual applica-
at the project outset. One engineer from Connecticut DOT
point to another within any tion, the oversight advisory
expressed it best – “In an ideal world, an engineer should
project because the nature group did not have enough
have to live in a community for at least one week before familiarity with local condi-
of the required informa-
working on a project there.” tions to create a meaning-
tion exchange is differ-
ent. At the beginning of ful plan. In response, the
structure was changed so
Selecting Public Involvement Techniques the process, for example,
that all the planning was
the agency usually seeks
done at the local level and
The third step is selecting tools and techniques to use at to discover community summed by segments to
particular points in the decision process, to flesh out how issues and validate its create a corridor-long plan.
the information exchange processes will be conducted. understanding of the proj- This ability to exert “local
Matching information needs with public involvement ect need, but may have control” over key elements
techniques is an opportunity for creativity. Many excellent relatively little detailed or of the plan increased the
resources are available to provide ideas for appropriate substantive information to interest and involvement
approaches to accomplish particular objectives (see the share with the community. of local community citizens
reference list at the end of the chapter). Appendix D pro- Later in the process, the and elected officials and
vides the table of contents from several publications on was key to generating an
selecting public involvement techniques. implementable plan.
26
agency is seeking feedback on particular alternatives the better. For that reason, it is a good practice to include
and may need opportunities to present a large amount of mechanisms for outreach to the general public, in addi-
detailed information. tion to known stakeholders, as a continuing element of the
overall public involvement plan.
The tendency in planning for public involvement is to
schedule project-specific events and encourage stakehold- The pilot states have all focused on development of mate-
ers to participate in them. Experience on many projects has rials to aid in planning for public involvement. Minnesota
shown that while it may be a bit less efficient, project team DOT has developed a guide to public involvement entitled
participation in community- and stakeholder-sponsored Hear Every Voice. Chapter 5 of the guide includes descrip-
activities may yield much more satisfactory results. In tions of public involvement techniques as well as evalua-
many cases, taking the project to the stakeholders, rather tions of how they have worked within the context of a plan
than the reverse, increases the likelihood of successful or project. Appendix D includes excerpts from the docu-
information exchange. ment to illustrate the types of techniques discussed and the
evaluation template. Appendix D also contains example
It is important to recognize that no matter how thorough public involvement plans and options for assembling
a stakeholder identification activity is conducted at the stakeholder advisory groups.
outset of the project, the list of stakeholders will change
as the project progresses. As more detailed information is
available, members of the general public who were previ- Planning for Implementation
ously uninterested in the project will become stakeholders.
Implementation planning involves integrating the selected
The earlier all of the interested parties can be identified
public involvement activities into the total project scope,
schedule, and budget, and obtaining final buy-in from
Minnesota DOT developed the following public involve-
management. Some agencies less experienced in CSD/
ment guidelines to assist its personnel in implementing
public involvement plans and activities. They reflect the
CSS do not yet treat public involvement as a task that must
Minnesota DOT Public Involvement Guidelines
mandates of ISTEA, reinforced by TEA-21, as well as be planned and budgeted. “You never know how many
public agency best practices. meetings you are going to have to hold” is sometimes
heard. Of course, one of the points of up-front stakeholder
• For all Mn/DOT plans and projects, public involvement
identification and rigorous planning is to find out what the
plans should be developed and tailored to the complexi-
needs are. The issue is no different than, for example, not
ties of the project.
performing traffic counts and then asserting “you don’t
• Solicit public involvement as early as possible. know how much traffic you need to design for.” Clearly,
• When possible and appropriate, Mn/DOT employees part of being successful is understanding the requirements
will plan for smaller, more informal group meetings and ahead of time and knowing where to get needed resources,
discussion. inside the agency or elsewhere.
• Mailing lists, including known neighborhood associations,
civic and cultural groups, environmental organizations,
While it is often stated that good public involvement is
citizen advisory committees, and organizations and asso- expensive, and poor public involvement is even more
ciations with low income, minority , elderly, and disabled expensive, budgets for public involvement must be real-
constituents will be kept up-to-date as appropriate. istic. There are many ways to leverage resources; addi-
tional resources and references are presented at the end of
• Mn/DOT employees will make an effort to go where the
this chapter.
people are.
• Communication must be two-way, continuing, and consis- Finally, a public involvement plan is a useful tool, a key
tent. element of the project implementation strategy. But, it
• Mn/DOT is committed to being clear about the process of is only a road map, and will likely require modifications
public involvement and how it ties to decision making. as the project proceeds. For that reason, it should not be
viewed as a sacred document, set in stone. Of course, it
• Varying types of incentives may be necessary given the
should also not be set on the shelf as an interesting but
type of project, or plan, and the people who are invited to
the meeting. irrelevant document.
Each of these guidelines is discussed in Chapter 2 of

Hear Every Voice (Minnesota Department of Transporta-
tion. Hear Every Voice, A Guide to Public Involvement at
Mn/DOT. June 1999).
27
PROBLEM DEFINITION recognized by the community. If these views are differ-

ent (and they often are!), it is very difficult for affected
property owners and stakeholders to consent to trade-offs
IDENTIFYING COMMUNITY ISSUES AND that adversely affect their interests later in project develop-
CONSTRAINTS
ment. The absence of general endorsement of the problem
definition is a strong signal that the project is not ready to
Stakeholder interviews conducted as part of public involve- proceed to the next step.
ment plan development should provide a set of community
issues, values, and constraints concerning the project. The Pennsylvania DOT uses a four-stage project develop-
Results from such interviews may not necessarily provide ment process as part of their environmental streamlining
a complete picture of all community values and interests. efforts. As discussed in Exhibit D-2 (following page),
Most good public involvement plans call for broad com- the Visioning Stage, a Development Stage, a Refinement
munity outreach at an early point in the project to ensure Stage, and a Final Comparison Stage are all intended to
mutual understanding between the agency and the stake- gain understanding of community values and interests as
holders of the full set of concerns associated with the proj- they pertain to the project and its effects on the community
ect. Upon further examination, it may be determined that and environment.
some of the identified issues cannot be dealt with in the
current project development process; they may need to be
referred to other agencies that can take appropriate action, PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND
shifted to another planning or project development process EVALUATION FRAMEWORK
better suited to address them, or postponed for consider-
ation at a later stage of project development. Those identi-
fied issues that do pertain to the project at hand should be INVOLVING STAKEHOLDERS IN
incorporated into the problem definition and documented FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT
as input to the evaluation framework in the next step.
Agencies are usually comfortable with evaluating alterna-
Outreach should be focused on understanding community tives based on quantitative measures of capacity, safety,
attitudes about the nature of transportation problems or design standard compliance, plan compliance, and mini-
issues associated with the identified project. Specific mization of direct impacts to known natural resources.
concerns about safety or mobility, about land use or However, they are generally less comfortable with
land development are of interest. Outreach should also attempts to measure the effects of alternatives on issues
focus on finding out the specific values associated with such as “quality of life” or “community cohesion.” These
the local context. Importance of adverse effects (noise, are often viewed as intangible and, therefore, unmeasur-
cut-through traffic, speed of traffic, on-street parking, able. However, if these are important issues to the stake-
circulation, access to parks, schools, businesses) should holders, they must be tackled head-on. Ignoring these just
be expressed. Individuals or groups may note a concern or
issue that might seem irrelevant to the project, but agency As part of identifying alternatives for improvements to
staff should strive to maintain an open mind and to listen an aging and unsafe segment of Interstate 83 near York,
Interstate 83 Community Design Center

to what is being said. Often the issue will surface at some Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania DOT conducted an exten-
sive collaborative process with community stakeholders.
point in the project if left unaddressed.
In addition to creating a community advisory committee,
project website, toll-free number, e-mail address, and
Typical techniques for broad outreach to the public for newsletters, the core of the effort involved a week-long
the purpose of issue identification include newsletters “community design center” process. Participants could
with response forms, websites with electronic comment recommend possible roadway alignments and other
options, information telephone lines, surveys, elected offi- solutions and see them drawn on a large-screen CAD
cial briefings, open houses, and advisory groups. system while they watched. During the design sessions,
project staff also presented background information on the
environmental process and on traffic modeling, helping
CONFIRMING AND REFINING PROBLEM DEFINITION participants develop the same understanding as the project
planners and designers. Eight alternatives resulted from
the collaborative process. In a subsequent design center
A problem definition can be crafted from the issues iden-
session, the alternatives were evaluated against engineer-
tified by the agency and the community through similar
ing constraints, cost, the project needs statement, and
techniques as described for issue identification. The point environmental constraints using a GIS database, again
of this outreach is to assure congruence between the allowing the participants to understand and participate in
agency’s view of the problems to be addressed and those the alternative design and selection process.
28
because they seem difficult to measure sends the wrong about future development can usually pinpoint specific,
message to stakeholders that they are unimportant. In any measurable items that capture their concerns. Examples of
event, there have been many successes in working with evaluation criteria are presented in Appendix C.
stakeholders to develop quantifiable evaluation criteria
for such categories. When properly prompted, individuals
with knowledge of the project area and pressing concerns
Exhibit D-2 Pennsylvania DOT – Four-Stage Development Process
29
While broad outreach techniques such as those mentioned IDENTIFYING OPPORTUNITIES FOR
above can be used to “reality-test” a set of evaluation ENHANCING RESOURCES
criteria, small groups representing a cross section of
stakeholder interests are best suited for initial develop- Agency/stakeholder collaboration and consultation
ment of the evaluation framework and specific criteria. involved in alternative development will likely uncover
Consultation could be conducted with an advisory group opportunities for enhancing resources. These might
established for the project, an existing advisory group, or a include such items as extending bicycle, pedestrian, or
series of special interest groups consulted on criteria asso- wildlife corridors; providing economic development
ciated with their particular issues of concern. opportunities; creating a community gateway; improving
the appearance of a corridor; enhancing the setting of a
valued community resource; improving the connectivity
ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT of one area to another; constructing curb extensions to
improve bus operation efficiency; and so on. One case
ENGAGING STAKEHOLDERS IN IDENTIFICATION study in particular, the TH 61 project in Minnesota,
OF ALTERNATIVES represents an excellent example of taking advantage of
enhancement opportunities.
CSD/CSS processes can vary in how this step in the
process is approached. In one approach, the agency can In states such as Maryland and Connecticut, historic
propose a set of alternatives that meet identified needs and resources such as churches, cemeteries, and stone fences
take into account identified concerns. These alternatives along the right-of-way are integral to the sense of place. To
are then reviewed in a public outreach process, and new the extent possible, these
alternatives or variations suggested during the outreach elements should be incor- In 1997, preliminary
activities are incorporated into the process. porated into the project. engineering drawings
Roberts Parkway Overpass, Burke, Virginia

For example, in Kentucky for a four-lane, median-
In another approach, alternatives are generated in various and Connecticut, the DOT separated overpass were
events involving stakeholders such as resource agency or has committed to employ- prepared to eliminate an
advisory group workshops, and public design charrettes. ing special stonemasons to at-grade railroad cross-
build or re-build historic ing in a residential area of
Ideas generated in this fashion are refined by agency
Burke. Virginia Department
technical staff and disseminated broadly for public review stone fences. In another
of Transportation (VDOT)
and comment. example in Maryland, hosted an open house
the DOT uncovered an for interested citizens in
Discussions with staff from the pilot states indicated a pref- over 100-year-old, unique the area to view the plans
erence in many cases from their customers to be involved drainage structure during and provide comments.
at the beginning. Project successes were attributed to the investigations for a resur- Concerned citizens did not
DOT “starting with a blank sheet of paper.” (An interesting facing project. Their re- like the proposed bridge,
sidelight of this is where pilot state staff set an expectation design incorporated this a bare-bones concrete
in their customers’ minds from previous projects in which feature, thereby preserving and chain-link design. A
they had started the public process with a plan to “sell.” it and indeed uncovering it citizen’s task force was
for all to observe. formed to provide input to
In taking the “blank sheet of paper” approach for the first
VDOT and help to design
time, staff had to overcome skepticism that they didn’t a bridge that has sev-
have a hidden plan already developed. Once they achieved In Utah and Arizona, eral aesthetic amenities
credibility, though, the working relationship and alterna- local artists have been such as iron rail fencing,
tive process moved ahead.) engaged to incorporate art decorative paving stones,
that evokes memories of and enhanced facades
Many hybrids of these approaches have also been suc- Native Americans from the along the sides of the
cessful. Key elements of success are related to sincere region. Interchange struc- bridge. VDOT learned a
consideration of ideas proffered by stakeholders and tures and retaining walls key lesson on this project:
conscientious work with stakeholders to convert their have been transformed early citizen involvement
ideas into technically feasible alternatives. Throughout to local sources of pride. and local political lead-
See Exhibit D-3 (follow- ership can intervene in
the process of alternative development, agency staff must
transportation design to
maintain an open mind, holding conventional notions ing page) for examples of
produce a more satisfying
about the “right answer” in abeyance. In many cases cited such enhancements from end result that enhances
by the pilot states, collaboration between agency staff and the City of Phoenix. the local community.
stakeholders has resulted in better solutions than any indi-
vidual group had conceived on its own.
30
A final example is given in Section H, Case Studies, for enhancement opportunity. Developing this type of partner-
a project in Maryland. There, a large, significant oak ship for project implementation increases the likelihood
tree was preserved in the median of a six-lane arterial. that the project will move forward. Responsible stake-
Profile and alignment adjustments and construction of a holder groups will see it as their job to help secure fund-
special irrigation system preserved the tree and enhanced ing, make their own trade-offs, and otherwise work with
the project. the agency staff. At a minimum, the project agency should
strive to accommodate or at least not preclude later incor-
There are, of course, funding issues associated with poration of the enhancement feature as a separate project
enhancement activities. These are discussed in more once specific funding for it is obtained.
detail in Section F, Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions.
From the perspective of stakeholder and public involve-
ment activities, though, there is clearly a role for them IDENTIFYING OPPORTUNITIES FOR AVOIDING/
to investigate and secure alternative funds to support MINIMIZING ADVERSE EFFECTS
enhancement activities that fall outside the policies of the
transportation agency. Agencies make a serious mistake Information exchange with stakeholder groups during
when they reject out of hand an enhancement opportunity alternative development will also provide ideas for ways
because “we don’t pay for that.” Being open and honest to avoid or minimize adverse effects of the project. Exam-
with stakeholders means acknowledging what the financial ples include substituting retaining walls for fills to reduce
and policy constraints are, and then beginning a dialogue the project footprint, constructing noise walls to reduce
with the stakeholders to figure out how to accomplish the impacts to adjacent residents, using decorative surfaces
Exhibit D-3 Incorporating Public Art

as Enhancements to Projects
SOURCE: Arizona Department of Transportation

CSD_201_1
31
on project structures to better fit the project into its set- and complete. Although accuracy and completeness are
ting, adding landscaping and other streetscape elements ultimately addressed during public review of Draft EAs
to enhance the connection of the facility to adjacent land and EISs, agency credibility can be enhanced by selec-
uses, and so on. tive outreach earlier in the process. In this way, agencies
can be assured that the draft documents do not contain
Often the way to mitigate adverse effects is merely to “re- easily avoidable errors or omissions. This review can be
engineer” the corridor. Connecticut DOT engineers speak accomplished through presentations to advisory groups or
of literally walking a project alignment, noting the terrain, special interest groups.
proximity of buildings, tress, etc., and adjusting the cen-
terline as they proceed. They consider this good design Public hearings provide the public with a last chance for
practice – paying attention to details, and designing the direct input into the NEPA alternative selection process.
alignment almost foot by foot. Research indicates that “open” public hearings, which are
conducted like open houses and allow participants to pro-
The Federal Lands design philosophy is strongly in this vide testimony at private court reporter stations rather than
camp. Clients of theirs include the National Park Service. in a large public forum, are preferred by most state DOTs
Federal Lands staff understand that first and foremost the because they increase active public input.
alignment and cross section must be placed in a manner
that “lies lightly on the land,” in other words, that looks as By the time of the public hearing, though, a well-executed
if it belongs. project should not encounter any new or previously unex-
pressed views or inputs on the project or the alternatives.
One good measure of the success of a public involvement
IDENTIFYING MITIGATION FOR UNAVOIDABLE program is “no surprises” at the public hearing.
ADVERSE EFFECTS
If adverse effects cannot be avoided, a collaborative alter- IMPLEMENTATION

native development process can help identify opportuni-
ties for mitigation. Key environmental technical staff are MAINTAINING COMMUNICATION
consulted to develop mitigation plans. THROUGH CONSTRUCTION
Many public involvement processes conclude at the end

ENGAGING STAKEHOLDERS IN of the alternative selection process. This ignores the con-
ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION tinuing interest many stakeholders have in the details of
final design and construction. It also ignores importance
As discussed in Section C, Effective Decision Making, to maintaining agency credibility for communicating any
stakeholders can be involved in the screening and evalu- changes in the project that occur during these post-plan-
ation of alternatives in a variety of ways. The level and ning activities. Staff from some of the pilot states indi-
type of involvement should be determined in the Evalu- cate this is a painful lesson learned – that hard work to
ation Framework document. Staff analysis results can be achieve credibility and buy-in can be erased by ignoring
shared broadly with stakeholders for review and comment stakeholder concerns or important project activities after a
through newsletters with response forms, websites with decision is reached.
electronic comment options, information telephone lines,
surveys, elected official briefings, open houses, commu- Any number of events can have an unforeseen effect on
nity workshops, and radio and television talk shows. Town the project or individuals. Changes to the plan, schedule
meetings, using electronic voting or more conventional delays, changes to construction detours, etc., all present
methods, can be used to elicit stakeholder preferences. risks if not communicated to stakeholders.
Stakeholders can also be involved in conducting the An extension of existing newsletters and websites can
screening and evaluation. For example, alternative rating be used to update stakeholders, and occasional meetings
and criteria weighting workshops can be designed for with existing advisory groups and elected officials can
advisory groups, other types of stakeholder groups, or be scheduled at key milestones (Exhibit D-4, following
large public gatherings. page). A more extensive outreach program may be needed
during construction to provide traveler information about
In projects for which NEPA documents are being prepared, revised routing and adjacent property owner/renter infor-
it is often useful to share initial results from technical mation about planned construction activities.
reports with stakeholders to ensure the analysis is accurate
32
Exhibit D-4 Example Newsletter for a Construction Project
EVALUATING THE PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT PROGRAM Response forms and other comments from stakehold-
ers received throughout the process can provide input to
Following the completion of the project development the evaluation. If additional stakeholder input is desired,
process is an excellent time to conduct an evaluation of process participants can be surveyed by mail or telephone.
the public involvement program. In addition to providing Different questions can be directed toward participants
insights into the particular project for which it is con- who participated in different ways—those who served
ducted, the evaluation can provide meaningful lessons that on an advisory committee, those who attended a meeting,
can be incorporated into future project development pro- those who were on the mailing list or visited the website,
cesses and agency communication programs. The evalua- and so on. Some evaluations also include a random survey
tion can be approached from the perspective of the public of the general public to ascertain the broad public perspec-
involvement practitioners who implemented the public tive on the quality of the project development process.
involvement program, other agency staff, and/or the stake-
holders. A combination of these perspectives can also be
incorporated into the evaluation. While there is a diversity
of opinion concerning appropriate factors to consider in
The Wisconsin Department of Transportation pursued the
Incorporates Community Values

Rural Roadway Expansion Projects
such an evaluation, the factors should reflect the agency’s
expansion of 42-mile segment of Highway 12 in south-
particular goals in conducting public involvement. Some
central Wisconsin from a two-lane to a four-lane highway
factors to consider in structuring an evaluation include: citing safety as the primary concern. Opponents of the
• Accessibility to the decision making process project organized as the Safe Highway 12 Coalition and
asserted that WisDOT could improve safety on the two-
• Diversity of views represented lane roadway at a fraction of the cost of the expansion.
The Coalition hired a consultant to develop an alternative
• Opportunities for participation
plan. Based on the more complete set of alternatives,
• Integration of concerns negotiations for a final compromise were conducted. The
final decision supported the four-lane roadway expansion
• Information exchange but also included funding for protection of the Baraboo
Range National Natural Landmark, funding to assist Sauk
• Project/decision acceptability
and Dane Counties plan for highway-related growth, and
• Direct and indirect cost to the agency sponsorship of studies to evaluate a commuter rail line for
the area. Public involvement resulted in a project that pro-
• Direct and indirect costs to stakeholders vided a safer roadway and recognized community values.
• Agency cost avoidance
33

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Community Problem Solving, 1992.
Keever, David, PhD., and Lyncott, Jana, AICP. “In the Possibilities Are the Solutions: Assessment and Implications of
the Public Involvement Process During the Environmental Impact Study of Woodrow Wilson Bridge”, Presented at 1999
Annual TRB Meeting, Washington, D.C.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, A National Workshop on Integrating Highway
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Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, Conference Summary, May, 1998.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, Integrating Highway Development with
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Minnesota Department of Transportation. Hear Every Voice, A Guide to Public Involvement at Mn/DOT. June 1999.
Myerson, Deborah L., AICP. Getting It Right In the Right-of-Way, Action Guide, Scenic America, 2000.
O’Leary, Amy A., Arnold, E.D., Jr., Kyte, Cherie A ., and Perfater, Michael A. An Assessment of the Virginia Department
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Project-Based Public Involvement Processes: A Self-Assessment Tool for Practioners, 1999.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA, and FTA. Innovations in Public Involvement for Transportation Planning,
1994.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA, and FTA. Public Involvement Techniques for Transportation
Decision-making, 1996.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA. Community Impact Assessment: A Quick Reference for Transportation,
Publication No. FHWA-PD-96-HEP-30/8-96 (10M)P, 1996.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA. Flexibility in Highway Design. Publication No. FHWA-PD-97-062 HEP-
30/7-97 (10M)E. 1997.
34
35
E. ACHIEVING ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY
James Codell, Secretary of the

Kentucky Transportation Cabinet,
expresses the vision of Kentucky
A B C D E F G H
and provides direction to his staff Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
who work on projects for Kentucky Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
residents. “You should act as if the
project is going through your own Management Structure
back yard.” Achieving environmental

Problem Definition
sensitivity is much more than com-
pleting technical analyses or submit- Project Development and
ting mandated forms or documents. Evaluation Framework
It is a commitment to, in the view of Alternatives Development

Federal Lands Division philosophy,
assure that a project “lays lightly on Alternatives Screening
the land.” Context sensitive profes-
sionals and organizations see them- Implementation
selves as environmental stewards, not ��
just transportation providers. This
attitude and approach to their work
represents a significant difference
from the old way of doing business.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE ESTABLISH ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PROCESS
CSD/CSS means involving social, economic, and environ- Perhaps the key management issue is determining if the
mental considerations as a meaningful part of the solutions project will be conducted under NEPA. There may be con-
generating process, not as add-ons or after-the-fact steps. fusion about the relationship of NEPA and CSD/CSS, but
In the remainder of this section, a reference to environ- steps in the two processes are nearly identical, and the two
mental considerations is assumed to mean the broad can fit together very easily. The processes are overlayed
spectrum of SEE (social, economic, and environmental) and integrated, not run consecutively. Both aim at select-
effects. This CSD/CSS approach helps build consensus ing the best alternative, both are intended to provide timely
for the eventual decision and saves costs by incorporat- information for effective decision making, and both pro-
ing such considerations from the beginning when it is vide the interdisciplinary framework for considering the
easier to accommodate change. Environmental sensitivity positive and negative impacts of the proposed action.
means incorporating consideration of SEE effects within
the alternatives development process. This is an advance Because NEPA is a national law that applies to all federal
over outdated agency processes in which engineers agency actions, it is almost always implemented through a
determine an alignment or plan, and then “after-the-fact” series of regulations promulgated by each federal agency
evaluate the plan for adverse environmental consequences. and in many cases each state DOT. Despite this national
Exhibit E-1 (following page) shows a comparison of the law, and the common aim to provide the agency with a
old model versus the new model. defensible decision process, each of these agency regula-
tions is different from the others in its particulars. In all
NEPA projects, though, it is necessary to identify the lead
and cooperating agencies as well as the type of review
required. It may not be possible to determine if an EIS,
EA, or CE is appropriate during the first step of the pro-
cess, although in many cases the lead agencies are able to
National Cooperative Highway Research Report 480 Section E: Achieving Environmental Sensitivity
36
make the decision even at

Exhibit E-1 Context Sensitive Approach – Integrating Concurrent Engineering and
this early point. The earlier
Environmental Analysis
the determination can be
made, the better, because
it affects the design of the Develop Evaluate Complete
public and agency out- Engineering Alternatives Environmental
reach programs as well as
Alternatives Documentation
a variety of data gathering
efforts.
If the project does not

require either federal
funding, a federal agency
permit, or other approval
action, and is therefore
not subject to NEPA regu-
lations, the environmen-
tal review process will
likely be guided by local, Traffic and
regional, or state environ- Engineering Issues
mental regulations as well and Constraints Evaluate
as response to stakeholder Develop
Alternatives, Select
issues and concerns. Alternatives
Some agencies choose to Environmental and Document
follow NEPA even if it is Issues and
not required to ensure that Constraints
if conditions change, and
a federal action is later CSD/CSS MODEL
triggered by the project,
there is no need for “back
tracking” to accommodate DEVELOP AGENCY OUTREACH PLAN
federal requirements.
The “Reflecting Community Values” section of the report
In addition to understanding the relationship of the project described the development of a public involvement plan
to NEPA, it is also important to determine the applicability (Section D). The development of a plan for involv-
of other regulations that can affect the development, evalu- ing resource, regulatory, and other agencies is similar,
ation, and selection of alternatives, and the ultimate imple- and is often included as part of the public involvement
mentability of the project. Such regulations might include plan. Organizations typically consulted include federal
local, regional, or state laws that control land use; restrain transportation agencies (Federal Highway Administra-
urban growth; protect against adverse impacts to specific tion, Federal Transit Administration); state DOTs; local
lands, species, or other resources; require a public vote to transportation and land use agencies (cities, counties,
approve certain types of projects; or require a public vote MPOs); Native American tribal organizations; federal
to approve funding for particular projects. resource agencies (Environmental Protection Agency,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Army Corps of
Knowledge of the regulatory framework in which the Engineers, National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Forest
project will be developed at the outset of project devel- Service, U.S. Parks Department); and other state natural
opment helps to avoid surprises that cause delays and resource/environmental protection/land use agencies such
rework at later stages of the process. The NEPA process as Departments of Natural Resources and State Historic
is clearly intended to operate as an umbrella approach Preservation Offices.
so that all related environmental laws, regulations, and
policies are considered in a coordinated fashion during Like other stakeholders, resource and regulatory agency
decision making. staff have particular perspectives and specific constraints
relating to their availability for involvement in the proj-
ect. In planning for the participation of federal resource
agencies, for example, it is important to remember that
Section E: Achieving Environmental Sensitivity A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
37
their operating procedures often make it very difficult for consisting of KTC staff, FHWA staff, and consultants to
staff to participate in activities not directly connected to track environmental commitments and look for opportuni-
an ongoing NEPA process or permit action. Moreover, in ties to streamline and improve the process.
most regulatory agencies staff is often spread very thin and
forced to prioritize among many important projects and Agencies new to CSD/CSS may find it necessary to
concurrent activities. Limited availability of agency staff increase the level of staff support or retain consulting ser-
often requires scheduling of special activities for them vices for environmental coordination and project develop-
at selected project milestones rather than assuming they ment activities.
can participate as regular members of broad-based project
advisory groups that will meet often during the develop-
ment process. Field trips, special resource agency advisory
PROBLEM DEFINITION
groups that meet only several times during project develop-
ment, and focused resource agency workshops are proven DEVELOP PROBLEM STATEMENT
effective approaches for achieving agency involvement.
An early step in both the CSD/CSS and NEPA processes
Pilot states working with agency stakeholders have is the identification of the problems to be solved and the
attempted to maintain an environmental stewardship focus development of a problem statement. It is critical that
and at the same time improve efficiencies. The Connecti- the statement be useful for development and evaluation
cut DOT is working with the FHWA Division Office and of potential solutions. Problems must be stated in terms
Connecticut State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) to of underlying causes. For example, congestion, in itself,
develop programmatic agreements covering minor proj- may not a problem, but rather a symptom of a problem.
ects and even minor work efforts on the Merritt Parkway, If, instead, the problem is defined as travel demand that
which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. exceeds capacity, the problem has been framed in a way
Other agreements involve continual coordination at every that can lead to a solution—it is either possible to attack
stage of an archaeological investigation. In Kentucky, as the problem from the demand side or the capacity side, or
part of a section 106 Programmatic agreement, a consulta- a combination of the two.
tion procedure is being established between the State and
Native Americans, even though there are no federally rec- Similarly, problem statements should avoid being mode
ognized tribes in the state. specific. Thus, for example, a problem is not the lack of
light rail transit lines from point A to point B. Rather, there
North Carolina DOT is acting as an environmental stream- may be a lack of transportation options within a particu-
lining laboratory. The vision of NCDOT is to engage all lar corridor where only auto transportation options exist.
stakeholders in a shared, efficient, and balanced process Solutions could include expanding opportunities for bike,
that advances environmental streamlining while maintain- pedestrian, light rail, bus, and other public transportation.
ing environmental stewardship.
In some cases, a problem could relate to a particular type
Despite budget and time constraints, it is critical to the of vehicle. For example, roadway geometry that makes
success of the CSD/CSS (and NEPA) process to obtain it difficult for emergency vehicles or particular types of
information from the appropriate resource and regulatory trucks to gain access or to complete specific turning move-
agencies concerning problem definition, evaluation crite- ments could be a significant problem in a corridor used
ria, alternatives development, alternatives evaluation, and heavily for freight movement.
the identification of a preferred alternative.
Problem statements generally define the current conditions
as well as conditions at the end of the forecast year, gener-
PROVIDE STAFFING SUPPORT ally accepted as a 20-year planning period. Even though
transportation performance may not be a problem now,
Achieving environmental sensitivity and maintaining future conditions may not meet local or state performance
control over a project’s schedule and budget requires com- guidelines of a road segment or intersection. Projecting
mitment of resources at the project level. In Kentucky, the traffic demand 20 years in the future can be very con-
Transportation Cabinet created 12 staff positions to moni- troversial. Making sure there is agreement concerning
the modeling assumptions involved in these projections
tor all environmental activities at the District level. The
is critical to the success of most urban projects because
Maryland SHA has undertaken similar action. Kentucky
it goes directly to the heart of gaining agreement on the
also has established an Environmental Advisory Team,
problems to be addressed.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section E: Achieving Environmental Sensitivity
38
While traditional problem statements focus on transpor- of natural resource issues and constraints, it is important to
tation performance issues, it is possible for them to also also incorporate examination of the social and economic
incorporate broader community issues such as economic (human environment) context as well.
development, visual identity, community character, and
livability. In fact, this provides a much stronger problem If the project is being conducted under NEPA, scoping is
statement and will more than likely help to differentiate required as part of the preparation of an EIS, and is often
among possible alternative solutions. conducted during preparation of an EA. However, even
if the project is not following a formal NEPA process,
Staff from all pilot states are unanimous in their view that this collaborative data gathering activity is considered an
well thought-out, clearly communicated, and commonly essential part of the CSD/CSS process.
understood problem statements go a long way to achieving
both environmental sensitivity and project success.
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND
CONDUCT SCOPING TO CONFIRM AND REFINE
EVALUATION FRAMEWORK
PROBLEM STATEMENT
INVOLVE STAKEHOLDERS IN FRAMEWORK
The context of the pro- DEVELOPMENT
With the replacement of
the Flansburg/Nobleboro posed project is defined
Bridges in Herkimer through scoping, a col- Establishing criteria to be used in screening and evaluat-
Enhancements Provided at Low Cost
Recreation and Natural Resource
County, New York, the laborative process with ing project alternatives early in the process is absolutely
New York State DOT resource and regulatory critical to the defense of the eventual solution. Criteria can
established a scenic West agencies. This is one of be derived from information gathered through the scoping
Canada Creek overlook, the first opportunities to process. Endorsement from the resource and regulatory
recreational crossings, gather information about agencies can then be sought prior to formal adoption of
and 1.5 acres of restored the environmental issues the evaluation framework. Some states, such as Pennsyl-
wetlands at minimal cost and constraints, about the vania, Oregon, and Washington, have processes in place
by including these fea- to formalize agency review and endorsement of evalua-
natural and community
tures into project staging
resources that could be tion criteria, but informal review processes can be used
and excavation. External
affected by the project. to achieve alignment. Examples of evaluation criteria are
agency coordination was
conducted with the Adiron- Scoping can also serve to included in Appendix D.
dack Park Agency; U.S. help define the range of
Fish and Wildlife Service, solutions or alternatives
Environmental Protection considered feasible. Most DEVELOP PURPOSE AND NEED
Agency, and Park Service; importantly, it provides
the Town of Ohio; and the agencies an opportunity The Project Purpose and Need is a formal element of NEPA
Ridge Runners Snowmo- to help separate issues of documentation. As such, it is technically not required for
bile Club. significance from those non-NEPA projects, but is strongly recommended because
of less importance with it firmly establishes the beginning framework for evaluat-
the intent of being able to focus resources appropriately. ing alternatives. The first question one must ask of any
It parallels the identification of issues and constraints alternative is, “Does it meet the Purpose and Need?” The
described in Section D, Reflecting Community Values, Purpose and Need must be derived from the problem state-
in which public outreach is used to identify issues from a ment, but it is limited to a discussion of transportation
citizen perspective. issues. It represents the reason the federal agency is con-
templating taking action. While the USDOT may recog-
Scoping is an excellent opportunity to make sure that envi- nize the importance of achieving community livability, it is
ronmental considerations are not an after-thought in devel- not authorized to invest in the transportation infrastructure
oping and evaluating alternatives, and to ensure that all of solely for that reason.
the relevant information is on the table early in the project
so all of the trade-offs can be considered. This is the right Information provided in a Purpose and Need typically
time to gather ideas on what features could make the includes:
project better, more implementable, and more worthy of • Brief project history
celebration. While scoping is often focused on discovery
• Transportation system linkage
• Capacity issues
39
In 1966, FHWA prepared a primer on Community Impact Assessment to address the impacts
of proposed transportation actions on communities, neighborhoods, and people. The docu-
Community Impact Assessment Process

ment suggests that when assessing community impacts, the analyst must be aware of the
basic logic behind the process. The assessment diagram shown here provides the fundamen-
tal tasks in the process. The assessment process has the following components:
• Define the project and study area – Develop various project alternatives which satisfy the
project purpose and need and identify potential impacts.
• Develop a community profile – Define the affected area, including neighborhood boundar-
ies, locations of residences and businesses, economic and demographic data, history of
the community, and land use plans.
• Analyze impacts – Assess the impacts to the community of the proposed action versus no
action. Investigate consequences of the action.
• Identify solutions – Identify potential solutions to address adverse impacts.
• Use public involvement – Involve the public in developing project alternatives. This step is
integral to all the above steps.
• Document findings – Provide oral presentations and a written report documenting findings
for distribution to interested parties and support decisions.
Analyze Impacts
Access Social and
Economic
Impacts
Etc
Development
Relocation
Section 5 Identify Solutions

Develop Community Profile
Neighborhoods Demographics Avoidance Minimization
Economics
Social History
Select Anaylsis Tools
Land Use
Etc. Mitigation Enhancement
Community
Population Facilities
Section 3 Section 7
Section 6
Collect Data
Define Project/Study Area Document Findings
Alternatives Use Public NEPA

unity
Involvement Comm
Impac
t
t
smen
Asses
Section 4
Study Area Boundaries
Section 2 Section 9
Section 8
Community Impact Assessment Process

��
40
• Transportation demand It is important that resource and regulatory agencies as

well as the general public have a meaningful opportunity
• Legislative mandate
to contribute ideas for solutions to the defined problem,
• Moral relationships and that the range of alternatives considered reflects the
full range of ideas expressed. Documenting alternatives
• Safety issues
suggested through outreach activities, even though many
• Rendering deficiencies will be screened out in the next step of the process, adds
to the credibility of the process. It should be straightfor-
Preparation of the project Purpose and Need requires care
ward to understand why the establishment of evaluation
because it, like the problem statement, must not imply a
criteria early in the process provides an excellent frame-
specific solution, but must be stated in terms of underlying
work for quickly narrowing the alternatives receiving
causes. Yet, it cannot be so broad as to invite investigation
full consideration.
of alternatives outside a reasonable spectrum of options.
Again, asking that first question can help narrow the range
of alternatives and facilitate spending resources on only
IDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES FOR REDUCING
examining reasonable potential solutions. ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
In many cases, a great deal of problem analysis may A key concept in both CSD/CSS and NEPA is the notion
already have been completed as part of the agency’s prior that consideration of approaches for reducing adverse
planning process. This prior planning work can provide environmental impacts is required in the course of
data that can be used to narrow down the Purpose and developing alternatives. The first aim is to avoid impacts
Need. For example, the corridor in questions may have entirely. Avoidance not only is best environmentally, but
been evaluated and rejected as a new transit corridor, indi- is generally the least expensive option. One pilot state,
cating it is only viable for Transportation System Manage- the Minnesota DOT, illustrates the value of focusing
ment, Transportation Demand Management, auto, bicycle, agency resources on avoidance. Mn/DOT’s investment in
and pedestrian modal solutions. Or, a regional planning MnModel (see Appendix E) was intended to provide their
study may have evaluated a number of bridge repair and staff with the means to avoid archaeological sites during
replacement options, indicating that repair is not viable highway route location studies throughout the state.
and that a new bridge must be built serving the existing
corridor. It is important to take advantage of any previous If avoidance is not possible or impractical, the second
work in developing a Purpose and Need statement. aim is to minimize adverse impacts to the extent possible.
Then, and only then, is mitigation considered. In other
ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT words, providing brick facing on sound walls to improve
their visual appearance is a mitigation measure—com-
Wildlife plantings and nest pletely avoiding the need for sound walls, or greatly
ENGAGE
boxes for kestrels and reducing the linear feet of needed sound walls are both
STAKEHOLDERS IN
Wildlife Features Add Aesthetic Value
wood ducks enhance the preferable choices.

aesthetics of the Lake ALTERNATIVE
Ontario State Parkway IDENTIFICATION
In recent years, the concept of environmental steward-
in Monroe and Orleans
ship has increasingly gained acceptance. Environmental
County, New York, while This is the most creative
stewardship is the practice of not only protecting, but
providing wildlife shel- part of the project devel-
ter and food. Habitat is
enhancing the environment as a routine part of project
opment process, in which
managed by mowing development. While quite different from the formal Trans-
sets of solutions are
and selective thinning. portation Enhancements Program and dedicated funding
crafted in response to the
Volunteer groups maintain created under ISTEA and maintained under TEA-21, it
problem statement and
the annual nest boxes. takes the familiar “avoid, minimize, mitigate” approach
the evaluation criteria.
Partners in New York one step further. Environmental stewardship aims to leave
Alternatives are generally
DOT project included the environmental conditions better than they were before the
Braddock Bay Raptor
developed through itera-
project and encourages consideration of activities that are
Research Center; the New tive processes, including
modest, natural extensions of project activities. For exam-
York State Office of Parks, public, agency, and project
ple, adding a fish ladder to a culvert that is included in a
Recreation, and Historic team input.
project is an enhancement that requires a bit more invest-
Preservation; the Nature
Conservancy; and the Boy
ment but adds an important benefit. This approach builds
Scouts of America. credibility and trust between transportation and resource
agency staff, and with the public. This broad concept of
41
not only protecting, but enhancing the environment, is ALTERNATIVES SCREENING,

gaining acceptance and is commonly referred to as “envi-
ronmental stewardship.” EVALUATION, AND SELECTION
Many agencies, including a number of the pilot states, have TAILOR LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
formalized processes for enhancing projects. Examples of
landscaping and aesthetic design guidance documents are The level of environmental analysis varies dramatically
provided in Appendix E. depending on the type of study and the nature of the deci-
sion being made. For example, an environmental analysis
The cultural attitudes of professional design staff can also of a variety of transportation improvements in a 60-mile
play a significant role in achieving environmental sensi- corridor will be conducted at a much more general level of
tivity and minimizing adverse impacts. Skilled highway analysis than the improvements to a specific interchange.
designers take pride in minimizing construction cost In the first case, the analysis is generally made from exist-
or maximizing operational effectiveness of a highway. ing secondary source information and policy-level issues;
Designers that are environmental stewards can be just as the second requires comparisons of specific project foot-
effective. For example, the Maryland Route 355 project print impacts.
(see Section H, Case Studies) includes a unique design
solution that retained a prominent, beautiful oak tree as In all cases, it is critical to obtain agreement from partici-
part of a project to widen from two to six lanes. The solu- pating agencies (and oftentimes from resource and regula-
tion, which involved plan, profile, and special irrigation tory agencies) about the appropriate level of detail for the
systems, was identified not by local or environmental environmental analysis. The CSD/CSS process is likely to
stakeholders, but by highway design staff who were also increase the amount of up front data gathering needed. It
environmental stewards. requires careful thinking about the types of information
needed to consider all of the issues raised by stakehold-
ers and embodied in the evaluation framework. If the cost
of data collection is too high to be acceptable, additional
work with stakeholders may be needed to modify data
The Florida Department of Transportation teamed with requirements to a more reasonable level. Existing data
the Florida Department of Environmental Protection to
Information for Environmental Planning
Geographic Data Library Provides
can be used in place of original data development. Keep

fund the University of Florida GeoPlan Center’s efforts to in mind that the early consideration of this information is
consolidate, house, and maintain Florida’s publicly-funded
always with the goal that more options exist early in the
GIS data in a digital “library” (FGDL). Data and images
process before there is an over-commitment of resources.
were gathered from numerous state and federal agencies,
nonprofit organizations, and private agencies. The data
was converted into uniform file formats and projections, Successful and efficient project development and delivery
subjected to quality control, documented, and organized almost always requires synchronicity between the level
into a series of CD-ROMs. The library provides uniform of detail in the engineering and environmental analysis.
data, allowing professionals as well as less technically Failure can be expected when the level of engineering
proficient people to use land use, roads, soils, hydrology, greatly exceeds the level of environmental analysis or
cultural features, habitat, aerial photography, and other vice versa. For example, not having enough information
data. Applications of the data are being used to plan Flor- about the affected environment while advancing a design
ida’s Statewide Greenways System and for the Wetlands concept can lead to the discovery of a deal-breaker late in
Rapid Assessment Procedure Application that assists in the process and the need to go back and search for another
evaluating wetlands. A new application being developed is alternative. Conversely, having adequate information
the Environmental Screening Analysis tools that will help about the surrounding environment, but failing to consider
screen projects with significant secondary and cumulative the feasibility of tying in an interchange to a freeway cor-
impacts early in the planning process.
ridor can also lead to backing up and looking for another
alternative. It is also critical that construction feasibility be
kept in mind as attempts to avoid, minimize, or mitigate
environmental issues are pursued.
42
ENGAGE STAKEHOLDERS IN
ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
Transportation and Land Use Study

New York Route 110 Intermodal
The primary goal of this study for the New York DOT
As discussed in Section C, Effective Decision Making, and was to identify options to reduce personal vehicle use
Section D, Reflecting Community Values, there are many in the Route 110 Corridor in the middle of Long Island.
effective ways for involving stakeholders in the alterna- The study examined both transportation and land use
tives screening, evaluation, and selection process. This practices using a three-dimensional computer-based
alternatives evaluation is central to CSD/CSS and is also simulation. A preliminary visualization tool—a video-
the heart of the NEPA process. It is the primary method of based simulation of a significant intersection in the cor-
balancing impacts and benefits while satisfying the under- ridor—was used to inform the towns of Huntington and
lying purpose and need for the project. Babylon about the uses of visual simulation as a land use
and transportation planning tool. Realistic traffic flow was
Screening processes for eliminating alternatives with fatal correlated with the visual scene and presented in a live
flaws are generally employed. The aim is to eliminate interactive session. This application also sets the stage
infeasible concepts, ones that do not address the identified for four-dimensional master planning—that is, including
the element of time in simulated integrated transportation
problems (that do not demonstrate a fit with the purpose
and land use planning.
and need), that cannot be reasonably engineered, that rely
on untested technologies, and that are inconsistent with
agency plans or policies. Cost alone cannot be used as the
criterion for eliminating alternatives from consideration
on projects following the NEPA process. There may be Memorandum of Understandings can be used to document
some circumstances, such as situations in which proj- agreements made by various project partners. Examples of
ect funding is provided by a local ballot measure with a such agreements are provided in Appendix E.
funding cap, where cost may be an acceptable screening
criterion. Another example is when competing alternatives
have similar benefits and impacts, but very different costs IMPLEMENTATION
- eliminating the higher cost alternatives would be accept-
able. Environmental impacts are also not generally used
MONITOR CHANGES IN DESIGN AND MITIGATION
as screening criteria because there is no absolute standard
for unacceptable levels of impact, or there are potential
One likely result of CSD/CSS is improvement in the level
ways to mitigate the adverse effect. There always must
of trust between transportation and resource agencies.
be a trade-off analysis of the various benefits and impacts
Considering effects on environmental resources as an
associated with the reasonable alternatives.
integral part of alternatives development, rather than an
after thought following selection of the preferred alter-
native, will address many resource agency and public
REFINE AND COMMIT TO MITIGATION STRATEGIES
criticisms of transportation decision making processes.
However, this trust can easily be broken if commitments
Following selection of the preferred alternative, the
made during the project development process are not
CSD/CSS process encourages refinement of mitigation
honored during the final design and construction phases
actions to be incorporated into the project, and formal
of the project. CSD/CSS calls for monitoring the project
commitment of resources to implement them. This allows
design and construction processes to identify changes
for development of more accurate project cost estimates
that could affect implementation of agreed upon envi-
and easy tracking of commitments through the following
ronmental impact avoidance, reduction, and mitigation
phases of the project.
measures. Continued consultation with resource and
regulatory agencies throughout these processes is needed
to ensure that inevitable changes do not increase impacts
REFINING AND COMMITTING TO
to unacceptable levels.
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
Public and agency comments on Draft EAs and EISs pro-

vide a basis for refinement of proposed mitigation strategies
in NEPA processes. Final commitments are made through
agency approvals of FONSIs and RODs. In projects not
involving the NEPA process, or to cover agreements made
between various state and local agencies that are not signa-
tories to the FONSI or ROD, an interagency agreement or
43

Federal Highway Administration. Flexibility in Highway Design, 1998.
Institute of Transportation Engineers. Traditional Neighborhood Development: Street Design Guidelines, 1999.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Aesthetic Bridges, User’s Guide. 1993.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, A National Workshop on Integrating Highway
Development with Communities and the Environment while Maintaining Safey and Performance. May, 1998.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, Conference Summary, May, 1998.
Maryland State Highway Administration. Thinking Beyond the Pavement, Integrating Highway Development with
Communities and the Environment. Charrett’e Executive Summary, May-June, 1999.
Myerson, Deborah L., AICP. Getting It Right In the Right-of-Way, Action Guide, Scenic America, 2000.
New York State Department of Transportation. Environmental Analysis Bureau Home Page. [www.dot.state.ny.us./eab/
eab.html].
Project for Public Spaces, Inc. “Getting Back to Place: Using Streets to Rebuild Communities,” 1997. For copies call
(212) 620-5660 or access http://www.pps.org
Transportation Research Board. Technologies to Improve Consideration of Environmental Concerns in Transportation

Decisionmaking, NCHRP 25:22, CRP-CD-14, 2002.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA. Community Impact Assessment: A Quick Reference for
Transportation, Publication No. FHWA-PD-96-HEP-30/8-96 (10M)P, 1996.
U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA. Community Impact Mitigation: Case Studies, Publication No. FHWA-PD-
98-024-HEP-30/5-98 (30M)P, 1998.
U.S. Government Accounting Office. Scenic Byways—States’ Use of Geometric Design Standards, Report to the
Chairman, Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate. September 1995.
44
45
F. ENSURING SAFE AND FEASIBLE SOLUTIONS
Successful CSD produces transpor-

tation solutions that are both safe
and feasible. Above all else, the
A B C D E F G H
public values safety and expects that Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
transportation agencies will only Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
implement solutions that provide
an acceptable level of safety. With Management Structure
respect to feasibility, solutions must

Problem Definition
also meet constructibility and finan-
cial thresholds. Project Development and
Ensuring safe and feasible solutions Alternatives Development

requires agencies to apply both man-
agement techniques and technical Alternatives Screening
skills within a well-defined process.
The section outlines lessons learned Implementation
from the pilot states and other agen- ��
cies who have successfully imple-
mented safe and feasible solutions to
difficult CSD projects.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE ESTABLISHING DESIGN CRITERIA – THE AASHTO

POLICY ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Addressing the feasibility of solutions involves the follow-
ing key management issues applied on a project-specific The foundation for highway design in the United States
basis: is the technical background and recommendation design
• Establishing and/or applying appropriate design values published in the AASHTO Policy on Geometric
criteria, policies, and procedures for design decision Design for Highways and Streets (referred to as the “Green
making, and assuring that technical staff have the Book”). The five pilot states, and indeed, with very few
appropriate background and knowledge in their use exceptions, most state DOTs refer to the AASHTO Green
• Employing risk management practices to minimize Book for technical guidance in their work.
the chances of a tort lawsuit resulting in a successful
claim against the agency in the future as a result of a The design concepts and values found in the AASHTO
project decision or action Green Book are based on established practice and research.
• Securing project funding, and applying programs and AASHTO’s objectives have been to assure highway safety
policies related to all aspects of the project, including by providing uniform and cost-effective roadway features
resolution of what is expected of all parties involved for motorists. The AASHTO Green Book has been devel-
in terms of the funding of the project oped and refined over the years through the cooperative
efforts of the 50 states, the Federal Highway Administra-
Staff from the pilot states confirm the importance of clearly tion (FHWA), and numerous research entities, including
defining and adhering to established design procedures the Transportation Research Board (TRB). AASHTO poli-
and policies in both safety and feasibility. The benefits cies are continually refined and revised based on results of
of addressing these management concerns include overall research conducted at the state and national level. Begin-
risk management (related to tort liability claims resulting ning with “A Policy on Highway Classification” published
from design decisions), and consistency and fairness in in 1938, AASHTO has published numerous policies cover-
dealing with stakeholder groups. ing all aspects of highway design over the 60+ years since
the original policy, with the most recently issued updated
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section F: Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions
46
policy in 2001. Research continues in anticipation of to recognize that roads under local jurisdiction (owned and
further updates to Policy as needs change and knowledge operated by counties, municipalities, or townships) may
increases. be designed and maintained to different design criteria,
depending on the individual owner. Again, practice varies
AASHTO has developed the Policy to be flexible, recog- across the country, but many counties and municipalities
nizing the importance of its applicability across a wide follow the design guidelines and practices published by
range of conditions. AASHTO’s Bridging document to their state DOT.
FHWA’s Flexibility in Highway Design discusses at length
the flexibility in the Policy and the intent of its use. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD), published by the FHWA, is also a key refer-
A related design policy is the AASHTO Roadside Design ence. The MUTCD describes requirements and recom-
Guide (RDG). This document addresses design of slopes, mendations for the application and design of traffic control
clear zones and recovery areas, traffic barriers (guardrail, devices, navigational and warning signing, pavement
bridge rail, median barrier), roadside hardware, curbs, and markings, and work zone traffic control devices. Adher-
median treatments. ence to the MUTCD is a requirement by law.
“Thedesigner
intent of this policy is to provide guidance to the
by referencing a recommended range of
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND BACKGROUND ON
DESIGN CRITERIA (AASHTO)
values for critical dimensions. It is not intended to
Geometric design is defined as the design of the visible
be a detailed design manual….Sufficient flexibility is dimensions of a highway, with the objective being the
permitted to encourage independent designs tailored to “forming” of the facility to meet the functional and opera-
”
tional characteristics of drivers, vehicles, pedestrians, and
particular situations. traffic. This is both a science as well as an art. Geometric
FOREWORD – AASHTO POLICY ON GEOMETRIC design deals with features of location, alignment, profile,
DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS AND STREETS, 2001 EDITION cross section, and intersections for a range of highway
types and classification.
STATE DESIGN MANUALS AND “STANDARDS”
RELATED TO THE AASHTO POLICY The geometric form and dimensions of the highway
should properly reflect driver safety, desires, expectations,
Although the AASHTO policy reflects input and a consen- comfort, and convenience. It should do so within the con-
sus of all states, it is recognized that differences in state text of a host of constraints and considerations, including
needs exist. States are free to adopt their own design poli- terrain, land use features, roadside and community effects,
cies and guidelines, or to accept the AASHTO Policy as and cost considerations.
written. Indeed, contrary to the understanding of many, the
AASHTO Policy does not represent a national standard for Central to the geometric design process is the applica-
design of all roads. The adoption and publication of design tion of design criteria, guidelines, and standards. Such
standards for highways are the responsibility of each state criteria and standards provide acceptable dimensions or
DOT. While practice varies somewhat, for the most part values for the purpose of producing a facility of a given
state DOT design manuals and practices closely follow the quality (operational and safety) in a cost-effective manner.
guidance in the AASHTO Policy. Some states (Arkansas, Experience has shown that the use of generally accepted
for example) adopt the AASHTO policy as written for their practices and concepts and uniform design values can
practice. Most states develop independent design manuals, provide a reasonable degree of safety. A uniform approach
design charts, procedures, etc. Note, however, that in most to design provides a consistent “expectation” for the user
cases the technical content of these manuals is very close (e.g., red light at the top of a signal indication, exit to the
to or identical to the AASHTO Policy, particularly for right, appropriate operating speed, etc.). This expectation
basic geometric design elements of the cross section and is particularly important for the inexperienced driver, the
horizontal and vertical alignment. older driver, a driver unfamiliar with the road or area, the
distracted or inattentive driver, or the impaired driver. A
The FHWA is by statute responsible for approving the uniform design approach also addresses the safety and
design of highways on the designated National Highway other needs of pedestrians and bicyclists.
System. Through rule-making, FHWA has adopted the
AASHTO Policy as the applicable set of design values and
criteria that apply to such facilities. Finally, it is important
Section F: Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
47
Most agencies develop and use what are referred to as with the design impacts associated with AASHTO Policy
standard drawings, standard details, and other documents values, the Vermont legislature passed legislation direct-
referred to as design standards. Such documents are useful ing the use of alternative design values for Vermont roads.
in that they promote design efficiencies (i.e., in most cases These values represent somewhat lesser dimensions than
it is not necessary and not cost effective to originally design are suggested by AASHTO Policy, although the differences
a feature from scratch each time a project is designed) and are in many cases nominal. (These new design standards
as such represent good quality control practices. have been in effect now for about 5 years, with no apparent
degradation in safety or loss of design flexibility.)
Designers and the public should not confuse use of design
standards with providing a “standard” design. A standard The Florida DOT has developed design values for projects
design is not always the “best” design. Site-specific issues or corridors in urban areas identified as relating to livable
that dictate another, more “context-sensitive” solution community problems. Somewhat different design dimen-
must often be considered. Merely applying a design that sions apply than other state highway facilities.
complies with standards or criteria is not always the best
solution. Designers are often required to be creative and Finally, most transportation agencies recognize there is a
sensitive in addressing the many facets of design to fit a difference between projects that are newly constructed or
particular situation. As designers respond to increasing completely reconstructed, versus those involving 3R. For
concerns over community values, social, economic, and the latter projects, it is typical practice to employ differ-
environmental constraints, the need for flexibility in the ent, generally less restrictive design criteria. One source of
design process becomes more significant. Flexibility is such criteria that is referenced by many states is Transpor-
best achieved by experienced design professionals in con- tation Research Board Special Report 214.
sideration of all known factors and related trade-offs. It
should not be viewed as a reduction in geometric criteria. Exhibit F-1 (following page) illustrates the range of
Of course, in the pursuit of flexibility, the expected safety design values suggested in the AASHTO Policy and the
performance of the facility should be consistent with that other sources of criteria for both Rural Principal Arterials
expected of a “full standard” design. and Rural Minor Collectors. While there are clearly simi-
larities, also note that, depending on the agency and condi-
tions, all basic cross section dimensions may vary.
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF DESIGN CRITERIA AND
GUIDELINES
TORT LIABILITY, DESIGN EXCEPTIONS, AND RISK
AASHTO is not the only source of geometric design cri- MANAGEMENT
teria. Other agencies have developed alternative design
criteria and dimensions to suit their special context and Most state DOTs and local agencies must deal with the
needs. For example, the AASHTO Policy reflects a strong issue of tort liability. Agencies are faced with defending
consideration of travel efficiency, and meeting driver their actions such as design decisions in the face of
desires to minimize travel times. Thus, emphasis is placed lawsuits stemming from traffic crashes on their system.
on geometric values that enable as high a design speed Given that a certain number of crashes is inevitable, and
as is practical for the context. For roads designed for laws permit such suits, the number of lawsuits filed and
the National Park Service, a different design philosophy increasing sizes of awards to plaintiffs are a source of great
applies, with attendant different design values. concern among many personnel of transportation agencies.
An agency’s management structure
FHWA’s Flexibility in Highway Design
suggests the use of special design
criteria for special purpose roads such
“ Park roads are for leisurely and project development processes,
including use of design criteria, design
driving only. If you are in a hurry, decision making, and documentation
as scenic byways, parkways, etc.
you might do well to take another practices, are all important aspects of
good risk management.
The Institute of Transportation Engi- route now, and come back when
neers is another source of design
criteria for urban roads and residential
streets.
you have more time.
”
PARK ROAD STANDARDS,
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, 1984
Another case is represented by the
Vermont Agency of Transportation. In
response to statewide dissatisfaction
48
Exhibit F-1 Comparison of Geometric Design Criteria

Rural Minor Collector
2001 AASHTO TRB Special NPS Park Road Vermont Agency
Policy Report 214 Standards of Transportation
(Green Book) (3R Criteria) (Connectors, (October 1997)
Special Purpose)
Design Speed (mph) 30-50 — 15-40 25-50

2
Lane Width (ft) 10-11 10-12 10 9-105
Shoulder Width (ft) 51 2-33 3 2
Minimum Clear Zone (ft) 10 No basis for No set dimensions Minimum of 10 ft

nationwide based on slope and
standard volume
Maximum Grade (%) 7-9 — 9-114 7-10

1 2 4 5
Comments May be reduced Based on speed Higher maximum 10-ft for 50 mph;
as long as and percent associated with 9-ft for all lessor
minimum 30 ft trucks lower design speeds
width is 3
speeds
maintained Inferred – design
values reflect
combined lane
and shoulder
width
Rural Principal Arterial
2001 AASHTO TRB Special NPS Park Road Vermont Agency
Policy Report 214 Standards of Transportation
(Green Book) (3R Criteria) (Principal Park (October 1997)
Road)
Design Speed (mph) 50-60 — 45-60 35-55

1
Lane Width (ft) 12 11-12 11-123 11-124
Shoulder Width (ft) 8 5-62 3-83 6-8
Clear Zone (ft) See Roadside No basis for No set dimensions Minimum of 12 ft
Design Guide for nationwide based on slope and
general guidance standards volume
Maximum Grade (%) 4-5 — 5-8 5-7

1 3 4
Comments Greater widths Dependent on 11-ft lanes
where trucks traffic volume adequate for 45
> 10% mph or less
2
Inferred – design
values reflect
combined lane
and shoulder
width
CSD_146_3
49
OVERVIEW OF TORT ISSUES cise discretion through the independent judgment of how
to allocate available resources, what impacts to accept,
Technical staff of agencies and consultants responsible for and which priorities to address. Planning, design, policy,
roadway design should understand basic concepts of tort and legislative actions are typically considered discretion-
law as they apply to highway planning and design. For the ary. In the absence of obvious defects, some courts may
most part, states have similar common law of torts. If there provide protection for discretionary decisions. In other
is a legal duty that is breached (negligence), and it caused words, a plaintiff may not be able to challenge a decision
injury or damages, then the injured party can be compen- that was discretionary in nature. The concept is that judges
sated by the negligent party through the courts. and juries should not substitute their judgment for those of
professionals in technical matters.
The courts do not expect public officials, including staff
of the transportation agency, to be perfect, nor to make Ministerial functions are considered distinctly different
the best possible decisions. It is simply asked that the in some jurisdictions from discretionary functions. These
decisions made and actions taken be reasonable under the generally involve clearly defined tasks performed with
circumstances. In many cases in which a transportation minimal leeway for personal judgment. Roadway mainte-
agency is found negligent and the plaintiff receives a large nance functions (filling potholes, replacing signs, plowing
award, it is because either someone in that agency was snow) are typically considered to be ministerial in nature.
found to have simply failed to exercise ordinary, reason-
able care, or the decision making process was so poorly Did the plaintiff contribute to the crash through neg-
documented that it could not be shown to be reasonable ligent behavior? Contributory negligence is considered
in court. conduct which falls below the standard of care which
individuals must exercise for their own safety and which
When negligence is claimed, there are usually six principle contributed to the injuries. In most states, the relative
issues that must be resolved in court. negligence of all parties is compared, and any award to
the plaintiff may be reduced proportional to the plaintiff’s
Did damages occur? It must first be proven that the relative contribution to the crash. The concept of “joint and
plaintiff suffered damages. several liability,” used in many, but not all states, means
that all defendants have a joint responsibility to the plain-
Did a potentially dangerous defect exist? The courts do tiff. If one defendant cannot afford to pay their share of
not expect transportation agencies to guarantee that their the award to the plaintiff, then the other defendants must
roads are absolutely safe under all possible conditions. increase their payments to fully compensate the plaintiff.
However, drivers should be able to expect that a highway
is reasonably safe for usual and ordinary traffic and road As was noted above, roadway planning and design are
users who are exercising reasonable and prudent care, both by their nature discretionary processes, involving profes-
in the daytime and at night. “Defects” may be conditions sionals assessing trade-offs among operational efficiency,
or objects that are extraordinary in nature that drivers costs, safety, environmental impacts, and community
cannot see or anticipate or have not been warned about. concerns. Such trade-offs are inherent to CSD. In gen-
eral, many courts will support the role of the designer
Was the defect a “proximate” cause of the damages? in making such discretionary decisions. Discretionary
The fact that a defective condition existed does not neces- decisions can enjoy protection from claims of negligence
sarily mean that the governmental agency was negligent. as long as the designers can show that, in fact, they exer-
The defect must be found to be a proximate cause of the cised this discretion by carefully evaluating alternatives
plaintiff’s damages. and weighing the important trade-offs. (Note that in some
jurisdictions courts may apply tests of reasonableness to
Did the agency have knowledge of the defect? Negli- decide whether a design action is discretionary and thus
gence requires knowledge of a problem. Once a govern- immune from challenge. Adherence to accepted practices
mental agency has received notice of a defect, a duty may (e.g., consistency with the AASHTO policy) may serve as
arise to repair the defect or at least to warn drivers until proof of reasonableness.) However, immunity has been
it can be repaired. Simply ignoring a safety problem, or held not to apply to decisions made without prior study
failing to document and study it, does not shield an agency or conscious deliberation; in other words, when there is a
from tort claims. failure to exercise “due care” in the planning and design
process. (Note that the ability to prove that “due care” was
Was the transportation agency acting in a “discretionary” exercised will more often than not depend on the availabil-
or “ministerial” role? Discretion means the power and ity of required documentation.)
duty to make a choice among alternatives. Agencies exer-
50
In order to be successful in a claim of negligence in the Individual states may generally follow FHWA practice,
design of a roadway, a plaintiff must show that there was but it is common for states to include other design ele-
a “defect” in the design and that the defect was a “proxi- ments as part of their design policy for considering design
mate cause” of the injuries suffered. Further, to overcome exceptions. Appendix F also contains the design exception
“design immunity” the plaintiff may have to show that the review form from the Federal Highway Administration’s
transportation agency failed to exercise discretion in the Design Standards Information.
design process by preparing the design without adequate
care, by making arbitrary or unreasonable design deci- A critical aspect of the design process, including design
sions, or by creating a design that contained an inherently decision making and risk management, is the process of
dangerous defect from the beginning of use. considering and documenting the need for design excep-
tions. In most cases, key senior staff within an agency such
as the Chief Engineer or Roadway Design Engineer must
BEST PRACTICES FOR RISK MANAGEMENT review and approve design exceptions. Documentation of
the need for an exception is critical to assure good decision
State laws regarding tort suits vary, but certain general best making and as risk management. The design exception
practices apply across most jurisdictions. First, stakehold- request includes the following:
ers should recognize that transportation agencies limit
• Description of existing highway conditions and
greatly the risk of a successful tort suit involving a design
proposed improvement project
issue by focusing on design solutions that are proven, i.e.,
• Thorough description of the substandard feature(s),
that are within current design guidelines and criteria. Thus
providing specific data identifying the degree of
providing a nominally safe, i.e., within criteria, design is
deficiency
the first and major step toward minimizing tort risk.
• Crash data for at least the latest 3-year period, indicat-
ing frequency, rate, and severity of crashes
Occasionally, however, situations arise in which an accept-
• Costs and adverse impacts that would result from
able design cannot be achieved given the site-specific situ-
meeting current design standards
ation under the design criteria that were selected for the
• Safety enhancements that will be made by the project
project. The judicious use of design exceptions (referred to
to mitigate the effects of the substandard feature
by some as design deviations) may be acceptable if in the
• Discussion of the compatibility of the proposed
expert opinion of the highway professional the exception
improvement with adjacent roadway segments
will not result in or produce a substantive safety problem.
A well-performed and documented design exception rep-
The term design exception refers to acceptance of a design resents the best defense for an agency should a lawsuit
value outside that within the range considered acceptable occur as a consequence of a crash that occurred within
for the conditions. Examples would include a narrower the project at a later date. Appendix F contains examples
shoulder (say, 4-foot versus 10-foot), narrower lane width, of design exception reports from two states – two from
sharper curve for a given design speed, etc. Connecticut, and one from Iowa. The latter state employs
a process in which quantitative safety analyses are part
Exhibit F-2 summarizes the design features considered by of the process. Designers are expected to estimate the
the FHWA as requiring a design exception should their substantive safety performance of the proposed design to
design dimension fall outside the normal design range. support decision making.
Exhibit F-2 Controlling* Geometric Design Criteria

PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH TO DESIGN
*Design elements considered by FHWA to be of sufficient importance to require a Design EXCEPTIONS
Exception Request if design criteria are not met.
Traveled Way Width Vertical Curvature Design creativity and design exceptions have
been discussed widely within the pilot states
Shoulder Width Vertical Clearance
and the highway design profession as a whole.
Normal Cross Slope or Crown Stopping Sight Distance There is a general consensus as to their role in
the process of arriving at a context sensitive
Radius of Curve Bridge Width solution.
Superelevation Horizontal Clearance
Design exceptions pre-date CSD/CSS, coming
Tangent Grade Structural Clearance into prominence in the 1970s as states gradu-
CSD_152_3
ally lost their sovereign immunity. Design
51
exceptions are not viewed as essential to successful involvement and input does not translate to abrogation
CSD/CSS. Creativity or flexibility in design should not of the responsibility of the agency to make fundamental
be equated with ignoring design criteria or an agency’s design decisions.
accepted design practices. Staff from the pilot states con-
firm that the concept of flexibility in highway design does Demonstrate a Commitment to Mitigate Safety Concerns
not translate to operating outside their geometric design – Where a design exception or unusual solution is pro-
policies. In Maryland, staff note that the number of design posed, plan completion should focus on mitigation. Deci-
exceptions has not increased since Thinking Beyond sions to maintain trees along the roadside, for example,
the Pavement/Context Sensitive Design has become the may be accompanied by special efforts to delineate the
normal course of business. This view is also confirmed by edgeline and/or trees, implement shoulder rumble strips,
staff in Connecticut. Kentucky’s most difficult and land- or provide guardrail or other roadside barriers.
mark CSD/CSS project, reconstruction of the Paris Pike,
was completed without any design exceptions. Monitor Design Exceptions to Improve Decision Making
– A few states make a special effort to keep a record of
design exceptions by location, committing to review their
BEST PRACTICES FOR RISK MANAGEMENT safety performance over time. The intent is not to second
guess a decision, but to build on and improve a knowledge
The minimizing of tort claims and the support of good base for future decisions regarding design exceptions.
decisions, should be a concern to all stakeholders. It is
in everyone’s interest to avoid situations that increase the Despite the best efforts of designers, crashes occur and tort
substantive safety risk to motorists, pedestrians, or others. claims are filed. An overriding concern of design agency
Tort claims paid by an agency represent taxpayer funds staff (designers, quality managers, decision makers, and
that cannot be used for other public purposes. risk managers) is not necessarily the avoidance of such
claims, but rather the defense of a good and appropriate
Discussions with risk managers for various DOTs, and a decision should a claim be made. Some risk managers try
review of the literature on tort laws and liability provide to encourage their agency’s staff to do the right thing, i.e.,
a consistent message. Full application of the CSD/CSS to perform their job in the best professional manner and
design processes discussed here supports risk manage- not worry about the agency being sued. Following the
ment, as demonstrated in the following: best practices outlined above is all that can and should be
expected of professional staff of an agency.
Consider Multiple Alternatives – Thorough consideration
of multiple alternatives, including explanation for why a
full standard design may not be possible or desirable, and PROJECT FUNDING, PROGRAMS, AND POLICIES
what alternatives are, represents good risk management
practices. This practice highlights the concept of design as A financially feasible project is one that can be imple-
representing discretionary choices. mented completely within the normal constraints, prior-
ity programs, and agency policies. A context sensitive
Evaluate and Document Design Decisions—Design approach and solution may involve incorporating special
reports should document the expected operational and design features, enhancements, or other investments that
safety performance of the proposal. Stakeholder engage- either mitigate an adverse effect or help to achieve accep-
ment, including developing, evaluating, and discussing tance by key stakeholders. Such features may require not
different alternatives requires documentation. All such only an initial investment, but also an ongoing commit-
documentation can and should be readily available to place ment for maintenance or other resources. The management
in project files for later reference. Special care should be challenge, of course, is to avoid the Christmas tree effect
taken where a new or creative concept is proposed such on every project, and also to make commitments consis-
as a roundabout or traffic calming feature. If a design tently for all stakeholders.
exception is needed, documentation should be complete,
including a full description of the need for the excep- Project staff from Minnesota and Maryland DOTs high-
tion based on adverse effects on community values, the lighted the importance of establishing policies regarding
environment, etc. what would or could be included as part of any project.
Best management practices suggest that policies be estab-
Maintain Control Over Design Decision Making – The lished and communicated to stakeholders at the beginning
owning agency must stay in control of decisions regard- of the project so ground rules are established prior to alter-
ing basic design features or elements. Active stakeholder natives development.
52
Most states have well-defined policies and programs for The type and nature of the problems being addressed
implementing noise barriers, wetland mitigation sites, and should relate directly to a project’s purpose and need (see
other environmental mitigation. Other issues, however, not Section E). While not all projects require a purpose and
specifically mandated by NEPA or other regulation, have need statement, all projects are intended to address one or
become commonplace, particularly with projects in urban more problems.
areas. The following are areas that pilot states and other
DOTs have focused on in development CSD/CSS-related Pilot state staff agree that projects that run into difficul-
management policies on project funding: ties in completion are often those for which the problem is
either not well understood, not agreed to by key stakehold-
• Undergrounding of utilities (what would be paid for,
ers, or not articulated or explained.
cost sharing)
• Pedestrian and streetscape amenities (roadside fur-
niture, decorative lighting), including what can be
HIGHWAY SAFETY PROBLEMS – UNDERSTANDING
included in a project and what can be paid for by SUBSTANTIVE AND NOMINAL SAFETY
the state
• Landscape maintenance (agreements for local juris- Not every project is safety driven. However, in the execu-
dictional care of median and roadside landscaping; tion of every project, concerns about public safety are
note that such agreements in the case of Maryland almost always evident. The characterization of a highway
influence what the DOT is willing to commit to or alternative as being “safe” or “unsafe” is often at the
implementing) center of controversy involving a proposal and even in
• Policies on funding and/or including artwork some cases the entire project.
• Policies on funding aesthetic bridge and retaining
wall treatments (practice in Minnesota is to commit Best practice in engaging stakeholders and making deci-
a fixed percentage of a project based on its estimated sions about what is acceptable focuses on two aspects
construction cost) of safety. Hauer refers to the concept of nominal safety
Even in cases where state DOT policies preclude direct and substantive safety. While this terminology is rela-
reimbursement for certain items, best practices as put forth tively new, the concepts are not and are reflected in good
by Maryland, for example, allow for their inclusion in a practices by many of the pilot states.
project, with the DOT reimbursed separately by the local
government. Nominal safety refers to a design or alternative’s adher-
ence to design criteria and/or standards. Designers and
These policies are seen by the pilot states as being essen- agencies responsible for the transportation network have
tial to striking a balance between adhering to financial an obligation to provide a design that meets the needs of
controls and limits, and properly dealing with these impor- most drivers, that allows for drivers to operate both legally
tant issues not as extras but rather as important aspects of and safely, and that is consistent with accepted design
each project. At a minimum, they set the ground rules with practices. Design criteria such as are published in the
communities so that an understanding exists at the project AASHTO policy, and signing and traffic control practices
outset. as indicated in the MUTCD represent or define nominal
safety for a highway.
PROBLEM DEFINITION Substantive safety refers to the actual performance of a
Every transportation project is intended to address one highway or facility as measured by its crash experience
or more problems. Successful CSD/CSS starts with a (number of crashes per mile per year, consequences of
clear definition of the transportation problem(s). This those crashes as specified by injuries, fatalities, or prop-
includes both technical analysis and communication with erty damage). One would characterize a road or road
stakeholders. Transportation problems can be broadly segment as being substantively safe or unsafe based on its
categorized as: performance relative to expectation.
• Safety driven It is important to note that the two types of safety, while
• Mobility driven often related, are not the same thing. It is not uncommon to
have a road that is nominally safe (i.e., all of its geometric
• Infrastructure replacement or rehabilitation features meet design criteria) but substantively unsafe (i.e.,
• Enhancement there is a known or demonstrated high crash problem).
• Economic development
53
Similarly, not all roads that are nomi-

nally unsafe (have one or more design
features that do not meet current design
“ We’ve got to train our staffs
to understand the safety and
NOMINAL AND SUBSTANTIVE
SAFETY THRESHOLDS
criteria) are also substantively unsafe.
Both nominal and substantive safety

operational effects of highways.
LEON KENISON, COMMISSIONER
”
One can readily measure the nominal
safety of a road by comparing its
design features (lane width, shoul-
(RETIRED), NEW HAMPSHIRE DOT, der width, sight distance, curvature,
are important to understand, com-
AND FORMER CHAIRMAN OF AASHTO
municate to stakeholders, and include grades, roadside features) to prevail-
STANDING COMMITTEE ON SAFETY. ing design criteria. One module of
in design deliberations and decision
making. FHWA’s Interactive Highway Safety
Design Model (IHSDM), a Policy Review Module, is
An explanation for why substantive and nominal safety intended to do just that. The vision of FHWA is that the
differ is in part due to the nature of design criteria – their IHSDM will become a standard best practice as a design
derivation, and actual values as put forth by AASHTO. diagnostic and decision making tool. Appendix F provides
Many designers believe that there is a direct and consistent an overview of FHWA’s IHSDM.
relationship between design criteria and substantive safety.
A thorough understanding of the assumptions and models Similarly, one can measure or characterize an existing
employed by AASHTO shows this is not the case. highway’s substantive safety (i.e., define the nature and
extent of the safety problem) by determining the fre-
Exhibit F-3 summarizes the functional basis for the quency, type, severity, and other characteristics of crashes,
geometric design criteria in the AASHTO Policy. The as well as other information (most importantly, its traffic
AASHTO design values for features such as horizontal volume). Here, best practices call for comparing the actual
curvature, grades, and stopping sight distance are based on performance of a road with some established benchmark
operational models with assumptions for driver behavior. or comparison figure.
According to AASHTO, these models apply across a wide
range of project contexts (location, functional class, traf- The expected safety performance of any road is strongly
fic volume). Design of features such as lane and shoulder related to its context, defined by the following:
width, and roadside elements are based in part on research • Traffic volume
on the observed substantive safety effects of the element. • Location (rural, urban, suburban)
Design values recommended by AASHTO reflect not only • Functional classification (controlled access, arterial,
safety considerations, but also traffic operational needs, collector, local)
maintenance considerations, constructibility, and other • Facility type (two-lane, multi-lane undivided, multi-
factors. lane divided)
• Terrain (mountainous, rolling, level)
Exhibit F-3 Functional Basis of AASHTO Geometric Design Criteria for Highways
Functional Basis of AASHTO Criteria

Safety Operational Sensitive to Comments/Notes
Criteria Criteria Traffic Volume?
Cross a Yes Lane and shoulder width values for rural highways from NCHRP Report 362;
reflect studies of crashes related to width, but also involve highway capacity
Section (rural only) and speed effects on width
See AASHTO Roadside Design Guide; design values for roadside, slopes,
Roadside a Yes barriers and other devices based on crash studies and other research
Design
Horizontal a No AASHTO design procedures based on providing design for driver comfort,
with presumed "margin of safety" against loss of control due to skidding at
Alignment high speeds
Vertical a No Values for grades based on providing for drainage (minimum grades) and
operational quality / speed behavior (maximum grades)
Alignment
Stopping Sight a No Values for stopping sight distance based on providing for drivers to see
2-foot object and come to full stop to avoid hitting the object (operational
Distance model of nominally safe behavior)
CSD_145_3
54
• Roadway segment (mid-block or typical section, The values in Exhibit F-4 are representative and for gen-
intersection, including type of intersection traffic eral reference only. National statistics for crash rates by
control) different highway types are not available. Care should be
• Surrounding land use (number of driveways, commer- taken in comparing statistics from different states, as there
cial versus residential; associated pedestrian activity) may be many differences between states in matters such
as reporting levels (minimum crash severity requiring a
Typical best practices are to compare the safety perfor-
police report to be filed with the state), data quality, and
mance of a particular highway with a relevant statewide
even definitions of severity, type, or other features. Also,
average or expected value for that facility type. Thus, a
geographic and climate differences can produce differ-
meaningful review of a two-lane rural highway would
ences in overall crash rates between states. Best practices
involve comparing it to other similar two-lane rural high-
generally call for using a state-specific database or table.
ways (not to all highways or other highway types). Most
Appendix F contains a description of Iowa DOT’s “best
states compile statistics that describe the mean crash rate,
practice” safety data analysis tool – SAVER: E5, and
characteristics of crashes (multi-vehicle, single vehicle)
a discussion of fundamental architecture of the Design
and their severity (percent resulting in an injury or fatality)
Decision Support System from NCHRP Report 430. See
to enable judgments about substantive safety. Exhibit F-4
also NCHRP Report 430 for more information on crash
illustrates the range in expected crash rates and severity
data quality issues.
one should expect for the full range of highway types.
Exhibit F-4 Representative Accident Rates by Highway Types
Property Damage
Fatal Accidents Injury Accidents Only Accidents Total Accidents
Location and Road Type No./MVM* No./MVM* No./MVM No./MVM
Rural
No Access Control 0.07 0.94 1.39 2.39

2 Lanes 0.05 0.89 1.95 2.89
4 Lanes or More, Undivided
Partial Access Control

Divided Espressway 0.04 0.44 0.76 1.24
Freeway 0.03 0.27 0.49 0.79
Suburban
No Access Control
2 Lanes 0.05 1.26 2.56 3.88
4 Lanes or More, Undivided 0.04 1.58 3.31 4.93
4 Lanes or More, Divided 0.03 1.10 2.24 3.37

Divided Expressway 0.06 0.82 1.29 2.16
Freeway 0.02 0.32 0.74 1.07
Urban
No Access Control
2 Lanes 0.05 1.51 3.38 4.94
4 Lanes or More, Undivided 0.04 2.12 4.49 6.65
4 Lanes or More, Divided 0.03 1.65 3.19 4.86

Divided Expressway 0.02 1.08 2.04 3.14
Freeway 0.01 0.40 1.01 1.43

*MVM – million vehicle miles
Source: AASHTO. Manual on User Benefit Analysis of Highway and Bus Transit Improvements, 1977.
CSD_153_11
55
Exhibit F-5 Applying Concepts of Safety to Problem Definition and Solutions reluctant to plan and design a road on
newly acquired right-of-way with sig-
Nominal Safety Criteria nificant geometric design exceptions.
Meets Does Not Meet
• Infrastructure • 3R criteria may be considered MOBILITY-DRIVEN PROJECTS

improvements only (no
• Incorporate only low cost
Substantive Safety Criteria
need or justification for In many instances projects involve

geometric revisions) based safety enhancements
Meets
provision for enhanced mobility. The

on safety • “Upgrade” to full standards following are typical mobility-driven
may not be cost effective projects:
(consider design exceptions
to avoid costs and impacts) • Two-lane to multi-lane projects
• Targeted safety • Complete reconstruction to • Intersection improvements
Does Not Meet
improvements (low or high current criteria probably

cost depending on extent warranted (no or very minimal • Construction of new interchange
of problem) design exceptions)
• New facility (community bypass,
• Focus on cost-effective • Consider special targeted for example)
solutions to safety safety enhancements
problems • High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV)
CSD_163_2 facilities
Another method for determining the substantive safety of • Pedestrian or bicycle facilities
a highway is to compare its performance with accepted • Rail or bus transit facilities or improvements
crash prediction models. FHWA’s Interactive Highway
Safety Design Model established models for predicting Mobility can be a local issue, but it is often a regional
crashes for two-lane rural highway segments and intersec- issue. Projects of a regional nature (improvements to
tions. Other models published in the technical literature arterial corridors, freeway widening) can have substantial
provide insights as to expected performance. They also adverse impacts to the communities through which the
provide means of testing or describing the expected effects facility passes, but offer few perceived benefits to those
of a different design alternative, and of quantifying safety affected the most.
impacts of a design decision.
For regional mobility projects it is important to identify the
Exhibit F-5 illustrates how knowledge of nominal and stakeholders or beneficiaries of the mobility improvements
substantive safety can influence the overall approach to and engage them throughout the project. In the absence
problem definition and solution. Every highway segment of such stakeholders, advocacy for mobility often falls on
or project can be categorized as being nominally safe or the DOT or transportation agency staff. This situation is
unsafe; and as substantively safe or unsafe. A two-by-two common across the U.S. Where DOT staff serve as surro-
framework thus captures all possibilities. Highway or road gate stakeholders who advocate for mobility or particular
projects that may be nominally unsafe but substantively solutions to mobility problems, they run the risk of being
safe may be candidates as 3R projects (assuming a signifi- seen as biased and not impartial facilitators of a context
cant mobility issue is not present), which implies less strin- sensitive solution.
gent design criteria. Or, for such projects the designer may
be more willing to accept a design exception if the context
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT RELATED PROJECTS
warrants this. Projects that involve a road that is known to
be substantively unsafe but nominally safe require special
Some projects may be intended to facilitate the develop-
targeted effort to deal with the safety problem. For high-
ment or re-development of land, downtown areas, or other
ways or roads that are both nominally and substantively
transportation facilities. These projects may be directly
unsafe, reconstruction to full standards and a reluctance to
legislated, or be indirectly linked to development through
accept a design exception may be appropriate.
an area or regional master plan. As with mobility-driven
projects, clearly articulating the problem or purpose of
Finally, a project involving a proposed new road has by
the project, and directly involving beneficiaries in proj-
definition no existing substantive safety performance. For
ect activities is essential to remove agency staff from
such projects a focus on nominal safety – adherence to
an advocacy position.
design criteria is the best approach. Designers should be
CSD_163_NOMINALVSSUBSTANTIVE_REV2.DOC 1
56
INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS The significant choices that designers make in developing

solutions include design speed, design traffic conditions,
Some projects primarily involve the reconstruction or and design vehicles.
replacement of aging pavement, bridges, or other infra-
structure. While this may be the sole problem, it often
occurs in combination with other problems. Thus, a road- SELECTING A DESIGN SPEED
way in need of repair may also be one that has insufficient
capacity for expected future demand, or may be one that Highway designers select a design speed, which is used to
experiences a substantive safety problem. help establish the three-dimensional design features. The
2001 AASHTO Policy highlights the concept of choice
Where infrastructure is the sole project driver, treating through a new definition of design speed:
the project as a 3R rather than 4R project may facilitate
development of a cost-effective and lower impact solution. Selection of an appropriate speed is left to the judgment of
Some projects develop unnecessary conflicts among stake- the designer, with general guidance provided by AASHTO
holders when the solution involves upgrading the road to as noted in Exhibit F-7 (following page). Best practices
current design criteria. Examples include replacement of call for designers to select a design speed that is high
older, narrow bridges on local, lower volume county roads. enough so that most drivers will travel at or lower than the
Context sensitive solutions, such as those implemented by design speed, but low enough so that the physical effects of
Federal Lands staff, examine the substantive safety per- the design (alignment, roadside, etc.) will be manageable
formance of the bridge, and, if appropriate, construct a and acceptable.
new bridge with lesser width dimensions than the current
“ Design
standard, but consistent with the performance and context. Design speed is the single
It is interesting to note that this approach to infrastructure speed is a selected most important choice
problems offers tangible cost saving benefits to agencies. speed used to determine designers make. The
Upgrading to full design criteria will almost always be choice of a design speed
more costly than an alternative 3R solution. the various geometric should be made carefully,
design features of the with full recognition of
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT AND roadway. The assumed
the context of the project.
A good illustration of the
EVALUATION FRAMEWORK design speed should be effect of selecting a rea-
sonable design speed is
Context sensitive design; indeed, any highway design, is a logical one with respect provided by a project per-
truly the result of a series of choices designers make, con-
sulting with stakeholders, based on the many factors and to the topography, the formed by the Connecti-
cut DOT in the town of
inputs. With reference to the agreed upon problems, and to adjacent land use, and the Brooklyn (see Section H
the knowledge base in AASHTO and the agency’s design
procedures, the task of a CSD/CSS team is to make choices functional classification for Case Study). Selection
”
of the initial design speed
in the development of project-specific design criteria. Best of highway. produced significantly
practices suggest that the project development framework
be established and discussed with stakeholders early in the AASHTO POLICY ON greater requirements for
project, prior to beginning work on the alternatives. GEOMETRIC DESIGN (2001) longer vertical curves, and
A key concept expressed by staff from all pilot states is Exhibit F-6 A Highway’s Functional Classification Defines the
to recognize the functional classification of the road or Types of Trips it Serves
highway. As shown in Exhibit F-6, different classes of
facility serve distinctly different purposes on the highway Arterials
MOBILITY • higher mobility
network. Problems and the approach to solutions must
• low degree of access
reflect the functional classification. Regional mobility
enhancement solutions are appropriate for freeways and Collectors
principal arterials. Speed consistency and quality of ser- • balance between mobility
vice are paramount for such roads. The function of local and access
roads, on the other hand, is entirely different. These serve
as land access, not for through traffic mobility. Speed is Locals
LAND ACCESS • lower mobility
less important.
• high degree of access
��
57
Exhibit F-7 Ranges of Design Speed Recommended by AASHTO

Rural Urban
Terrain US (mph) Metric (km/h) US (MPH) Metric (km/h)
Freeway Level 70 110 60 - 70 100-110
Rolling 70 110 60 - 70 100-110
Mountainous 50-60 80-110 50 min. 80 min.
Arterial Level 60-75 100-120 30-60 50-100
Rolling 50-60 80-100 30-60 50-100
Mountainous 40-50 60-80 30-60 50-100
Collector Level 40-60 60-100 30+ 50+
Rolling 30-50 50-80 30+ 50+
Mountainous 20-40 30-60 30+ 50+
Local Level 30-50 50-80 20-30 30-50
Rolling 20-40 30-60 20-30 30-50
Mountainous 20-30 30-50 20-30 30-50

CSD_154_3
hence greater earthwork and right-of-way impacts. The a new tool, a design consistency module, that allows the
resulting design was viewed as being overly impacting evaluation of expected speed behavior along a two-lane
on the surrounding terrain. Moreover, the existing safety rural highway.
performance of the roadway did not indicate a problem
related to the vertical alignment or sight distance. As a A challenge to context sensitive designers in the urban
result, CTDOT revised the design, selecting a lower design environment is to produce a high quality design where
speed, which produced an alignment considered to be sub- low speeds are considered to be safer. Conflicts with
stantively safe, with fewer impacts and lesser cost. pedestrians, or immovable roadside objects (such as
may exist in areas of limited right-of-way) call for lower
Traditional design practices and training of highway speeds to achieve substantive safety. Indeed, European
designers results in design speed being equated with design Context Sensitive Design practice as uncovered by an
quality. In other words, many designers view a 60 mph FHWA/AASHTO International Scanning Tour focuses on
highway as qualitatively better than a 50 mph highway. specific design actions intended to produce and maintain
This view tends to be more valid in the rural environment, lower speeds through towns or developing areas. Referred
but even so, the substantive safety differences between the to as traffic calming, treatments such as speed humps,
two are generally overestimated. It is certainly true that diverters, chicanes, road narrowing, and other treatments
designs that support a higher speed have a greater margin represent best practices for low speed urban conditions
of safety for faster drivers than other designs. Acceptance where pedestrian safety and mobility is a primary concern
of a slightly lower design speed (say, from 60 mph to 55 (see Exhibit F-8).
mph) may, in some cases, result in an acceptable plan with
no loss of substantive safety. An example of this is given Exhibit F-8 Example of Traffic Calming Treatment
(Intersection “Bump-out”)
by one of the case studies from Minnesota. Design for a
slightly lower design speed than was originally envisioned
enabled a suitable realignment of a highway and incorpo-
ration of enhancement features, without a serious degrada-
tion in the safety of operational efficiency of a highway
and incorporation of enhancement features, without a seri-
ous degradation in the safety of operational efficiency of
the highway (see Section H).
Interestingly, all pilot state staff noted that speed con-

sistency along a highway is as or more critical to good
operations than the design speed. FHWA’s IHSDM offers
58
DESIGN TRAFFIC AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
Designers also have a

choice for the level of Exhibit F-9 Guidelines for Selecting Design Hour Volume
traffic for which they
and stakeholders wish to 60
PERCENT OF AVERAGE ANNUAL DAILY TRAFFIC

design; and the quality
of traffic service to be 50 Curves Representative of Traffic
provided. Design traffic Conditions Suitable for Design
is usually expressed as an 40
hourly volume (referred to
50th Highest Hour
as design hour volume or
30
DHV), generally derived
from a long range travel
20 30th Highest Hour
forecast for the project. 100th Highest Hour
The DHV or design year 10

traffic is not often thought
of as a choice; indeed, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
in many cases the traffic
forecast or projection is ANNUAL HIGHEST HOURS
provided to the project
team by an outside stake- CSD_130_2
LEGEND
holder or agency such as
an MPO. However, designers and stakeholders should not Recreational Rural Urban
lose sight of the fact that they can choose to accommodate
either many or fewer hours of the year in which the DHV
will occur as shown in Exhibit F-9.
A related design choice is the design level of service

(LOS). LOS is a qualitative term describing the density of Exhibit F-10 Design Levels of Service Recommended
by AASHTO
traffic, and relating travel speeds, delays, and other mea-
sures to performance. LOS is defined differently for the Terrain Rural Urban/
range of highway types and operating conditions, includ- Suburban
ing freeways (mainline, ramps, and weaving sections),
Freeway Level B C
two-lane highways, intersections, arterial highways, tran-
sit facilities, and pedestrian facilities. LOS ranges from A Rolling B C
to F, with LOS E generally representing operation at the
practical capacity of the highway (or highway segment). Mountainous C C
The Highway Capacity Manual represents best practices in Arterial Level B C
terms of procedures for defining, calculating, and design-
ing for LOS. AASHTO recommended LOS targets are Rolling B C
shown in Exhibit F-10.
Mountainous C C
An early application of the principle of choice in design- Collector Level C D
ing for traffic is the reconstruction of the North Central
Expressway (U.S. 75) undertaken by the City of Dallas Rolling C D
and Texas DOT. Initial planning studies conducted in Mountainous D D
the mid 1980s concluded that the available right-of-way
and overall corridor context would not allow for accom- Local Level D D
modating the theoretical demand forecast by the MPO.
Rolling D D
A level of traffic, and implied level of service E was
established as the design basis following extensive discus- Mountainous D D
sions with stakeholders. This decision greatly shaped the
CSD_155
design solution.
59
Designers have choices regarding the LOS to which a ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT

given design should be targeted. The choice should reflect
the problem being addressed and the context. AASHTO Every alternative solution should clearly meet the project
provides some guidance in this area (see Exhibit F-10), purpose or address the problem being solved. Safety-
but note that the AASHTO values are considered just guid- driven projects should have components or alternatives
ance, and not mandates, requirements, or a design issue that directly address the specific crash types being expe-
requiring a design exception. Indeed, the AASHTO policy rienced. Mobility-driven projects should involve solutions
contains considerable discussion on the issue of designing that address vehicular movement or pedestrians. These
may include addition of lanes, intersection improvements,
for congestion (which would be LOS E), in recognition
new facilities, or traffic control improvements; or demand
that in some cases LOS E is all that is practically feasible.
management approaches.
Most states also have specific guidance in their policies
and manuals regarding design LOS. As the design LOS
applies to the design year traffic, it will generally be as DEVELOP MULTIPLE ALTERNATIVES; START WITH A
high as is considered practical. BLANK SHEET OF PAPER
The choice of an appropriate LOS should be based on the Staff from the pilot states all echo the view that successful
project purpose, and on judgements regarding future traf- projects incorporate a principle that multiple alternatives
fic increases, and the consequences of under-designing. should always be considered. Creativity, within the context
Note that the FHWA does not consider LOS as a design of good engineering practice and with a focus on solving
issue requiring a design exception if published guidance the identified problem, is central to CSD/CSS. Indeed, the
is not met. most effective strategy is to initially engage stakeholders
prior to developing any concepts or alternatives – to start
with a blank sheet of paper.
DESIGN VEHICLE(S)
Stakeholders desire active involvement in the development
process. For effective involvement by non-technical stake-
The design vehicle is also a choice to be made by the
holders, it is useful to engage them in a dialogue or educa-
designer. In most instances, the design vehicle dimensions
tional process about the design or other options, physical
and operational characteristics of interest are its physical
requirements and traffic operational characteristics, and
dimensions and turning characteristics. These influence
wherever possible, show relevant examples of a similar
the intersection geometry (corner radii, channelizing
design solution applied elsewhere. Successful techniques
roadways, and islands). Larger and longer vehicles such
include workshops explaining simple concepts of high-
as semi-trailers produce greater turning paths and require way design, traffic engineering, access management,
more space. etc., related to the project. Creative graphics can illustrate
important concepts such as how underground utilities may
Selection of an appropriate design vehicle is highly context influence the feasibility of a plan. A challenge to techni-
sensitive. Where the surrounding land use or that served by cal staff is to translate an idea or concept proposed by the
the road is industrial in nature, it is generally prudent to public or a stakeholder into a technically feasible alterna-
select a larger vehicle as the design vehicle. For residential tive. The process of doing so can also serve an educational
streets or neighborhoods, delivery trucks or school buses function (for example, explaining the nature of horizontal
may be more appropriate. curve design, sight distance, and effects on right-of-way).
One project example from the Colorado DOT involved the
In the urban context, selection of a design vehicle should development and dissemination of “Fact Sheets” which
consider the needs of pedestrians and activities outside the were designed to illustrate and explain basic engineer-
traveled way. Longer vehicles requiring greater turning ing concepts to non-technical groups. See Appendix F for
radii produce longer intersections, which increase crossing these examples.
distances for pedestrians and may promote higher turning
speeds.
60
“
Stakeholder involvement is essential to The choices that designers and stakeholders
uncover aspects of a project about which We’ve come to the have should be made with full consideration
the design staff may not be sensitive. For realization that the of the project’s context and the problem
example, projects involving corridors in being addressed. Thus, if a project involves
agricultural areas generally must address Highway Department increasing capacity for through traffic, care-
issues of farm field access, drainage tiles, doesn’t have all ful consideration of the design traffic and
”
use of the road by farming equipment, and LOS is appropriate. If the project is primar-
leasing of parcels (in other words, know- the answers. ily a rural highway safety-driven project,
ing the ownership of a parcel may not be CHARLES ADAMS, then selecting a high enough design speed
enough, as the property may be farmed by MARYLAND STATE HIGHWAY would be paramount, and providing a high
someone else). Very few highway designers ADMINISTRATION quality roadside of great concern.
understand all of these issues and needs
without working directly with farmers and learning how Designers should not make inappropriate
they do their jobs. In urban commercial areas, stakeholders choices just to avoid conflicts or right-of-way acquisition.
are interested in on-street parking, in disruptions to their Designers and stakeholders should recognize that there
businesses during the construction period, and in access to are relationships between design choices and operational
their properties by both vehicles and pedestrians. Regard- consequences. For example, there is both research and
ing the latter, many highway engineers require help from anecdotal evidence of an adverse relationship between
pedestrians and pedestrian advocacy groups to understand substantive safety and congestion; thus, choosing to
the needs and issues of pedestrian mobility and safety. design for, say, LOS E may in some cases be expected to
be accompanied by a less substantively safe facility.
Alternatives development involving stakeholders is often
iterative. Successful CSD/CSS staff do not become The cumulative effect of the many choices designers make
wedded to a given plan, but are instead flexible, willing to (in consultation with stakeholders) can significantly influence
work with individual stakeholders to address a local prob- the resulting solution, and its feasibility and/or acceptability.
lem. The success of committing to multiple alternatives Exhibit F-11 (following page) illustrates two different design
and involving stakeholders was highlighted by staff from solutions for the same basic set of circumstances as defined
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC). They admit- by average daily traffic and intersection geometry. Depend-
ted that being forced to go back and consider a different ing on the designer choices for design speed, design vehicle,
alignment alternative resulted in a better solution than one design traffic, and design LOS, completely different design
originally put forth by KYTC. solutions and their related footprints may result. Note that
each solution may be optimal in its proper context. In one
case, design for a suburban intersection of two primary arte-
DESIGN CHOICES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES rial highways may call for somewhat greater speeds, higher
Agency staff will often reference their policies in LOS, and larger design vehicles. Design features may include
making choices about LOS, design criteria, etc. While double left-turn lanes, 12-foot lane widths for operations,
such policies are developed for reasons, and should be and raised medians for access control. Of course, the right-
respected, stakeholders may challenge the policies or of-way footprint and overall design would be greater. In the
expect their rationale be explained in the context of the second instance (a central city), the context may call for lower
particular project. Saying “we need to use a 70 mph design speeds; pedestrians may be relatively more important (and
speed because that is what our policy says” begs the hence minimizing crossing distances and promoting lower
question of what the right choice should be for the specific speeds more important). There may not be available right-of-
project application, or at least what the functional reason way, and the overall location more constrained. Here, use of
for the policy is. narrower lane widths, single left-turn lanes, painted medians,
and smaller radius turns accommodating a bus or single unit
truck may be more appropriate.
61
Exhibit F-11 Examples of Intersection Design Representing a Range of Choices in Design Criteria
CSD_156_4
62
FLEXIBILITY AND CREATIVITY Section H shows case studies, many of which demonstrate
creative thinking in problem solutions.
Translating concepts of flexible design and design cre-
ativity into actual solutions is often difficult. In simple
terms, the notion of creativity and flexibility often reduces ALTERNATIVES SCREENING,
to thinking differently about how to attack the problem.
For example, a typical approach to a mobility project EVALUATION, AND SELECTION
may call for a two-lane road to be converted to four lanes. Stakeholders can and should be directly involved in the
Traditional design execution may result in the road being development and refinement of alternatives. Such involve-
widened about the existing centerline. A designer striving ment may be at the broad project level, but also on a site-
to be context sensitive, however, will see the following specific level. Depending on the scope, complexity, and
as potential options throughout the project, or at any one nature of the project, designers should be prepared to gen-
location: erate multiple plans, and to evaluate them equally.
• Widen asymmetrically (for example, maintain one
right-of-way line and widen all to one side)
• Develop new, independent centerline TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR EVALUATING THE
• Adjust profile (vertical alignment) to minimize drive- SAFETY AND FEASIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVES
way and right-of-way effects
• Adjust and vary width and alignment throughout the Many stakeholders have difficulty reading, interpreting,
project and understanding traditional design plans. Few stake-
• Consider alternatives to traditional widening (For holders can grasp concepts of queuing, traffic bottlenecks,
example, the Iowa DOT is converting many four-lane and their effects on design features and vice versa.
undivided arterials to two-lane with center turning
lanes. This solution addresses both safety and mobil- Best practices in the pilot states and elsewhere take full
ity concerns and avoids need for widening.) advantages of advances in computer design technologies.
In particular, the use of computer-generated visualizations
There are creative ways to enhance safety and improve has become institutionalized in many design agencies as
Conversion of Four-Lane Undivided Urban Roadways to Three-Lane Facilities
traffic operations without widening a road. Conversion a core tool for explaining and characterizing the visual
of four-lane undivided urban roads to three-lane designs effects of a design.
(referred to by some as a “road diet”) is in extensive use
in many locations, and in particular, in Iowa. In a study
conducted by Thomas Welch, PE, Iowa DOT, it was found
VISUALIZATION
that safety was improved significantly by converting often
congested existing four-lane highways to a three-lane
highway (one lane each direction of traffic with a median
Visualization techniques are powerful tools to assist in the
two-way left-turn lane). At first glance, it is difficult for decision regarding design choices. For example, the Min-
most, including numerous transportation engineers and nesota DOT utilized visualization in one study of alterna-
planners, to accept that, in urban corridors with less tive cross section design values for a highway through a
than 20,000 vpd, reducing the number of traffic lanes sensitive park area. As shown in Exhibits F-12 (following
improves traffic safety and maintains an acceptable level page), the different values for lane and shoulder width, and
of service. The study showed that substantial reduction for type of roadside design (curb and gutter versus open
in accident rates is primarily the result of the reduction in section) produced different visual impacts and effects on
conflict points and improved sight distance for turning and number of trees to be removed. The Connecticut DOT
crossing traffic along the corridor. Additionally, fewer deci-
employed visualization to demonstrate the visual impacts
sions and judgments have to be made to enter or cross
and enhancement opportunities associated with alignment
a three-lane highway resulting in a more “user-friendly”
roadway. Based on experience in a number of loca-
alternatives for a road through a town. Finally, visualiza-
tions, the study showed using this conversion, it would tion is even being used in complex interchange projects to
be reasonable to expect a 20 to 40 percent reduction in demonstrate construction phasing schemes. The Wiscon-
crashes. Another attribute of the three-lane facility is the sin DOT, in a project involving reconstruction of a $500
traffic calming affect it has on the traffic flow. Aggres- million interchange in Milwaukee, is employing visualiza-
sive motorists cannot travel along three-lane corridors tion for such purposes.
at excessive speeds making multiple lane changes. The
variability of travel speeds along the three-lane corridor
is also reduced which helps reduce possible collisions.
This creative “tool” in the traffic engineers safety tool box
can be implemented quickly, at a very low cost, and with
less right-of-way, environmental impacts, and controversy
associated with other improvement alternatives.
63
Visualization techniques can also be used to show the but are visually true to scale. Also, it is possible to readily
effects of different arterial cross section designs, or to generate countless images from different angles and eye
demonstrate a streetscape or roadside treatment proposal. locations. The former are relatively simple and easy to
For a project in Denver, Colorado, a hotel owner was generate, but care must be taken to represent the true visual
concerned about the potential blocking of a view of the character. A rendering would apply to one view from one
Rocky Mountains from guest windows by a proposed location. Exhibit F-14 (following page) shows an example
ramp overpass. Visualization enabled the Colorado DOT rendering from a freeway project in Missouri.
to demonstrate that the design would not create a visual
barrier from the windows in question. Exhibit F-13 Visualization has become a standard practice for many
(following page) shows four design alternatives for an DOTs. Indeed, public and stakeholder groups once shown
arterial project in Washington state. visualizations expect them on every project after the first
one. Pilot states have recognized the need to have capable
There are different types of visualizations, from render- staff and the appropriate computer software to incorporate
ings over photographs to three-dimensional images gener- visualizations on their projects.
ated from design files and digital terrain models. The latter
require more preparatory work (the proposed functional
design must be completed first in both plan and profile),
Exhibits F-12 Visualization to Review Alternative Solutions for Rural Highway Design Project
in Minnesota
64
TRAFFIC OPERATIONAL SIMULATION

Exhibit F-14 Photo Rendering of Rural Freeway Project in Missouri
In many cases, traffic operational issues are a concern

either to technical stakeholders or the general public. Traf-
fic operational concepts are difficult even for technical pro-
fessionals to grasp. The effects, for example, of increased
traffic on queuing, delay, and operations are not linear, and
are often not well understood. Simulations showing the
effects, for example, of no action but increases in traffic
can be powerful tools for demonstrating the expected need
for a mobility solution.
CSD_183_1
Simulation of vehicles or vehicle streams through complex SOURCE: Missouri Department of Transportation
locations such as closely spaced intersections, or through
roundabouts, is a useful tool to demonstrate operations.
With respect to new solutions such as roundabouts, some
agencies have found it useful to demonstrate their opera-
tion where a roundabout is proposed for the first time in an
area. The Iowa DOT used a VISSIM simulation of round-
about operations to explain to the public how they worked,
and found it to be valuable for a project in Ottumwa, Iowa.
The Ottumwa VISSIM, along with examples of additional
simulations, are included in Appendix F.
Exhibit F-13 Use of Visualization to Demonstrate Different Access Concepts for a Suburban Arterial in Washington
65
Best practices include FHWA’s CORSIM model (which design dimensions. The profession now knows more about
provides detailed quantitative output and animation of the substantive effects of design decisions than was known
traffic operations through an integrated network com- 30 years ago. Appendix F provides a list of key reserved
prised of arterial streets and freeways). Other software references for determining the substantive safety of geo-
tools include VISSIM, Paramics, and Synchro. The great- metric highway design alternatives.
est value can be obtained from simulations where calibra-
tion (i.e., replication of operations as they occur and are Many of the best models are relatively new. Few agen-
observable by stakeholders) is possible. Simulation then cies have well-established procedures for exercising
can be particularly effective in showing, for example, the these models. There are examples, however, of recent
queuing and resulting other problems that might occur if projects in which the use of crash prediction to differen-
no action were taken and traffic increased. tiate alternatives was successful in helping to arrive at a
decision. One notable example, environmental and design
studies for reconstruction of U.S. 93 in Montana for the
QUANTITATIVE SAFETY MODELS AND APPLIED Montana DOT, employed substantive safety analysis to
RESEARCH help explain the benefits of converting from a two-lane to
four-lane facility in an environmentally sensitive corridor.
Knowledge of the safety effects of design aids designers Kane County in Illinois has used safety models to assist in
and stakeholders in making reasoned decisions and trade- countywide assessment of safety needs and problems by
offs involving safety. One helpful insight by Fambro notes comparing actual performance of over 300 intersections
that substantive safety is a continuum, not an absolute. and highway segments with modeled or predicted perfor-
Incremental differences in a design dimension (radius of mance. Appendix F contains excerpts from the SEMCOG
curve, width of road, offset to roadside object) can be Traffic Safety Manuel, Second Edition, September 1997.
expected to produce an incremental, not absolute change
in crash frequency or severity. This differs from the The ability to predict or estimate the expected safety per-
thought process suggesting that a nominally unsafe design formance of an alternative are becoming essential to CSD/
will automatically result in a substantive safety problem. CSS projects. Stakeholders no longer accept the charac-
Exhibit F-15 illustrates this concept. terization of a plan as being “nominally safe” as sufficient
to warrant accepting a set of well-defined adverse impacts
Much research has been performed over the past 30 years to cultural resources, wetlands, etc. FHWA’s IHSDM and
to uncover substantive safety design relationships. Recent other research efforts now represent best practices to
advances in statistical procedures, coupled with improved explain the substantive safety effects of lane and shoulder
data collection techniques, have resulted in greatly widening, roadside improvements, alignment revisions,
improved capabilities for modeling the safety effects of and intersection improvements.
Exhibit F-15 Comparison of Nominal and Substantive Concepts of Safety
Nominal Safety Is
an Absolute
Greater
CRASH RISK
Substantive Safety
Is a Continuum
DESIGN DIMENSIONS
(Lane Width, Radius of Curve, Stopping Sight Distance, etc.)
CSD_164_1 Greater
66
DEMONSTRATING A COMMITMENT TO MITIGATE

The Montana Department of Transportation has used SAFETY CONCERNS
quantitative safety prediction models to evaluate align-
ment and cross section alternatives studied for corridor
Use of Safety Prediction Models by Montana DOT
improvement projects. A study of a 16-mile segment

In many cases where the context sensitive solution cannot
of Montana Primary State Route 78 from Absorokee to meet normal new-construction design criteria, additional
Columbus in Stillwater County included published models safety enhancement measures can be built into the project
from FHWA-sponsored research to investigate trade-offs to mitigate possible safety concerns. Examples of alterna-
between safety and environmental impacts. tive safety mitigation measures that may be considered
in conjunction with a design exception or to address a
The project purpose and need statement noted that
the crash rate for the route was four times greater than
specific safety problem are shown in Exhibit F-16
the state average for similar highway types. High crash (following page).
experience was attributed to outdated geometry (i.e., the
route was “nominally unsafe”). Substantive safety effects
of 32-foot versus 36-foot and 40-foot cross sections were DECISION MAKING
compared with right-of-way, construction cost, farmland,
wetland, and other environmental effects. Models derived The weighing of attributes and process for selecting an
from FHWA research by Zegeer, et. al. (Safety Cost-Effec- alternative are discussed in Section E, Achieving Envi-
tiveness of Incremental Changes in Cross-Section Design, ronmental Sensitivity. Involving stakeholders in the entire
Informational Guide, 1987) on the expected safety effects process, including alternatives development and evaluation
of various lane and shoulder widths were applied to the
and screening, will result in an open and honest decision
route-specific crash and traffic data to compare quantita-
process. Commitment to CSD/CSS does not translate to
tive measures of cost, acres, and number of relocations.
abdication of an agency’s responsibility to make the final
The draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) noted decision. CSD/CSS is not about taking a vote – but rather,
that reconstruction of the entire alignment was required to about decisions made with all stakeholders involved and
meet safety purposes and needs. A 32-foot cross section given the opportunity to have input.
(including two 12-foot lanes and 4-foot shoulders) would
produce a 33 percent reduction in crashes. The DEIS also
noted that other alternatives, such as a 36-foot or 40-foot IMPLEMENTATION
width would produce some additional crash reduction and
other transportation benefits over the 32-foot width, but The objective of the CSD/CSS process is implementa-
the additional benefits were not judged to be worth the tion, which in many cases means construction. Success-
cumulative impacts and costs. Consistent with the pur- fully implementing a solution that was openly arrived at
pose and need statement, the 32-foot cross section was requires great care and a management commitment to
identified as the preferred alternative for this project. follow through. In most agencies, staff assigned to develop
the plan are not directly involved in construction. Pilot
state staff in many states observed that the hand-off from
GIS TECHNOLOGY planning and design staff to construction staff, if not done
properly, can result in the negation of carefully developed
Safety and other information that is geo referenced can plans and commitments to stakeholders.
be powerful tools to answer questions, explain alterna-
tives, and demonstrate site-specific solutions that relate to It is common practice in many agencies to perform value
a problem. The use of GIS systems for cataloging design engineering (VE) studies prior to construction or bidding.
impacts (right-of-way, wetland parcels, etc.) and for crash Such practices, although well-intentioned, can lead to
analysis represents best practices. unforeseen adverse decisions. In Maryland, it was noted
that an unintended result of VE studies was the removal
A safety-driven urban freeway project in Minnesota met of items from the project that represented commitments
partial resistance initially from community groups. Suc- to stakeholders in the effort to maintain economy. Best
cess in explaining the need for the improvements was in implementation practices incorporate meetings and project
part attributed to Mn/DOT’s ability to show the residences plan reviews between design staff, construction engineers,
(home locations) of those involved in crashes on the seg- and contractors. Important issues that involve stakeholders
ments in question. Stakeholders were surprised to see how include right-of-way commitments (avoidance), trees or
many of their neighbors had been involved in a crash on other landscaping, avoidance impacts and related roadside
the freeway in question. A system-wide problem became design decisions, property access and driveways, detours
and other traffic issues during construction, construction
personalized, and support for the safety improvements was
schedules (time of day), and noise and dust mitigation.
generated by the ability to generate location-specific data.
67
Lessons learned from the pilot states on construction and

Exhibit F-16 Measures for Mitigating the Potential Safety Risk related implementation issues are as follows:
From Design Exceptions
• Staff with construction experience should be con-
Design Alternative Safety
Exception Mitigation Measures
sulted as alternatives are being refined to avoid
constructibility problems, avoid the agency making
Narrow lanes  Pavement edge lines promises that can’t be kept, and to alert stakeholders
or shoulders  Raised reflective markers to issues of concern
 Delineators • Design staff should fully brief construction staff on
Shoulder rumble strips
key design decisions, and in particular, on resolution

 Centerline rumble strips

of stakeholder-related design issues
Steep  Roadside object markers • Design staff should maintain contact with the project
sideslopes,  Slope flattening throughout construction, and should be available to
roadside  Rounded ditches resolve construction issues and problems
obstacles  Obstacle removal
 Breakaway safety hardware • The public and stakeholders expect continual infor-
 Guardrail or crash cushions mation and updates during construction
• Changes in the field are to an extent inevitable–field
Narrow bridge  Approach guardrail changes that affect commitments to stakeholders must
Pavement edge lines

be openly and honestly communicated to stakehold-
 Warning signs and/or object markers
ers, before the changes are made
Limited sight  Advance warning signs • Maintain the openness and trust established by the
distance at  Obstacle removal agency during planning and design
crest vertical  Shoulder widening • Retain customer focus during construction, by working
curve Driveway or intersection relocation

with property owners, striving for flexibility, and look-
Sharp  Advance warning signs ing for ways to further enhance the project as it is built
horizontal  Shoulder widening and/or paving
curve  Improved superelevation Some states are attempting to assign one project manager
 Transverse rumble strips or pavement to see the project through construction to assure that
markings (reduce speeds) appropriate coordination occurs.
 Slope flattening
 Pavement and anti-skid treatment
 Obstacle removal
 Guardrail or crash cushions
Hazardous  Upgrade intersection traffic control

intersection  Warning signs
 Street lighting
 Pavement anti-skid treatment
 Speed Controls
 Sight distance improvements
CSD_157_rev2
CSD_157_ALTERNATIVESAFETYMEASURES_REV2.DOC 1
68

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Manual on User Benefit Analysis for Highway
and Bus Transit Improvements, 1977.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets, 4th Edition, Washington, DC, 2001.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Roadside Design Guide, Washington, DC, 2001.
Bonneson, J.A. and McCoy, P.T. Capacity and Operational Effects of Midblock Left-Turn Lanes, Transportation Research
Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 395, Washington, DC, 1997.
Council, F., et. al., Accident Research Manual, Federal Highway Administration, 1980.
Fambro, et. al., Determination of Stopping Sight Distances, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative
Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 400, Washington, DC, 1997.
Fitzpatrick, K. et. al., Accident Mitigation Guide for Congested Two-lane Rural Highways, Transportation Research
Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 440, Washington, DC, 2000.
Federal Highway Administration. Flexibility in Highway Design, 1998.
Federal Highway Administration. Safety Effects of the Conversion of Rural Two-lane Roadways to Four-lane Roadways,
Highway Safety Information System Study Report, Washington, DC, 1999.
Federal Highway Administration. Roundabouts, An Informational Guide, 2000.
Glennon, J.C. et. al., Safety and Operational Considerations for Design of Rural Highway Curves, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 1985.
Harwood, D. W. and Hoban, C., Low-cost Methods for Improving Traffic Operations on Two-lane Roads: An Informational
Guide, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 1987.
Harwood, D.W. et. al., Intersection Sight Distance, Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway
Research Program (NCHRP) Report 383, Washington, DC, 1996.
Harwood, D.W. et. al., Prediction of the Expected Safety Performance of Rural Two-Lane Highways, Federal Highway
Administration, 2000.
Hauer, Ezra, Highway Design Choices and Safety.
Hauer, Ezra, Safety in Geometric Design Standards, University of Toronto, December 1999.
Institute of Transportation Engineers. Traffic Safety Toolbox, 2nd Edition, 1999.
Leisch, J.E., et. al., Dynamic Design for Safety, Seminar Notes, Federal Highway Administration, 1995.
McGee, H.W., Hughes, W.E., and Daily, K., Effect of Highway Standards on Safety, NCHRP Report 374, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, DC, 1995
Pfefer, R. C., Neuman, T. R., and Raub, R.A. Improved Safety Information to Support Highway Design, Transportation
Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 430, Washington, DC, 1999.
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Transportation Research Board. Designing Safer Roads, Practices for Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation,
Special Report 214, Washington, DC, 1987.
Transportation Research Board. Effect of Alignment on Safety, in State of the Art Report 6, Relationship Between Safety
and Key Highway Features, A Synthesis of Prior Research, Washington, DC, 1987.
Transportation Research Board. Cross Section and Alignment Design Issues, Transportation Research Record 1445,
1994.
Transportation Research Board. Customer-Based Quality in Transportation, National Cooperative Highway Research
Program (NCHRP) Report 376, Washington, DC, 1996.
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Record 1701, Washington, DC, 2000.
Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board Special Report 209, 2000.
Turner, D. S., and Blaschke, J. D., Effects of Tort Liability on Roadway Design Decisions, Transportation Research Board,
Transportation Research Board Record 1512, Washington, DC, 1995.
U.S. Government Accounting Office. Scenic Byways—States’ Use of Geometric Design Standards, Report to the
Chairman, Committee on Environment and Public Works, U.S. Senate, September 1995.
Zegeer, C.Z., et. al., Roadway Widths for Low-Traffic-Volume Roads, National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) Report 362, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 1994.
Zegeer, C.Z., et. al., Safety Improvements for Curves on Two-lane Rural Highways, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, DC, 1991.
70
71
G. ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS
Organizations intending to imple-

ment CSD/CSS will inevitably face
the need for changes in their struc-
A B C D E F G H
ture, work processes, staff make-up, Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
and above all else, culture. This sec- Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
tion addresses organizational needs
for agencies interested in embracing Management Structure
CSD/CSS. It is based largely on

Problem Definition
efforts in the Utah DOT to change
their organization, and on the experi- Project Development and
ences in the other pilot states as they Evaluation Framework
institutionalized CSD/CSS. Alternatives Development
Alternatives Screening
Implementation
��
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE the Secretary of the Transportation Cabinet, James Codell,

shared the vision and were thus able to translate that vision
Broadly speaking, organizations have three assets with to staff and effect the necessary culture change.
which they can affect performance:
• People—the collective skills, abilities, availability, The importance of having a culture conducive to CSD/CSS
and willingness of people in the organization to per- cannot be overstated. Culture is the sum of how employees
form certain tasks or functions. in an organization expect to be treated, what they value,
• Process—the formal policies, processes, tools, and and how they conduct their business. Whenever significant
procedures, as well as the informal ways that work change is introduced, one or more of these three elements
gets done. of culture must change.
• Structure—the formal organizational structure, as
well as the way people are organized into teams or Organizational cultures can be supportive and positive,
units to accomplish work. that is, they can help the organization deliver effective,
efficient products and services in a manner that also
From an organizational management perspective, address- inspires employees. Organizational cultures can also have
ing all three areas is necessary to achieve the full benefits the opposite characterization and impact. Whether a new
and impacts of CSD/CSS. process or approach is used depends on whether the exist-
ing staff within an agency embraces or rejects the change.
Of all of the elements necessary for successful implemen-
ADOPTING A CSD/CSS CULTURE tation of CSD/CSS, organizational acceptance and use
is the most critical. This cultural readiness is the extent
Context sensitive design is a top down initiative. Where it to which the culture is supportive and positive about the
has been successfully implemented throughout an organi- intended change.
zation, success can be attributed to leadership at the top of
the organization. In Maryland, considered the originator of Leadership within most organizations will recognize that
CSD/CSS, cultural change began with the Governor and implementing CSD/CSS requires a change in their organi-
was transferred to the DOT and State Highway Adminis- zational culture. This culture change is still aligned with
tration through the Director, Parker Williams. Similarly, in the organizational capacity issues of people, process, and
Utah, the Director of UDOT, Tom Warne, and in Kentucky,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section G: Organizational Needs
72
structure, but it applies the adaptation of people to a new While there are a variety of reengineering processes, the
way of conducting business. Change will generally need to three-step process that follows is a good starting point.
occur in the following areas: Key functions are:
• Change in thinking 1. Deciding to work differently (Decide to Change)
2. Directing resources toward high-value uses (Direct
• Change in roles and responsibilities
Change)
• Change in work processes (in this case, the project 3. Supporting improvement with the right skills, roles,
development process) and responsibilities (Support Change)
Ensuring that the organization’s culture is conducive to As previously stated, CSD/CSS is a top down initiative.
change is a basic requirement to successfully implement This is not to say, however, that the support and vision
CSD/CSS. Among the key attributes of a conducive cul- from middle managers and others within the agency are
ture is the organization’s focus on efficiently and effec- not important. Indeed, a better approach is to make a deci-
tively serving the customer’s needs. Additionally, the sion to implement CSD/CSS based upon a case for action
organization must be driven by leaders who can articulate developed by staff within the agency. The case for action
and inspire the need for excellence and can provide a should be built upon current performance data so that it
means of moving toward demonstrates in a compelling manner that the current way
“ If you are a customer the desired goal. Finally, the

organization must be able
driven organization these to understand and analyze
of doing business is no longer acceptable and that a new
business approach must be designed and implemented.
concepts are logical.

” itself well enough to chart
CONNECTICUT DOT a course from its current
The following three-step process was developed by Tenner
and DeToro, to respond to what they believe are the three
STAFF ENGINEER
approach to doing business reasons why organizational improvement efforts fail. The
to the new one. first reason is that the organization lacks an internal culture
that is supportive to change. The second reason is that the
A model CSD/CSS culture can be expressed simply as organization fails to plan sufficiently for the change. The
being customer focused, and environmental stewards, third primary cause of failure is a lack of skills or compe-
while retaining orientation as the efficient providers of tence in systematically improving the organization. While
transportation services. the process is developed in detail in their book Process
Redesign, The Implementation Guide for Managers, the
Organizational-self-assessment is an important step in iden- key aspects of the process are summarized in Exhibit G-1.
tifying how and where change efforts should be focused.
Appendix G contains a self-assessment process tool that Thorough preparation, planning, and senior manage-
was used by consultants who worked with the Utah DOT ment involvement are necessary for successful long-term
in the CSD/CSS management organization efforts. organizational improvement. Analyzing the performance
of key processes is necessary before adequate planning
can be completed. Tenner and DeToro recommend using
DEFINING A PROCESS CHANGE/ a process inventory as the basis of planning for change
IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS rather than an organizational chart. A process inventory is
a set of maps that span across organizational lines to define
Sustainable performance
depends on well-defined Exhibit G-1 Organizational Redesign Process
processes. Similarly,
implementation of CSD/ Part I Part II Part III
CSS (assuming that it Assess
represents major change Process Process
Cultural Analysis Improvement
for the organization) also Readiness
depends on well-defined
change processes. Within
this sub-section, there are
Are the cultural What type of improvement Key implementation
two separate themes— requirements satisfied? is necessary? steps:
key functions, and key
process steps. • Process orientation • Product • Integrate
• Leadership • Process • Monitor
• Organizational analysis • System • Evaluate
��
SOURCE: Utah Department of Transportation
Section G: Organizational Needs A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
73
the steps of how things get done. The performance of each for each and every activity within an agency. If any
process should be measured against two criteria: effective- changes in written authority are required, it is more likely
ness and efficiency. The degree of process effectiveness that operating guidelines or procedures must change.
defines how well the process leads to the right product
or level of service. Process efficiency defines in relative The states that have fully institutionalized CSD/CSS, such
terms how much resource (labor hours, materials, dollars) as Maryland, have discovered the need to review certain
is expended to generate the product or service. The pro- specific operational policies, articulate new ones, and clar-
cess analysis is used to define the critical gaps between the ify others. The following is a summary of areas in which
desired situation and the current situation. This gap can be pilot states have focused:
used to develop a case for action to mobilize the organiza-
• Funding of certain project items (roadside amenities,
tion into changing.
pedestrian lighting, undergrounding of utilities).
• Development of guidelines for aesthetic design treat-
ments (types, strategies, funding).
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
• Local maintenance agreements for roadside landscap-
ing and other features.
More often than not, existing policy will be adequate to
• Prequalification and/or certification of specialty
implement CSD/CSS processes and approaches because
service providers (example, stone wall construction).
the purpose of policy is to set general direction and intent
as well as to grant general authority, not to define behavior
In Maryland, early recognition that a team approach to • Develop guidelines for the preparation of project
the Thinking Beyond the Pavement (TBTP) initiative was development plans that address public involvement,
Thinking Beyond the Pavement – A Team Approach

essential to addressing organizational and process issues. schedule, resources, and delivery process strategies.
Teams were established and work plans developed for the
• Identify the appropriate time and use of independent value
following specific areas of focus:
engineering and budget for needed time and resources.
Organization and Policy Task Team
• Improve the effectiveness of the preliminary field
• Review current policies and develop policy investigation, final review, and constructibility review
recommendations addressing pedestrian lighting, right-of- meetings and processes.
way, utilities, and the funding of certain project items.
Community Involvement Team
• Create internal and external awards recognizing the TBTP
• Develop MSHA community involvement guidance
approach to project development.
document.
• Review graduate engineer interview criteria for their
• Develop community involvement skills training for MSHA
support of TBTP principles and modify as needed.
staff and consultants.
• Develop data to better estimate man-hour and consultant
• Develop a strategy for more intensive use of visualization
requirements for project development while meeting
in project development.
current requirements.
• Include community involvement skills in the consultant
• Include the TBTP approach in Maryland State Highway
selection process.
Administration (MSHA) business plans.
Project Management and Leadership Development Team
• Develop outcome measures for public and private
investments associated with the Neighborhood • Develop an orientation course for the MSHA organization
Conservation Project Development Program. and MSHA’s project development process
Project Development Process Team • Develop an Orientation Resource/Reference Guide for
project managers.
• Develop a streamlined process for delivering
transportation projects that provides continuity between • Develop introductory- and advanced-level project
all phases. management courses.
• Identify other states that have undertaken similar process • Develop advanced-level, topic-specific project
reviews and learn from their efforts. management courses and a support system for project
managers that would include mentors and other resources.
• Identify a pilot project that will use one project manager
and/or consultant team in all stages from planning to
maintenance.
74
PROJECT MANAGEMENT transit, to promote controlled or smart growth, to facili-

tate economic development of a type or by location, are
One of the most important needs identified by many of the all made in the political arena, not a purely technical one.
pilot states was the area of project management. Project Acceptable solutions to mobility issues will reflect not
success or failure, measured by stakeholder acceptance, only practical physical or budgetary constraints, but also
and schedule and budget adherence, is recognized to be in public policy.
large part a function of the skills and capabilities of project
managers. Pilot states have invested substantially in the In certain parts of the country, land development patterns
development and delivery of project management train- and population are stable; community values strongly
ing courses. A benchmark example is Minnesota DOTs favor preservation of resources. In these contexts, mobil-
Project Management Academy Course (see Appendix G ity solutions such as road widening, building bypasses,
for course outline). or other similar infrastructure may run counter to the
community values. In other parts of the country, com-
The skills, approaches, and attributes of good project man- munities may desire new roads to open up land for devel-
agers are evolving in the CSD/CSS environment. Tradi- opment, or to compete economically with others. Other
tionally, agencies have selected and promoted experienced examples include the applicability of transit or demand
highway design staff to project management. The historic management solutions. These clearly are accepted and
Project Manager (PM) model has generally been that the effective in some cities, and are ineffective or simply not
PM is the technical overseer of a project, which consists reasonable in others. Agency staff must understand and
primarily of a series of technical assignments (survey, geo- adapt to the public values in defining and solving their
technical, roadway design, right-of-way plans, etc.). transportation problems.
Agencies involved with CSD/CSS now recognize that

effective project management requires the PM to be: THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY VALUES IN DEFINING
PROBLEMS
• Manager of resources of a diverse technical nature,
some of which may come from outside the agency
CSD/CSS efforts in Utah directly addressed the issue of
• Manager of the overall schedule
problem definition and the mindset to solutions. As part of
• Facilitator and manager of unforeseen changes in
its pilot state activities, UDOT’s senior management held
the project
workshops to engage staff in discussions of their approach
• Facilitator and communicator of both technical and
to their work. During the course of these workshops they
policy information to external stakeholders
proposed a name change to “context sensitive solutions”
• Negotiator and decision maker, empowered to act on
(CSS) and they developed a concise set of principles with
the agency’s behalf in a constantly evolving project
descriptions. Exhibit G-3 summarizes UDOT’s adopted
environment
process for problem definition and solutions.
In many cases, the key resource areas and focus are not
on traditional highway technical areas but more public The proposed adoption of the term Context Sensitive Solu-
involvement activities, or the environmental process. tions for Utah is based on the following insights:
Exhibit G-2 (following pages) provides an example of a
• The users of Utah’s transportation system aren’t
checklist for project managers. Appendix G also contains
interested in design, they’re interested in solutions.
additional information taken from “Thinking Beyond the
To them design sounds like a process or a means to an
Pavement.”
outcome. As transportation users, they are paying for
and they expect outcomes.
PROBLEM DEFINITION • By focusing on the intended outcome rather than the
process or activity, UDOT can help strengthen its own
From the perspective of the agency, how its staff define
accountability for performance.
problems and approach their solution should reflect a cus-
• Not all transportation solutions require a design or
tomer focus. This begins with an understanding of the role
physical infrastructure.
the agency plays in the evolution and articulation of long-
range transportation plans, and proceeds through STIP The set of recommended principles was established to be
execution, construction, and even maintenance. few in number so UDOT staff can more easily remember
and use them. To make each principle more useable, each
Problem definition and problem solutions are clearly has an “evidenced by” and an “achieved by” box that fur-
context sensitive at a state and regional level, as well as ther describes what “success looks like” in practice and
at a local level. Decisions to invest in highways versus how to make it happen.
Exhibit G-2 Checklist for Project Managers

1. The project satisfies the purpose and Failed: The project addresses the identified needs but meets few of the goals and objectives agreed upon or meets
needs as agreed to by a full range of some goals and objectives of the project team but few goals and objectives of other stakeholders.
stakeholders. This agreement is forged in the
earliest phase of the project and amended as Somewhat meets: The project meets some of the initially identified goals and objectives, but goals and objectives
warranted as the project develops. were not modified as the project developed.
This quality relates to characteristics #3 and Meets: In the opinion of a full range of stakeholders, the project meets the goals and objectives as initially identified
#4. Was the project designed/buil� to meet and then amended through the project development.
the statement of needs, goals, and objectives
as articulated in the design program? Were Exceeds: The project not only meets the goals and objectives as initially identified and amended, but meets
the goals and objectives modified as community or project goals not formally included in the scope of the project.
necessary as the project progressed and was
Innovates:
continued support gained from stakeholders?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
2. The project is a safe facility both for the Failed: The project has worsened safety.
user and the community.
Somewhat meets: Safety is increased in some areas but other safety problems remain.
Is the facility viewed as safe by a full range of
stakeholders? Meets: The project team and the community view the project as safe.
Exceeds: Project safety has been accomplished in a manner that also enhances the communitys environmental,
scenic, aesthetic, historic, and natural resources and uses them as an inspiration for many project design elements.
Innovates:
___________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The project is in harmony with the ��The project ignores the environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic, and natural resources of the area
community and preserves environmental, surrounding the project.
scenic, aesthetic, historic, and natural
resource values of the area, i.e., exhibits ��The project preserves some resources in the surrounding area.
context sensitive design.
��The project preserves the communitys environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic, and natural resources and
This quality is the corollary of characteristic #2. reflects their qualities in some project design elements.
Does the project derive some of its qualities
from the communitys sense of its own identity ��The project both preserves and enhances the communitys environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic, and
and the physical attributes of the community, natural resources and uses them as an inspiration for many project design elements.
e.g. historic resources or landscape qualities of
��
the community?
Section G: Organizational Needs
___________________________________________________________________________________________
75
QUALITY PAGE 1
76
4. The project involves efficient and effective Failed: The project encountered substantial delays, due either to the late identification of significant resources of the
use of resources (time, budget, community) exclusion of certain stakeholder groups from the initial setting of project goals and objectives or for some other reason.
of all involved parties.
Somewhat meets: The project encountered some delays, due either to the late identification of significant resources
Did the project meet or exceed its budget? or miscommunication with stakeholder groups or for some other reason.
Was the project completed within the agreed
upon timeframe? Was red�sign of part or all of Meets: There was efficient execution of work on time and on budget, with effective participation from stakeholders.
the project required? Was involvement of the The project team worked from the inception toward the generally acceptable solution.
public designed in a manner to fit individuals
abilities to offer time. Exceeds: There was quick and efficient execution of work, on time and on budget and with coordinated involvement
of all stakeholders from inception through construction.
Innovates:
____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. The project is designed and built with Failed: There was major community disruption during construction.
minimal disruption to the community.
Somewhat meets: There was some community disruption during construction.
Were the needs of business��, residents, and
the traveling public considered throughout Meets: There was person�by�person coordination with adjoining property owners and coordination with all affected
design and construction of the project? parties to minimize disruption to the community.
Exceeds: In the views of members of the community, construction disruption was avoided to the extent possible and
everything reasonable was done to mitigate its effects.
Innovates:
____________________________________________________________________________________________
A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
6. The project is seen as having added lasting Failed: The community is not satisfied with the project.
value to the community.
Somewhat meets: The community is satisfied with some parts of the project but not with others.
Meets: The community is satisfied with all aspects of the project.
Exceeds: The community is pleased with all aspects of the project and describes it to other communities as a model
project of its type.
Innovates:
____________________________________________________________________________________________
QUALITY PAGE 2
7. The project exceeds the expectations of Failed: The project does not meet expectations of either designers or other stakeholders.
both designers and stakeholders, and
achieves a level of excellence in peoples Somewhat meets: The project meets expectations of designer and other stakeholders in many areas.
minds.
Meets: The project exceeds expectations of both designers and other stakeholders and is cited by both as an
This quality incorporates all of the other example of excellence in your companys work.
qualities for an overall evaluation of the
project. Its measure may be the sense of pride Exceeds: The project exceeds expectations of both designers and other stakeholders, is used as a model by you
that project team members have in their company for future work, and is cited by citizens as an example of the best of your companys work.
accomplishments, or the pleasure taken by
Innovates:
citizens in the beautification yet functionalism
of the project area, or the recognition of the ___________________________________________________________________________________________
project through awards or citations of its
success.
CSD_136��
77
QUALITY PAGE 3
78
The first principle,

Address the Transporta-
Exhibit G-3 Utah DOT’s Context Context Sensitive
Sensitive Solution Principles Solution (CSS)
tion Need, is the job of
the department. It is why Guiding Principles
UDOT exists as an agency.
The other two principles,
Be an Asset to the Com-
Solutions will:
munity and Be Compatible A: B: C:
with the Natural and Built
Environment, describe two Address the Be an Asset to the Be Compatible with the
Transportation Need Community Natural and Built
ways that UDOT must Environment
work if it is to success-
fully do its job. That is,
the principles describe As evidenced by: As evidenced by: As evidenced by:
how UDOT staff should
work with users and other A solution that is: Stakeholder acceptance Stakeholder acceptance
stakeholders as they find • Safe for users
solutions for meeting the
• Technically credible
transportation needs.
• Financially feasible Achieved by: Achieved by:
In practical terms, rarely • Implementable
can all three principles be • Early, continuous, proactive • Minimum intrusion (e.g.,
fully honored on any given community involvement space, noise, compatibility
project. That is, the specif- • Inclusion of all stakeholders with other modes)
Achieved by:
ics of a project often result (even the "silent" ones) • Aesthetically appropriate
in competition among • Practicing common sense • Sensitivity to environmental • Minimal "taking" of other
them. The challenge for and the flexible application justice issues natural resources
UDOT staff is to balance of design standards • Compatible with the
the demands represented
• Exercising a level of effort community's social and
by these principles in a
appropriate to the scale, livability values
way that represents the
complexity, and breadth of
best overall solution.
project issues
From the perspective of
UDOT senior manage- • Fiscally responsible use of
ment, strengthening the resources
department’s public out- SOURCE: Utah Department of Transportation
reach is necessary because CSD_165_2 at the strategic level, and from that discussion develop an
effective public involvement is considered the best vehicle approach to problem definition and solution that reflects
to identify and resolve the competing demands of these the desires and wishes of the overall community.
three principles.
Further definition of UDOT’s approach is provided by PERFORMANCE-BASED PROBLEM DEFINITIONS

Exhibits G-4, G-5, and G-6. Note in particular the discus-
sion of strategies under Principle A, Address the Trans- The ways in which agencies define problems; indeed,
portation Need. The process derived by UDOT begins how agencies measure their success, provide insights to
with minimizing demand, and moves only to add system how problems are defined and solutions are proposed.
capacity as the last or lowest priority. Assuming that staff To the extent that programs are developed and projects
follow these strategies as laid out, the types and nature described in physical terms (we’re supposed to be doing a
of solutions studied and ultimately implemented should “lane widening” project) versus performance-based terms
mirror the priorities. (we’re supposed to reduce delay along the corridor) may
suggest to management that the agency may not have the
The above is not to suggest that all agencies should adopt right focus. Some projects are described as involving an
UDOTs specific strategic approach to problem definition. upgrade to standards which may imply a wider facility,
Rather, the UDOT model suggests that agency staff can re-alignment, or other impacting physical improvements.
gain value in engaging their customers and stakeholders
79
Exhibit G-4 Utah DOT’s CSS Principle A – Address the Transportation Need.
Principle A:
Context Sensitive
Solution (CSS)
Address the Guiding Principles
Transportation Need
Principle Principle Principle
A B C
Note: Strategies are to be considered, evaluated, and accepted or rejected working from left to right. In other words,
Strategies
adding system capacity through new construction should only be considered after the other alternatives are determined to
be non-workable.
Evaluate during long-range planning Evaluate during pre-STIP and STIP development
Minimize System Add System

Minimize the Demand Shift the Demand
Efficiency Capacity
Applications
Techniques/
(Partial listings only)
• Telecommuting • Shift SOV to car pooling • Ramp metering • New roadway alignment
• Mixing residential/ • Shift auto demand • Signal interties • Additional travel lanes
commercial development to transit • Controlled access • New interchanges
• Neo-traditional • Integrate traffic flow
neighborhoods on the state and
local system
�� SOURCE: Utah Department of Transportation
For such projects, one may ask what value is obtained that monitor the performance of their primary hard
by upgrading to standards (making the facility nominally assets – pavement and bridges. Such systems track the
safe). If the answer is safety, then the solution had better conditions and basic characteristics, enabling development
make sense relative to the actual performance of the facil- of programs to rehabilitate or replace aging infrastructure
ity (its substantive safety). If in fact there is no substantive in the most cost-effective manner.
safety problem, or if the type of safety problem does not
relate to the proposed design solution, stakeholders can If there is a single, universal value in transportation, it is
rightly question the value of the improvement. safety. Providing for safe facilities was considered a core
value from the beginning of CSD/CSS activities in Mary-
A focus on defining problems and projects in perfor- land and elsewhere. Safety is one of AASHTO’s top priori-
mance-based terms, and stressing performance over ties, as evidenced by their commitment to implementing a
physical assets, is suggested as a best practice to be national Strategic Highway Safety Plan. Market research
implemented by the management of DOTs and other has confirmed that stakeholders across all spectrums value
transportation agencies. highway and traffic safety.
In the CSD/CSS environment, then, it would seem that

ASSET MANAGEMENT the ability to incorporate and articulate safety in meaning-
ful terms, both in problem definition as well as solutions,
The importance of being able to clearly define transporta- should be among the highest DOT management priorities.
tion problems at both the program/system level as well as To date, however, safety management and an agency’s
project level is heightened in the CSD/CSS environment.
Most state DOTs have implemented management systems
80
Exhibit G-5 Utah DOT’s CSS Principle B – Be an Asset to the Community.
Principle B:
Context Sensitive
Solution (CSS)
Be an Asset to Guiding Principles
the Community
Principle Principle Principle
A B C
Note: Strategies follow a communication-action chronology, specifically, understand the community's expectations,
incorporate their input into the proposed transportation solution, obtain endorsement (mutual buy-in/commitment),
implement according to commitments, and maintain ongoing dialogue with the community to ensure continued support.
Strategies
Long-range planning and STIP development Construction Maintenance and operations
Understand and Incorporate Communicate Project Goals Continue Ongoing

Community Input During and Construct According to Community Dialogue;
Planning, Project Selection, Commitments Maintain and Operate
and Development According to Commitments
Applications
Techniques/
• Balance advocacy with inquiry • Broad-based community • Gather official and unofficial
• Align community values with coordination during construction feedback on transportation

UDOT policy • Work with stakeholders directly system performance on an
impacted by construction ongoing basis
• Employ statewide advocacy
group • Create and implement a • Meetings
• Region Directors and PICs Maintenance of Traffic Plan • Surveys/satisfaction cards

coordinate with opinion leaders • One-on-one's
safety performance (as well as its safety assets) are not The ability to differentiate between substantive and nomi-
as universally tracked or maintained to the same level as nal safety (see Section F for more discussion) is critical
pavement and bridges or other agency hard assets. to successful development of acceptable solutions. Stake-
holders no longer accept compliance with design stan-
As of 1999, fewer than 40 percent of state DOTs were dards as a safety rationale for accepting an adverse impact.
employing computer-based and advanced technologies DOTs must be able to demonstrate a substantive safety
covering safety data collection, maintenance, linkages problem exists, and to do so in meaningful terms that can
with other data, and decision support. Very few agencies be directly related (by location as well as type) to the pro-
maintain comprehensive inventories of assets such as posed solutions. Conversely, agencies should be assured
guardrail or barrier systems, or reference maintenance that their limited dollars devoted to safety improvements
records as a matter of routine in identifying safety prob- will be well spent and return measurable benefits. This can
lems. In most states, the currency and depth of understand- only be achieved at the system level through appropriate
ing of highway safety is limited to few staff. Arguably one development and use of safety management systems.
of the most important issues that agencies should address
to support CSD/CSS is the development and use of more The reader is referred to NCHRP Report 430, Improved
sophisticated, usable safety management systems. Safety Information to Support Highway Design. Appendix
G contains the executive summary and other material from
that report. To summarize here, there are five important
81
ExhibitG-6 Utah DOT’s CSS Principle C – Be Compatible with the Natural and Built Environment.
Principle C:
Context Sensitive
Solution (CSS)
Be Compatible with the Guiding Principles
Natural and Built
Environment Principle Principle Principle
A B C
Note: Strategies are to be considered, evaluated, and accepted or rejected working from left to right. These strategies begin with
transportation solutions that represent the most compatibility (least negative impacts) to the natural and built environment.
Strategies
Minimize or avoid impacts to environment Enhance environment Mitigate impacts to environment
Seek the Least Intrusive Develop Projects in a Manner Develop Projects in a Manner
Transportation Strategies that Enhances the that Mitigates Impacts to the
Under Principle A: Surrounding Environment Surrounding Environment
Address the Transportation Need
Applications
Techniques/
• Seek to minimize demand before Add features to projects such as: • Wetlands banking
selecting an alternative with the • Traffic calming devices • Sound wells

potential to negatively impact the
• Landscaping/visual screens • Visual screens
existing natural or built
environment • Sound walls • Relocation of people or historical
property
functions that DOTs perform that would be enhanced or • Analysis of a proposed design exception
made possible through development of what is referred to
• Development or refinement of design standards
as a design decision support system (DDSS):
and criteria
• High-hazard location identification
Among the agencies employing such systems, the Iowa
• Problem identification for a project DOT is considered a benchmark for effective collection
and use of safety management information to support
• Input to preliminary design for a project
their activities.
82
ALTERNATIVES DEVELOPMENT– • Construction engineering

• Visualization
ALTERNATIVES SCREENING,
EVALUATION, AND SELECTION SKILL ACQUISITION AND DEVELOPMENT
Senior managers of the pilot states recognize that the alter- The range in technical skills implies both a level of invest-
natives development process, including the technical steps ment in personnel training or acquisition, as well as the
of screening, evaluation, and selection, requires different investment in tools and techniques (e.g., visualization
team structures than are currently used, new, or updated software and hardware). Pilot states and other organiza-
technical capabilities and skills, and new approaches to tions are recognizing the need to increase investment in
project completion. A key management responsibility is to technical training, in project management training, and in
provide the resources and structure to enable project suc- communications and facilitation expertise. In the case of
cess at the individual project level. Maryland, each district has added both an environmental
coordinator and a public involvement coordinator to serve
PROJECT TEAM TECHNICAL STRUCTURE as members of project teams.
Most CSD/CSS projects require a full suite of the follow- Discussions with senior managers at the Minnesota DOT
ing expertise or skills: reveal that they expect a change in the make-up and skill
• Project management sets of staff over time. Demand for pure technical skills
• Public involvement planning and implementation in traditional design and engineering areas will always
• Environmental process management be present, but as efficiencies in the CAE process are
• Environmental technical analysis (air quality, cultural implemented, less effort relative to other skills is antici-
resource, biological resource, noise, etc.) pated. Conversely, there is a recognized need to increase
• Transportation planning the number of staff with communication and facilitation
• Traffic engineering (including microsimulation) skills. Also, there will clearly need to be a deepening and
• Traffic and highway safety broadening of the skills and knowledge within an agency
• Highway design of substantive safety related to design or traffic features
• Structure and retaining wall design and conditions. Exhibit G-7 provides the Mn/DOT’s
• Landscape architecture Framework for Training.
Exhibit G-7 Minnesota DOT’s Framework for Training
Values/ Project Stake Environmental Community Aesthetics and Engineering/

Element Management Holder Sensitivity/Agency Integration Visual Quality Design
Expertise Input Involvement
Level
PA1
CONTEXT SENSITIVE DESIGN APPROACH
Broad Frame- (Philosophy of how we approach project development)
Work Overview
Project Context Sensitive Design Workshop Geometric Design

2 Public Involvement Environmental
Management • Excellence Goals • Qualities Course (NWTI)
Indepth Academy Training Course School • GEOPAC Training
(to be developed) (4 days) • Principles • Case Studies
Course Work (8 days) • Aesthetic Design Practice • Training Tapes
• Other
3
Issue Oriented Project Management Forums for “Hot Topics” (1 day)
Training
4
Functional Preliminary Design Engineers, Detail Design, Other Functional Group Meetings
Group Training
& Info Sharing PAC Meetings (quarterly meetings)
5
Informal Individual or Small Group Meetings (as needed — day-to-day)
��
SOURCE: Minnesota Department of Transportation
83
In some cases, agencies are involving certain staff much In practical terms, however, most design activities in the
earlier in the process than before CSD/CSS. The best U.S. are based directly not on the AASHTO Policy, but on
example of this is the use of landscape architects. These a given agency’s design manual. And, most design manuals
are used by many DOTs relatively late in the process; have evolved over the years to be much more rigid, i.e., to
often only during final design. In Maryland, however, define more narrowly what is “minimum” or acceptable.
landscape architects are considered core team members
and are involved at the beginning of every project, during The reasons for rigid design criteria are not generally
the scoping and planning activities. Their input is sought understood by working staff, a situation that inhibits their
throughout alternatives development and plan evolution. ability to be flexible or creative. The commonly held view
This, of course, tends to increase the overall demand for of most design engineers is that a design value published
these resources across the organization. in a manual is there primarily for safety reasons, and that
any deviation from that value will result in significant deg-
Many organizations offer professional development radation in safety. (This nominal safety thought process is
opportunities in one or more areas noted above. The illustrated in Exhibit F-15.)
National Highway Institute, part of FHWA, is one source
for adult learning. Other sources include the American Rigid design standards in many cases have evolved to
Planning Association, and professional organizations such serve three purposes – efficiency in design, as a quality
as the Institute of Transportation Engineers and American control measure, and efficiency in construction. Efficiency
Society of Civil Engineers. in design relates to the time to produce a design drawing.
In the CAE environment, there are clearly cost efficiencies
Some states have developed tailored training programs to associated with ready access to electronic libraries of
address their specific needs. For example, the Maryland standard details and drawings. Similarly, from a quality
State Highway Administration put together a course on control perspective, the use of standard dimensions,
environmental awareness and sensitivity for all staff. details, etc., assures that at least some minimum design
The Ohio DOT offers an intensive 2-week course in the will be provided. Staff less technically knowledgeable
environmental process as a requirement for any indi- can be assigned to design work – “follow the standard”
viduals or consulting firms desiring to perform planning becomes the watchword. The third reason for rigid
work for ODOT. standards is to avoid confusion or misunderstanding in
construction. Local contractors become familiar with the
Specific to CSD/CSS, the University of Kentucky devel-
oped a course on CSD for staff in the Kentucky Transpor- Exhibit G-8 Kentucky Training Outline
tation Cabinet and consultants. This course (Exhibit G-8),
developed as part of Kentucky’s pilot state activities, is now
mandatory for all working in the state. It has been offered
to other states interested in CSS. Minnesota DOT has also
develop a training course in CSD. Finally, discussions with
educators and findings from national conferences indicate
a need to incorporate context sensitive design principles
and practices in university curriculum.
Exhibit G-9 (following page) contains a listing of organi-

zations offering training related to one or more aspects of
transportation project development related to CSD/CSS.
DESIGN STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
AASHTO has emphasized that the Policy on Geometric

Design is a flexible document. Indeed, a close reading of it
reveals that there is significant flexibility in both technical
content and recommended usage.
84
EXHIBIT CSD_134
Exhibit G-9 National Resources for Technical Training in CSD/CSS Disciplines
List of Training Courses
Course Title Sponsor Contact Information
Highway Planning Context Sensitive Solutions Project for Public Spaces Toni Gold
& Design Training Course (PPS) and Federal 860-232-9018
Highway Administration urbanedge@aol.com
(FHWA)
Roadside Design American Society of Civil John Wyrick
Engineers (ASCE) ASCE Continuing Education
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, VA 20191-4400
Tel.: 703-295-6184
Fax: 703-295-6144
jwyrick@asce.org
AASHTO Roadside Design National Highway Institute Lynn Cadarr
Guide (NHI) 703-235-0528
lynn.cadarr@fhwa.dot.gov
Design, Construction, and NHI See above
Maintenance of Highway
Safety Appurtenances and
Features
Road Safety Audits and NHI See above
Road Safety Audit Reviews
Road Safety Audit ITE/FHWA ITE
Workshop 1099 14th Street, NW, Ste 300
West Washington, DC 20005-
202-289-0222
Analysis & Preservation of ASCE See ASCE above
Historic Bridges
Safety & Operational FHWA FHWA Midwest Resource
Effects of Highway Design Center
Features on Two-lane Fred Ranck
Rural Highways 708-283-3545
Roundabout Planning and FHWA FHWA
Design Joe B�red
202-493-3314
Traffic Traffic Calming Seminar Institute of Transportation See ITE above
Engineering (materials for course Engineers (ITE) and FHWA
available)
Highway Capacity and NHI Lynn Cadarr
Quality of Flow 703-235-0528
lynn.cadarr@fhwa.dot.gov
High Occupancy Vehicle NHI See above
(HOV) Facilities
Access Management, NHI See NHI above
Location and Design
Transportation Project Management for American Planning Marjorie J. Lepley or
Planning Planners Association (APA) Stephanie Gordon Cady
Strategic Directions
1813 Warren Ave.
North Seattle, WA 98109
Tel: 206-284-9037
Fax: 206-362-7385
mlepley@seanet.com
CSD_134_LIST TRAINING COURSES.DOC 1
85
Exhibit G-9 List of Training Programs (continued)
Course Title Sponsor Contact Information
Transportation Safety Conscious Planning ITE/FHWA See ITE above

Planning (cont.)
Applications of Geographic NHI See NHI above
Information Systems for
Transportation
CSS Training - A course for PPS Toni Gold
Transportation and 860-232-9018
Planning Professionals urbanedge@aol.com
Urban Planning Introduction to Urban NHI See NHI above

Travel Demand
Forecasting
Advanced Urban Travel NHI See NHI above
Demand Forecasting
Introduction to Metropolitan NHI See NHI above
Planning
Environmental NEPA and Transportation NHI See NHI above
Process (NEPA) Decision Making
Environmental Training NHI See NHI above
Center (Managing the
Environmental Process)
Public Involvement in NHI See NHI above
NEPA and the
Transportation Decision-
Making Process
Environmental Fundamentals and NHI See NHI above
(Technical) Abatement of Highway
Traffic Noise
Functional Assessment of NHI See above
Wetlands
Wetlands & 404 Permitting ASCE John Wyrick, Manager
On-Site Training Worldwide
ASCE Continuing Education
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, VA 20191-4400
Tel.: 703-295-6184
Fax: 703-295-6144
jwyrick@asce.org
Communications Practical Public Relations APA Denny Johnson, Public Affairs
& Facilitation and Marketing for Planners Coordinator
American Planning Association
1776 Massachusetts Ave. NW
Suite 400
Washington, DC 20036
Tel: 202-872-0611
Fax: 202-872-0643
djohnson@planning.org
Highway Program NHI See NHI above
Financing
Project Management ASCE See ASCE above

CSD_134
86
DOT’s standard approaches and details, and can bid lower design staff on the background behind AASHTO design
and construct more efficiently knowing them. criteria and to highlight the relationship between design
features and substantive safety for two-lane roads. See
What is unfortunate is that the focus on rigid standards Appendix F for the course outline. With respect to the
has been translated in the minds of working level staff to a latter point, management of DOTs should carefully review
belief that standards equals safety, and that no compromises their design manuals and standard drawings to assure that
can be accepted. This view holds even with design values they are not overly rigid.
that clearly are not related to design exceptions or to sub-
stantive safety. Thus, for example, an agency may have in
their manual a design drawing showing that a rural front- PROJECT CONTINUITY
age road should intersect a crossroad no closer than 300
feet from a freeway ramp terminal intersection. Designers Projects pass through major phases, from planning and
consulting such a drawing and confronted with a situation environmental studies (culminating in a FONSI or ROD)
in which the intersection is 280 feet away will consider to preliminary and final engineering, to construction and
this 1) substandard; 2) unsafe; and 3) requiring some sort ultimately maintenance. Typical project delivery involves
of design improvement. Note that this type of analysis is a hand-off from one part of the organization to another at
often done with no consideration or reference to actual each of these major phases, and often one project manager
crash records, and often to another. Exhibit G-10 (following page) shows a typi-
“
without a site visit. The cal project flow chart provided by the Connecticut DOT,
The direct application of costs to the agency of which highlights through the use of color the key hand-off
established design criteria or this sort of decision phases in the project.
process are obvious
standards is no assurance that – unnecessary expen- Best management practices, reflective of experience from
a certain quality of design will diture in a realignment, the pilot states, recognize the hand-off or transition as an
unnecessary impact area of high risk of failure. From the perspective of exter-
be achieved – indicating that to a landowner, and in nal stakeholders, they are dealing with one organization.
such criteria are not sufficient many cases, unneces- To the extent that the organization has worked with them,
sary conflict with an made commitments and promises, and extracted support,
in themselves…The design environmental resource the expectation is that the commitments and promises will
professional applies the design or stakeholder. be kept.
criteria or standards, chooses The problem of intelli- Some of the greatest problems and CSD/CSS failures have
minimum, above-minimum or gent use of criteria and occurred in the transition from design to construction.
technical knowledge is Commitments to save trees, accommodate a driveway or
desirable values, and develops not new. Encourage- other seemingly minor (from the overall project’s perspec-
the composition of the facility ment for designers to be tive) issues can be violated if construction staff are not
flexible, use their judg- properly briefed, are not themselves context sensitive, or
in three dimensions. Thus the ment, and apply design if the promise could not be kept because of a construction
attitude and capability of the criteria judiciously problem that was unforeseen during design.
goes back many years.
designer can play a significant In the CSD/CSS envi- These performance gaps can be addressed by continuity
role in determining operational ronment, this approach of staff assignments, and in some cases technical train-
”
will become more and ing. Certainly awareness training can help for both design
efficiency and safety. more critical to success and construction staff. Some states have begun to assign
JACK E. LEISCH, PHILOSOPHICAL of an agency. one project manager to follow the project from planning
CONSIDERATIONS IN HIGHWAY through construction. Where this does not occur, inclusion
DESIGN, DYNAMIC DESIGN FOR Empowering staff to be of construction staff on the project team during the plan-
SAFETY, 1974. flexible within design ning and design phases is used to avoid conflicts, followed
criteria will mean that by a full briefing of construction staff concerning promises
1) staff need to become more knowledgeable in not just that have been made. One of the reasons for inclusion of
the criteria, but the reasons for them (which may include landscape architects early in Maryland’s efforts is to high-
safety, operations, maintenance, constructibility, and other light early key maintenance issues and concerns (e.g., who
issues); and 2) a commitment to address the rigidity in will care for median plantings).
current criteria and design manuals. With respect to the
former point, FHWA has developed a course to educate
87
Exhibit G-10 Connecticut DOT’s Project Flow Chart
Project scope team Purpose and Need (i.e. Approval of major Hold preliminary Hold project scope
begins the reason for the environmental studies. public involvement meeting with
scoping/vision process. improvement). Select project meeting and obtain various units.
Identify stakeholders, Field review brainstorm alternative. local endorsement. Request survey,
meet with town, identify alternatives that address Coordinate with the Forward project to request
issues, goals, and goals/problems. town and regional formal design. environmental
problems. Consider stakeholder, planning agency. review (smaller
interdisciplinary team input projects).
and right-of-way impacts.
Modify project as Conduct preliminary Project initiation—

Finalize all aspects of the required based on design meeting, begin preliminary
design, i.e. traffic, bridge, public info input. obtain design design—notify town
drainage and soils. Coordinate Begin right-of-way approval, meet with of project and meet
environmental issues. acquisition. town, schedule to discuss/refresh
public info/hearing. scope concerns.
Complete traffic, bridge Prepare project Complete final

design if applicable, finalize specifications. design plans, submit Project advertising,
outstanding environmental Prepare final to processing. bid opening, and
issues. Address semi-final quantity estimate Complete right-of- award to contractor.
design comments. and obtain federal way activities.
and state approvals. Acquire
environmental
permits.
Project may be evaluated Project limits are Begin construction.

to determine the overall given over to Coordinate any changes
level of success and maintenance. with town and designers.
community benefit. Complete construction.
��
Project Scoping Unit Project Construction Unit
Project Design Unit Office of Maintenance
��
SOURCE: Connecticut Department of Transportation
PROJECT DECISIONS involve substantive design issues (such as width of the

roadway, clear zone dimensions, and right-of-way issues).
The organization of an agency and the manner in which All CSD/CSS projects are local. Working the problem and
it executes projects should support CSD/CSS. Of primary successfully negotiating solutions requires agency staff to
concern here is the ultimate decision reached by the be familiar with the local area, the community values, the
agency. CSD/CSS is not a voting process in which external individual stakeholders–in short, the local context.
stakeholders hold veto power over the agency. Ultimately,
decisions about what (if anything) to build, and where Many agencies use technical experts housed at a central
and how to build it, are the responsibility of the DOT or location as resources for the entire agency. Examples
owning agency. include bridge design, in some cases traffic engineering,
and in many cases geometric design. Project development
In most successful CSD/CSS projects, arriving at a solu- processes may include review cycles in which such staff
tion involves negotiation with stakeholders. Issues can be review, comment upon and, in many instances, approve or
relatively minor or local (location of a driveway) or can disapprove plans.
88
Recognizing that agency staff assigned to the project must which challenges or lawsuits are anticipated. Agencies
work locally, it is important for DOTs and other agen- such as the Iowa DOT and the Illinois State Toll Highway
cies to establish protocols and procedures, and to clarify Authority are now proactively employing document man-
roles and responsibilities of all internal staff to support agement technology for selected projects considered as
the stakeholder working process at the local project level. high risk of future litigation. These technologies include
Local agency staff need full understanding of what is and retention, keyword search capabilities and other time and
is not negotiable. They need to have ready access to a space saving features.
resource or individual to answer a question or help develop
a solution. Conversely, agencies putting their staff in a The application of document management technologies
position to negotiate and make judgments need to support and information management infrastructure appears appro-
staff judgments and decisions. Local project staff are less priate for managing design exception and design decision
effective and less apt to be creative when they have to “run files, although no instances of this have been identified.
it by the central office” before they can make a promise or
propose an approach.
IMPLEMENTATION
Institutionalization of CSD/CSS requires effort, resources,
RISK MANAGEMENT and some cost. Parker Williams of Maryland inserted the
Thinking Beyond the Pavement (TBTP) initiative into the
It is also clear that DOT management needs to assure SHA’s business plan, in recognition of both the importance
that their staff understand the applicable tort laws in their and effort needed to accomplish the work. At a minimum,
jurisdiction, that quality review processes are well estab- the implementation of CSD/CSS represents real out of
lished and followed, and that design exception policies and pocket costs for an organization. Depending on the extent
procedures, including documentation are understood and of the change, the implementation may represent signifi-
followed. Tort concerns are present, CSD/CSS or not. But cant costs. These costs can be broken into the following
tort concerns should not be held as a reason for not endors- three cost components.
ing CSD/CSS. More technical background on tort liability
• Process redesign/training design - Process design
and best risk management practices is outlined in Section
and training design represent explicit costs, including
F, Ensuring Safe and Feasible Solutions.
internal staff cost and vendor/consultant costs.
• Implementation cost - Implementation costs should
Information Management Practices include all costs related to making the process
changes fully operational. These costs should include
Context sensitive practices (consider alternatives, weigh team meetings, training, and a post-implementation
trade-offs, design using good industry practices, make and evaluation.
explain decisions openly, and document fully all aspects • Opportunity costs - Opportunity costs represent
of the project) will build a strong case for an agency’s those things that cannot be done because of the cur-
defense of tort claims. rent way of doing business. While somewhat difficult
to quantify, opportunity costs can be calculated. For
Of course, complete documentation and then document example, if a DOT has to delay a project because it
retention and management become key aspects of risk didn’t respond to community concerns about CSD/
management, as both crashes and tort claims may occur CSS issues, the cost of the delay can be calculated.
many years after the decisions and construction. In
such cases, defense of the agency’s actions may be led The use of teams appears to be fundamental to the success-
by professionals who were not directly involved in the ful design and implementation of organizational change.
actual project execution. It is unfortunately the case that The reason behind their effectiveness has to do with the
design agencies lose or settle claims not because their nature of the work required to change. This work deals
staff actions were inappropriate, but because the project with complex issues that requires the real time integration
files are incomplete or missing key documentation, and of skills, experiences, and perspectives that are unlikely
staff responsible for the project are no longer available to to reside in a single individual. Additionally, the success-
explain what was done and why. ful implementation and sustained use of a new process
depends on its broad-based understanding and acceptance
Information management systems are now being used by within an organization. The use of teams during the cre-
some agencies to build and maintain all records or files ation and roll out of a process change by their very nature
associated with major projects. To date, these practices begins to build a broader basis of acceptance.
are associated with environmentally sensitive projects in
89
“organizations
...in the kinds of broad-based change that
increasingly confront today, teams can
Agencies that have institutionalized CSD/CSS confirm
that real, measurable benefits accrue to the agency and
ultimately the taxpayers and constituents of their states.
help concentrate the direction and quality of top-down The benefits can be broadly categorized as reducing
agency costs of doing business, as delivering projects on
leadership, foster new behaviors, and facilitate cross- schedule (avoiding delays or project halts that were previ-
functional activities. When teams work, they represent ously common), and as improving the relationship with
their customers.
the best proven way to convert embryonic visions and
values into consistent action patterns because they rely Many of the presentations highlighted in the national CSD/
CSS conferences feature projects that had been stalled for
on people working together. They also are the most years (Paris Pike in Kentucky is a notable example). On a
practical way to develop a shared sense of direction lesser scale, every agency has their list of projects that have
”
not been completed, or have been started and stopped mul-
among people through out an organization. tiple times, for any number of reasons. Each such project
KATZENBACH AND SMITH represents a drain on the staff time and other resources of
the DOT. In some notable cases, the cost of planning and
THE BUSINESS CASE FOR CSD/CSS environmental studies and re-studies ends up exceeding
the construction cost of the project! To the extent that busi-
Business organizations, whether they are public or private, ness as usual can be expected to result in a continuation of
for-profit or non-profit, make changes for reasons. The rea- such project failures, not addressing the underlying rea-
sons can be to survive in a changing business climate, or to sons (which are invariably related to one or more aspects
improve their standing and grow. In the case of transporta- of CSD/CSS) will result in continued inefficiencies.
tion agencies, the compelling reasons for embracing CSD/
CSS may vary depending on how well (or poorly) they are Efficiencies and savings are also evident in the develop-
performing their jobs as measured by the following: ment of processes established by context-sensitive orga-
nizations. For example, the Minnesota DOT investment
• Customer satisfaction (the traveling public, business in MnModel, a GIS-based tool to help predict or identify
community, state, and local elected officials) potential archaeological sites, has saved millions of dollars
• Productivity or value produced (number of projects by enabling Mn/DOT to find alternatives that avoid con-
completed, constructed dollar value of projects, flicts in alignment location studies. This is a considerably
fatalities and injuries reduced, number of person trips less expensive proposition than paying to recover or miti-
served on the system, surveys of conditions of the gate sites. As one planner from Minnesota put it in express-
assets of the system components) ing their desire to avoid Native American burial grounds,
• Cost of doing business (total agency costs to deliver “We’re not in the archaeology business!” Another example
all services) is the practice of Maryland of negotiating landscape main-
In discussions and interviews with senior and middle man- tenance agreements at the project outset with local units
agement of DOTs, there is a common concern about the of government, thus avoiding unnecessary investment in
organizational implications of CSD/CSS. “CSD sounds expensive planting treatments if the local government is
expensive” is a theme often heard when discussing how an unwilling or unable to maintain them.
organization might need to change. A variation of that at
the project level is “all that stakeholder and environmental Another cost of delays that may not be counted by an
stuff makes sense for com- agency, but that is surely felt by the state or region in
“ plex projects, but we can’t which it works, is the loss of value associated with a
If we could do afford (or don’t need) to do project not delivered on time (or at all). Every project is
everywhere what we did that on the routine projects.” intended to address one or more problems, whether they
This latter point is usually are related to mobility (hours of delay), safety (lives lost,
here, we would waste driven home by noting that injuries suffered), or economic development (jobs created,
fewer resources.
” the current business climate
JIM BYRNES, for state DOTs forces them to
property values enhanced). When investment in a transpor-
tation project is halted or delayed, the stream of benefits
that completion would have produced is lost forever. This
COMMISSIONER, do more with a smaller and in can have tragic consequences in the case of a known sub-
CONNECTICUT DOT many cases less experienced stantive safety problem that is left unaddressed for years
work force.
while stakeholder conflicts are resolved. Final resolution,
90
even involving a highly effective solution, may never As a final note, the marginal costs of CSD/CSS, once insti-
recover the lost lives or injuries that were incurred during tutionalized, may significantly decrease and in fact disap-
the years of delays. pear. Staff well trained in how to manage such projects and
who use the proper resources and perform CSD/CSS as a
Longer term benefits to the entire organization are clearly matter of routine will be more productive. They and the
evident as CSD/CSS is implemented, as projects are com- agency as a whole will not view the effort as extra work but
pleted that are sources of pride, and as stakeholders per- rather as business as usual. As one engineer from a pilot
ceive a positive change in their relationship with the DOT. state put it, “These concepts (CSD/CSS) are logical and
Pilot state project-level as well as senior management staff common sense.”
observe that, once they “prove themselves” to their cus-
tomers, projects that follow become less contentious (or at
least, the tone and working relationships are better). The STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING CSD/CSS
benefit of a customer base that is supportive takes many
forms. The management of all pilot states assert that DOT Management of transportation agencies need not feel as if
staff morale improves as working relationships improve, CSD/CSS requires an all or nothing approach. Of course,
and as the agency develops a sense of pride in being stew- the notion of being customer-focused is clearly central to
ards of CSD/CSS. Local governmental leaders become the initiative. To the extent that an agency’s self-assess-
more supportive, are less inclined to reject proposals out ment suggests a lack of customer focus, this arguably may
of hand, and are more open to working on issues following be the top priority. However, in terms of implementing spe-
a positive experience with the agency. cific management programs, agencies are encouraged to
focus on areas where their self-assessment suggests clear
Regarding the issue of “we can’t afford improvements are needed. Thus, senior
“
to do this all the time,” it would seem that management of some agencies may believe
being customer focused is not something
Context sensitive design that improving their public involvement
one can choose to do or not do depend-
ing on the project. Thus, the view that ”
is personal.
CONNECTICUT DOT ENGINEER
programs, capabilities, resources, etc., is
the highest priority. Others may believe
that technical staff skill development,
“we can’t do this all the time” to an extent
misses the point and misunderstands what project management, or development of
CSD/CSS is all about. It may be true that an agency can’t safety management capabilities has the greatest payback.
afford a $200,000 public involvement campaign on every What is most important is that agencies move forward, as
project, but it is also true that one can’t afford to not make stakeholder and public expectations most certainly are
an effort to identify and address community values and evolving. In the view of many, the CSD/CSS approach is
stakeholder concerns. As was noted earlier in Section D, viewed as key to successful project development.
an effective “context sensitive” public involvement plan is
one that is tailored to the project and stakeholders in form,
substance and resources.
91

Bechtell, M.L., The Management Compass: Steering the Corporation Using Hoshin Planning, AMA Membership Pub-
lications, 1995.
Champy, J., Reengineering Management: The Mandate for New Leadership, Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., New York,
NY, 1995.
Katzenbach, J.R., and Smith, D., The Wisdom of Teams, Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., New York, NY, 1993.
Project Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Newton Square, PA, 2001.
Tenner, A.R., and DeToro, I.J., Process Redesign: The Implementation Guide for Managers, Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc., Reading, MA, 1996.
92
93
H. CASE STUDIES
The following is a selection of case

studies that illustrate application of
the principles and thought process
A B C D E F G H
behind CSD/CSS. The case stud- Effective Reflecting Achieving Ensuring Safe
ies were assembled from materials Introduction About this Decision Community Environmental and Feasible Organizational Case
and interviews conducted with pilot
state representatives, as well as with Management Structure
other agencies contacted during the

Problem Definition
research project. The case studies
are geographically diverse. They Project Development and
illustrate a wide range of project Evaluation Framework
contexts, from rural roads to urban Alternatives Development

streets. They demonstrate that one
can be context sensitive when dealing Alternatives Screening
with a freeway, an arterial, or a local
road. In one case, they show that the Implementation
mission of a transportation agency ��
can and should go beyond providing
for safe and efficient transportation.
They represent both small projects
and substantial efforts.
Most of all, the case studies show how project success can be achieved by following the framework discussed here, and
applying the right resources to solve a problem.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section H: Case Studies
94
Section H: Case Studies A Guide to Best Practices for Achieving Context Sensitive Solutions
95
CASE STUDY NO. 1
MERRITT PARKWAY
GATEWAY PROJECT
GREENWICH, CONNECTICUT
Both the volume of traffic and its character and operations
SETTING have changed over time. The Parkway now carries traffic
The Merritt Parkway (The Parkway) was constructed in in excess of 50,000 vehicles per day in some segments.
the 1930s and opened to traffic in 1940. The facility, a Originally designed for speeds prevalent in the 1930s (35
four-lane divided arterial highway, was originally designed to 40 mph), it now operates at speeds in excess of 60 mph,
and continues to function as an essential component of and with greater density of traffic. The Parkway has
Connecticut’s transportation system. evolved into now serving as a commuter route.
The Parkway has long been recognized for its unique Not surprisingly, the substantive safety history of the Park-
design features and scenic character. Its park-like setting, way has become an increasing concern to the Connecticut
majestic bridges, and scenic landscaping make it a distinct DOT. Both the terrain and context, as well as the char-
and appreciated asset to the state. The bridge architecture acter of the original design, produce relatively high risk
utilizes motifs that were popular in the 1930s, including of severe roadside collisions with obstacles such as trees
Art Moderne, Art Dec, Classical, Gothic, and Renais- and rock outcropping. Shoulders are typically only 2 feet
sance. wide, and clear areas and offsets to fixed objects generally
less than 6 feet. The narrow median was not originally
The Parkway was placed on the National Register of designed with a physical barrier. The heavier traffic and
Historic Places in 1991, and in 1993, was designated a speeds greater than the Parkway was designed for are also
State Scenic Road. In 1996, it achieved designation as a issues of concern.
National Scenic Byway.
From 1986 through 1990, there was one reported crash
When first constructed, the land use through which the every 8 hours, one injury every 20 hours, one fatality every
Parkway was built was primarily rural, agricultural, and 52 days, and a guide rail struck every 36 hours along the
open space uses. Over time, the landscape has matured 38-mile corridor. This alarming history of both frequent
and changed. Development has occurred in the vicinity and severe crashes indicated a need for action.
of the Parkway, bringing with it both increased traffic and
residences near the Parkway.
PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED
The problems to be solved were improving the safety and
operational efficiency of the Parkway while maintaining
its unique and valued characteristics. Related to these
problems were resolving the long-term role of the Park-
way relative to development and its attendant pressures,
and with respect to other transportation system features
in the area.
These problems were articulated in a series of questions

and issues developed by a stakeholder working group that
was convened by the Connecticut DOT.
• The Parkway’s future as it relates to its capacity to
carry vehicles cannot be separated from the land
uses allowed or encouraged by local zoning entities
and towns.
96
• Pressures for an expanded transportation facility and DESIGN FLEXIBILITY AND THE APPLICATION OF
the desire for increased local development are not DESIGN CRITERIA
separate and unrelated. The future of the Parkway was
viewed as being inextricably driven by the land use The Connecticut DOT, through its Merritt Parkway Work-
decisions made by towns and others. ing Group, in effect established corridor-specific design
• A fundamental question to be resolved (a choice to be criteria that reflected the consensus best efforts to balance
made) was stated simply – Is the Merritt Parkway a safety and aesthetic considerations.
major transportation facility or is it simply a beautiful • The DOT chose a design speed of 60 mph for the
place? facility, intending to post a 50 mph legal speed limit.
The project in which these issues were addressed involved • The DOT chose not to view the Parkway as a route
the development of guidelines for resurfacing, safety to be used for increasing through regional east-west
improvements, and enhancement projects for the Parkway. capacity.
These guidelines would in effect provide firm direction for • The DOT chose to address the safety issue by focusing
the scope, nature, and types of improvements considered primarily on roadside crash severity. Design solutions
appropriate for the Parkway over the long term. (see attached typical sections) incorporated 4-foot
shoulders and enhanced crash tested barrier sys-
tems that were visually less obtrusive than standard
STAKEHOLDERS guiderail. Barrier or rail was placed in the median
• Connecticut Department of Transportation depending on the presence of mature trees, which for
• Fairfield County, CT the most part were retained. Some rock outcroppings
• Merritt Parkway Working Group (comprised of DOT were selectively removed, but the general overall
staff in engineering, traffic, landscape design, mainte- roadside character was retained.
nance, construction and planning; outside experts in Note that, were this a new freeway or expressway, or
architecture and preservation) a similar route in a different context, the DOT would
• Local town officials apply more stringent design criteria for the roadside. The
• General public AASHTO Roadside Design Guide suggests up to 30 foot
clear as a target dimension from the edge of pavement,
CSD/CSS APPROACH with mild slopes and free of obstacles. Such a design, or
Much work and many meetings were held to wrestle with use of continuous barrier, was not considered appropriate
the conflicting issues of providing for safety (and in par- for the context of the Parkway.
ticular, roadside safety) and maintaining landscaping and
other visual features. Extensive research was conducted, Part of the design process was the development of a new,
including thorough site reviews and interviews with the aesthetic median barrier. To be acceptable, the barrier
original landscape architect, W. Thayer Chase, to fully needed to pass vehicle crash tests based on criteria estab-
understand and confirm his philosophies and intentions. lished in NCHRP Report 350, which specifies speeds,
angles of collision, and vehicle types, as well as defines
success or failure in the testing. The DOT also selected a
steel-back timber guide rail system after researching many
other systems. This unique system was also crash tested to
assure conformance with NCHRP Report 350 criteria.
Deliverables to be used by the DOT included ‘Merritt

Parkway Guidelines’ and ‘A Landscape Master Plan For
the Merritt Parkway.’
97
Finally, detailed studies of crash types and locations were LESSONS LEARNED
performed. Based on these studies, selected high risk trees
were removed, or identified for preservation, but with pro- This case study shows the importance of arriving at a
tection afforded them. vision or framework for problem solving before develop-
ing the solution. In the case here, articulating what the
As projects have been implemented, the DOT has moni- Merritt Parkway was (and was not) was necessary before
tored their performance. A key measure, improvement beginning design investigations.
in safety, has been successfully addressed. Although the
frequency of crashes has not decreased, the severity has. In
fact, this outcome could have been expected, as the place-
ment of improved barrier systems is intended to address
severity and not crash frequency.
STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT
The Working Group recommended establishment of a

Merritt Parkway Advisory Committee. This group would
review actual design and other plans and assure their
conformance with the guidelines and master plan. (It was
noted that in some cases direction was vague, and in others
contradictory. Location-specific interpretation required
some discussion.) Issues of long-term roadside mainte-
Another lesson learned was the importance of being flex-
nance were reviewed and some changes made as a result.
ible in the development and use of design criteria. Also,
addressing a safety problem with specific actions is illus-
Community involvement was extensive during develop-
trated here. The key safety problem, severity of roadside
ment of the guidelines and master plan. Elected officials
crashes, was directly addressed through a series of treat-
helped identify key stakeholders. Issues of invasive spe-
ments. Also note that a realistic view of what could be
cies, noise attenuation, visual effects, and loss of privacy
accomplished (a choice of aesthetics over safety) should
were discussed. Techniques included development of ren-
be a part of overall thinking and solution development.
derings to illustrate design and landscaping concepts.
A final lesson learned was the importance of involving
One group of stakeholders that in retrospect should
construction and maintenance staff in the development
have been included but was not initially was construc-
and evaluation of solutions.
tion experts. The close working areas and special design
features created unforeseen problems when the actual
individual projects were implemented. Based on construc-
tion experiences, minor changes in design of curbing, rock
outcropping removal, and other features were made for
future projects.
Public information meetings and workshops were held

to explain the vision and the approaches. These served to
further highlight the attention of the general public on the
Parkway, its future, and the need for improvements.
98
99
CASE STUDY NO. 2
MINNESOTA TH 61
NORTH SHORE SCENIC DRIVE
SETTING PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED

Minnesota’s Trunk Highway 61 (TH 61), North Shore TH 61 required reconstruction to replace the pavement.
Scenic Drive, runs northeasterly along the rocky and The basic cross section of two lanes each direction of
heavily forested edge of Lake Superior, for more than 150 travel was sufficient, but an effort was made to upgrade the
miles, from the regional trade center of Duluth to Canada. facility to modern design criteria.
TH 61 is both a scenic highway and tourist destination, as
well as a vital interregional and international trade corridor The challenge in doing so was to develop an alignment that
for northeastern Minnesota. As such, it passes through 19 met the needs of both visitors to the area as well as local
small communities, large tracts of state and national forest residents and business owners. Aside from being a tourist
resources and recreation areas, eight state parks, numer- and recreational driving destination, within an environ-
ous rivers, streams, historic sites, markers and points of mentally challenging area, the North Shore Scenic Drive
interest, many safety rest areas, wayside parks and camp- must provide adequate safety, mobility, and access for
local residents, businesses, recreation areas, and commer-
grounds, an Indian reservation, and a national monument.
cial trucking while accommodating bicyclists, pedestrians,
and rail crossings. Balancing transportation, community,
Visitors who travel along the North Shore Scenic Drive
environmental, and stakeholder needs along this corridor
hope to experience the magnificent landscapes, the cas-
was a tremendous challenge.
cading rivers, the rugged shorelines, and the breathtaking
vistas along with the other natural and cultural resources
and history that abound along this Lake Superior region. STAKEHOLDERS
The characteristics that draw visitors to this region are so
The overall project required coordination with 19 com-
unique that Minnesota’s TH 61 North Shore Scenic Drive munities, state and national forests, eight state parks, and
was recently designated and distinguished as an “All- an Indian reservation. For this segment of TH 61 North
American Road” in the National Scenic Byways Program. Shore Scenic Drive, coordination with local residents and
business owners, the community of Good Harbor Bay, and
a state park was necessary.
CSD/CSS APPROACH
Minnesota’s approach to the project focused on stakeholder
involvement to fully understand all issues, flexibility in
application of geometric design criteria, a commitment
to avoid rather than mitigate adverse impacts, and to look
for opportunities to enhance the project given its unique
characteristics.
The Minnesota Depart-

ment of Transportation’s
(Mn/DOT’s) reconstruc-
tion and realignment of TH
61 along Lake Superior’s
Good Harbor Bay illus-
trates a context sensitive
design approach that bal-
anced transportation, com-
munity, and environmental
needs without requiring
exceptions to geometric
100
design standards. This project also illustrates context sen- geometric design standards. Full lane widths and shoulder
sitive design that did not arise out of contentious public widths and appropriate roadside design for safety was pos-
involvement and controversy but rather out of proactive sible for the alignment based on the lower design speed.
project management and involvement of stakeholders. Finally, the effect of the lower speed resulted in Mn/DOT
saving considerable construction costs by avoiding exten-
sive rock cuts.
Design Flexibility and the
Application of Design Criteria
Stakeholder Involvement
The project designers and stakeholders applied the flex-
ibility already inherent in the AASHTO Green Book by Mn/DOT’s District One staff made key commitments early
selecting a 55 mile per hour (mph) design speed rather in the project development process:
than a 70 mph design speed that was initially
“
selected and used for preliminary alignment • To work closely with local commu-
investigations. The lower design speed was Above minimum design nities and stakeholders to establish
considered appropriate for the project’s values should be used a highway corridor vision . . . a safe
unique circumstances (transportation needs, and aesthetic highway that enhances
terrain, land uses, valued resources, etc.) and where feasible, but in the local communities through
maximized the flexibility to find the best view of the numerous which it passes.
roadway alignment balance point among the • To make context appropriate design
corridor’s safety, mobility, social, economic, constraints often decisions along this corridor.
and environmental goals. encountered, practical • To apply design flexibility to pre-
serve historic, natural, and scenic
Mn/DOT referenced boththe AASTO Green values should be corridor qualities.
Book and the ITE Traffic Engineering Hand-
book as technical information supporting
their selection of a lower design speed.
recognized and used.
” Meetings and discussions with the stake-
holders resulted in an articulation and
common understanding of these trans-
portation, community, and environmen-
The specific effects of a lower design speed were to allow
tal stakeholder objectives:
the highway alignment to be shifted and design flexibility
to be accomplished without the need for exceptions to • Improve roadway safety and traffic flow.
• Meet current and future transportation demands.
• Improve pavement quality.
• Improve an existing limited-use safety rest area facil-
ity.
• Minimize right-of-way and construction impacts and
costs.
• Remain consistent with north shore corridor visioning
and management goals.
• Enhance the scenic and visual qualities of the
corridor.
• Preserve historic and traditional views and vistas from
the highway.
• Preserve and enhance public access to the lakeshore.
• Avoid adverse impacts to residential and commercial
property owners.
• Avoid adverse impacts to the environment and state
parkland.
• Reduce erosion along the lakeshore and Cutface
Creek.
101
Design Enhancements – Fitting the Context LESSONS LEARNED

The alignment shift enabled the design to avoid conflicts This project demonstrates the importance of establishing
that would have required mitigation. Specifically, impacts key basic design criteria consistent with the context. It also
to a state park and relatively high cost and visually obtru- demonstrates a not well understood principle, that lower
sive rock cuts were avoided. design speeds in rural areas need not be considered less
safe than higher design speeds.
Mn/DOT went beyond avoidance, though. Consistent with
Mn/DOT’s context sensitive commitments and proactive Other lessons learned include the importance of working
stakeholder involvement, consensus was reached in deter- closely with stakeholders, and taking the opportunity to
mining project purpose and need to balance transportation, not only mitigate or avoid, but to enhance the environ-
community, and environmental objectives. Specifically, a ment as part of design and construction of a transportation
consensus was reached that selecting a lower design speed project.
appropriate for the project characteristics would provide
the flexibility to shift roadway alignment and balance proj- An overriding lesson learned was that proactive project
ect objectives without requiring exceptions to geometric management and stakeholder involvement, in combination
design standards. As part of the overall project, given the with appropriate and context sensitive design flexibility,
vision of the stakeholders and importance of the route as a accomplished project benefits that might otherwise be
resource, Mn/DOT seized the opportunity to enhance the foregone:
environment by the following actions:
• Geometric standards for the design speed were met
• Alignment shift provided additional space to enable without exceptions.
the expansion and reconstruction of the Cutface Creek • Safety and mobility improvements were added with
Rest Area. the alignment shifts.
• Mn/DOT undertook the stabilization of a shoreline • Right-of-way impacts and costs were minimized.
erosion problem. • Unnecessary construction impacts and costs were
• Cutface Creek bank stabilization was accomplished. minimized (rock cuts, disposal, etc.).
• The goals of the scenic north shore corridor vision
were met.
• Original and valued vistas of Lake Superior were pre-
served.
• Public access to the lakeshore was preserved and
enhanced.
• Improvements to the limited-use safety rest area were
added.
• Eroding areas were stabilized along the alignment
shift.
• State park impacts and rock cuts were minimized by
the alignment.
• The alignment fit the land forms and context physi-
cally and visually.
The application of appropriate and context sensitive design
flexibility during project development led to a successful
balance of transportation, community, and environmen-
tal needs that are served by the constructed project. The
constructed project also met four key measures of design
excellence: 1) community acceptance, 2) environmental
compatibility, 3) engineering and functional credibility,
and 4) financial feasibility.
102
103
CASE STUDY NO. 3
MARYLAND ROUTE 108

SETTING of the James Creek, affecting two existing structures and
raising concerns about erosion, increased run-off, and
Maryland Route 108 is a two-lane major arterial in Olney water quality.
Maryland, a suburb of Baltimore. It is one of two major
highways providing principal access to and through the Significant land uses along the corridor include Montgom-
Olney area. The roadway widens to a four-lane section ery General Hospital, an elementary school and a middle
between Homeland Drive and Hillcrest Avenue. Major school, and commercial development centered around the
signalized intersections within the corridor are at Olney intersection of Maryland Route 97 (Georgia Avenue) and
Mill Road, Maryland Route 97, Prince Phillip Drive, Route 108.
and Doctor Bird Road. The existing right-of-way varies
throughout the study area. By the mid 1980s, land development was rapidly occur-
ring, and contributing to increased traffic and resultant
The existing land use in the study area includes both congestion. Over 20,000 vehicles per day used the facility,
residential and commercial land uses. Three historic sites with traffic forecasts indicating a potential for as much as
(identified as potentially eligible for the National Regis- 35,000 vehicles per day by 2010.
ter) were identified along the project corridor. Portions
of the project corridor are within the 100-year floodplain The highway network and land development within the
general area are considered established. There were no
plans for addition of other parallel or crossing facilities
that would influence traffic patterns on Route 108.
PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED
Traffic already on the corridor exceeded the capacity of
Route 108. Expected future traffic increases would further
increase congestion. As a principal arterial, the function
of the route was to carry such regional traffic. There were
no opportunities to divert traffic to other parallel arterials.
Olney and the surrounding area is suburban in character,
with relatively low density development. The primary
transportation mode for regional through traffic was and
would remain the automobile.
104
The problem to be solved was to maximize the capacity STAKEHOLDERS

(traffic-carrying capability) of Route 108 to enable it to • Town of Olney Mill
carry out its function as an arterial serving the region. • Montgomery County, Maryland
Solving the problem required consideration of the context • Consultants
of the area, including both land use along the corridor and • Maryland SHA
other transportation needs. • Olney Mill Community Association
• Olney Mill Chamber of Commerce
Thus, the primary problem to be solved was to relieve • Individual business and property owners
congestion and provide through capacity. (numerous)
• Local state delegate (legislator)
Initial efforts to address the project focused on standard
solutions. The general plan called for Maryland Route CSD/CSS APPROACH
108 to become a multi-lane arterial throughout the proj-
ect length, with intersection capacity improvements at This project was conducted as the Maryland SHA was
the major intersections. Two alternatives were developed developing their “Thinking Beyond the Pavement” (TBTP)
for the project, incorporating both five-lane and divided approach. It is illustrative of the need for this approach, the
roadway solutions (see exhibit). One design speed was process, and the benefits.
assigned to the entire project. Implementation of the plan
would require right-of-way along the corridor and reloca-
tion of one residence on a church property was needed.
As the project moved ahead during the late 1980s, there

were concerns raised about the impacts of the proposed
solutions, the character of the road, the final appearance
of the highway, and other aspects such as treatment of
pedestrians. While the stakeholders were generally accept-
ing of the need for the project, there was some dissatisfac-
tion with the solutions proposed. Stakeholder concerns
included preservation of natural and historic features
(including large trees along the corridor, split rail fencing,
historic properties), inclusion of provision for bicycles
and pedestrians across and along the corridor, safety and
access to businesses, and the appearance of the corridor
(a desire for landscaping and other visual features was
expressed). Individual business owners were concerned
about effects on driveway access associated with widening
and vertical alignment.
The SHA initially conducted a normal, routine public

involvement process consisting of coordination with the
local town, location and design meetings, and a public
105
The SHA demonstrated flexibility in criteria by accept-

ing in spot locations variability in offset dimensions for
the bike path relative to the roadway, and by varying the
median treatment. Full standard lane widths were main-
tained throughout the corridor. Right-turn lanes were pro-
vided at high volume intersections to maximize capacity.
Care was taken in the design of all landscaping to assure
that intersection sight distance criteria were not violated.
hearing. The public hearing was held in June 1988,

at which almost concerns and objections to the plan
were raised.
In response to these concerns, the SHA committed to re-

evaluate the proposed design. Staff re-evaluated the proj-
ect’s history, justification, and commitments. The project
was field reviewed and video-taped, with a focus on deter-
mining first hand which site features were significant. The
re-evaluation looked at what was really needed, and ques- Utilities were placed along the border area (not in the
tioned the scope of the improvements. Focus was placed median as is typically done) to preserve the median for
on attempting to visualize the overall improvements. planting trees.
Given the urban context and design for speeds of 40 mph

or less, landscaping with full-size trees in both medians
and the roadside was considered acceptable from a safety
perspective.
Design Enhancements – Fitting the Context
Different design challenges required different approaches

in each of these zones to meet the character and local
context. In the residential zone (northwest project limits)
a less structured landscaping theme was developed (see
photos), with the hiker/biker trail designed to meander.
Design Flexibility and Application of Design Criteria
It was decided that the standard template solution would

not suffice throughout the 2.7-mile corridor. The corridor
was segmented into three areas defined by the surrounding
land uses – a residential zone, institutional zone, and com-
mercial zone. The operating speeds and speed limits would
vary by zone, as would treatment of the median.
The design approach also involved varying the alignment

of the road through the corridor to better fit surrounding
land uses and minimize conflicts.
106
In the commercial zone, the right-of-way and median are LESSONS LEARNED
narrower, and design treatment more structured. Provision
for left-turn lanes precluded the ability to provide treed This project was initiated in the mid-1980s and continued
landscaping, but plantings along the roadside in keeping through the mid-1990s. As such, it followed Maryland’s
with the commercial district’s environment were provided. advance into TBTP and CSD. This project contributed
In the institutional zone, the design focused on providing greatly to Maryland’s knowledge base and advancement
for a transition in view between the other two zones. in CSD. A number of specific lessons were learned by
Maryland’s staff :
• Early in the project, review and confirm the planning
Stakeholder Involvement framework, including the functional classification for
The SHA and its consultants committed to working the project and speeds (design speed).
closely with the residents and community to address all • Assess what is proposed, what is desired, and what
concerns. The CSD approach relied on numerous meetings is needed. Look beyond mere mitigation; and look
with town staff, elected officials, civic organizations and beyond the right-of-way to assess how the project will
business owners, and the public. Plans were continuously relate to the area.
reviewed, ideas suggested, and refinements made. Discus- • Multidisciplinary teams, including specifically land-
sions about trees, split rail fencing, the location and design scape architects, were recognized as being essential to
of bike trails, commercial area traffic patterns and access, project success.
and pedestrian safety were held over a series of months. • Project engineers should get out in the field to visual-
Professional staff demonstrated a willingness to be flexi- ize the project.
ble, propose different solutions, and strive for a consensus. • Develop the project with an emphasis on design
Note, however, that the fundamental purpose was retained, principles, utilizing engineering principles to achieve
the addition of through-carrying capacity. desired safety and functionality.
In summary, Maryland’s CSD approach focused on active,

field-involvement of their staff to visualize the project,
work directly with local stakeholders, and strive for a tai-
lored solution that addressed the problem but was designed
to fit the local context.
“ Aallow,
standard design template approach will not
or usually doesn’t provide, the opportunity to
address site-specific issues. This point is particularly
important given what we perceive to be a trend
toward having computers (CADD) design projects.
Software programs should be used for engineering.
Design requires more attention to detail, and is
something that computers can’t do.
”
MD 108 RE-EVALUATION PROCESS REPORT BY
DAN UEBERSAX AND JEFF SMITH
107
CASE STUDY NO. 4
MARYLAND ROUTE 355

SETTING CSD/CSS APPROACH
Maryland Route 355 was a two-lane highway in Mont- Completion of this major project required a comprehen-
gomery County linking communities in the Gaithersburg/ sive approach involving design creativity, stakeholder
Germantown area. The arterial parallels Interstate 270. The involvement, and agency coordination. This project also
route passes through Great Seneca Creek State Park. At the illustrated well the importance of maintaining context
southeast project limit is one major signalized intersection sensitivity and flexibility all the way through construction.
with Maryland Route 124. Other signalized intersections Staff from Maryland SHA noted that this project illus-
along the corridor include Middlebrook Road, Maryland trated well that having good people involved who were
118, and Maryland 27. The 2.6-mile route passes through flexible, who could “roll with the punches,” was a critical
residential areas, parks and open space, and commercial success factor.
areas.
While stakeholders recognized the need for the project
Significant regional traffic growth and localized develop- and understood the proposed solution, they expressed
ment resulted in traffic increases along Route 355. The concerns and desires about the execution of the design.
two-lane highway, originally designed as a rural road, Through numerous meetings, design revisions, and tailor-
became congested. Reconstruction of the route to accom- ing of the project, a context sensitive design solution was
modate existing and projected future traffic demand was accomplished.
apparent.
Design Flexibility and Application of Design Criteria

Fitting the desired cross section (a six-lane divided arte-
The identified problem was to provide enhanced mobility
rial with 12-foot lanes) into the corridor required design
for those using the Maryland Route 355 corridor. Mobility
flexibility along the route. Three notable examples are
issues included through traffic, intersection conflicts and
illustrated in the following photos.
bottlenecks, access management, and providing for pedes-
trians and bicyclists.
At one location, a special modular masonry retaining wall
was constructed to retain parking areas and driveway access
STAKEHOLDERS to commercial businesses. Special design was necessitated
when a problem with design mapping was found; the solu-
• City of Gaithersburg
tion retained the key functionality of the plan.
• Maryland National Capital Park and Planning
Commission
• Maryland Department of Natural Resources
• Numerous utility companies (water, gas, cable TV,
telephone electric)
• Community associations (Wheatfield Homeowners
Association, Foxchapel Homeowners Association,
Montgomery Village Foundation)
• Individual residential property owners
• Major employers (Lockheed Martin)
• Other business owners along the corridor (e.g., Holi-
day Inn, Aamco)
108
At another location, preservation of mature trees required The design also demonstrated a commitment to enhance
special design due to widening and profile requirements. the mobility of pedestrians. An 8-foot-wide, multi-use
Rather than a concrete or masonry wall, special timber (pedestrians and bicyclists) path was constructed, includ-
wall designs were used that blended into the surrounding ing brick splitter islands and special crosswalk treatments
area better. at intersections. Plantings were used at certain locations
to protect bicycle riders from steep slopes at drainage
structures. At a high volume bus shelter, the area for the
multi-use pathway was expanded to accommodate both
users and transit riders.
Perhaps the most notable feature of the project is the

design to accommodate the retention of a prominent,
beautiful mature oak tree. Original plans for the widening
showed the tree needed to be taken. Design staff from the
SHA reviewed the alignment and cross section, inspected
the tree and surrounding areas in the field, and committed
themselves to preserving the tree through re-design. The
cross section and horizontal alignment were adjusted to
place the tree in the median of Route 355. The profile of
one direction of travel was raised to create space for the
tree’s root system, and a special irrigation and monitor-
ing system was designed. Steel-backed, timber -faced
guardrail (meeting NCHRP 350 crash testing require-
ments) was used to shield the tree. (This more expensive
guardrail system was used elsewhere on the project,
including at Great Seneca Park, to blend into the natural
surroundings.)
109
Design and Construction Enhancements – Application of Montgomery County’s stormwater man-

Fitting the Context agement ordinance would have required taking of trees at
Design and construction staff made a concerted effort to one location. An alternative, use of a wetland bank, was
minimize the adverse effects of this major widening proj- agreed to by all stakeholders as the preferred solution.
ect. At Great Seneca Park, the project included reforesta-
tion and provision for a parking area and access pathway Design enhancements even extended to individual prop-
into the park. At other locations, similar field changes were erty owners. SHA’s construction engineer, noticing a
made to drainage swales, pathway location, and utility difficulty that would be faced by a resident using a recon-
relocation to enable retention of large trees. During constructed driveway, offered to construct a driveway T on the
struction, field staff noted that changes in the grading plan resident’s property to facilitate safely turning around and
would enable the retention rather than loss of a significant entering the arterial (rather than backing onto it).
number of major trees along the right-of-way; the changes
were made.
Tailoring of the design, resolving problems, and develop-

ing site-specific solutions required significant effort to
work with individual stakeholders. The discussion above
highlights some of this activity. There were many other
examples of working with stakeholders to accomplish
a finished design. For example, the SHA negotiated an
Memorandum of Agreement with the City of Gaithersburg
in which the city agreed to take responsibility for median
and roadside plantings within city limits. In turn, SHA was
able to commit to an enhanced landscaping plan above that
they otherwise would have implemented.
Individual agreements with homeowner associations were

Special plantings were used at stormwater ponds for also reached for plantings and aesthetic treatments. In one
neighborhoods, preserving the natural feel for the area. location, agreements were reached with property owners
At another stormwater pond on the Lockheed-Martin to include wood fencing on top of retaining walls for nose
property, an agreement was reached between the SHA and attenuation and improved privacy.
Lockheed-Martin for the use of the pond, and for replace-
ment and additional plantings. Other field changes were Extensive coordination with other governmental agency
made to accommodate plantings at a number of commer- stakeholders also occurred. In addition to the design
cial and residential properties (Holiday Inn, Montgomery improvements at Great Seneca Park, parking and pathway
Village Apartments). improvements, use of timber faced rail illustrate concerns
about the facility blending in with the Park.
110
LESSONS LEARNED
A number of key lessons can be gleaned from this case
study. First, CSD/CSS applies all the way through con-
struction. Indeed, many of the long lasting positive fea-
tures of the constructed solution were arrived at in the
construction phase. Second, related to the above, effective
CSD/CSS requires a local presence in the field. Third,
active engagement with individual stakeholders is neces-
sary to maintain context sensitivity. Solving problems one
by one requires working on an individual basis. Fourth,
paying attention to details is important. The cumulative
effect of a long series of small, seemingly insignificant
actions can have a measurable effect on the final product
and on stakeholder perceptions of the agency (SHA).
Finally, a lesson learned is that bringing the right resources

with the right sense of professional responsibility and
environmental stewardship, who are flexible and able to
deal with a number of unforeseen circumstances, is essen-
tial to project success. Converting a two-lane highway
into a six-lane arterial in a built-up area, and doing so in a
manner that the finished project fits with the surrounding
area, is no small feat.
111
CASE STUDY NO. 5
WASHINGTON SR 99
INTERNATIONAL BOULEVARD
SETTING to North Pierce County. Prior to the construction of the

Interstate System, SR 99 was a major Pacific coast route
The International Boulevard project is located within the spanning Washington, Oregon, and California. Today, that
City of SeaTac in King County, Washington (see Figure 1). portion of SR 99 within the Puget Sound region serves as a
King County, which includes the City of Seattle, is the regional link between cities and as a major route to Sea-Tac
most populous county in Washington. The City of SeaTac, Airport, with access to the terminal and airport parking. It
incorporated in 1990, has an area of roughly 16 square is also a part of the State’s urban arterial system, and has
miles and a population of about 23,000. Seattle-Tacoma been designated as a National Highway of Significance, as
(Sea-Tac) International Airport is located within the well as an emergency evacuation route.
SeaTac city limits.
Average 1992 daily traffic volumes on International Bou-
Vicinity Map Project Location levard varied from 31,600 vehicles per day (vpd) at South
170th Street to over 40,000 vpd at South 188th Street, with
the highest daily traffic volumes (over 42,000 vpd) occur-
ring directly adjacent to the airport entrance.
The project described in this case study is the first of these
segments, from South 188th Street to South 170th Street.
This section of International Boulevard fronts Sea-Tac Air-
port. Sea-Tac Airport and International Boulevard serve as
a gateway to the United States and Puget Sound region for
many visitors from around the world. International Bou-
levard has experienced significant traffic congestion, sub-
CSD_583_2
stantive safety problems, inadequate pedestrian facilities,
and unsightly commercial strip development. Solutions
The newly incorporated City developed Comprehensive to the transportation problems were sought that would
and Transportation Plans that established land use goals promote and enhance re-development of the corridor as an
and proposed transportation facility improvements. The attractive gateway.
City was designated as an urban center under the State’s
Growth Management Act and under that designation was
identified for substantial increases in the development
density along the City’s existing commercial corridor. This
development follows the International Boulevard corridor.
Existing land uses include some of the region’s largest
motels, Sea-Tac International Airport, office towers, air-
port-related rental car and park-and-fly facilities, and other
retail uses. The Transportation Plan proposed expansion
of International Boulevard to increase traffic capacity and
improve pedestrian access.
International Boulevard is a major north/south arterial that

serves local and regional traffic within the City of SeaTac,
Washington (see Figure 2). International Boulevard, is
part of signed State Route 99 (SR 99) which spans three
counties and over 50 miles from South Snohomish County
112
The following is a summary of the transportation problems CONGESTION AND MOBILITY PROBLEMS
to be addressed:
The level of service (LOS) for the existing p.m. peak hour
for five key intersections ranged from B to F in the project
SAFETY PROBLEMS corridor. The corridor is well-served by transit. Prior to
the project, there were ten transit stops within the project
Accident rates for mid-block segments were as high limits (five northbound and five southbound). Only three
as 4.9 accidents per million vehicle miles for the sec- of the ten transit stops provided a shelter for transit users.
tion between South 188th Street and the Airport Access.
Approximately 55 percent of the accidents in the corridor Significant design constraints included limited existing
are property damage only; the remaining 45 percent are right-of-way (100 feet), and substantial underground and
injury accidents. There were two fatal accidents in the overhead utilities.
corridor during the period between 1990 and 1993. A
number of the more serious crashes involved pedestrians.
Other crash problems were associated with the lack of
access control along the corridor and the strip commercial
development.
Utility Undergrounding Before and After
CSD_584_2 CSD_586_2
Before and After Before and After
CSD_587_2
CSD_585_2
113
STAKEHOLDERS citywide newsletters. This initial effort was completed in

• SeaTac Community Planning Department May 1994 with the adoption of the plan at a City Council
• International Boulevard Committee meeting.
• Washington State Department of Transportation
(WSDOT) Opposition to the plan surfaced after the City Council had
• King County/Metro Transit (Metro) acted to adopt it, when meetings were held with individual
• Port of Seattle property owners to discuss right-of-way needs and prop-
• Puget Power erty interface designs. The IBC Committee included some
• General public representatives from adjacent businesses.
CSD/CSS APPROACH A series of meetings with property owners and WSDOT

was held over several months to develop solutions to prop-
Stakeholders were able to obtain funding for improvements erty owner concerns regarding reduced access. Generally,
to the corridor. The amount of the funding available for the concepts developed consisted of various configura-
design, construction, and right-of-way was $7.3 million. tions for mid-block median breaks to enable partial or full
Restrictions on the limit of funds were available meant access movements. Driveway consolidations were also
that the project had a tight schedule, with an advertising considered, along with joint access between properties.
for bids required within 15 months from beginning of the Ultimately, a final public hearing was held to review the
project development process. need for access management and the alternative access
concepts that had been discussed with property owners
Initial funding was based on a plan that envisioned widen- throughout the summer, and to get City Council adoption
ing International Boulevard to a seven-lane cross-section, of the access concepts that would be integrated into the
including sidewalks. Concurrently, with initial planning, final design. This hearing resulted in a majority consensus
the City of SeaTac’s Department of Community Develop- on acceptable access concepts, although a small number of
ment was working with a citizen and business advisory property owners were not satisfied with the final plan.
committee, the International Boulevard Corridor Advisory
Committee, (IBC Committee), to develop a land use plan Design Flexibility and
for the corridor, which also included urban design and
transportation infrastructure considerations. The City
Application of Design Criteria
assigned the IBC Committee a responsibility to review the The project design development process included consid-
development of the street design. eration of three build alternatives and a no-build alterna-
tive. The alternatives included five-, six-, and seven-lane
Other major stakeholders for the project included WSDOT, configurations for the roadway. The alternatives repre-
Metro, and the Port of Seattle. Each made financial contri- sented a spectrum of possible traffic improvements for
butions to the construction budget. WSDOT had partial International Boulevard. All alternatives provided side-
jurisdiction for this project given their responsibility walks for pedestrians and widened curb lanes to accom-
and authority for geometric design and safety for SR 99. modate bicycles and transit. Optional design features were
WSDOT concerns focused on their recently adopted also developed that could be incorporated into any one of
statewide Access Management Plan, which called for the three build alternatives. The design options included
reconstruction projects along state routes to meet speci- either a raised, landscaped center median or a median con-
fied access management standards. Metro was concerned sisting of a continuous two-way, left-turn lane. Alternative
about the speed and reliability of transit services along SR capacity improvements, HOV/transit treatments, access
99. Because SR 99 is a primary access route to Sea-Tac management measures, non-motorized mode options,
Airport, the Port of Seattle was concerned about increasing signal system improvements, utility modifications, illu-
the capacity of the roadway. mination concepts, and landscaping treatments were also
developed.
The schedule, number of stakeholders with different
interests, and complexity of the project required close Many of the design challenges on the International Boule-
coordination and a comprehensive but focused planning vard project are described below, and discussed as to how
process. The process was designed to identify issues and they were accommodated.
needs, develop alternatives, and evaluate and establish the Public and agency opinions regarding capacity needs
preferred alternative. The alternative selected (presented in ranged from reducing the number of lanes and empha-
detail in the next section) included a center, raised median sizing local access to widening the arterial to seven or
and other access management measures. Information on more lanes provide additional regional capacity. Limited
the planning work was provided at two open houses and in construction funding and right-of-way constraints made
114
cost-efficiency an important consideration. Decisions were

made to add an HOV lane in the p.m. peak flow direction Trees in Narrow Median
(southbound), add approach lanes at congested intersec-
tions, incorporate access management measures, improve
the signal system, and enhance facilities for transit and
non-motorized modes.
Treatments to improve the accessibility, speed, and reli-
ability for transit and HOVs included the southbound
HOV lane, new bus shelters, bus stop enhancements, and
signal design to enable transit signal priority. New guide-
lines on arterial HOV lane signing and striping, recently
established through a regional ad hoc committee, were
incorporated into the design.
CSD_588_2
Pedestrian amenities included sidewalks, decorative light-
Integration of Public Art
ing at bus zones, sidewalk linkages to adjacent land uses,
and two mid-block signalized pedestrian crossings (one of
these is combined with a new signalized driveway access).
Because this roadway is currently the only north-south
route for bicycle travel, Class IV Bikeway lanes were also
provided.
All existing and new signals were furnished with NEMA-
type controllers to allow integration with the rest of the
City’s signal system. These signals were interconnected
and controlled with an arterial master controller. In addi-
tion, the system included equipment to enable signal prior-
ity in the future. CSD_589_2
The need to relocate utilities due to the road reconstruc- Landscape Treatments
tion and public concern regarding the poor aesthetics of
overhead utility lines led to a decision to underground
and reconfigure the utilities. Electrical power distribu-
tion lines and telephone and television cables were placed
underground. Power transmission lines were relocated on
new poles at greater spacing. The illumination system was
improved to meet current lighting standards. To save money
and improve construction coordination, this work was
included in the roadway construction contract (ordinarily
the utility companies construct these improvements).
Aesthetics were improved by planting trees along the
sidewalks, special sidewalk paving patterns, a land-
scaped median, and landscaped transitions with adja- CSD_590_2
cent properties. Access Management

The most controversial issue for this project involved
implementation of raised medians for access control and
safety. The combination of speed (45-mph speed limit),
high traffic volume, and number of lanes led to an agree-
ment to replace the center two-way, left-turn lane with a
raised median; driveway controls and consolidations were
also included. Compromises included the incorporation of
U-turn designs into key intersections and the development
of two mid-block median openings (one of these was sig-
nalized to provide consolidated driveway access).
CSD_591_2
115
STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT • Access management is only one part of the design

for reconstruction of an arterial street. Access man-
The plan reflected an active and ongoing effort to negoti- agement measures were integrated into the overall,
ate solutions and design compromises among the vari- comprehensive design. Access management measures
ous stakeholders. The final plan included some concepts alone would not have satisfied all of the conditions
that did not meet WSDOT standard design approaches. at hand, including the needs of the community and
Unusual features included U-turn median openings, provi- agency stakeholders.
sion for landscaping in the median, and a mid-block pedes- • Use of raised medians within the arterial cross-sec-
trian signal. WSDOT was involved in the decision process tion is only one of the access management tools to be
and understood the required compromises. Land owners considered. Access management should be considered
compromised as well, accepting access consolidation and as a solution to solve traffic safety concerns. Other
the raised median in return for other amenities. The City measures such as driveway designs, controls, reduc-
of SeaTac submitted requests and justifications for several tions, and consolidations should also be emphasized
design exceptions to WSDOT and received approval to to address safety problems.
implement the adopted plan. • Inclusion of medians on arterial reconstruction proj-
ects has some problems that need to be considered.
LESSONS LEARNED These include change or reduction of access to some
properties and generation of U-turn demand at inter-
This project illustrated well that dealing with multiple, sections, which affects safety and traffic capacity.
conflicting stakeholders within a constrained budget and Therefore, it is likely that reconstruction to include a
schedule is possible as long as the key stakeholders under- median may only be warranted under certain condi-
stand the problem, have a clear vision of the solution, tions such as high volumes (e.g. greater than 30 thou-
employ an open and creative process, and commit them- sand vehicles per day), high speeds (e.g. greater than
selves to compromise. The project also illustrated well that 40 miles per hour), and multi-lane cross-sections (e.g.
CSD/CSS represents a series of choices, not mandates. greater than four lanes).
Issues of number of lanes, mobility for different users, dif- • Medians can provide other benefits (beyond vehicle
ferent ways to treat access safety problems were all looked traffic safety) for a comprehensive design solution.
at from different perspectives. These can include safety for transit, bicycles, and
pedestrians. They provide opportunity for landscaping
Many design issues and constraints needed to be addressed and aesthetic improvements. They can help reduce the
during the course of planning and design of the project. amount of impervious surface and thereby reduce the
The affected community and agencies were actively amount of stormwater drainage and detention system
involved in the development and evaluation of alternatives, requirements.
and negotiation of modifications to the design. Diverse • Substantial public education and involvement is
views of the various community and agency stakeholders needed when considering access management as
needed to be considered. The adopted design was a com- a part of a major arterial design solution. Business
prehensive solution to the conditions, and the design incor- owners are almost always going to oppose these
porated elements of transportation capacity, HOV/transit measures at the beginning of the design process.
treatments, access management measures, non-motorized The community and agency stakeholders need to be
mode improvements, signal system improvements, utility brought along slowly, first understanding the issues
and illumination enhancements, and landscaping improve- and problems (such as accident problems), then look-
ments. ing at the solutions (which may include some access
management measures).
Specific lessons learned dealt with access management,
which is generally the most difficult issue to address in While good technical guidance is important for agencies to
built-up urban arterials. For the International Boulevard employ, in actual application it is likely that compromises
project, access management was the single most contro- will be needed in order to get agreement to include any
versial and challenging aspect of the project. access management measures in a typical design problem.
In the case of the International Boulevard project, if com-
promise breaks in the raised median were not identified
and accepted, the project may not have been acceptable to
the key stakeholders.
116
117
CASE STUDY NO. 6
COBBLESTONE STREET
INTERPRETIVE PARK
BOONVILLE, MISSOURI
SETTING
Boonville, Missouri lies along the south bank of the
Missouri River about 90 miles east of Kansas City. The
Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) was
planning the construction of a new bridge over the Mis-
souri River to carry traffic using U.S. Route 40.
As part of the site investigations and planning, a cobble-
stone street in Boonville was re-discovered. The street was
believed to be the first paved street west of St. Louis. Its
construction consisted of cut limestone curbs set about 50
feet apart with unmortared limestone cobbles of various
sizes, Cobblestone drainage ditches extended the length
of the street.
The cobblestone street represented a precious link
to the days of steamboat traffic. From the 1830s
to early 1860s, hundreds of steamboats docked
at the Boonville wharf each year. Mulecarts and
horse-drawn wagons carried freight up the steep
slope of the river bank to the businesses at the top
of the wharf. Boonville was a regional center of
trade; with farmers and merchants shipping pork,
flour, tobacco, and other products down river
to St. Louis.
After the Civil War, railroads began to replace
steamboats. The first railroad reached Boonville
in 1869; busy steamboat traffic ended shortly
thereafter.
Through the intervening years, the cobblestone
street entered into disuse. Three to 4 feet of soil
accumulated gradually over the northern block of
the street. The southern block remained untouched
until construction of the 1924 Old Trails National
Highway Bridge.
In 1989, as the MoDOT began planning efforts
for the new bridge, the Director of Friends of
Historic Boonville called MoDOT’s attention to
the wharf area and street. Wharf Hill had recently
been placed in the National Register of Historic
Places, and the Director wanted assurances that
the historic property would be preserved and/or
protected during bridge construction.
118
PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED curbing salvaged from damaged locations and replaced to

resemble the original 1830s paving.
The problem was essentially to investigate the site and
determine what measures would be needed to preserve the The design of the park
cobblestone street and other elements of the historic site. itself involved collabora-
tion among the many
STAKEHOLDERS stakeholders. The park
• Missouri Department of Transportation was designed to be ADA-
• City of Boonville accessible. Other objec-
• Friends of Historic Boonville tives in planning the park
• Missouri Department of Natural Resources included preservation of
• Missouri Historic Preservation Program Office the street in its original
• Advisory Council for Historic Preservation location, incorporation of
• Americans with Disabilities Act Project of Columbia the Old Trails National
Highway Bridge elements
CSD/CSS APPROACH into the park, provision
for interpretive stations to
The CSD/CSS approach combined active discussions inform visitors of the his-
among the stakeholders involving field investigations, tory and importance of the site, and pleasing landscaping.
negotiations, and the development of a plan to not only
preserve, but indeed enhance the historic resource. Eleven years after being informed of the cobblestone
street, the interpretive park was completed and opened for
Archaeological investigations of the street showed that all to enjoy. It has become a local landmark, and a source
much of it was disturbed through portions, but other por- of pride within not only Boonville, but also the Missouri
tions remained undamaged. There were difficulties in fully Department of Transportation.
investigating the status of the street as an existing railroad
bed crossed over the street.
Stakeholders (MoDOT and the Friends of Historic Boon-

ville) agreed upon a plan wherein preservation of the street
would be accomplished through development of an inter-
pretative park. Preliminary design plans were developed
and approved by the Department of Natural Resources and
other state offices. It was agreed that upon completion of
the park the City of Boonville would retain ownership.
Construction of the park required careful planning. Special

rubber-tired equipment was used in removing the overbur-
den to minimize possible damage to the cobblestones.
Some areas were repaired, with cobbles and cut limestone
LESSONS LEARNED
Local stakeholders are the key to identifying and preserv-
ing local historic and other cultural resources. A commit-
ment to work with them can yield projects of great value
and pride.
This project also illustrates that the job of a DOT goes

beyond the mere provision of safe and efficient transporta-
tion. Seizing opportunities to preserve and enhance a com-
munity are what CSD/CSS is all about.
119
CASE STUDY NO. 7
U.S. ROUTE 6
BROOKLYN, CONNECTICUT
SETTING
U.S. Route 6 is the primary regional arterial carrying
east-west traffic between Hartford, Connecticut and
Providence, Rhode Island. U.S. Route 6 passes through
the Town of Brooklyn roughly half way between the two
cities. Route 6 is a major, principal arterial in rolling ter-
rain operating with 8,000 to 10,000 vehicles per day at
relatively high speeds on the approaches to the town. The
Route carries substantial through truck traffic.
Improvements to U.S. Route 6 were identified as necessary

as far back as the 1950s. Planning studies were conducted
The Town of Brooklyn is typical of small Connecticut in the 1970s to investigate the potential for developing an
towns. The main road proceeds through the center of town. expressway facility on independent alignment parallel to
There are many historic and treasured features within the U.S. Route 6. Environmental concerns and opposition to
town, including the Town Hall, Unitarian-Universalist the expressway resulted in it being dropped from consid-
Church, the Town Green, an historic Well House, and a eration in the early 1980s. At that point, it was recognized
150-year-old Copper Beach Tree. The Center of Brooklyn that improvements to existing east-west corridors, and in
is designated as the Brooklyn Green Historic District and particular to U.S. Route 6, were necessary.
is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
U.S. Route 169, a north-south primary arterial, crosses
U.S. Route 6. U.S. Route 169 is a Connecticut Scenic The 5-mile section of U.S. Route 6 was the last segment
Road and a National Scenic Highway. not upgraded. Problems to be addressed included replace-
ment of the pavement that had deteriorated due to heavy
The existing road for Route 6 is narrow, with narrow or truck traffic, improvements to the alignment to address
no shoulders in many places. The horizontal and vertical safety problems, and improvements to the cross section
alignment reflect outdated design criteria, produce sight to facilitate safe operations. The following specific traf-
distance deficiencies, and create difficulties for drivers. fic operational problems were identified associated with
For much of the project area, residences abut the highway. the combination of the geometry, traffic, and roadside
The difficult alignment and poor sight distance adversely conditions:
affect drivers entering and exiting driveways. • Turning vehicles delay through traffic and create rear-
end conflicts, and lack of shoulders limits the ability
to perform emergency avoidance maneuvers
• Enforcement of speed limits is difficult due to lack of
shoulders
120
• Driveway access and local mail delivery is a safety DESIGN FLEXIBILITY AND THE APPLICATION OF
concern, due to poor sight distance and lack of shoul- DESIGN STANDARDS
ders
• Rock cuts, trees, drainage structures, and other objects Connecticut DOT staff reduced the design speed from
represent hazards to drivers 55 mph to 45 mph on the approach to the town. This
• Poor pavement condition and inadequate drainage had the desirable effect of minimizing roadside impacts
exists in many locations and facilitating driveway access. Emphasis in the align-
• Four creeks cross U.S. 6 within the project limits
STAKEHOLDERS
• Town of Brooklyn (general public, adjacent landown-
ers)
• Town Council
• Local wetland commission
• State Department of Environmental Protection
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
• Environmental Protection Agency
CSD/CSS APPROACH
ment and cross section design was placed on developing
The Connecticut DOT looked at multiple alternatives to
speed consistency and reducing speeds gradually on the
address the need to maintain and even upgrade the traffic
approaches to the town. Achieving this involved varying
carrying capability of U.S. Route 6. Among the alterna-
the cross section. On either side of the Historic District,
tives considered was a bypass of the center of town. This
full 12-foot lanes and 8-foot shoulders were designed,
would have meant running traffic through residential
representing substantial geometric improvements over the
neighborhoods so focus was placed on improving the
existing cross section. Vertical alignment upgrades were
existing alignment.
accomplished, and minor horizontal alignment improve-
ments were made. On the approach to the Historic District,
Given the overall context, U.S. Route 6 was to remain a
the roadway is tapered from 40-foot total to 32 feet by nar-
two-lane principal arterial. While residents of Brooklyn
rowing the shoulders (the 40-foot width was retained in
recognized the function of the highway, and also acknowl-
some locations that included commercial driveways). The
edged their own concerns about its safety, they expressed
narrowing of the shoulder was accompanied by signing
strong preference for a design that did not adversely effect
and landscaping to visually narrow the feel of the road
the character of the town, and specifically, the Green.
and promote lower speeds through the town. Sidewalks
Indeed, a concern of the town was the speeds of through
were added along one side of the road at the request of
traffic and conflicts with pedestrians and local business
the Town.
traffic in the town.
The project represented a design challenge. Improving

the vertical alignment resulted in potential adverse effects
on front yards, older trees, stone fences, and wetlands.
Similarly, developing a functional, wider shoulder offered
similar adverse impacts. It was necessary to select a design
speed and execute a design that balanced the through-traf-
fic carrying capability of the road with its impact on the
community.
121
Some horizontal curve improvements were made, and inter-

section improvements (including closing of some minor
intersections to eliminate conflict points) were included.
Signal system improvements were also included.
Throughout the design process, Connecticut DOT staff

worked closely with all stakeholders to avoid adverse
effects. Some operational and safety features, most nota-
bly a proposed truck climbing lane, were eliminated to
minimize adverse effects.
Town of Brooklyn stakeholders were initially skeptical
of Connecticut DOT staff. A long and contentious history
related to studies of the proposed expressway was a legacy
to overcome. It was necessary to work hard to establish a
positive working relationship.
The relatively close right-of-way and frequent points of

conflict represented challenges to the DOT staff attempt-
ing to explain design concepts, and to town residents
concerned about effects on the Green, the church, and the
Copper Beach tree.
Connecticut DOT staff used visualization techniques

for one of the first times to help depict designs and dis-
cuss alternatives with the townspeople. Visualizations
were particularly helpful in investigating alignment and
intersection concepts through the Green.
122
123
CASE STUDY NO. 8
KENTUCKY
PROPOSED I-66
SETTING Lake, Lake Cumberland, Cumberland Falls State Park,
General Burnside State Park, Levi Jackson State Park,
In 1997, the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC) and the Sheltowee Trace National Recreation Trail. These
completed a study that concluded that the Southern Ken- are areas of scenic beauty and biodiversity with numer-
tucky Corridor (I-66), previously identified as part of a ous blue-line streams, natural wetlands, and, through-
priority corridor in the Intermodal Surface Transportation out the western portion of the study area, an extensive
Efficiency Act (ISTEA) was feasible. The longer corridor cave system.
was subdivided into segments with independent utility.
The segment from Somerset to London was identified as a In June 1999, KYTC presented an initially preferred
high priority corridor in the Transportation Equity Act for corridor at public meetings in the two communities.
the 21st Century (TEA-21). An alternative that largely followed existing KY 192
was presented as the preferred alternative. Generalized
The Somerset to London segment of I-66 would provide corridors north and to the middle of the study area had
an interstate-level connection between the Daniel Boone been considered by KYTC staff but not carried forward.
Parkway to the east and the Louis B. Nunn (Cumberland) The southerly location of KY 192 offers the advantage of
Parkway to the west. There are two existing linkages, KY not crossing the wild river portion of Rockcastle River, of
80 and KY 192. KY 80, to the northern side of the study having less adjacent development that would require either
area, consists of two-and four-lane sections and has only acquisition or access roads, and of providing more acces-
partial access control. KY 192, to the southern side of the sibility to the tourism and recreation areas important to the
study area, is an older two-lane highway with two nine- region’s economy.
foot-wide lanes and two-foot shoulders.
Both existing linkages

experience both safety and
emerging traffic opera-
tional problems typical for
their age and design char-
acteristics. Twenty eight
percent of the mileage
along KY 80 is considered
to be “high accident” mile-
age, and fully 59 percent
of KY 192 similarly high
accident mileage. Existing
traffic volumes are highly
variable along both routes
but are forecast to increase
from 100 to 200 percent
over the next 30 years.
Current traffic operates at
level of service (LOS) B
to C, but will decline to
LOS D/E/F conditions by 2030 if no action is taken in the While many citizens who attended the public meetings
Somerset to London segment. favored improving KY 192 or at least supported the con-
cept of constructing I-66, there was considerable oppo-
The study area is home to many natural, scenic, and sensi- sition to the KYTC identified preferred corridor based
tive areas such as the Daniel Boone National Forest, the on concerns with the environmental impacts along the
state designated wild river portion of Rockcastle River, corridor. Approximately two-thirds of those responding
Cane Creek Wildlife Management Area, Laurel River
124
favored I-66 but about half of those responding identi- This approach was evident in the KYTC’s reaction to
fied an alternative other than KYTC’s initially preferred public input from the 1999 meetings. Following the June
alternative. 1999 meetings, KYTC acknowledged the need to reexam-
ine the criteria and process that led them to identify the
initially preferred alternative.
The problem faced by KYTC was how to: The northern corridors, including the KY 80 corridor, that
were previously not given detailed consideration in part
• Address a priority corridor identified in TEA-21 and
because of the crossing of a wild river, were reexamined
receiving considerable Congressional attention
with a realization that use of the existing right-of-way
• Prevent extensive LOS “F” as traffic volumes
would not constitute the same level of impact as the need
increased in a popular recreation area
for new right-of-way.
• Reduce already high accident rates likely to increase
as traffic volume increased
An alternative corridor was identified that would cross
• Improve economic conditions in a traditionally higher
more National Forest land, but would cross through areas
unemployment/lower income area through improved
that have been extensively modified through logging
transportation facilities
and mining.
• Provide a revised process for corridor(s) evaluation
that would involve stakeholders while yielding rec-
The level of information available to the public was
ommendations consistent with the project goals
expanded substantially. The data and decision making
processes are well documented on the Internet as well as
STAKEHOLDERS through more traditional media. The Evaluation Matrix
A wide range of stakeholders representing environmental, explicitly shows the tradeoffs involved in this complex
economic development, statewide, and local interests were multi-disciplinary decision.
involved in the project. Due to the sensitive nature of the
study area, many resource and regulatory agencies were Through the new alternatives development process and
also directly involved. active stakeholder engagement, KYTC staff determined
that an overall better alignment solution was available.
• Cumberland Valley Area Development District
The selection of what is known as the N-4 Alternative as
• Federal Highway Administration
the preferred alternative kept open the door for ongoing
• Kentuckians for the Commonwealth
refinements, particularly still greater use of the KY 80 cor-
• Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife
ridor near Somerset.
• Kentucky Heartwood
• Kentucky Heritage Council
In the planning stage, KYTC decided to use fairly typical
• Kentucky Tourism Development Cabinet
AASHTO design criteria. However, even in a planning
• Kentucky Transportation Cabinet
report KYTC acknowledges the role flexibility plays in
• KICK 66
highway design. Future phases of the I-66 corridor project
• Lake Cumberland Area Development District
may involve further geometric criteria and issues, at which
• National Speleological Society
point it would be appropriate to begin consideration of
• Sierra Club Cumberland Chapter
potential flexible design components. The purpose of flex-
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
ible design methods is to aid designers in the design and
• U.S. Forest Service, Daniel Boone National Forest
construction of a roadway while preserving or enhancing
scenic, historic, environmental and community resources
CSD APPROACH in the vicinity of the project.
The planning phase of I-66 Somerset to London segment
occurred about the same time that Kentucky was moving Current preliminary design efforts in the vicinity of
into the national forefront of the context sensitive design Somerset include a stakeholder group that has developed
movement. While not yet in the final design stage where criteria to evaluate alternatives. These evaluations will be
design flexibility is most appropriate, KYTC has been part of the data reviewed by the project team as they make
implementing the spirit of CSD/CSS on I-66 through their project decisions.
approach to public involvement, environmental consider-
ations, and open decision making. Public involvement near Somerset has resulted in refine-
ment of preliminary alternatives so that they do not divide
areas that are already developed.
125
LESSONS LEARNED Initial impressions of desirable features are not necessar-

ily correct. In part, a southerly alternative was initially
In one form or another, the I-66 project has been under preferred in order to bring more traffic to tourist recreation
consideration in Kentucky since the mid-1980s and is areas. However, these areas are heavily used now and may
actively moving forward today. In some respects the proj- not be able to accommodate significant increased traffic.
ect is one of the reasons Kentucky has not only embraced
Thinking Beyond the Pavement and Context Sensitive Although all of the corridor alternates pass through the
Design, they have become a leader. Daniel Boone National Forest, more detailed review
determined that there were major differences among the
Public involvement needs to be a more significant part of corridors with regard to the levels of impacts. Examin-
the planning process than it has been in the past. Although ing alternatives and highlighting the differences led to a
Kentuckians are historically more receptive of new high- different decision than was earlier made, but one that has
way projects than citizens elsewhere, the level of dissat- appeared to garner more widespread support.
isfaction on this project threatened to stop what had the
hallmarks of a popular and needed project.
126
127
CASE STUDY NO. 9
TOWSON
ROUNDABOUT
TOWSON, MARYLAND
SETTING
Towson, Maryland is a suburb of Baltimore, in Baltimore
County, Maryland. Near the central part of the Towson
business district, four major arterials converge at a single
location. Joppa Road, York Road, Alleghany Avenue, and
Dulaney Valley Road meet at a large, complex multi-leg DESIGN FLEXIBILITY AND
signalized intersection.
APPLICATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA
Towson is the Baltimore County seat. A number of his-
torically significant governmental buildings are near the Original efforts by Maryland SHA staff to solve the
downtown, including the Baltimore County Courthouse. traffic operational problem focused on traditional solu-
The town is also home to a number of businesses and tions – removing one or more legs of the intersection to
universities. simplify operations. These solutions, however, were not
well received as they would have produced substantial
changes to traffic patterns and would have disadvantaged
PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED many businesses. The SHA took another look at the
The transportation problem to be solved was relieving project. A number of alternatives were developed. Even-
the congestion and improving the safety of the awkward, tually, a signalized roundabout emerged as the preferred
multi-leg signalized intersection. In addition, the business solution. At the time this alternative was proposed (mid-
community and City of Towson believed that improve- 1990s) roundabouts were relatively new to the U.S. The
ments to the economic viability of the downtown busi- SHA engaged expert consultants to help development in
nesses were needed. analysis of roundabout solutions. SHA staff were open to
considering a new and “untested” design solution for this
The project thus became a combination of congestion difficult location.
relief and local economic enhancement.
STAKEHOLDERS
• City of Towson
• Baltimore County
• Maryland State Highway Administration
• Towson Business Association
• Goucher College
• Individual business owners
• Utility companies
CSD/CSS APPROACH
The Maryland SHA took a proactive approach involving
substantial public outreach to understand all problems
and issues and to develop a plan for the intersection and
surrounding street system that would enjoy widespread After the decision was made to build the roundabout, plans
support. The project became more than just an intersec- to incorporate major streetscape improvements to the
tion improvement project, but instead became a downtown approach streets were developed and included in the proj-
Towson enhancement project. ect. The purpose of the streetscape program was to enhance
the downtown, and promote the Towson businesses.
The circumstances required both a unique design solution
as well as extensive community involvement.
128
STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT businesses about adverse effects during construction. The

SHA assigned an on site construction liaison, who was a
The many stakeholders required an intensive effort day-to-day presence during construction. Problems were
to engage and work with all groups. A task force was identified immediately and dealt with expeditiously during
formed comprised of representatives of the SHA, Bal- construction. Continual contact with stakeholders gave the
timore County, the community, and Towson Business business community a sense that their concerns were being
Association. This 30-to 40-member group met monthly to addressed and everything was being done that could be to
keep informed, trade information, consider design issues, minimize adverse impacts.
and deal with funding and local coordination issues. The
Towson Business Association served as a conduit for indi-
vidual businesses to raise questions or seek information FITTING THE CONTEXT –
about the project. Issues of importance ranged from poli- A SUCCESSFUL TOTAL SOLUTION
cies on cost sharing of streetscaping, to on-street parking,
utility coordination, maintenance of traffic, and business The roundabout and streetscape project are considered a
impacts during construction. major success. Traffic flow has improved greatly. After an
initial 6-month ‘learning curve’ by drivers and pedestrians,
One of the colleges in the town has a special program for crashes have reduced and their severity is less than before
the disabled. A major concern was the accommodation of construction.
blind pedestrians in the downtown. There is also a large
population of elderly in the area, many of which walk in
the downtown area. Special outreach to this constituency
was part of the stakeholder program.
The roundabout itself and the improvements to the streets

are a local source of pride. Moreover, addressing the traffic
problems and improving the appearance of the downtown
The Maryland SHA and Task Force recognized that many has been credited with re-vitalization of the local business
citizens would be apprehensive about or not understand community. A large retail building that was vacant prior
the new, unique design solution of the roundabout. An to construction has since been acquired and opened by a
extensive public information and outreach campaign was major retailer. According to the Towson Business Associ-
developed to explain the project and demonstrate and ation’s Year 2000 Business Directory, “The Roundabout
educate how roundabouts work (driver behavior, pedes- has relieved traffic congestion in this busy area. Other
trian accommodation). Visualizations were used to show improvements such as streetscaping and landscaping make
how the streetscape and roundabout would change the Towson an even more attractive place for people to live,
downtown atmosphere for the better . A special video was attend school, or take a break for a day of shopping.”
produced that explained how roundabouts worked. Given
the nature of many of the constituents, it was necessary to LESSONS LEARNED
hold many group meetings at churches, retirement centers,
and other venues. There were many small group meetings This project illustrates the importance of understanding the
held throughout the area during the project. entire problem and looking at traffic or congestion prob-
lem as more than just a traffic engineering issue. There
Stakeholder involvement was also viewed as critical during is a relationship between congestion, safety, and livability.
actual construction of the roundabout and streetscape pro-
gram, due to the tight working areas and concerns of local
129
Using the intersection project as a means of enhancing an Investments in landscaping must be accompanied by a
important downtown business district is being context sen- commitment from some entity to maintain the landscap-
sitive in the true sense of the term. ing. SHA staff noted this was a lesson learned after they
had completed this project; and it is one that helped shape
Other lessons learned include the importance of an inten- their current policies with other communities.
sive and tailored public involvement program that reaches
all stakeholders in ways that fit their needs. Part of this
effort includes the business community. Another part
included the specific messages (what are roundabouts,
how do they work, what should drivers and pedestrians do)
as well as the different media used for delivering the mes-
sages. Maintaining constant stakeholder contact through
construction is also viewed as critical to project success.
The Maryland SHA and Baltimore County also gained

important experience in dealing with practical issues
such as maintenance of streetscape and landscaping.
��
130
Appendices Excerpts from “Hear Every Voice”
Public Involvement Plan – I-5/Beltline Interchange, Oregon

All appendices can be found on the CD accompanying this Public Involvement Plan – Gravina Access Project, Alaska
document.
Public Involvement Plan – I-580 Freeway, Nevada
Section C – Effective Decision Making Advisory Group Options Matrix and Application Form
Proposed Management Structure and Decision Process –

Oregon DOT Section E – Achieving Environmental
Sensitivity
Management Structure Organization Charts – Nevada DOT
History of Mn/DOT Model
Example Project Team Chartering Meeting Agenda and
Meeting Notes – Rice Avenue/Highway 101, Oxnard, I-580 Aesthetic Design Guidelines – Nevada DOT
California
Example Agreement: Workshop Summary – US 68 Project,
Example Charter Meeting Notes – I-74 Quad Cities Study Chinn Lake to Chatham Road – Kentucky
Project Evaluation Criteria from Alaska DOT and Public Example Agreement: I-25 New Pueblo Freeway Project
Facilities Leadership Team Memo – Colorado
Example Evaluation Criteria – Oregon DOT Project

Section F – Ensuring Safe and Feasible
Example Transportation Problem Definition – Sacramento,
California
Solutions
Design Exception Report – Connecticut DOT
Example Transportation Problem Statement/Definition –
Oregon DOT Design Exception Process – Connecticut DOT
Hypothetical Case Study Consensus Building, Alternative Design Exception Process – Iowa DOT
Selection, and Decision Making for Transportation Projects –
Don Speicher Appendix H, Fundamental Architecture of the Design
Decision Support System (DDSS) from NCHRP Report 430,
Example Decision Tree Analysis from I-74 Quad Cities Improved Safety Information to Support Highway Design
Project
Description of Iowa DOTs Safety Data Analysis Tools:
Example Description of Multi-Modal Alternatives – Oregon SAVER: E5
DOT
I-25 New Pueblo Freeway Fact Sheets – Colorado DOT
Section D – Reflecting Community Overview of FHWA’s Interactive Highway Safety Design

Module
Values
Key Reseazrch References for Determining the Substantive
Public Involvement Planning Form
Safety of Geometric Highway Design Alternatives
Stakeholder Identification Form
Federal Highway Administration Course on Safety and
Examples of Stakeholders Questions Operational Effects of Highway Design Features on Two-lane
Rural Highways – Course Outline
Table of Contents and Appendix D from Innovations in Public
Involvement for Transportation Planning Excerpts from the SEMCOG Traffic Safety Manual, Second
Edition, September 1997.
FHWA Federal Lands Highway Divisions Design Standards
Information
Section G – Organizational Needs

Self-Assessment Process for Organizations Considering
Implementing CSD/CSS
Executive Summary from NCHRP Report 430
Thinking Beyond the Pavement Checklist
Minnesota DOT’s Project Management Academy Course

Outline
FHWA’s AASHTO Design Criteria Training Course Outline
Use of this sheet is subject to the restriction on the title page of this proposal.
Technical Proposal CH2M HILL

Appendices – Page 2 Context Sensitive Design Manual

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NCHRP

MIKE ACOTT, President, National Asphalt Pavement Association (ex officio)

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

NCHRP REPORT 480

A Guide to Best Practices for

Prepared by CH2M Hill:

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

NCHRP PROJECT C15-19 PANEL

Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities

Arizona Department of Transportation

Connecticut Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration

Illinois Department of Transportation

Kansas Department of Transportation

Kentucky Transportation Cabinet

Maryland State Highway Administration

Miami Valley Regional Planning Commission

Michigan Department of Transportation

Minnesota Department of Transportation

Missouri Department of Transportation

National Conference of State Legislators

Nevada Department of Transportation

Ohio Department of Transportation

Oldham Historic Properties

Oregon Department of Transportation

Utah Department of Transportation

Washington Department of Transportation

Wisconsin Department of Transportation

Wyoming Department of Transportation

Seven qualities of excellence in transportation design and eight characteristics of

National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section A: Introduction

• Five pilot state DOTs (Connecticut, Kentucky, TERMINOLOGY

National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section A: Introduction

• The project exceeds the expectations of both design- INSIGHTS ON CSD/CSS

Outside Conduct Project Preliminary

Exhibit A-2 Diversity of Project Contexts

National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 480 Section A: Introduction

that will yield real benefits. It also includes activities and

ORGANIZATION OF THIS GUIDE

Following brief introductory comments in Sections A and

Each section is organized around the six key steps in the

B. ABOUT THIS GUIDE –

in doing so, bridge differing points

• Project managers must bal- Alternatives Development

CSD/CSS FOR CSD/CSS FOR THE

CSD/CDD offers additional opportunity beyond address- CSD/CSS FOR SENIOR

links throughout the docu-

The Home Page represents

Other features of the electronic version of the manual

C. EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING

CSD/CSS implements solutions

CSD/CSS projects are a series of Project Development and

series of decisions that result in a Alternatives Development

MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE Decision Points

Exhibit C-1 Decision Process – Example 1

NEWBURG-DUNDEE TRANSPORTATION IMPROVEMENT PROJECT

TRANSPORTATION EVALUATION ALTERNATIVES FORMULATION, SCREENING,

NEPA DOCUMENTATION / LAND USE PERMITTING / PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Collect Available Data and Collect Needed Transportation Studies