CARDIOPULMONARY ASSESSMENT OF MEDETOMIDINE, KETAMINE,

AND BUTORPHANOL ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE THOMSON'S GAZELLES

(GAZELLA THOMSONI)
Author(s): Elizabeth ChittickD.V.M., M.S., William HorneD.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl. A.C.V.A., Barbara
WolfeD.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl. A.C.Z.M., Kurt SladkyD.V.M., M.S., and Michael LoomisD.V.M., M.S.,
Dipl. A.C.Z.M.
Source: Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 32(2):168-175. 2001.
Published By: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1638/1042-7260(2001)032[0168:CAOMKA]2.0.CO;2
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1638/1042-7260%282001%29032%5B0168%3ACAOMKA
%5D2.0.CO%3B2

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 Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 32(2): 168–175, 2001
Copyright 2001 by American Association of Zoo Veterinarians

CARDIOPULMONARY ASSESSMENT OF MEDETOMIDINE,

KETAMINE, AND BUTORPHANOL ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE
THOMSON’S GAZELLES (GAZELLA THOMSONI)

Elizabeth Chittick, D.V.M., M.S., William Horne, D.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl. A.C.V.A.,
Barbara Wolfe, D.V.M., Ph.D., Dipl. A.C.Z.M., Kurt Sladky, D.V.M., M.S., and
Michael Loomis, D.V.M., M.S., Dipl. A.C.Z.M.

Abstract: This investigation evaluated the cardiopulmonary effects of medetomidine, ketamine, and butorphanol
anesthesia in captive juvenile Thomson’s gazelles (Gazella thomsoni). Butorphanol was incorporated to reduce the dose
of medetomidine necessary for immobilization and minimize medetomidine-induced adverse cardiovascular side effects.
Medetomidine 40.1 6 3.6 mg/kg, ketamine 4.9 6 0.6 mg/kg, and butorphanol 0.40 6 0.04 mg/kg were administered
intramuscularly by hand injection to nine gazelles. Times to initial effect and recumbency were within 8 min postin-
jection. Cardiopulmonary status was monitored every 5 min by measuring heart rate, respiratory rate, indirect blood
pressure, end-tidal CO2, and indirect oxygen-hemoglobin saturation by pulse oximetry. Venous blood gases were col-
lected every 15 min postinjection. Oxygen saturations less than 90% in three gazelles suggested hypoxemia. Subsequent
immobilized gazelles were supplemented with intranasal oxygen throughout the anesthetic period. Sustained bradycardia
(,60 beats per minute, as compared with anesthetized domestic calves, sheep, and goats) was noted in eight of nine
gazelles. Heart and respiratory rates and rectal temperatures decreased slightly, whereas systolic, mean, and diastolic
blood pressure values were consistent over the anesthetic period. Mild elevations in end tidal CO2 and PCO2 suggested
hypoventilation. Local lidocaine blocks were necessary to perform castrations in all seven of the gazelles undergoing
the procedure. Return to sternal recumbency occurred within 7 min and return to standing occurred within 12 min after
reversal with atipamezole (0.2 6 0.03 mg/kg) and naloxone (0.02 6 0.001 mg/kg). Medetomidine, ketamine, and
butorphanol can be used to safely anesthetize Thomson’s gazelles for routine, noninvasive procedures. More invasive
procedures, such as castration, can be readily performed with the additional use of local anesthetics.
Key words: Anesthesia, butorphanol, Gazella thomsoni, ketamine, medetomidine, Thomson’s gazelle.

INTRODUCTION such as carfentanil, which have been commonly

Previous studies have validated the efficacy of used to anesthetize wild hoofstock.14,25
medetomidine/ketamine combinations for immobi- Marked cardiopulmonary changes, such as de-
lization and analgesia in domestic, free-ranging, creased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and pro-
and captive wild hoofstock.1–3,9,10,18,29 Medetomi- found hypoxemia, have been reported in wild and
dine, a potent alpha2 adrenoceptor agonist, has ap- domestic artiodactylids administered medetomidine
proximately 10 times the binding selectivity of xy- (10–30 mg/kg i.v.) or medetomidine/ketamine (50–
lazine for alpha2 receptors, thereby minimizing al- 150 mg/kg medetomidine, 1–25 mg/kg ketamine
pha1 receptor–mediated cardiovascular side ef- i.m.) combinations.1–4,8,13 To lower the dose of med-
fects.31 The reversibility of alpha2 agonists allows etomidine and minimize the likelihood of mede-
tomidine-induced cardiopulmonary side effects, the
for quick recoveries, making these anesthetic
synthetic opioid butorphanol was added to our an-
agents popular for those working with free-ranging
esthetic regimen. Medetomidine/butorphanol (M/B)
ungulates.2,3,9,10,18,29 Additionally, the use of mede-
and medetomidine/ketamine/butorphanol (M/K/B)
tomidine and ketamine eliminates animal and hu-
combinations have been used successfully in dogs,
man exposure to the hazards of schedule II drugs,
ferrets, red wolves, pigs, and horses.11,12,22,23,26 A
mixed mu antagonist and kappa agonist, butorpha-
From the Environmental Medicine Consortium (Chit- nol enhances the analgesic and sedative effects of
tick, Horne, Wolfe, Sladky, Loomis), Department of Clin-
medetomidine in several domestic species.21,27 Un-
ical Sciences (Chittick), and Department of Anatomy,
like medetomidine, butorphanol causes minimal
Physiological Sciences, and Radiology (Horne), College
of Veterinary Medicine, 4700 Hillsborough Street, North cardiovascular or respiratory effects in rumi-
Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, nants.5,17,32 This investigation evaluated the cardio-
USA; and the North Carolina Zoological Park (Wolfe, pulmonary effects of M/K/B anesthesia in captive
Sladky, Loomis), 4401 Zoo Parkway, Asheboro, North Thomson’s gazelles (Gazella thomsoni).
Carolina 27203, USA. Present address (Chittick): Sea-
World Orlando, 7007 Sea World Drive, Orlando, Florida MATERIALS AND METHODS
32821, USA. Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Nine captive-born Thomson’s gazelles were
Chittick at SeaWorld Orlando. anesthetized for quarantine examinations at the
168
 CHITTICK ET AL.—M/K/B ANESTHESIA IN THOMSON’S GAZELLES 169

North Carolina Zoological Park (NCZP). All ga- the other eight gazelles. Because of the difficulty in
zelles were juvenile males aged 4–18 mo that had determining whether blood gases were arterial or
been quarantined for a period of 6 wk in the venous without confirmation with a blood pressure
NCZP’s African ungulate propagation barn. Ani- transducer, blood gases were reported as venous
mals were fed grain and alfalfa hay daily. Prior to samples. They were analyzed immediately after
anesthesia, food and water were withheld for 72 collection (EG71 cartridges, Heska, Waukesha,
and 48 hr, respectively. Wisconsin 53188, USA) with an i-STAT portable
Each animal was restrained in a wooden squeeze clinical analyzer (Heska). Blood gases were later
chute and hand injected intramuscularly with a manually temperature corrected.7 Our initial exper-
combination of 40.0 mg/kg medetomidine (Pfizer imental design did not include oxygen supplemen-
Animal Health, Exton, Pennsylvania 19341, USA), tation. However, low oxygen saturations (SpO2 ,
5.0 mg/kg ketamine (Pfizer), and 0.40 mg/kg bu- 90%) were observed on multiple blood gases col-
torphanol (Fort Dodge Animal Health, Fort Dodge, lected from the first three immobilized gazelles;
Iowa 50501, USA) on the basis of estimated therefore, the following six gazelles were admin-
weights. Each animal was maintained in the istered intranasal oxygen at 0.5–1.0 L/min flow af-
squeeze chute but not handled for 15 min after an- ter initial SpO2 readings were taken at 15 min PI.
esthetic administration to allow for adequate drug Oxygen was supplied with plastic tubing positioned
effect. Lights were dimmed to minimize stress dur- in the nostril not used for the capnography filter
ing induction. At 15 min postinjection (PI) and pri- line.
or to transfer of each gazelle to a stall for exami- Each animal was anesthetized for a total of 60
nation, heart rate, respiratory rate, and indirect min. During the anesthetic period, physical exam-
blood pressure were measured. Heart and respira- ination, blood collection, rabies vaccination, iver-
tory rates were determined by auscultation, and in- mectin administration, ear tagging, and tuberculin
direct blood pressure was measured with a Dina- testing were performed. Within 30 min of initial
map Model 8300 (Critikon, Inc., Tampa, Florida injection, ear tags were placed and blood was col-
33634, USA) with a neonatal #3- or #4-sized Cri- lected from the jugular vein for complete blood
tikon cuff placed around the metacarpus of a fore- counts and serum chemistries. Seven of the nine
limb.28 Each animal was then carried to an adjacent gazelles were castrated while anesthetized. If an an-
stall, blindfolded, and positioned in lateral recum- imal showed any response to stimulus (moving
bency for a quarantine examination and diagnostic limbs, increasing heart rate) during castration, 0.25
procedures. No animal was intubated during the ml of 2% lidocaine (Elkins-Sinn, Cherry Hill, New
study, but each gazelle’s neck was elevated to min- Jersey 08003, USA) was administered in the scrotal
imize the likelihood of gastric reflux entering the skin and each spermatic cord (total volume 0.75 ml/
mouth or trachea. Each animal’s head was also tilt- gazelle). At the completion of the quarantine ex-
ed downward to facilitate drainage of saliva. amination and diagnostic procedures for each ani-
Initial effect was defined by the earliest signs of mal, medetomidine was antagonized with 0.20 mg/
ataxia and body swaying after M/K/B injection. kg atipamezole (Pfizer) and butorphanol was antag-
Times to initial effect and recumbency were re- onized with 0.020 mg/kg naloxone (Narcan, Endo
corded. Cardiopulmonary status was monitored ev- Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania
ery 5 min by measuring heart rate, respiratory rate, 19317, USA) intramuscularly. Times to stage 1 re-
indirect oxygen-hemoglobin saturation (N-20 Pulse covery and return to standing (stage 0) were re-
Oximeter, Nellcor, Inc., Hayward, California corded. Stage 1 recovery was defined as mild se-
94545, USA), indirect blood pressure, and end-tidal dation with animals responding to eye and ear stim-
CO2 (Microcap, Oridion Medical Ltd., Jerusalem,
ulus but remaining sternally recumbent.
Israel). The pulse oximetry probe was placed on
the tongue, and capnographic values were collected RESULTS
by placing the filter line approximately 3–5 cm into
one nostril. Body temperature was recorded every Weights of the Thomson’s gazelles ranged from
10 min with a rectal thermometer. Blood gas col- 11.5 to 20.0 kg (mean 15.6 6 3.1 kg, median 16.0
lection from catheterized femoral or radial vessels kg). The mean doses of anesthetic agents adminis-
was attempted at 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after initial tered were the following: medetomidine 40.1 6 3.6
injection. Catheterization, however, was successful mg/kg (range 35.0–46.3 mg/kg), ketamine 4.9 6 0.6
in only one animal. Blood gases were collected mg/kg (3.8–5.8 mg/kg), and butorphanol 0.40 6
from corresponding femoral or radial vasculature 0.04 mg/kg (0.35–0.46 mg/kg). Struggling of two
by heparinized hypodermic needle and syringe for animals during restraint resulted in limb injuries
170 JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE

Table 1. Induction and recovery times (in minutes) in others displayed this behavior near the end of an-
Thomson’s gazelles after intramuscular injection with 40.1 esthesia. No gazelle responded to ear tagging by
mg/kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40 mg/
kg butorphanol. ear twitching or increased heart or respiratory rate.
Toward the end of the anesthetic period, however,
Anesthetic stage N Mean SD Median Range occasional responses (i.e., blinking, ear twitching)
to manual stimuli were seen. Local lidocaine blocks
First effect 5 3.8 1.9 3.0 2.0–7.0 were necessary to perform castrations in all seven
Recumbency 9 5.6 2.4 5.0 3.0–10.0 of the gazelles undergoing the procedure. No com-
Stage 1 recovery 5 5.0 1.6 5.0 3.0–7.0
plication was noted with lidocaine administration or
Standing (stage 0) 9 9.3 3.8 10.0 3.0–15.0
castration procedures. No regurgitation was ob-
served; however, mild to moderate salivation was
noted in all animals throughout the anesthetic pe-
early in the study, but no animal had complications riod.
related to anesthesia. Median heart rates and respiratory rates for the
Times to initial effect and recumbency were oxygen-supplemented and non-oxygen-supplement-
within 8 min PI (Table 1). All animals experienced ed groups are shown in Figure 1. All median heart
a smooth induction, characterized by a lack of ex- rates consistently fell below 60 beats per minute
citation or stumbling in the chute. The dosages of (bpm). Heart and respiratory rates decreased slight-
administered M/K/B resulted in light anesthesia in ly over the anesthetic period in both groups. Two
which routine noninvasive procedures could be per- of the nine gazelles were also noted to have shallow
formed. Two animals received relatively lower dos- respirations, and one gazelle had a sustained ele-
es of ketamine (3.8 mg/kg and 4.3 mg/kg, respec- vation in respiratory rate (24–56 breaths per mi-
tively) and exhibited slow foot paddling throughout nute). Median rectal temperatures of gazelles in
the duration of the anesthetic period, whereas two both groups initially ranged from 103.1 to 103.88F

Figure 1. Respiratory and heart rates of oxygen-supplemented (n 5 6) and non-oxygen-supplemented (n 5 3)

Thomson’s gazelles immobilized with 40.1 mg/kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40 mg/kg butorphanol
i.m. Solid squares (m) indicate median respiratory rates for oxygen-supplemented gazelles, solid triangles (m) indicate
median respiratory rates for non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles, and associated bars represent ranges of respiratory
rates. Open squares (M) indicate median heart rates for oxygen-supplemented gazelles, open triangles (n) indicate
median heart rates for non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles, and associated bars represent ranges of heart rates.
 CHITTICK ET AL.—M/K/B ANESTHESIA IN THOMSON’S GAZELLES 171

Figure 2. Systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressures of oxygen-supplemented Thomson’s gazelles (n 5 5)
immobilized with 40.1 mg/kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40 mg/kg butorphanol i.m. Median values are
indicated by solid triangles (m) for systolic blood pressures, solid squares (m) for mean blood pressures, and solid
circles (v) for diastolic blood pressure. Bars represent ranges of blood pressures.

when measured 20–30 min PI and decreased to gen-supplemented gazelles ranged from 90 to 100%
100.6–102.18F by 60 min PI. Two gazelles dem- after 25 min PI throughout the anesthetic period.
onstrated consistently increased rectal temperatures The PCO2 values for non-oxygen-supplemented
(range 102.5–1058F) while immobilized. and oxygen-supplemented animals overlapped,
Systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressure val- with the former ranging between 46.6 and 60.2 mm
ues were fairly consistent among oxygen-supple- Hg and the latter between 39.6 and 66.4 mm Hg
mented gazelles over the anesthetic period (Fig. 2). (Table 2). One oxygen-supplemented gazelle had
One oxygen-supplemented gazelle, however, was PCO2 values that exceeded 57.2 mm Hg at all col-
not included in the blood pressure data set because lection times. Similar to blood PCO2, end tidal
of difficulties in cuff placement and resultant vari- (ET)CO2 values ranged from 50 to 68 mm Hg for
ability in cuff values. Results of blood pressure all animals in the study, though ETCO2 tended to
monitoring for non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles decrease from 30 to 60 min PI whereas PCO2 fluc-
tuated over the anesthetic period (Fig. 4).
are shown in Figure 3.
An intermittent, mild to moderate respiratory ac-
Median oxygen saturation levels determined by
idosis (pH , 7.350, PCO2 . 50 mm Hg) was evi-
pulse oximetry (SpO2) occasionally dropped below
dent in all nine gazelles in the study. Blood pH for
90% saturation, indicating a hypoxemic state (Fig.
non-oxygen-supplemented and oxygen-supplement-
4). At 20 min PI, three of the seven animals with ed gazelles ranged from 7.256 to 7.391 and 7.158
pulse oximetry values had SpO2 , 90%. Addition- to 7.369, respectively (Table 2). The bicarbonate
ally, two of the non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles range of 20–34 mmol/L was consistent for both
registered SpO2 , 90% at time points 30, 40, 45, groups of gazelles. One exception was an oxygen-
50, and 40 min PI, respectively. Of the oxygen- supplemented gazelle with a moderate metabolic
supplemented gazelles, two had transient episodes acidosis (pH 7.180–7.345, HCO3 18–25 mmol/L)
of SpO2 , 90% after oxygen supplementation was early in the anesthetic period that resolved 50–55
initiated. All other pulse oximetry values for oxy- min PI.
172 JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE

Figure 3. Systolic, mean, and diastolic blood pressures of non-oxygen-supplemented Thomson’s gazelles (n 5 3)
immobilized with 40.1 mg/kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40 mg/kg butorphanol i.m. Median values are
indicated by solid triangles (m) for systolic blood pressures, solid squares (m) for mean blood pressures, and solid
circles (v) for diastolic blood pressure. Bars represent ranges of blood pressures.

Stage 1 recovery occurred within 7 min after an- a more complete drug effect with medetomidine
tagonism with 0.20 6 0.03 mg/kg atipamezole and combinations.9,18
0.020 6 0.001 mg/kg naloxone (Table 1). Return The M/K/B dosages reported here provided ad-
to standing (stage 0) generally occurred within 12 equate sedation for most noninvasive procedures
min of reversal administration (Table 1). Recover- but were inadequate for intubation without a spec-
ies were smooth but often rapid, with only 1 min ulum. Gazelles anesthetized with M/K/B main-
between stage 1 and stage 0 anesthetic planes. No tained mild to moderate jaw tone and the ability to
complication, other than the two chute injuries, was chew objects placed in the mouth. Use of a spec-
observed for 24 hr after recovery. ulum would be indicated with placement of an en-
dotracheal tube or capnography filter line to reduce
DISCUSSION the likelihood of damage to these instruments.
Alpha2 agonists have become important agents in Although depth of anesthesia 15–60 min PI was
the anesthetic arsenal for zoo and wildlife medi- adequate to perform minor procedures of short du-
cine. These agents facilitate rapid inductions and ration, additional local anesthetics were necessary
recoveries, provide excellent analgesia, and are eas- for more invasive surgical procedures. Local anes-
ily reversible. In this investigation, M/K/B anesthe- thetics have been previously administered to artiod-
sia was characterized by quick, smooth inductions actylids undergoing castration or umbilical surgery
and recoveries, as has been previously described for when M/K combinations have not offered adequate
medetomidine and medetomidine/ketamine (M/K) analgesia.19,30 Local administration of low doses of
combinations in other artiodactylids.8,9,29,30 Mini- lidocaine provided effective analgesia during cas-
mizing stimulus and restricting handling until 15 trations in this study.
min after injection likely contributed to the smooth Few potentially adverse side effects were noted
inductions observed in our study. A similar strategy in gazelles immobilized with M/K/B. Hypersaliva-
has been incorporated in previous studies to allow tion has been reported in Shami goats (Capra hir-
 CHITTICK ET AL.—M/K/B ANESTHESIA IN THOMSON’S GAZELLES 173

Figure 4. End-tidal CO2 (ETCO2) and oxygen saturation (SpO2) of oxygen-supplemented (n 5 6) and non-oxygen-
supplemented (n 5 3) Thomson’s gazelles immobilized with 40.1 mg/kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40
mg/kg butorphanol i.m. Solid squares (m) indicate median ETCO2 for oxygen-supplemented gazelles, solid triangles
(m) indicate median ETCO2 for non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles, and associated bars represent ranges of ETCO2
values. Open squares (M) indicate median SpO2 for oxygen-supplemented gazelles, open triangles (n) indicate median
SpO2 for non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles, and associated bars represent ranges of SpO2.

cus) and Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) sedated with

medetomidine.8,16 In this study, moderate salivation
did occur but did not cause problems with airway
patency. Other reported complications associated
Table 2. Temperature-corrected blood gases in Thom- with medetomidine anesthesia include ruminal sta-
son’s gazelles after intramuscular injection with 40.1 mg/ sis, bloating, and hypothermia in Shami goat kids.16
kg medetomidine, 4.9 mg/kg ketamine, and 0.40 mg/kg Mild to moderate tympany has also been docu-
butorphanol.
mented in artiodactylids immobilized with M/K
combinations and placed in lateral recumbency.9 No
pH PCO2
Animal gastrointestinal complication or hypothermia was
Id no. 30 min PIa 60 min PI 30 min PI 60 min PI
noted in Thomson’s gazelles anesthetized in this
Non-oxygen-supplemented gazelles study.
1483 7.303 7.370 48.9 58.8 A potential disadvantage with this M/K/B anes-
1485 7.256 7.285 46.6 60.2 thetic regimen, however, was the large volume of
1486 7.333 7.391 53.8 50.4 butorphanol required for a 0.4-mg/kg dose. Such
Oxygen-supplemented gazelles volumes would be impractical for use in large wild
1480 7.361 7.369 39.6 49.4 ungulates when remote delivery is required for im-
1476 7.304 7.293 66.4 62.7 mobilization.
1478 7.184 7.314 63.2 48.5 Thomson’s gazelles were physiologically stable
1479 7.305 7.272 56.3 51.0 at the M/K/B dosages administered in this investi-
1481 7.208 7.345 45.2 44.6
gation. Adverse cardiovascular and respiratory ef-
1477 7.266 7.332 57.5 49.2
fects of M/K/B combinations were limited to bra-
a
PI 5 postinjection. dycardia (,60 bpm), mild transient hypertension,
174 JOURNAL OF ZOO AND WILDLIFE MEDICINE

and shallow breathing. Hypertension has been dem- emic states throughout the anesthetic period. Al-
onstrated in domestic sheep after intramuscular in- though pulse oximetry is not a replacement for ar-
jection with 125 mg/kg medetomidine and 2.5 mg/ terial blood gases for assessing arterial oxygena-
kg ketamine.2 In that study, direct mean arterial tion, its use has been validated for detecting
blood pressures reached maximum values of ap- hypoxemia and oxygen saturation trends in dama
proximately 165 mm Hg at 10 min PI and remained gazelles.25 Incorporation of butorphanol into our an-
significantly elevated, with mean arterial pressure esthetic regime did not appear to reduce the like-
(MAP) . 125 mm Hg throughout the 60-min an- lihood of medetomidine-associated hypoxemia.
esthetic period. Similar trends in MAP, systolic Given the potential for development of hypoxemia
(SAP), and diastolic (DAP) arterial pressures after with M/K/B anesthesia, we recommend that all ar-
intravenous injection of 10–20 mg/kg medetomi- tiodactylids receive oxygen supplementation during
dine have been reported in domestic sheep.1 In this M/K/B immobilizations. With oxygen supplemen-
study, the highest indirect blood pressures were re- tation, M/K/B can successfully and safely anesthe-
corded in the first 20 min PI but reached levels of tize a small, wild, ungulate species for routine, non-
DAP . 119 mm Hg and MAP . 130 mm Hg in invasive procedures.
only two individuals. A gradual decline in SAP,
DAP, and MAP occurred over the anesthetic period Acknowledgments: We thank the North Carolina
in all gazelles, but median MAP remained between Zoo veterinary technicians, North Carolina Zoo Af-
95 and 110 mm Hg. The relative lack of hyperten- rican Plains keepers, North Carolina Zoo curators,
sion seen in the Thomson’s gazelles in this study Dr. Scott Larsen, and Dr. Craig Harms for their as-
may have been due to the lower dose of medetom- sistance with and support of this study. We also
idine, the addition of butorphanol, or a species-spe- thank Dr. Scott Larsen and Dr. Michael Stoskopf
cific response to the anesthetic agents administered. for their help with manuscript review. Funding was
Low heart rates of 50–60 bpm persisted through- provided in part by the North Carolina Zoological
out the anesthetic period. Although preanesthetic Society.
heart rate determination was not feasible in this
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Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx): clinical, hematological and 21. Sakaguchi, M., R. Nishimura, N. Sasaki, T. Ishi-
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