Chapter 07: Kinetic Energy and Work

Conservation of Energy is one of Nature’s fundamental

laws that is not violated.

Energy can take on different forms in a given system.

This chapter we will discuss work and kinetic energy.

If we put energy into the system by doing work, this

additional energy has to go somewhere. That is, the
kinetic energy increases or as in next chapter, the
potential energy increases.
The opposite is also true when we take energy out of a
system. the grand total of all forms of energy in a given
system is (and was, and will be) a constant.
 Exam 2 Review
•  Chapters 7, 8, 9, 10.
•  A majority of the Exam (~75%) will be on
Chapters 7 and 8 (problems, quizzes, and
concepts)
•  Chapter 9 lectures and problems
•  Chapter 10 lecture
 Different forms of energy

Kinetic Energy: Potential Energy:

linear motion gravitational
rotational motion spring compression/tension
electrostatic/magnetostatic
chemical, nuclear, etc....

Mechanical Energy is the sum of Kinetic energy +

Potential energy. (reversible process)

Friction will convert mechanical energy to heat.

Basically, this (conversion of mechanical energy to heat
energy) is a non-reversible process.
 Chapter 07: Kinetic Energy and Work
Kinetic Energy is the energy associated with the motion
of an object.

m: mass and v: speed

SI unit of energy: 1 joule = 1 J = 1 kg.m2/s2

 Work
Work is energy transferred to or from an object by
means of a force acting on the object.
Formal definition:

*Special* case: Work done by a constant force:

W = ( F cos θ) d = F d cos θ
Component of F in direction of d

Work done on an object moving with constant velocity?

constant velocity => acceleration = 0 => force = 0
=> work = 0
 Consider 1-D motion.

(Integral over displacement becomes integral over velocity)

So, kinetic energy is mathematically connected to

work!!
 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

The change in the kinetic energy of a particle is equal the

net work done on the particle.

.... or in other words,

Final kinetic energy = Initial kinetic energy + net Work

Wnet is work done by all forces

 Work done by a constant force:
W = F d cos Ø = F . d

Consequences: (ø if the angle between F and d )

when Ø < 90o , W is positive
when Ø > 90o , W is negative
when Ø= 90o , W = 0
when F or d is zero, W = 0
Work done on the object by the force:
– Positive work: object receives energy
– Negative work: object loses energy
 Force displacement question
In all of the four situations shown below, the box is sliding
to the right a distance of d. The magnitudes of the forces
(black arrows) are identical. Rank the work done during the
displacement, from most positive to most negative.

1.  a, b, c, d d
2.  d, c, b, a
3.  b, a, c, d
4.  all result in the same work
5.  none of the above
 •  Net work done by several forces
∆ W = Fnet . d = ( F1 + F2 + F3 ) . d
= F1 . d + F2 . d + F3 . d = W1 + W2 + W3

Remember that the above equations hold ONLY for

constant forces. In general, you must integrate the
force(s) over displacement!
 Question: What about circular motion?

How much work was done and when?

a ds
 Question: What about circular motion?
v
How much work was
done and when? F
a

Work was done to start the motion and then NO work is

required to keep the object in circular motion!
Centripetal force is perpendicular to the velocity and
thus the displacement.

(F and d vectors are perpendicular, cos 90o = 0, dot

product is zero)
A particle moves along the x-axis. Does the kinetic
energy of the particle increase, decrease , or remain the
same if the particle’s velocity changes?

(a) from –3 m/s to –2 m/s? |vf | < |vi| means Kf < Ki,
so work is negative
(b) from –2 m/s to 2 m/s?

-2 m/s 0 m/s: work negative

0 m/s +2 m/s: work positive
Together they add up to net zero work.
v

x
0
 Work done by Gravitation Force
Wg = mg d cos ø
throw a ball upwards with v0: d
–  during the rise,
Wg = mg d cos180o = -mgd mg
negative work K & v decrease

–  during the fall,

mg
Wg = mgd cos0o = mgd d
positive work K & v increase

Final kinetic energy = Initial kinetic energy + net Work

 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
The change in the kinetic energy of a particle is equal
the net work done on the particle.

.... or in other words,

final kinetic energy = initial kinetic energy + net work

 Work done by a spring force
The spring force is given by
F = -kx (Hooke’s law)
k: spring (or force) constant
k relates to stiffness of spring;
unit for k: N/m.
Spring force is a variable force.
x = 0 at the free end of
the relaxed spring.
 Spring Oscillation 1) 0m
2) 0.05 m
3) 0.5 m
4) 10 m
5) 100 m
A 2.0 kg block is attached to a horizonal ideal spring with a spring
constant of k = 200 N/m. When the spring is at its equilibrium
position, the block is given a speed of 5.0 m/s. What is the maximum
displacement (i.e., amplitude, A) of the spring?
Work - Kinetic Energy
Theorem
0.0
 Chapter 8: Potential Energy and
Conservation of Energy
Work and kinetic energy are energies of motion.

What about the energy of an object that depends on

location or position.

This energy is called potential energy.

 Chapter 8: Potential Energy and Conservation
of Energy
Work done by gravitation for a ball thrown
upward that then falls back down b

Wab+ Wba = - mg d + mg d = 0

The gravitational force is said to be a

conservative force.

A force is a conservative force if the net

work it does on a particle moving around a
every closed path is zero.
 Conservative forces
Wab,1 + Wba,2 = 0
Wab,2 + Wba,2 = 0
therefore: Wab,1 = Wab,2

i.e. The work done by a conservative force on a

particle moving between two points does not
depend on the path taken by the particle.

So, ... choose the easiest path!!

Conservative & Non-conservative forces

Conservative Forces: (path independent)

gravitational
spring
electrostatic
Non-conservative forces: (dependent on path)
friction
air resistance
electrical resistance

These forces will convert mechanical energy into

heat and/or deformation.
 Gravitation Potential Energy
Potential energy is associated with the configuration of a
system in which a conservative force acts: ∆U = -W

For a general conservative force F = F(x)

Gravitational potential energy:

assume Ui = 0 at yi = 0 (reference point)

U(y) = mgy (gravitational potential energy)
only depends on vertical position
Nature only considers changes in Potential energy
important. Thus, we will always measure ∆U.

So, . . . We need to set a reference point!

The potential at that point could be defined to be

zero (i.e., Uref. point = 0) in which case we drop the
“∆” for convenience.

BUT, it is always understood to be there!

 •  Potential energy and reference point (y = 0 at ground)
A 0.5 kg physics book falls from a table 1.0 m to the ground.
What is U and ∆U if we take reference point y = 0 (assume
U = 0 at y = 0) at the ground?

∆U = Uf - Ui = -(mgh) Physics
y=h
0
The book lost potential energy. h
Actually, it was converted into
kinetic energy
y=0
Sample problem 8-1: A block of cheese, m = 2 kg, slides
along frictionless track from a to b, the cheese traveled a
total distance of 2 m along the track, and a net vertical
distance of 0.8 m. How much is Wg?

 
b

Wnet = ∫ Fg ⋅ dr
a

But, ... We don’t know the

angle between F and dr

Easier (or another) way?

Sample problem 8-1: A block of cheese, m = 2 kg, slides
along frictionless track from a to b, the cheese traveled a
total distance of 2 m along the track, and a net vertical
distance of 0.8 m. How much is Wg?
c

Split the problem into two parts }=d

(two paths) since gravity is
conservative

0 mg(b-c) = mgd
 Elastic Potential Energy
Spring force is also a conservative force
F = -kx

Uf – Ui = ½ kxf2 – ½ kxi2

Choose the free end of the relaxed spring as the

reference point:
that is: Ui = 0 at xi = 0
U = ½ kx2 Elastic potential energy
 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
•  Mechanical energy
Emec = K + U
•  For an isolated system (no external forces), if there are
only conservative forces causing energy transfer within
the system….
We know: ∆K = W (work-kinetic energy theorem)
Also: ∆U = -W (definition of potential energy)
Therefore: ∆K + ∆U = 0  (Kf – Ki) + (Uf – Ui) = 0
therefore K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 (States 1 and 2 of system)
Emec,1 = Emec,2 the mechanical energy is conserved
 Conservation of mechanical energy
For an object moved by a spring in the presence of a
gravitational force.
This is an isolated system with only conservative
forces ( F = mg, F = -kx ) acting inside the system

Emec,1 = Emec,2
K1 + U1 = K2 + U2
½ mv12 + mgy1 + ½ kx12 = ½ mv22 + mgy2 + ½ kx22
The bowling ball pendulum demonstration

Mechanical
energy is
conserved if
there are only
conservative
forces acting
on the system.
 Work done by external force
•  When no friction acts within the system, the net
work done by the external force equals to the
change in mechanical energy
Wnet = ∆Emec = ∆K + ∆U

•  Friction is a non-conservative force

•  When a kinetic friction force acts within the
system, then the thermal energy of the system
changes: ∆Eth = fkd
Therefore Wnet = ∆Emec + ∆Eth
 Conservation of Energy

The total energy E of a system can change only by

amounts of energy that are transferred to or from the
system
W = ∆E = ∆Emec + ∆Eth + ∆Eint

If there is no change in internal energy, but friction acts

within the system: W = ∆Emec + ∆Eth

If there are only conservative forces acting within the

system: W = ∆Emec

If we take only the single object as the system

W = ∆K
 Law of Conservation of Energy
•  For an isolated system (W = 0), the total energy E
of the system cannot change
∆Emec + ∆Eth + ∆Eint = 0

•  For an isolated system with only conservative

forces, ∆Eth and ∆Eint are both zero. Therefore:
∆Emec = 0
 Potential Energy Curve
Thus, what causes a force is the variation of the potential energy
function, i.e., the force is the negative 3-D derivative of the
potential energy!
 Potential Energy Curve
We know: ∆U(x) = -W = -F(x) ∆x
Therefore: F(x) = -dU(x)/dx

Now integrate along the displacement:

Rearrange terms:
 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Holds only for an isolated system (no external forces) and
if only conservative forces are causing energy transfer
between kinetic and potential energies within the system.
Mechanical energy: Emec = K + U
We know:
∆K = W (work-kinetic energy theorem)
∆U = -W (definition of potential energy)

Therefore: ∆K + ∆U = 0  (Kf – Ki) + (Uf – Ui) = 0

Rearranging terms:
Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui = K2 + U2 = Emec (a constant)
 Work done by Spring Force
Spring force is a conservative force
Work done by the spring force:

If | xf | > | xi | (further away from equilibrium position); Ws < 0

My hand did positive work, while the spring did negative

work so the total work on the object = 0
 Work done by Spring Force
Spring force is a conservative force
Work done by the spring force:

If | xf | < | xi | (closer to equilibrium position); Ws > 0

My hand did negative work, while the spring did positive

work so the total work on the object = 0
 Work done by Spring Force -- Summary
Spring force is a conservative force
Work done by the spring force:

If | xf | > | xi | (further away from equilibrium position); Ws < 0

If | xf | < | xi | (closer to equilibrium position); Ws > 0

Let xi = 0, xf = x then Ws = - ½ k x2
 Elastic Potential Energy
Spring force is a conservative force

Choose the free end of the relaxed spring as the reference

point: Ui = 0 at xi = 0

The work went into potential energy, since the

speeds are zero before and after.
 Law of Conservation of Energy
Count up the initial energy in all of its forms.

Count up the final energy in all of its forms.

These two must be equal (if nothing is added form outside the system).
 Chapter 9 (look at lecture notes too)
Linear Momentum
•  The linear momentum of a particle is a vector
defined as

•  Newton’s second law in terms of momentum

Most of the time the mass

doesn’t change, so this term is
zero. Exceptions are rockets
Linear momentum of a system of particles

Newton’s 2nd law for a system of particles

 Conservation of Linear Momentum
For a system of particles, if it is both isolated (the net
external force acting on the system is zero) and closed ( no
particles leave or enter the system )….

If then

Therefore or

then the total linear momentum of the system

cannot change.
Conservation of linear momentum along a specific
direction:
If Σ Fx = 0, then Pi, x = Pf, x
If Σ Fy = 0, then Pi, y = Pf, y
If ΣFz = 0, then Pi, z = Pf, z

If the component of the net external force on a closed system

is zero along an axis, then the component of the linear
momentum of the system along that axis cannot change.
 Collisions take time!

Even something that seems

instantaneous to us takes a finite
amount of time to happen.
 Impulse and Change in Momentum

Call this change in momentum the “Impulse” and

give it the symbol J.
 Seat Belts & Airbags

Seat belts and airbags increase the “collision

time” (i.e., the time your momentum is changing).

Greater Δt means smaller Favg!

 Collisions (1-D)
In absence of external forces,

Linear momentum is conserved.

Mechanical energy may or may not be conserved.
Elastic collisions: Mechanical energy is conserved.
Inelastic collisions: Mechanical energy is NOT conserved.

But,
Linear momentum is conserved.
Inelastic Collisions
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Center of Mass motion is constant
Center of Mass Motion
 Inelastic Collisions

The mechanical energy is not conserved in inelastic

collisions. (Ei > Ef) or (Ei < Ef)

But, .... linear momentum is conserved!

 Inelastic Collisions

Perfectly inelastic collision: The two masses stick together

0
 Inelastic Collisions

How much mechanical energy was lost in the collision?

 Inelastic Collisions

Was the mechanical energy:

conserved (Ei = Ef);
lost (Ei > Ef); or
gained (Ei < Ef);
in the collision?
 Elastic Collisions

Perfectly elastic collision: Linear momentum is conserved

Perfectly elastic collision: Mechanical energy is conserved

 Elastic Collisions

Perfectly elastic collision: Mechanical energy is conserved

 Elastic Collisions

Perfectly elastic collision: Mechanical energy is conserved

 Chapter 10: Rotational variables
We will focus on the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis
• Reference line: pick a point, draw a
line perpendicular to the rotation axis
• Angular position
zero angular position
angular position: θ = s/r
s: length of the arc, r: radius
Unit of θ: radians (rad)
1 rev = 360o = 2πr/r= 2π rad
1 rad = 57.3o = 0.159 rev
• Angular displacement
Δθ = θ2 – θ1
direction: “clockwise is negative”

• Angular velocity
average: ωavg = Δθ/Δt instantaneous: ω = dθ/dt
unit: rad/s, rev/s
magnitude of angular velocity = angular speed

• Angular acceleration
average: αavg = Δω/Δt
instantaneous: α = dω/dt unit: rad/s2
•  Angular velocity and angular acceleration are
vectors.
•  For rotation along a fixed axis, we need
not consider vectors. We can just
use “+” and “-” sign to represent
the direction of ω and a.
“clockwise is negative”

•  Direction of ω is given by right hand rule

 Rotation with constant angular acceleration
• The equations for constant angular acceleration are
similar to those for constant linear acceleration
replace θ for x, ω for v, and α for a,

missing
v = v0 + at ω = ω0 + αt θ – θ0
x – x0 = v0t + ½ at2 θ – θ0 = ω0t + ½ αt2 ω
v2 = v02 + 2a(x-x0) ω2 = ω02 +2α (θ - θ0) t
and two more equations
x – x0 = ½ (v0 + v)t θ – θ0 = ½(ω0 - ω)t α
x – x0 = vt - ½ at2 θ – θ0 = ωt - ½ αt2 ω0
 Relating the linear and angular variables
The linear and angular quantities are related by radius r

• The position θ *in* radians!

–  distance s = θ r
• The speed
ds/dt = d(θ r)/dt = (dθ/dt)r
v= ωr
• Time for one revolution
T = 2θr/v = 2π/ω
Note: θ and ω must be in radian measure
Acceleration
dv/dt = d(ωr)/dt = (dω/dt)r
•  tangential component
at = α r ( α = dω/dt )
a must be in radian measure

•  radial component
ar = v2/r = (ωr)2/r = ω2r

Note: ar is present whenever angular

velocity is not zero (i.e. when there is rotation),
at is present whenever angular acceleration is not
zero (i.e. the angular velocity is not constant)
Cp11-3: A cockroach rides the rim of a rotating merry-go-
around. If the angular speed of this system (merry-go-around+
cockroach) is constant, does the cockroach have
(a ) radial acceleration?
(b) tangential acceleration?

If the angular speed is decreasing, does the cockroach have

(c) radial acceleration ?
(d) tangential acceleration ?
 Kinetic Energy of Rotation
•  Consider a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis as a
collection of particles with different linear speed, the
total kinetic energy is
K = Σ ½ mi vi2 = Σ ½ mi (ω ri )2 = ½ ( Σ mi ri 2) ω2

•  Define rotational inertia ( moment of inertia) to be

I = Σ mi ri2
ri : the perpendicular distance between mi and the
given rotation axis

•  Then K = ½ I ω2
Compare to the linear case: K = ½ m v2
•  Rotational inertia involves not only the mass but also
the distribution of mass for continuous masses
•  Calculating the rotational inertia
 Parallel-Axis theorem

•  If we know the rotational inertia of a body about

any axis that passes through its center-of-mass,
we can find its rotational inertia about any other
axis parallel to that axis with the parallel axis
theorem
I = Ic.m. + M h2
h: the perpendicular distance between the two axes
 Torque
•  The ability of a force F to rotate a body
depends not only on its magnitude, but also
on its direction and where it is applied.
•  Torque is a quantity to measure this ability
Torque is a VECTOR
τ = r F sin Φ
F is applied at point P. τ = r x F
r : distance from P to the rotation axis.
units of τ: N . m
direction: “clockwise (CW) is negative”
because the angle is decreasing
 Sample Problem
The figure shows an overhead view of a meter stick that can pivot
about the dot at the position marked 20 (for 20cm). All five horizontal
forces on the stick have the same magnitude. Rank those forces
according to the magnitude of the torque that they produce, greatest
first.
|F1|=|F2|=|F3|=|F4|=|F5|=F
 Sample Problem

Force producing the greatest

(most positive) torque:
1.  F1
2.  F2 |F1|=|F2|=|F3|=|F4|=|F5|=F
3.  F3
4.  F4
5.  F5
6.  F1 and F3
7.  need more information
 Checkpoint 10-6
The figure shows an overhead view of a meter stick that can pivot
about the dot at the position marked 20 (for 20 cm). All five
horizontal forces on the stick have the same magnitude. Rank those
forces according to the magnitude of the torque that they produce,
greatest first.
|F1|=|F2|=|F3|=|F4|=|F5|=F
τ= r x F
Magnitude:
τ = r F sin θ

F1: τ1 = r1 F1 sin θ1 = (20)Fsin(90o) = 20F (CCW)

translational motion Quantity Rotational motion
x Position θ
Δx Displacement Δθ
v = dx/dt Velocity ω=dθ/dt
a = dv/dt Acceleration
m Mass Inertia I
F = ma Newton’s second law τ= r x F
Work
K = ½ mv2 Kinetic energy K = ½ Iω2
Power (constant F or τ) P = τω