MODULE: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND SOCIETY

CHAPTER 1: THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY AND

POLITICAL SCIENCE

OBJECTIVES:
Identify the subjects of inquiry and goals of Anthropology, Political Science, and Sociology
Appreciates the value of disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science as social sciences
Recognize the common concerns or intersections of anthropology, sociology, and political science with res

TIME TO LEARN!

Social Science Defined

According to the European Science Foundation, the social sciences are those
subjects which examine and explain human beings. This includes a variety of ways –
from understanding how minds work, to how societies as a whole function.
Social sciences help to explain how society works, exploring everything from the
triggers of economic growth and causes of unemployment to what makes people happy.
Social science examines the relationships between individuals and societies, as well as
the development and operation of societies, rather than studying the physical world.
These academic disciplines rely more heavily on interpretation and qualitative research
methodologies.
The origins of social sciences can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. The
lives they led, and their early studies into human nature, the state, and mortality, helped
to shape Western civilization.
Social science as an academic field of study developed out of the Age of
Enlightenment (or the Age of Reason), which flourished through much of the
18th century in Europe. Adam Smith, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot,
Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were among the big intellectuals at the time who
laid the foundations for the study of social sciences in the Western World.
The major social sciences are Anthropology, Archaeology, Economics,
Geography, History, Law, Linguistics, Politics, Psychology and Sociology. In this
subject, we will focus on Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology.

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**Anthropology
- Known as the 'science of humanity'. It
is the study of what makes us human.
- Anthropology is the systematic study of
humanity, with the goal of understanding
our evolutionary origins, our
distinctiveness as a species, and the
great diversity in our forms of social
existence across the world and through
time.
- It covers a broad range of topics – from
human behaviour, to cultural relations, and how the evolution of humanity has
influenced society's structure.

**Anthropologists

- Anthropologists take a broad approach to

understanding the many different
aspects of the human experience, which
we call holism.
- They consider the past, through
archaeology, to see how human groups
lived hundreds or thousands of years
ago and what was important to them.
- They consider what makes up our
biological bodies and genetics, as well
as our bones, diet, and health.
- They also compare humans with other animals (most often, other primates like
monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in common with them and
what makes us unique.
- Anthropologists look at how different groups of people get food, prepare it,
and share it.
- Anthropologists also try to understand how people interact in social
relationships (for example with families and friends). They look at the different
ways people dress and communicate in different societies.
**Applied and Practicing Anthropology

- Applied or practicing anthropologists are an important part of anthropology.

Each of the four subfields of anthropology can be applied. Applied
anthropologists work to solve real world problems by using anthropological
methods and ideas.
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**The Four Subfields of Anthropology

1. Archaeology – refers to the scientific study of the material remains of
past human life and activities. These include human artifacts from the very
earliest stone tools to the man-made objects that are buried or thrown away in
the present day.

Archaeologists study human culture by

analyzing the objects people have made. They
carefully remove from the ground such things as
pottery and tools, and they map the locations of
houses, trash pits, and burials in order to learn
about the daily lives of a people. They also
analyze human bones and teeth to gain
information on a people’s diet and the diseases
they suffered.

Archaeologists collect the remains of plants, animals, and soils from the places
where people have lived in order to understand how people used and changed their
natural environments. The time range for archaeological research begins with the
earliest human ancestors millions of years ago and extends all the way up to the
present day. Like other areas of anthropology, archaeologists are concerned with
explaining differences and similarities in human societies across space and time.
2. Biological Anthropology - is the study of the past and present evolution of
the human species and is especially concerned with understanding the causes
of present human diversity.

Biological anthropologists seek to

understand how humans adapt to different
environments, what causes disease and
early death, and how humans evolved from
other animals. To do this, they study humans
(living and dead), other primates such as
monkeys and apes, and human ancestors
(fossils). They are also interested in how
biology and culture work together to shape
our lives. They are interested in explaining
the similarities and differences that are found among humans across the world. Through
this work, biological anthropologists have shown that, while humans do vary in their
biology and behavior, they are more similar to one another than different.

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3. Cultural Anthropology – it is a major division of anthropology that deals with

the study of culture in all of its aspects and that uses the methods, concepts, and
data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology, folklore, and linguistics in its
descriptions and analyses of
the diverse peoples of the world.

Sociocultural anthropologists explore

how people in different places live and
understand the world around them. They want
to know what people think is important and the
rules they make about how they should
interact with one another. Even within one
country or society, people may disagree about
how they should speak, dress, eat, or treat
others. Anthropologists want to listen to all voices and viewpoints in order to understand
how societies vary and what they have in common.

Sociocultural anthropologists often find that the best way to learn about diverse
peoples and cultures is to spend time living among them. They try to understand the
perspectives, practices, and social organization of other groups whose values and
lifeways may be very different from their own. The knowledge they gain can enrich
human understanding on a broader level.
4. Linguistic Anthropology - a branch of anthropology that studies the role
of language in the social lives of individuals and communities.

Linguistic anthropologists study the many ways people communicate across the
globe. They are interested in how language is linked to how we see the world and how
we relate to each other. This can mean looking at how language works in all its different

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forms, and how it changes over time. It also means looking at what we believe about
language and communication, and how we use language in our lives. This includes the
ways we use language to build and share meaning, to form or change identities, and to
make or change relations of power. For linguistic anthropologists, language and
communication are keys to how we make society and culture.

**Political Science

- It is occasionally called politology, it is a social science which deals with

systems of governance, and the
analysis of political activities, political
thoughts, associated constitutions and
political behavior.
- A systematic study of governance by
the application of empirical and
generally scientific methods of
analysis
- Focuses on the theory and practice of
government and politics at the local,
state, national, and international
levels.
- It is a classical discipline that deals
with the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to deepen human understanding
of the forms and nature of political action and to develop theoretical tools for
interpreting politically meaningful phenomena.
- It is also concerned with the allocation and transfer of power in decision making,
the roles and systems of governance including governments and international
organizations, political behavior and public policies.

**Political Scientists
- They measure the success of governance and specific policies by examining
many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, peace and public
health.
- Political scientists provide the frameworks from which journalists, special
interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyse issues.
- According to Chaturvedy, political scientists may serve as advisers to
specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves.
- They may be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or

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political movements.

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**Politics
- Refers to the exercise of power; process by which groups of
people make collective decisions.
- Politics is the art or science of running governmental or state affairs
(including behavior within civil governments),
institutions, fields, and special interest
groups such as
the corporate, academic,
and religious segments of society.
- Politics affect every part of life, so it's
no wonder it makes such a
fascinating area of study.

**Major Subfields of Political Science

1. Domestic Politics
- It is generally the most common field of study; its subfields include
public opinion, elections, national government, and state, local, or
regional government.
2. Comparative Politics
- It focuses on politics within countries (often grouped into world regions)
and analyzes similarities and differences between countries.

3. International Relations
- It considers the political relationships and interactions between
countries, including the causes of war, the formation of foreign policy,
international political economy, and the structures that increase or decrease
the policy options available to governments.

4. Political Theory
- It includes classical political philosophy and contemporary theoretical
perspectives (e.g., constructivism, critical theory, and
postmodernism).

5. Public Administration
- Studies the role of the bureaucracy. It is the field most oriented toward
practical applications within political science and is often organized as a
separate department that prepares students for careers in the civil service.

6. Public Law
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- It studies constitutions, legal systems, civil rights, and criminal justice (now
increasingly its own discipline).

7. Public Policy
- Examines the passage and implementation of all types of government
policies, particularly those related to civil rights, defense, health, education,
economic growth, urban renewal, regional development, and environmental
protection.
8. Political Methodology
- The subfield of political methodology is concerned with the philosophical bases
of political science, social science, empirical research design and analysis, and
practical field research experience.

**Sociology

- It is the study of society, both on the individual and structural level.

Covering topics such as class, religion and social mobility.
- Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.
- It is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes
and consequences of human behavior.
- Sociology’s subject matter is
diverse, ranging from crime to
religion, from the family to the
state, from the divisions of race
and
social class to the shared beliefs of a
common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole
societies.
- It is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and
explains important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and
the world.
- At the personal level, sociology investigates the social causes and
consequences of such things as romantic love, racial and gender identity,
family conflict, deviant behavior, aging, and religious faith.
- At the societal level, sociology examines and explains matters like crime
and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice and discrimination, schools and
education, business firms, urban community, and social movements.
- At the global level, sociology studies such phenomena as population growth
and migration, war and peace, and economic development.

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**Sociologists
- Sociologists emphasize the careful gathering and analysis of evidence
about social life to develop and enrich our understanding of key social
processes.
- Sociologists observe the everyday life of groups, conduct large-scale surveys,
interpret historical documents, analyze census data, study video-taped
interactions, interview participants of groups, and conduct laboratory
experiments.
- The research methods and theories of sociology yield powerful insights into the
social processes shaping human lives and social problems and prospects in the
contemporary world. By better understanding those social processes, we also
come to understand more clearly the forces shaping the personal experiences
and outcomes of our own lives. The ability to see and understand this
connection between broad social forces and personal experiences — what C.
Wright Mills called “the sociological imagination” — is extremely valuable
academic preparation for living effective and rewarding personal and
professional lives in a changing and complex society.
- Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies and
how people interact within these contexts. Since all human behavior is social, the
subject matter of sociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob;
from organized crime to religious traditions; from the divisions of race, gender
and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture. (21st Century
Careers with an Undergraduate Degree in Sociology, 2014)

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For further reading, please refer to the links below:

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References:
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/social-science.asp

https://campaignforsocialscience.org.uk/about-us/social-sciences/

https://sociology.unc.edu/undergraduate-program/sociology-major/what-is-sociology/

https://www.asanet.org/about-asa/asa-story/what-sociology

https://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150

https://anthropology.ucdavis.edu/undergraduate/what-is-anthropology

https://www.polisci.washington.edu/what-political-science

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_scienc e
https://www.britannica.com/topic/political-science

https://www.britannica.com/science/archaeology

https://www.discoveranthropology.org.uk/about-anthropology/what-is-anthropology/biological-
anthropology.html

https://www.britannica.com/science/cultural-anthropology

https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-linguistic-anthropology- 1691240#:~:text=Linguistic
%20anthropology%20is%20a%20branch,establishing%20cultural%20b eliefs%20and
%20ideologies

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