Course Name: Pharmaceutical Technology-I Course Code: PHRM 3125
Course Name: Pharmaceutical Technology-I Course Code: PHRM 3125
Course Name: Pharmaceutical Technology-I Course Code: PHRM 3125
1. Natural:
a. Vegetable source: Gum acacia, tragacanth, agar, starch, pectin, iris
moss.
b. Animal source: wool fat, egg yolk, gelatin.
2. Semi synthetic: Methyl cellulose, Na CMC
3. Synthetic:
a. Anionic: Sodium Lauryl Sulphate
b. Cationic: Cetrimide, benzalkonium chloride.
c. Non-ionic: e.g., Glyceryl ester- glyceryl monoesters etc.
4. Inorganic: Milk of magnesia, Mg oxide, Mg trioxide etc.
5. Alcohols (polyols): Carbowax, cholesterol and lecithin.
THE HLB SYSTEM
Oriented-
Monomolecular
Interfacial wedge or Phase volume
adsorption
Tension theory interfacial film theory
theory
theory
1. Interfacial Tension Theory
• When two immiscible liquids come in contact, the force causing each liquid
to resist breakage is known as interfacial tension. When a high interfacial
tension existed between two liquids emulsification is difficult, and if the
tension could be reduced emulsification facilitated.
As per this theory, the added emulsifying agent forms a mechanical film by
getting adsorption at the interface of the liquid and offers stability to
emulsion.
However, this theory could not explain the formation of type of emulsion.
Viscosity theory
Overcome method:
The presence of high charged density on dispersed globules ensures the
presence of high energy barrier and thus reduce the incidence of flocculation
in the primary medium.
Creaming:
• Under the influence of gravity, the dispersed droplets tend to move upward or
downward depending on the density differences between two phases.
• Creaming is a reversible process and gentle shaking can re-distribute the droplet
throughout the continuous phase.
Overcome method:
The factors affecting creaming are described by stoke’s law:
V= 2r2 (d1-d2) g/9ƞ
Where, V= rate of creaming
r = radius of globules
d1 = density of dispersed phase
d2 = density of dispersion medium
g = gravitational constant
ƞ = viscosity of the dispersion medium
According to Stroke's law, creaming of emulsion can be avoided by
following way:
a. Radius of globules: Size of globule Creaming
b. Difference in density of disperse phase and continuous phase
c. Viscosity of dispersion medium: Viscosity Creaming.
d. Storage condition
Coalescence
• Coalescence is the process by which emulsified particles merge with each to
form large particles. This type of closed packing induces greater cohesion
which leads to coalescence.
• In this process, the emulsifier film around the globules is destroyed to a certain
extent. This step can be recognized by increased globule size and reduced
number of globules.
Coalescence is observed due to:
✓ Insufficient amount of the emulsifying agent.
✓ Altered partitioning of the emulsifying agent.
✓ Incompatibilities between emulsifying agents.
✓ The major factor to prevent coalescence is the mechanical strength of the
interfacial film.
Cracking/ breaking
• Separation of the internal phase from the external phase is called breaking of the
emulsion.
• When an emulsion cracks during preparation, i.e. the primary emulsion does not
become white but acquires an oily translucent appearance. In such a case it is
impossible to dilute the emulsion nucleus with water and the oil separates out.
After adding all of the oil, thoroughly mixed for several minute to form
the primary emulsion
Once the primary emulsion has been formed remaining quantity of water
is added to make the final emulsion
3. Bottle or Forbes Bottle Method
Shake
Water (volume equal to oil) is added in portions with vigorous shaking to form
primary emulsion
Example:
Esters of parahydroxy benzoic acid: benzoic acid (0.1-2%), methyl
paraben & propyl paraben (0.1-2%), Chloroform (0.25%)
Course Name: Pharmaceutical Technology-I
Course Code: Phrm 3125
• Liquid form of a dose of a drug used as a drug or
medication intended for administration or consumption.
• Liquid dosage forms are either monophasic or biphasic.
• A monophasic liquid dosage form is one which contains
only one phase. That is, it is a true solution. A true
solution is a homogenous mixture of solid, liquid or gas in
a liquid.
• A biphasic liquid dosage form contains two phases.
▪ Solutions: Solutions are clear liquid preparations containing one or more
active ingredients dissolved in a suitable vehicle.
▪ Suspensions (Solid in liquid dispersion): liquid preparations containing one
or more active ingredients suspended in a suitable vehicle.
▪ Emulsions (liquid in liquid dispersion): emulsions are two phase system in
which one liquid is dispersed throughout another liquid in the form of small
particles.
▪ Colloids: A system in which finely divided particles, which are
approximately less than 1 μm in size, are dispersed within a continuous
medium in a manner that prevents them from being filtered easily or settled
rapidly.
Solution
1. Temperature
Endothermic reaction: It is the process of solution where absorption
of applied heat takes place in the solutes. So, an increase in temperature
will cause more of the solute to go in the solution.
Exothermic reaction: In this process solutes give off heat during the
process of solution. So, solubility will decrease with an increase in
temperature.
Example: Substances which are more soluble in cold than hot water.
Methylcellulose and calcium salts such as Ca(OH)2.
2. Molecular structure
The general rule “like dissolves like”.
3. Effects of other substance
Example: Iodine is very slightly soluble in water but when added to a
concentrated solution of KI in water, it dissolves immediately.
4. pH: Many organic substances that are used medicinally are either weak
acids or bases. And their aqueous solubility depends upon the pH of the
solvent.
• Saturation solubility is the maximum conc. of a solution which
prepared at a given temp.
• Saturated solution: contain the maximum amount of solute that
solvent accommodate at room temp. & pressure.
• Or A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a given
temperature.
• Unsaturated solution: An unsaturated solution contains less than the
maximum amount of solute and that completely dissolved leaving no
remaining substance at normal temperature.
• Supersaturated solution: contain a larger amount of solute than the
solvent can normally accommodate at that temp. & pressure. obtained
by preparing a saturated sol. at a higher temp.
❑ Methods of preparing Solution
(a) Simple Solution
(b) Solution by Chemical Reaction
(c) Solution by Extraction
Liniments:
• Liniments are viscous liquid preparations for external
application. It is applied to the unbroken skin with friction
and rubbing. Liniments should never be applied to broken
skin because they cause irritation.
• Liniments contain medicaments possessing analgesic,
rubefacient, soothing, counter irritant or stimulating Liniments
properties.
Formulation of pharmaceutical solution
Additives/excipients include:
Definition:
•“It is the study of the physical and chemical properties of the drug prior to
compounding process”
• Investigation of physico-chemical properties of the new drug compound
that could affect the drug performance and the development of an
efficacious dosage form.
• Characterization of physical, chemical and mechanical properties of new
drug molecule in order to develop the elegant, stable, effective and safe
dosage form.
Objectives:
Physico-Chemical Properties:
• Dissolution
Bulk Characterization
A drug candidate at this stage had not all of its solid forms identified, and there is a
great potential for new polymorphs to emerge. Bulk properties for the solid forms such
as particle size, bulk density and surface morphology are also likely to change during
process development.
i. Crystallinity:
• Generally most of drugs exist in solid state. Very few are in liquid state like
valproic acid and even less in gaseous form like some general anesthetics. A crystal
structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
• Physical properties affected by the solid-state properties can influence both the
choice of the delivery system and the activity of the drug, as determined by the rate
of delivery. Chemical stability, as affected by the physical properties, can be
significant.
• A crystalline particle is characterized by definite external and internal structures.
The crystal habit describes the outer appearance of crystals (platy, equant, needle,
blades, etc) whereas the polymorphic state refers to the definite arrangement of
molecules inside the crystal lattice.
Figure: Different habits of crystal
ii. Polymorphisms:
Angle of Repose
❑ Relationship between angle of repose and flow properties:
i. pKa determination,
ii. Temperature dependence,
iii. pH solubility profile,
iv. Solubility products,
v. Solubilization mechanism
vi. Rate of dissolution
i. pKa determination (Dissociation constant):
AD (Cs – C) Where,
dC / dt = --------------------
dC/dt = rate of dissolution
hv
A = surface area of the dissolving solid
D = diffusion coefficient
C= solute concentration in the bulk medium
h= diffusion layer thickness
V = volume of the dissolution medium
Cs = solute concentration in the diffusion layer
Stability Analysis
• It is the alternated dosage form for drugs which have less bioavailability
when it is taken orally.
• Drugs having bad odor and taste can be used in suppository form.
• It is suitable for unconscious patients which can not taken drugs orally.
• Drugs which produce irritating effect in GIT can be given by suppository.
• It is suitable for infants and old people who find difficulty in swallowing
of drugs.
• Avoid fast pass metabolism.
❑ Disadvantages of Suppository
• The manufacturing process is more difficult as compare with other
formulation.
• Rectal inflammation may occur with repeated use.
• The most important problem is storage condition because it stored at
low temp. (10-20℃ ). Other than the bases get liquefied.
• Leakage problem is also most critical problem along with suppository
after introducing in body cavity at elevated temperature.
• Patient may be embarrassed.
❑ Therapeutic uses of Rectal suppositories
Suppository bases plays important role in maintaining their shape, solidity &
also play important role when inserted into the body cavity.
Ideal Properties of Suppository bases:
The following properties should be required for bases---
• Bases should be existing in solid form at room temperature.
• It should not irritate and produced inflamed sensation in body cavity.
• It should be stable during storage condition, no change in color, shape, odor.
• It should retain hardness and it should not react with drugs and additives.
• It should have good emulsifying and wetting property.
• Can be easily manufactured by compression or molding.
If the base is fatty it has the following additional requirements...
• It should have acid value less than 0.2 or zero.
• Saponification value ranges from 200 to 245.
• Iodine value less than 7.
Classification of Suppository Bases
Fatty bases
Advantages:
• Their solidifying points are unaffected by overheating.
• They have good resistance to oxidation because their unsaturated fatty
acids have been reduced.
• The difference between melting and setting points is small. Hence, they
set quickly, the risk of sedimentation is low and they are easier to
administer.
• They usually contain a proportion of w/o emulsifying agents and
therefore their emulsifying and water absorbing capacities are good.
• No mould lubricant is needed because they contract significantly on
cooling.
Disadvantages:
• They become brittle if cooled quickly, avoid refrigeration during
preparation.
• They are less viscous than Theobroma oil when melted and at this stage
sedimentation is greater. Thickeners such as magnesium stearate,
bentonite reduce this problem.
Water soluble and water miscible Bases
1. Glycero-gelatin:
• This is a mixture of glycerol and water into a stiff jelly by adding gelatin.
• The commonest Glycerol suppositories Base BP, which has 14% w/w
gelatin, 70% w/w glycerol and water Q.S to 100%.
• It is used for making jellies, suppositories and pessaries and its proportion
is changed according to its intended purpose.
Disadvantages:
• Physiological action: osmosis occurs during dissolving in the mucous
secretions of the rectum, producing a laxative effect.
• They are more difficult to prepare and handle.
• Unpredictable solution time.
• Hygroscopic.
2. Macrogols (Polyethylene Glycols):
• Polyethylene Glycols are long chain polymers of ethylene oxide and
water.
• Lower molecular weight PEGs (PEG 400 and 600) are liquid, those
around 1000 are semi-solid and those above 4000 are waxy solids.
• The PEG suppositories can be prepared by both moulding and cold
compression methods.
Advantages of Macrogols:
• The mixtures have melting point above 420 C. Hence, cool storage is not
required, they are satisfactory for use in hot climates, and administration
is easy because they are not slippery to handle.
• Because of this high melting point they do not melt in the body but
gradually dissolve and disperse, freeing their medication slowly and
providing longer action than fatty bases.
• They do not stick to the mould.
• High viscosity is produced when they disperse in the body.
• They absorb water well and have excellent solvent properties.
• Products have clean smooth appearance.
Disadvantages of Macrogols
• They are hygroscopic and therefore attract water after administration,
resulting in an uncomfortable sensation for the patient.
Remedy: Incorporation of at least 20% water in the base and moistening
before insertion can help to reduce this problem.
• The good solvent properties may result in retention of the drug in the
liquefied base with consequent reduction in therapeutic activity.
• PEG bases can develop peroxides on storage, therefore airtight
packaging is recommended.
• Incompatible with several drugs and materials e.g. benzocaine, penicillin
and plastic
Method of Preparation of Suppositories
2.
3.
1. Moulding Hand
Compression
rolling
Hand Molding
The cold mass of the base containing drug is compressed into suppositories
using a hand operated machine.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. It is a simple method 1. Air entrapment may take place.
2. It gives suppositories that are more 2.This air may cause weight
elegant than hand moulded suppositories variation.
3. In this method sedimentation of solids 3. The drug and/or the base may be
in the base is prevented. oxidized by this air.
4. Suitable for heat labile medicaments.
Pour Molding
Suppository mould
Steps:
The base is melted and precautions are taken not to overheat it.
Suspension:
• Used for insoluble drug or poorly soluble drugs, which required to be given
orally in liquid dosage forms (children, elderly patient).
• Suspension can improve chemical stability of certain drug.
e.g., Procaine penicillin G.
• Drug in suspension exhibits higher rate of bioavailability than other dosage
forms.
Solution > Suspension > Capsule > Compressed Tablet > Coated tablet
• Duration and onset of action can be controlled.
e.g., Protamine Zinc-Insulin suspension.
• Suspension can mask the unpleasant/bitter taste of drug.
e.g., Chloramphenicol.
Disadvantages of suspension
• Physical stability, sedimentation and compaction can causes problems.
• It is bulky, sufficient care must be taken during handling and transport.
• It is difficult to formulate.
• Uniform and accurate dose may not be achieved.
Ideal/ desired features of Pharmaceutical Suspension
Sedimentation Behavior:
Sedimentation means settling of particle (or) floccules occur under gravitational
force in liquid dosage form.
Theory of Sedimentation:
Or
The equation of stokes' law reflects that larger particles exhibit greater velocity
of sedimentation. The velocity of sedimentation is inversely proportional to
the viscosity of dispersion medium.
F= Vu/ V0
Where,
Vu = Final or ultimate volume of sediment
V0 = Original volume of suspension before settling
(Vu/Vo) flocculated
ß = --------------------
(Vu/Vo) deflocculated
The minimum value of ß is 1,when flocculated suspension sedimentation
volume is equal to the sedimentation volume of deflocculated suspension.
Factors to be considered for Suspension formulation
• Interface: When phases exist together, the boundary between two of them is
known as an interface.
• Surface: The term surface is the boundary between either a gas–solid or a gas–
liquid interface.
• Surface tension: The tension is the tendency of liquid
surfaces at rest to shrink into minimum surface area
possible.
Zeta Potential:
• The zeta potential is defined as the “difference in potential between the surface
of the tightly bound layer (shear plane) and electro-neutral region of the
solution”.
• The development of a net charge at the particle surface affects the distribution
of ions in the surrounding interfacial region, resulting an increased concentration
of counter ions (ions of opposite charge to that of the particle) close to the
surface. Thus, an electrical double layer exists around each particle. The liquid
layer surrounding the particle exists as two parts; an inner region, called the
stern layer, where the ions are strongly bound and outer, diffuse region, where
they are less firmly attached.
Fig: Diagram showing the distribution of ions around a charged particles.
• Within the diffuse layer there is a notional boundary inside which the ions
and particles form a stable entity. When a particle moves (e.g., due to
gravity), ions within the boundary move with it, but any ions beyond the
boundary do not travel with the particle. This boundary is called surface
of hydrodynamic shear or slipping plane.
• The potential exist at the boundary is known as the zeta potential.
• The magnitude of zeta potential gives an indication of potential stability
of the colloidal system.
Flocculated Suspension:
In flocculated suspension, formed flocs (loose aggregates) will cause increase
in sedimentation rate due to increase in size of sedimenting particles.
✓Hence, flocculated suspensions sediment more rapidly.
✓Here, the sedimentation depends not only on the size of the flocs but
also on the porosity of flocs.
✓In flocculated suspension the loose structure of the rapidly sedimenting
flocs tends to preserve in the sediment, which contains an appreciable
amount of entrapped liquid.
✓The volume of final sediment is thus relatively large and is easily re-
dispersed by agitation.
Deflocculated suspensions
✓ In deflocculated suspension, individual particles are settling, so rate of
sedimentation is slow which prevents entrapping of liquid medium which
makes it difficult to re-disperse by agitation. This phenomenon also called
‘caking’ or ‘claying’.
✓ In deflocculated suspension larger particles settle fast and smaller
remain in supernatant liquid so supernatant appears cloudy.
Difference between Flocculated and Deflocculated suspension
or
1. Viscosity Enhancers:
- Some natural gums ( acacia, tragacanth)
- Polymers, cellulose derivatives ( sodium CMC, methyl cellulose)
- Clays ( bentonite)
- Sugars ( glucose, fructose).
2. Co-solvents:
Some solvents which themselves have high viscosity are used as co-solvents to
enhance the viscosity of the dispersion medium.
3. Structured vehicles
Method of preparation of suspension
i. Electrolytes
Electrolytes decrease electrical barrier between the particles and bring them
together to form floccules. They reduce zeta potential near to zero value that
results in formation of bridge between adjacent particles, which lines them
together in a loosely arranged structure.
The use of an electrolyte may be illustrated by the addition of monobasic
potassium phosphate, a negative flocculating agent, to a suspension of
bismuth subnitrate, positively charged particle.
iii. Polymers:
For example: Starch, alginates, cellulose derivatives.
Polymers possess long chain in their structures. Part of the long chain is
adsorbed on the surface of the particles and remaining part projecting out
into the dispersed medium. Bridging between these later portions, also
leads to the formation of flocs.
Quality Control of suspension
The following tests are carried out in the final quality control of suspension:
• Appearance, color, odor and taste.
• Physical characteristics such as particle size determination and
microscopic photography for crystal growth.
• Sedimentation rate and sedimentation volume
• Zeta potential measurement
• Re-dispersibility and centrifugation tests.
• Rheological measurement
• PH
• Stress-test
PHARMACEUTICAL
EXCIPIENTS
Excipients
• Low equipment and process sensitive • Compatible with all the other
Diluents are fillers designed to make up the required bulk of the tablet, when the
drug dosage itself is inadequate to produce this bulk.
The dose of some drugs is sufficiently high that no filler is required e.g. aspirin.
Function of fillers:
✓ To provide required bulk of the tablet,
✓ Facilitating precise metering & handling in preparation of dosage forms.
Diluents also used in tablet for secondary reason:
✓ Improved cohesion
✓ To permit use of direct compression manufacturing
✓ To promote flow.
Diluents/ Fillers
Function:
✓ Binders are added in a wet or dry state during wet granulation to form
granules.
✓To provide cohesiveness to powder in tableting operation.
✓To increase hardness of the tablet.
Binders and adhesives
Lubricants are intended to reduce the friction during tablet ejection between
the walls of the tablet and the walls of the die cavity in which the tablet was
formed.
Types of lubricants:
1. Hydrophilic lubricants: poor lubricants, no glidant or anti-adherent
properties. For example: Boric acid, Na- benzoate.
2. Hydrophobic lubricants: Most widely used today.
They are generally good lubricants & effective at low concentration. Also have
both anti- adherent & glidant properties. Example: Stearic acid, Talc, calcium
and magnesium stearate, starch.
Lubricants
For these reasons, hydrophobic lubricants used much more frequently than
hydrophilic. Example: Magnesium stearate.
Roles of lubricants:
1.True Lubricant Role: To decrease friction at the interface between a tablet’s
surface & die wall during ejection and reduce wear on punches.
2. Anti-adherent Role: Prevent sticking to punch faces or in case of
encapsulation lubricants. Prevent sticking to machine dosators, tamping pins,.
3. Glidant Role: Enhance product flow by reducing inter-particulate friction.
Antiadherents
Example:
Magnesium stearate, talc & starch used as anti-adherents.
Glidants
Functions:
✓Glidants used to promote powder flow by reducing inter-particle friction &
cohesion.
✓ Glidants used in combination with lubricants as they have no ability to
reduce die wall friction.
Example: Fumed silica, talc, & cornstarch.
Sorbents
Functions of sorbents:
Used for tablet/capsule moisture-proofing by limited fluid soring (taking up of
a liquid or a gas by adsorption) in a dry state.
Coating agents
Examples: Methyl & Ethyl parabens, Propyl paraben, Benzoic acid & its salts,
Sorbic acid and its salts.
Methyl Paraben
Physical properties:
Description: Colorless crystals or white powders.
Solubility: soluble in water and ethanol, slightly soluble in
benzene and acetone.
Use: it is used in Pharmaceutical formulation to prevent
microbial growth
Antioxidants
Physical Properties:
Description: White or slightly yellow, waxy solid having a faint,
characteristic odor.
Solubility: Insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, Chloroform or ether.
Uses: It is used as an antioxidant in Pharmaceutical Products containing fats
and oils.
Butylated Hydroxy Toluene (BHT)
Molecules that are capable of forming complexes with the drug involving
more than one bond; it’s a complex compound contains one or more ring
in its structure .
These are materials which, when dissolved in solvent will enable the solution to
resist any change in pH when an acid or an alkali be added. The choice of suitable
buffer depends on the pH and buffering capacity required.
Properties of buffering agents:
✓ Should have a low toxicity.
✓ Should be buffered at the range of 7.4 as pH of body is 7.4.
✓ Should be non-irritant.
Examples: Most of buffering system based on carbonate, citrates, gluconates,
lactates, phosphates, or tartrates.
Viscosity Imparting Agents
Agents used to increase or decrease the viscosity of a liquid either to serve as adjacent
for palatability or to improve pour ability. They are also called thickening agents.
Viscosity imparting agents are of two types:
1. Viscosity modifier: decrease the viscosity of a liquid to improve pour ability and
make it more palatable.
2. Viscosity enhancer: increase the viscosity of a liquid to improve pour ability and
make it more palatable.
Most commonly used viscosity imparting agents are:
Hydroxy ethyl cellulose, Hydroxy propyl methylcellulose (HPMC), Methyl cellulose
(MC), Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
Humectants
• A humectant attracts & retains the moisture in the nearby air via absorption,
drawing the water vapor into and/or beneath the organism/object's surface.
• Humectants absorb water vapors from atmosphere till a certain degree of
dilution is attained. Aqueous solution of humectants reduce the rate of loss
moisture.
Ideal properties of humectants:
✓ Must absorb moisture from atmosphere & retain the same under normal
conditions of atmospheric humidity.
✓ Should be colorless or not of too intense color.
Humectants
3. Organic humectants:
✓ These are widely used in cosmetics.
✓ They include polyhydric alcohols, their esters and ethers.
✓ The most commonly used organic humectants are glycerol, ethylene
glycol, polyethylene glycol (PEG), diethylene glycol, tri-ethylene glycol,
propylene glycol, propylene glycol, glycerin, sorbitol, mannitol, glucose.
Surfactants
Compounds that lower surface tension (or interfacial tension) between two
liquids or between a liquid & a solid and increase the solubility. Also known as
surface active agents.
Properties of surfactants:
A surfactant must fulfill 2 structural requirements:
i. A surfactant must contain a lipophilic region.
ii. A surfactant must contain a hydrophilic region.
Both hydrophilic & lipophilic region must be balanced, then will be
concentrated at an interface and therefore surface tension will be lowered.
Surfactants
Types of surfactants:
Four types of surfactants based on charge of the hydrophilic region:
i. Anionic surfactant (the hydrophilic region is negatively charged i.e. an
anion) example: Sodium lauryl sulphate: used as excipient on dissolved
aspirins.
ii. Cationic surfactant (hydrophilic region is positively charged i.e. a
cation): Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (cetrimide) - is an
effective antiseptic agent against bacteria and fungi.
Surfactants
Wetting agents are used to improve the flow of the liquid vehicle across the
particle surface, which in turn improves the homogeneity of distribution of
the drug particles throughout the formulation.
Function:
Aid wetting and dispersion of hydrophobic active pharmaceutical
ingredients.
Example: Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS), Tween 80, Spans, Lecithin etc.
Wetting Agents
Emulsifying Agents
❑ Acidifying Agents:
Substance that are used in liquid preparations to provide acidic media for
product stability.
Example: Citric acid, Acetic acid, Fumaric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid.
❑ Alkalizing agents:
Alkalizing agents are substances that are used in liquid preparations to provide
alkaline media for product stability.
Example: Ammonia solution, Ammonia carbonate, Diethanolamine, Potassium
hydroxide, Sodium Borate, Sodium carbonate.
Flavoring Agents
✓ Flavoring agents are added to improve the smell and thus to increase
patient acceptance.
✓ Water soluble flavors have limited acceptance due to poor stability.
✓ Flavor oils are added to tablet granulation in solvents, are dispersed are
clays or other adsorbents.
✓ Various dry flavors are also available.
✓ The four basic taste sensations are salty, sweet, bitter, sour.
✓ Certain flavors used to mask these specific taste sensations e.g. clove oil,
citric and syrup, glycerin, rose oil, orange oil, menthol.
Coloring Agents
The pharmaceutical ingredients that impart the preferred color to the formulation
are called coloring agents.