.

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUE OF ENGINEERING
Advance College of Engineering
Kupondole, Lalitpur

Department of Civil Engineering

A PROJECT ON
WATER AVAILABILITY AND IRRIGATION WATER
REQUIREMENT AT
DIVERSION HEAD WORK OF
SAPTANG KHOLA AT NUWAKOT
AND DESIGN OF PORTABLE DRIP SYSTEM AND
PORTABLE SPRINKLER SYSTEM.

Submitted by:
Sagar Oli 074/BCE/065

Submitted to:
Professor Prem Chandra Jha
 Table of Contents
1) INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 4
1.1) GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2) OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 4
1.3) METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................. 4
1.4) STUDY AREA AND LOCATION ......................................................................... 5
1.5) ACCESSIBILITY ................................................................................................... 5
1.6) BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE ....................................................... 6
1.7) CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS ......................................................................... 7
2) HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES ....................................................................................... 8
2.1) GENERAL ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2) HYDROLOGICAL DATA COLLECTION......................................................... 8
 STREAM DATABASE .......................................................................................... 8
 LONG-TERM STREAM FLOW ANALYSIS ........................................................ 8
METHODS USED FOR LONG TERM FLOW ANALYSIS ......................................... 8
 CATCHMENT AREA RATIO METHOD .............................................................. 9
 MEDIUM IRRIGATION PROJECT (MIP) METHOD ........................................... 9
 WECS/DHM (Hydest) .......................................................................................... 10
2.3) DATA CALCULATION ...................................................................................... 11
3) IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND IT’S STUDIES ............................................................ 13
3.1) GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 13
3.2) TYPES OF IRRGATION SYSTEM...................................................................... 13
3.3) SOURCES FOR IRRIGATION WATER .............................................................. 13
3.4) CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQURIMENT .......................................... 14
3.5) IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT CALCULATION................................ 15
3.6) Comparison of IWR and Hydrograph .................................................................... 16
3.7) CONCLUSION..................................................................................................... 17
3.8) RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................... 17
4) DESIGN OF PORTABLE DRIP SY0STEM ................................................................... 18
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 18
2. TYPES OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM .............................................................. 18
3. SUITABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION IN HILLS OF NEPAL .............................. 18
4. ADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION ................................................................ 18
5. LIMITATIONS OF DRIP IRRIGATION ................................................................. 18
6. DESIGN APPROACH OF DRIP SYSTEM.............................................................. 19
7) DESIGN OF PORTABLE DRIP SYSTEM ................................................................. 20
IRRIGATION INTERVAL ....................................................................................... 20
 DRIPLINE SELECTION .......................................................................................... 20
DESIGN OF LATERAL ............................................................................................ 21
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION PIPE ........................................................................ 21
DESIGN OF SUPPLY LINE ..................................................................................... 22
5) DESIGN OF PORTABLE SPRINKLER SYSTEM ...................................................... 23
1) INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 23
2) TYPES OF SPRINKLER SYSTEM ......................................................................... 23
3) SUITABILITY OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION IN HILLS OF NEPAL .................. 23
4) Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation ............................................................................ 23
5) LIMITATIONS OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION ..................................................... 24
6) DESIGN APPROACH OF SPRINKLER SYSTEM .................................................. 24
7) DESIGN OF PORTABLE SPRINKLER SYSTEM .................................................. 25
IRRIGATION INTERVAL ....................................................................................... 25
SPRINKLER SELECTION....................................................................................... 25
DESIGN OF LATERALS .......................................................................................... 26
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION PIPE ........................................................................ 27
DESIGN OF SUPPLY LINE ..................................................................................... 27
 1) INTRODUCTION

1.1) GENERAL
Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to agricultural land. It is practiced by more than half
the farmers in the world because they need more water for their crops than is available from
rainfall. Irrigation projects must also allow for removal of excess water. Modern irrigation and
the associated practice of drainage, together with the application of fertilizers and
mechanization, have resulted in an unprecedented increase in farm productivity. Irrigation is
extremely important in the production of food, other agricultural products, ornamentals, and
turf. One-third of the world’s food is produced on the 21% of the world’s cultivated area that
is irrigated. Thus, the understanding of irrigation and its management are critical to all of us.

1.2) OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The project will have following key objectives: Improving productivity of irrigation water by
efficient conveyance and its effective farm level use by adopting conservation agricultural
practices.
The objectives of Water availability and irrigation water requirement at diversion head work
of Saptang khola are to:
 Find a suitable command area
 To apply the theoretical knowledge in practice.
 To be familiar with the analysis and design of different components. (Like weir, intake,
canal etc.)
 To increase in crop yield.
 Ensure enough moisture essential for plant growth.

1.3) METHODOLOGY
For the completion of prefeasibility study of the project following methodologies were applied
in following order:
 Data Collection: For gauged basin, data were collected from Department of hydrology
and meteorology (DHM) for hydrological analysis and topographic map of the site was
also collected. Under this phase, we collected and reviewed topographical maps of the
site, available report, guidelines, secondary data and other information about the site.
Study was done for the analyzing the data making the tentative layout of the project
considering various elements like flow, head and other constraints.
 Site study

 Hydrological analysis: First, we computed the design flow of the river and flood of
different years return period was determined by using various empirical and statistical
methods.
1.4) STUDY AREA AND LOCATION
The existing Saptang khola is located at Kispang, Nuwakot district, Central region of Nepal.
Major part of the project structures lies within the Kispang VDC, and a small portion of
catchment area falls in Meghang VDC. In the physiographical regions, the project area belongs
to middle and higher mountains. The basin is located in between latitude 27°59'14.50"N and
longitude 85° 9'14.09"E. Saptang khola is the tributary of Trishuli River and has catchment
area of 78.77 km2. It is a perennial river. It lies in Nuwakot district of Bagmati Province. The
highest elevation of Saptang catchment is 3662.8m. The forest coverage in the upper parts of
the area is quite dense. In upper part the river runs through a deep valley.
The catchment area below permanent snow line (EL.5000 m) about is 78.77 km2 and the
catchment area below (EL.3000) is 78.77 km2.
The project area study map is shown below.

1.5) ACCESSIBILITY
Kispang is 104.6 km away from Kathmandu in the North-West direction. Nearest famous city
Bidur (i.e., Headquarter of Nuwakot) which is about 27.3 km away from project site.
1.6) BASIN PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE
Saptang khola is the tributary of Trishuli River. The basin is located in between latitude
27°59'14.50"N and longitude 85° 9'14.09"E. Saptang khola is the tributary of Trishuli River
and has catchment area of 78.77 km2. It is a perennial river. It lies in Nuwakot district of
Bagmati Province.

The general characteristics of the catchment site is shown in tabular form below.
 Characteristics Unit
Catchment area 78.77 km2
Perimeter 38.8 km
Length of Catchment 16.2 km
Area below 3000m elevation 78.77 km2
Gauging stations ------------

1.7) CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

DThe project area lies in sub-tropical monsoon climate with two distinct seasons, the wet
season and dry season. The wet season starts from June and ends in September while the dry
season continues from October to May. This area is also influenced by the south-easterly
monsoon rain. Hence, about 80% of the total rainfall occurs here during monsoon season i.e.,
from middle June to middle September. The average yearly rainfall in the site is 5067mm
according to the rainfall data from the station at Pansayakhola (station number 1057).
Temperature is lowest during winter (December - January) and increases as spring advances
due to increase in solar insolation. However, the arrival of monsoon rain checks the increase in
temperature making generally May or early June the hottest months. Temperature in the area
vary during the year form the minimum 250ct to maximum 300c. Similarly, the relative
humidity varies from 35% to 90% over the year.
 2) HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES

2.1) GENERAL
Hydrological study is a major part of the irrigation projects. The main objective of the
hydrological study is to study rainfall pattern, to pertain discharging capacity of catchment and
to predict design discharge, flood flow and low flow of the river.
To perform the hydrological study effectively, its scope has been identified as follows:
 Collection of hydrological and meteorological data.
 Development of rating curves at intake and powerhouse.
 Assessment of water availability (Mean Monthly Flow, Flow duration curve & Design
Discharge, Low Flow and High Flood).
 Sediment Analysis, Findings from this study will be accommodated in design and energy
estimates for the project.


2.2) HYDROLOGICAL DATA COLLECTION

 STREAM DATABASE
A stream gauge is an instrument used to measure the height of the water level in a stream.
Stream gauging is a technique used to measure the discharge, or the volume of water moving
through a channel per unit time, of a stream. The height of water in the stream channel, known
as a stage or gage height, can be used to determine the discharge in a stream.
 There is not any stream gauge station near by catchment area. (Ungauged river).
Saptang khola is the tributary of Trishuli River and there is no gauging station in this river.
There is gauging station in Trishuli River at Betrwati but Trishuli is a snow fed river which
does not match the catchment characteristics of the Saptang. So, another nearby gauging
stations is used for data collection.
 LONG-TERM STREAM FLOW ANALYSIS
The long-term flow analysis is carried out to obtain the average discharge that will be available
for us in the river for the useful life of the project. This analysis will provide us with the average
monthly discharge.
METHODS USED FOR LONG TERM FLOW ANALYSIS
 Catchment Area Ratio Method
 WECS/DHM Method (WECS/DHM, 1990)
 MIP Method
  CATCHMENT AREA RATIO METHOD
If two basins are hydro-meteorologically similar, data extension may accomplish simply by
multiplying the available long-term data at the HSC with the ratio of the basin areas of the base
station (proposed site under study) and the index (HSC) station.
Qu= Au*(Qg/Ag)
Where, Qu and Qg= Discharge at Ungauged station and gauged stations respectively.
Au and Ag = Area of Ungauged station and gauged stations respectively.
 MEDIUM IRRIGATION PROJECT (MIP) METHOD
The MIP method presents a technique for estimating the distribution of monthly flows
throughout a year for ungauged locations. For application to ungauged sites, it is necessary to
obtain one flow measurement in the low flow period from November to April.
In MIP Method, Nepal has been divided into seven Zones. Once the catchment area of the
scheme, one flow measurement in the low flow period and the hydrological zone is identified,
long-term average monthly flows can be determined by multiplying the unit hydrograph (of
concerned region) with the measured catchment area. Hydrological zone can be identified
based on the location of the scheme in the hydrological zoned map of Nepal. For catchment
area less than 100 km2, MIP method is used for better results.
If the measured date is on 15th of the month, the coefficient given in the table is directly used.
For other date measurement, coefficient for that date is found by interpolation.
MIP non dimensional regional hydrograph coefficient
Regions
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Jan 2.4 2.24 2.71 2.59 2.42 2.03 3.3
Feb 1.8 1.7 1.88 1.88 1.82 1.62 2.2
Mar 1.3 1.33 1.38 1.38 1.36 1.27 1.4
Apr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
May 2.6 1.21 1.88 2.19 0.19 2.57 3.5
Jun 6 7.27 3.13 3.75 2.73 6.8 6
Jul 14.5 18.18 13.54 6.89 11.21 24.32 14
Aug 25 27.27 25 27.27 13.94 33.78 35
Sep 16.5 20.91 20.83 20.91 10 27.03 24
Oct 8 9.09 10.42 6.89 6.52 6.08 12
Nov 4.1 3.94 5 5 4.55 3.38 7.5
Dec 3.1 3.03 3.75 3.44 3.33 2.57 5

April flow=measured discharge *(1/coefficient of month)

Monthly flow =April flow* monthly coefficient
  WECS/DHM (Hydest)
This method is developed for predicting the river flows for catchment areas larger than 100 sq
km. of ungauged rivers based on hydrological theories, empirical equations and statistics. In
this method, the total catchment area, areas between 5000 m to 3000 m are required as input.
Flow contribution per unit area for 5000 m to 3000 m and from lower elevations i.e. below
3000 m is assumed to be in different proportion during flood. However, for long term average
monthly flows all areas below 5000 m are assumed to contribute flows equally per sq. km. area.
The average monthly flows can be calculated by the equation:
Q mean= C× (Total basin area) A1× (Basin area below 5000m+1) A2× (Monsoon wetness index) A3
Where, C, A1, A2, A3 are constants derived from the regression analysis.
A is the catchment area in Km2 ; Q is discharge in m3/sec.
Month C A1 A2 A3
Jan 0.01423 0 0.978 0
Feb 0.01219 0 0.977 0
Mar 0.009988 0 0.995 0
Apr 0.007974 0 1.044 0
May 0.008483 0 1.09 0
Jun 0.006943 0.997 0 0.261
Jul 0.02123 0 1.009 0.2523
Aug 0.02348 0 0.996 0.262
Sep 0.01677 0 0.989 0.2878
Oct 0.009724 0 0.988 0.2508
Nov 0.00176 0.961 0 0.391
Dec 0.001485 0.956 0 0.3607

WECS/DHM predication equation constants

The values of the constants for different months are different. The Monsoon Wetness Index for
the catchment area is taken from Isohyetal map of Nepal.
 2.3) DATA CALCULATION

 Catchment Area Ratio Method

The direct catchment area ratio has used at Saptang khola (78.77 Km2) to generate the
flow at Saptang khola intake. The daily flow data of used river is obtained from DHM
and required data is generated at Saptang intake from different river has been listed
below in the comparative tabular as well as graphical form below.

River name: Melamchi Phalankhukhola

Station No: 627.5 446.8
Location: Helambhu Betrawati
Area(km2): 84 162
Data Available Years: 1990-2006 1980-1991

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Monthly 3.04 2.53 2.60 3.07 5.01 12.25 28.23 32.35 25.65 12.84 7.19 4.33
discharge

Hydrograph
35

30

25
Discharge

20

15

10

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Months

 MIP
The discharge measurements taken on various dates were used in the MIP method for
generating long-term mean monthly flow data. The Saptang Khola lies in region 3
according to the MIP Manual.
The following are the results from MIP method:

Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Monthly 4.03 2.80 2.05 1.48 2.80 4.64 20.10 37.12 30.93 15.47 7.42 5.56
discharge
 Hydrograph
14

12

10
Discharge

0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months

 WECS/DHM (Hydest)
The total catchment area of the headwork site is 78.77 km2 and the area below 5000 m
is 78.77 km2. The monsoon wetness index for this analysis has been considered as 1800
mm.
The following are the results from WECS/DHM method:
Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Monthly 1.04 0.90 0.79 0.78 1.01 3.82 11.82 13.28 11.16 4.88 2.19 1.44
discharge

Hydrograph
14

12

10
Discharge

0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Months
 3) IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND IT’S STUDIES

3.1) GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Irrigation is the agricultural process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to assist
in the production of crops, as well as to grow landscape plants and lawns, where it may be
known as watering. Agriculture that does not use irrigation but instead relies only on direct
rainfall is referred to as rain-fed. Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain
landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average
rainfall. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection,
suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. Irrigation systems
are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining.
Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and sub-
surface water from a given location.

3.2) TYPES OF IRRGATION SYSTEM

The four methods of irrigation are mainly used:
 Surface
 Sprinkler
 Drip/trickle
 Subsurface

Surface irrigation: It consists of a broad class of irrigation methods in which water is

distributed over the soil surface by gravity flow. The irrigation water is introduced into level
or graded furrows or basins, using siphons, gated pipe, or turnout structures, and is allowed to
advance across the field. Surface irrigation is best suited to flat land slopes, and medium to fine
textured soil types which promote the lateral spread of water down the furrow row or across
the basin.
Sprinkler irrigation: It is a method of irrigation in which water is sprayed or sprinkled through
the air in rain like drops. The spray and sprinkling devices can be permanently set in place
(solid set), temporarily set and then moved after a given amount of water has been applied
(portable set or intermittent mechanical move), or they can be mounted on booms and pipelines
that continuously travel across the land surface (wheel roll, linear move, center pivot).
Drip/trickle: Drip irrigation systems are methods of micro irrigation wherein water is applied
through emitters to the soil surface as drops or small streams. The discharge rate of the emitters
is low so this irrigation method can be used on all soil types
Subsurface irrigation: It consists of methods whereby irrigation water is applied below the
soil surface. The specific type of irrigation method varies depending on the depth of the water
table. When the water table is well below the surface, drip or trickle irrigation emission devices
can be buried below the soil surface (usually within the plant root zone).

3.3) SOURCES FOR IRRIGATION WATER

The sources of water for irrigation can include surface water sources, groundwater sources,
municipal water supplies, grey-water sources, and other agricultural and industrial process
wastewaters. Surface water sources include 'flowing' water supplies (i.e., creeks, streams,
canals) and 'standing' or stored water supplies (i.e., ponds, reservoirs, lakes). Groundwater
supplies may come from springs and wells, and although the quality is usually good, the
available quantity that can be pumped at any time may again limit the irrigation method.
Greywater is domestic wastewater, other than that containing human excreta, such as sink
drainage, washing machine discharge or bath water. The quality of agricultural or industrial
process wastewaters often limits their use to surface or sprinkler irrigation methods, and in
their suitability for fruit and vegetable crop irrigation.

3.4) CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQURIMENT

The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e., a uniform
crop, actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases, and favorable soil
conditions (including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential
under the given environment.
The crop water need mainly depends on:

 The climate: in sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a cloudy
and cool climate
 The crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet
or sorghum
 The growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than crops that have
just been planted.
The major climatic factors which influence the crop water needs are:
 Sunshine
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Windspeed
Water requirement of crop is the quantity of water regardless of source, needed for normal
crop growth and yield in a period of time at a place and may be supplied by precipitation or by
irrigation or by both.
Water is needed mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and
metabolic needs of the plants, all together is known as consumptive use (CU). Since water
used in the metabolic activities of plant is negligible, being only less than one percent of
quantity of water passing through the plant, evaporation (E) and transpiration (T), i.e., ET is
directly considered as equal to consumptive use (CU). In addition to ET, water requirement
(WR) includes losses during the application of irrigation water to field (percolation, seepage,
and run off) and water required for special operation such as land preparation, transplanting,
leaching etc.
WR = CU + application losses + water needed for special operations.
Water requirement (WR) is therefore, demand and the supply would consist of contribution
from irrigation, effective rainfall and soil profile contribution including that from shallow water
tables (S)
WR = IR + ER + S
Under field conditions, it is difficult to determine evaporation and transpiration separately. They
are estimated together as evapotranspiration (ET). IR is the irrigation requirement.
  Estimation of Evapotranspiration (ET):
ETO = C [W. Rn + (1-w). f (U). (Ea – ed)]
Where Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation expressed as mm/day
W = temperature of altitude related factor
F (U) = Wind related function
Ea – ed= Vapour pressure deficit (mili bar)
C = the adjustment factor (ratio of U Day to U night)
Rn (0.75-Rns)
Ea =Saturated Vapour pressure (m.bar)
Ed = Mean actual Vapour pressure of the air (m. bar)
 Crop Coefficient:
Crop co-efficient is the ratio between evapotranspiration of crop (Etc) and potential
evapotranspiration and expressed as
T (crop) = Kc X ETo
 Irrigation requirement:
Irrigation requirement is the total quantity of water applied to the land surface in supplement
to the water supplied through rainfall and soil profile to meet the water needs of crops for
optimum growth.
IR = WR – (ER + S)

3.5) IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT CALCULATION

It refers to the quantity of water, exclusive of precipitation, required for crop production. This
amounts to net irrigation requirement plus other economically avoidable losses. It is usually
expressed in depth for given time.
The following are the results from calculation shown in tabular form:
Irrigation Water Requirement: Percolation losses 3mm/day :Field efficiency upland crop 75% ET0 station : Pansayakhola (1057) Rainfall Station : Pansayakhola (1057)

Cropping Main Wheat Main paddy Main Wheat

Months Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec

Period 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Days 15.5 15.5 14 14 15.5 15.5 15 15 15.5 15.5 15 15 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15 15 15.5 15.5 15 15 15.5 15.5

ET0(mm/day) 2.02 2.245 2.578 2.95 3.85 4.21 5.034 5.6 5.6 5.2 5 4.23 4.125 3.45 4.01 3.95 3.56 3.5 3.5 3.175 2.75 2.375 2.125 2.05

31.31 34.7975 36.092 41.3 59.675 65.255 75.51 84 86.8 80.6 75 63.45 63.9375 53.475 62.155 61.225 53.4 52.5 54.25 49.2125 36.3 32.85 29.915 28.365
ET0 (mm)

P80 (mm) 4.5 6 5 5.5 10.5 17.25 26.75 39.75 56.25 83.375 121.125 159.875 198.625 212.625 198.875 162.75 105.25 60.875 25.625 5.375 2.125 0.125 0.57 2

Kc 1.15 1.15 1.1 0.85 0.65 0.45 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.95 0.4 0.65 1.05

ET crop (mm) 36.0065 40.017125 39.7012 35.105 38.78875 29.36475 82.5 69.795 70.33125 58.8225 68.3705 67.3475 56.07 55.125 51.5375 46.751875 13.14 19.44475 29.78325

Land prep(mm) 55 55 50 50

Percolation(mm) 46.5 46.5 46.5 46.5 45 45

Field req (mm) 33.8675 37.789 38.654 35.105 34.658 27.621 137.5 124.795 166.83125 155.3225 114.8705 113.8475 101.07 100.125 39.31575 38.72675 13.14 19.44475 29.78325

3.15 4.2 3.5 3.85 7.35 12.075 84.7875 111.9125 139.0375 148.8375 139.2125 113.925 73.675 51.74375 21.78125 4.56875 0.35 1.05 2.0125
Eff rain(mm)

I-Net(mm) 30.7175 33.589 35.154 31.255 27.308 15.546 52.7125 12.8825 27.79375 6.485 0 0 27.395 48.38125 17.5345 34.158 12.79 18.39475 27.77075

E-field (%) 75 75 75 75 75 75 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 75 75 75

E-farm (%) 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75

E-main (%) 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

I-gross (mm) 68.26111111 74.64222222 78.12 69.45555556 60.68444444 34.54666667 97.61574074 23.85648148 51.46990741 12.00925926 0 0 50.73148148 89.59490741 32.4712963 63.25555556 28.422 40.877 61.712

I-gross(l/s/ha) 0.509715585 0.557364264 0.645833333 0.574202675 0.453139519 0.257964954 0.753207876 0.184077789 0.384333239 0.089674875 0 0 0.391446616 0.69131873 0.242467864 0.472338378 0.2193 0.30523 0.4608

I-gross (lps) for 26.5

13.66037767 14.93736227 17.30833333 15.38863169 12.14413912 6.913460773 0 0 0 0 20.18597108 4.933284751 10.30013081 2.40328665 0 0 10.49076932 18.52734196 6.498138745 12.65866853 0 5.87724 12.47688671 12.34944
ha
3.6) Comparison of IWR and Hydrograph
A chart is drawn comparing hydrograph and irrigation water requirement. The objective of
comparing IWR and hydrograph is to analyze the obtain data and draw conclusion from it.
The comparison between IWR and Hydrograph is show below in tabular and graphical form:

Q (80% reliable)
Months IWR(m3/s))
(m3/s)
Jan 0.01366 1.064
Jan 0.014937 1.064
Feb 0.017308 0.8855
Feb 0.015389 0.8855
Mar 0.012144 0.91
Mar 0.006913 0.91
Apr 0 1.0745
Apr 0 1.0745
May 0 1.7535
May 0 1.7535
Jun 0.020186 4.2875
Jun 0.004933 4.2875
Jul 0.0103 9.8805
Jul 0.002403 9.8805
Aug 0 11.3225
Aug 0 11.3225
Sep 0.010491 4.494
Sep 0.018527 4.494
Oct 0.006498 4.494
Oct 0.012659 4.494
Nov 0 2.5165
Nov 0.005877 2.5165
Dec 0.012477 1.5155
Dec 0.012349 1.5155

Comparsion of IWR and Hydrograph

12

10
Discharge (m3/s)

0
Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Dec Dec
IWR Q(80% reliable) Months
3.7) CONCLUSION
Several analyses were done in order to determine the irrigation water requirement for the given
command area of 26.5 hectares. The above graph shows that the irrigation by artificial means
is not need to be provided in the any of the month as the irrigation water requirement is
sufficiently fulfilled by the 80-percentage reliable discharge in the river. In order to get a clear
picture of the dynamics of irrigation water requirement and the minimum available flow in the
river several analyses were done. The monthly mean rainfall was calculated by several
methods. There are variations in the values of the mean monthly flow values, 80 percentage
reliable values. It is due to the fact that different assumptions and approach are used for the
calculation of values in different methods. Similarly, the 80-percentage reliable flow was
obtained from CAR, since the water measurements were done in the low flow period so MIP
methods are assumed to be somewhat representative of the actual river flow. Similarly, for
IWR the percolation loss is considered as 3 mm/day and the field efficiency as 75%. The value
of 80 percentage rainfall, crop coefficient and other necessary values required to calculate the
were obtained from the hill irrigation book. After the calculation of IWR and Q80 flow, the
comparative graph was constructed to get a clear idea of deficit and surplus discharge for
irrigation.
3.8) RECOMMENDATIONS
After the analysis, it is clear due to the very large watershed delineation at the outlet point of
Saptang khola, the discharge available in the river is for every month significantly higher than
the Irrigation Water Requirement (IWR). So, instead of constructing larger diversion works we
can choose another smaller stream having significantly less discharge and smaller watershed
area. On doing so, the size of diversion structure can be reduced and the design of canal can be
economized to a large extent. For the analysis part, it is clear that the methods used in this
analysis are kind of outdated so the results obtained from that kind of analysis may not be
accurate. Similarly, there is lack of quality Hydro- Meteorological data. The density of
hydrological and meteorological stations in Nepal is not sufficient so there is lack of quality
data for a small region at some distance from the stations. All these limitations may add up to
lot of errors for the determination of IWR and minimum river flow. So, the hydro-
meteorological stations need to be established at a large number of places all over the country
to provide accurate spatial and temporal data.
 4) DESIGN OF PORTABLE DRIP SY0STEM

1. INTRODUCTION
Drip irrigation is a method of applying water directly to plants through a number of low flow
rate outlets called emitters or drippers, generally placed at short intervals along small tubing.
One of the main characteristics of this method is point irrigation as compared to area irrigation
with sprinklers or flood irrigation. A network of laterals with drippers supply water and
fertilizers to plant roots. Water is generally discharged at very low rates in the order of 1-2
liters per hour, although higher rates up to 8 liters per hour or more can be achieved through
special drippers. This type of irrigation is adopted in arid regions for fruit and nut trees, grapes
and other vine crops, sugar cane, pine apples, strawberries, flowers and vegetables.
2. TYPES OF DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
4) Sub-surface drip irrigation = Water is applied below soil surface, rarely used,
expensive
 Surface drip irrigation = Water applied directly on soil surface, commonly used

3. SUITABILITY OF DRIP IRRIGATION IN HILLS OF NEPAL

High pressure and clean sediment free water is required which is available in hills of Nepal.
Flexible pipes and fittings required for drip irrigation can be easily transported even in rural
areas. Drip irrigation has better efficiency and minimal losses. This makes it beneficial in hills
of Nepal where there is shortage of water. Cropping pattern in hills is suitable for drip irrigation
as crops grown in hills are usually row crops such as maize, tomatoes etc. Land preparation
and surface ditches aren’t required in drip irrigation. As a result, drip irrigation is preferred in
hills where the topography is too rugged for land preparation and surface ditches’ construction.
Surface irrigation (canals) is expensive as well as inefficient in hills. Rate of water application
in drip irrigation is low enough to prevent surface erosion in easily erodible hills. Drip irrigation
is adaptable to any farmable slopes making it suitable to irrigate slopes of hills.

4. ADVANTAGES OF DRIP IRRIGATION

 Deep percolation losses are minimum as only root zone of plant is supplied with water.
 Evaporation losses are minimum as only a portion of ground area is wetted.
 There is effective weed control especially for ground area that isn’t wetted.
 Water application isn’t affected by wind so irrigation take place at all hours.
 Working pressure of laterals are generally less than that of sprinklers systems thus
cheaper and thin-walled pipes can be used.
 Pipes and dripper components are often less expensive than that of sprinkler system.
 Greater efficiency (90%)
 Prevents diseases by minimizing water contact with leaves, stems and fruits of plants.
5. LIMITATIONS OF DRIP IRRIGATION
 Frequent clogging of drippers, constant supervision required
 Mayn’t suitable to some crops as salinity can develop due to salt accumulating
along the fringes of wetted surface strip
 Root development may be restricted to wetted soil volume near each emitter  Not
suitable for very closely seeded crops such as carrots, radishes etc.  Expensive
(Initial cost is high)
  Moisture distribution mayn’t be uniform
 Direct sunlight reduces lifespan of tubes used for supplying wat
 High skill requirement for irrigation water requirement
6. DESIGN APPROACH OF DRIP SYSTEM
Determine net crop consumptive use (mm/d).
 Determine extractable water based on soil type (mm/m of soil).
 Determine crop rooting depth.
 Determine irrigation interval.
 Where, Water available to crop = Crop rooting depth x Extractable water
 Determine water application required considering the application efficiency.
 Application efficiency for drip system =90%
 Determine dripper spacing and lateral spacing based on type of crop planted.
Lateral spacing= Minimum 1 meters
Dripper spacing = Minimum 0.5 meters
 Assume the discharge of dripper, diameter of dripline and working pressure based
onperformance table provided by manufacturers
 Calculate application rate
 Rate of application must be less than intake rate.
 Determine required number of hours of irrigation per day
Note: If the irrigation hours exceed 24 hrs., discharge per dripper must be increased
to lower number of irrigation hours
 Design lateral such that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable limits.
Correction factor based onnumber of emitters used on a lateral is applied while
calculating friction loss
.
Allowable pressure variation in lateral = 20 % of working pressure
 Pressure required at head of lateral = Working pressure +Friction loss in laterals
+Valve loss (0.5m)
 Design distribution pipe such that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable
limits.
Allowable pressure variation = 20 % of head required at head of lateral Pressure
required at head of distribution pipe = Pressure required at head of lateral +Friction
loss in distribution pipe (considering losses in all fittings) Friction loss of all fittings =
20 % of length of distribution pipe
 Design supply line that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable limits.
Allowable pressure variation = Available head – Head required at head of distribution
pipe
7) DESIGN OF PORTABLE DRIP SYSTEM

Data
Available
Crop Cauliflower

Peak consumptive use 6.5 mm/day

Soil type Silty loam

Wind 1.4 m/s

Area 140 x 40 m

Supply line 0.68km = 680 m

Elevation of Collection chamber 911.04m

Elevation of Irrigated Field 868.07m

Elevation of Collection chamber
911.04-868.07 =42.97 m
above irrigated field

IRRIGATION INTERVAL

 Water available for silty loam= 60-120 mm/m of soil

 Extractable water for silty loam= 30-60 mm/day
(Say 45 mm/m of soil)
Crop root depth= 0.4-0.5m (say 0.45m)
 Water available to crop= 0.45*45= 20.25 mm
 Irrigation Interval= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝/ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒
= 20.25/6.5 = 3.115 days (say 3 days)

 Application Efficiency= 90%

Water to be applied = 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙∗𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 =

3∗6.5 = 0.90 mm every 5 days
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 90
DRIPLINE SELECTION

 Lateral spacing= 1.5m (determined by row spacing of crops, at least 1m)

 Dripper spacing= 0.5m (determined by type of crop)
 Assuming dripper discharge of 2 lit/hr= 2*10-3 m/hr
 Rate of application= 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟
 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔∗𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
=2∗10−3 = 2.67*10-3 m/hr=2.67 mm/hr
1.5∗0.5
 Intake for silty loam= 7-10 mm/hr (say 8mm)
Rate of application is less than intake rate of soil. Hence there won’t be any surface runoff. So,
the applicationrate is okay.
Required number of hours of irrigation per day =21.67/2.67=8.116 h (say 9 hours)

Since the spacing of laterals have been determined, the mode of rotations and number of
drippers to be employed at time can be determined. A rotation system can be applied such that
6 laterals will irrigate each day. These laterals will be moved to next location at the beginning
of each day and will return to same position every 3 days

DESIGN OF LATERAL
Assuming 16 mm dripline and working pressure of 1 atm =10.34 m (per dripper)

 Maximum allowable pressure variation in lateral = 20% of working pressure

= 0.2*10.34= 2.06m
 Length of lateral = 70 m each
 Assuming half of the dripper spacing (0.5/2=0.25m) is left on each side,

Number of drippers per lateral=(70−0.25∗1 + 1)/0.5= 139 drippers

 Discharge per dripper= 2 l/h
 Total discharge at the head of lateral = Number of drippers x Discharge per
dripper
= 139 * 2 = 278 l/h = 0.278 m3/h
 Correction factor for 139 drippers, c = 0.351

Now, let us determine the diameter of lateral pipe through trial-and-error approach
TRAIL 1

We have adopted 16 mm diameter low pressure soft polythene pipe.

For soft polythene pipe, friction factor = 0.0576 Using Darcy-Welsbach equation,
Friction loss= 0.665m < allowable pressure variation (2.06 m)
Assuming valve loss of 0.5m

Required pressure at the head of lateral = 10.34+ 0.665 +0.5 = 11.505 m = 11.5 m
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION PIPE

 Discharge per lateral= 0.278 m3/h

 No. of laterals operating at a time= 6 (3 on each side)
 Maximum flow in distribution pipe= 6*0.278= 1.668 m3/h
 Length of distribution main= 40m
 Friction loss due to all fittings in distribution pipe= 20% of length of pipe
=2*40= 8m
 Equivalent length of distribution main = 40+8= 48m
 Maximum allowable head loss in distribution main=20% of 11.16= 2.32m

Now let us determine the diameter of distribution main through trial-and-error

 approach.
TRAIL 1

We have adopted 16 mm diameter low pressure soft polythene pipe.

For soft polythene pipe, friction factor = 0.0576 Using Darcy-Welsbach equation
Friction loss= 0.479m < allowable pressure variation 2.26m (OK)
Required pressure at the head of distribution main = 11.3 +0.479 = 11.779 m

DESIGN OF SUPPLY LINE

 Length of supply line = 680m
 Maximum flow in supply line = 1.668 m3/h
 Available head = 42.97 m
 Allowable loss in supply line = 42.97-11.779 = 31.191 m
Trial 1

Let’s adopt 40 mm diameter low pressure soft polythene pipe. For soft polythene pipe, friction factor = 0.0576
Using Darcy-Weisbach equation,

Friction loss = 6.7848< allowable pressure variation (31.191) (OK)

 5) DESIGN OF PORTABLE SPRINKLER SYSTEM
1) INTRODUCTION
Sprinkler irrigation is an alternative method of irrigation for hilly areas. In sprinkler irrigation
system, water is applied directly in form of spray through network of pipes and pumps, thus
creating artificial rain. The spray is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small
orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With careful selection of
nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation water required
to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform at the rate to suit the infiltration rate
of soil.
Sprinkler system consists of a rotating sprinkler, with one or two nozzles mounted on a body
which is rotated bythe action of water striking the blade. Water is supplied to the sprinkler
through laterals, distribution main and supply line. Several appurtenances such as valves, end
plug, elbow etc. are used to control the flow.
2) TYPES OF SPRINKLER SYSTEM
 Permanent system = Distribution pipework (mains and laterals are fixed and often
buried
 Semi-Permanent system = Main distribution pipes are fixed but laterals are movable
from place to place
 Portable system = Entire network can be moved from place to place
3) SUITABILITY OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION IN HILLS OF NEPAL
 High pressure and clean sediment free water is required which is available in hills of
Nepal.
 Flexible pipes and fittings required for sprinklers can be easily transported even in rural
areas.
 Sprinkler irrigation has better efficiency than flood irrigation and minimal losses. This
makes it beneficial in hills of Nepal where there is shortage of water.
 Cropping pattern in hills is suitable for sprinkler irrigation. Crops grown in hills such
as maize, wheat, millet etc. don’t need to flooded to be irrigated as in the case of rice.
 Land preparation and surface ditches aren’t required in sprinkler irrigation. As a result,
sprinkler irrigation is preferred in hills where the topography is too rugged for land
preparation and surface ditches’ construction.
 Surface irrigation (canals) is expensive as well as inefficient in hills.
4) ADVANTAGES OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

 Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss

 Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay
 Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very high, most
suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops
 Water saving, deep percolation losses are minimum
 Closer control of water application convenient for giving light and frequent irrigation
and higher water application efficiency
 Increase in yield
 Mobility of system
 May also be used for undulating area
  Saves land as no bunds etc. are required
 Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated
 Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals
 Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden water
5) LIMITATIONS OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
 High cost and labor requirement
 Clogging of Nozzle
 Energy required to operate pumps and filters
 Requires frequent supervision
 Wind and pressure effect

6) DESIGN APPROACH OF SPRINKLER SYSTEM

 Determine net crop consumptive use (mm/d).

 Determine extractable water based on soil type (mm/m of soil).
 Determine crop rooting depth.
 Determine irrigation interval
Where, Water available to crop = Crop rooting depth x Extractable water
Determine water application required considering the application efficient
Application efficiency for sprinkler system = 60-80% (Best value = 70%)
Determine rate of application
Rate of application must be less than intake rate.
 Select suitable sprinkler based on trial-and-error approach using performance table.
 Design lateral such that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable limits. Correction factor
based on number of sprinklers used on a lateral is applied while calculating friction loss.
Allowable pressure variation in lateral = 20 % of working pressure
 Pressure required at head of lateral = Working pressure +Friction loss in laterals +Valve loss
(0.5m)
 Design distribution pipe such that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable limits.
Allowable pressure variation = 30 % of head required at head of lateral
 Pressure required at head of distribution pipe = Pressure required at head of lateral +Friction
loss in distribution pipe (considering losses in all fittings)
 Friction loss of all fittings = 20 % of length of distribution pipe
 Design supply line that the friction loss in the pipe is within allowable limits.
 Allowable pressure variation = Available head – Head required at head of distribution pipe
 7) DESIGN OF PORTABLE SPRINKLER SYSTEM

IRRIGATION INTERVAL
 Available water for sandy loam = 60-120 mm/m of soil
 Extractable water for sandy loam = 30-60 mm/m of soil
Say 45 mm/ meter of soil
 Crop root depth = 0.4-0.5 m Say 0.45 m
 Water available to crop = 45*0.45 = 20.25 mm
 Irrigation interval =3.115 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 Say 3 days
 Application efficiency = 70%
 Water to be applied= 27.85 mm every 5 days
 Assuming 6 hours irrigation per day, Rate of application= 4.642 mm/h Say 5mm/h
 Intake rate for sandy loam = 8-12 mm/ h Say 10mm/h
Rate of application is less than intake rate of soil. Hence there won’t be any surface runoff.
So, the application rate is okay.

SPRINKLER SELECTION
Referring to performance table provided by manufacturers (Hill Irrigation Engineering,
pg.119), it is evident that single nozzle sprinkler with application rate of 5 mm/h isn’t available.
Hence, sprinkler with application rate closest to the application rate required i.e., 5.2 mm/h was
adopted for further computations.
Now, let us determine the sprinkler spacing by trial-and-error approach.
Trial 1:
From performance table, for application rate of 5.2 mm/h,
Data Available

Crop Cauliflower

Peak consumptive use 6.5 mm/day

Soil type Silty Loam

Wind 1.4 m/s (Okhakdhunga, 1206)

Area 140 x 40 m

Supply line 0.680 km = 680 m

Elevation of Collection chamber 911.04

Elevation of Irrigated Field 868.07m

Elevation of Collection chamber above

911.04-868.07 =42.97 m
irrigated field
Nozzle diameter= 2.2 mm
 Working Pressure (P) = 2 atm =2*10.34 m = 20.68 m
Discharge per sprinkler(Q) = 0.22 m3/h
Diameter of coverage (D) = 11 m
Spacing: 6x7 m
Sprinkler Spacing Required:
Since there is a prevailing wind along the direction of lateral,
Spacing along lateral = 60% of diameter = 0.6*11 = 6.6 m Say 6 m
Spacing of laterals = 65% of diameter = 0.65*11 = 7.15 m Say 7 m
Here, the required sprinkler spacing matches with the spacing specifications of sprinkler under
consideration. Hence, the sprinkler is suitable to be used for irrigation in this case.
Since the lateral spacing is known, we can determine the number of laterals to be employed to
irrigate each day. A rotation system can be applied such that one lateral will irrigate each day.
The lateral will be moved to next location at the beginning of each day and return to same
position every 3 days

DESIGN OF LATERALS

Maximum allowable pressure variation in the lateral = 20% of working pressure

= 0.2 *20.68 = 4.136 m
Assuming, half of the spacing between laterals (i.e., 6/2 =3m) is left at either end
Number of sprinklers =22 sprinklers
(since 22.33 sprinklers cannot be provided, we provide 22 sprinklers and maintain 4m gap)
Correction factor, c for 22 sprinklers = 0.374
Length of lateral = 140 m
Total Discharge at head of lateral = Number of sprinklers x Discharge per sprinkler
= 22 * 0.22 = 4.84 m3/h
Now, let us determine the diameter of lateral pipe through trial-and-error approach
Trial 1:
Let’s adopt 40mm diameter low pressure soft polythene pipe. For soft polythene pipe, friction
factor=0.0576
Friction loss == 3.77m < Allowable pressure variation (4.136m)

Assuming valve loss of 0.5 m,

Required pressure at the head of lateral = 20.68 + 3.77+0.5 = 24.95 m
DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION PIPE
Maximum head loss will occur when the laterals on the farther end of the field are in operation.
Hence, the diameter of the distribution pipe must be selected such that loss in the distribution
pipe is within acceptable limits when the laterals at the farthest end are in operation.
Discharge per lateral = 4.84 m3/h
No. of laterals operating at a time = 1
Maximum flow in the distribution pipe = 1*4.84 = 4.84 m3/h
Length of distribution main = 40m
Let friction loss of all fittings in the distribution pipe = 20 % of length of pipe
= 0.20 *40 =8m
Equivalent length of distribution pipe = 40 + 8 = 48 m
Allowed head loss in distribution pipe = 30% of operating pressure of laterals
= 0.30*24.95 = 7.485 m

DESIGN OF SUPPLY LINE

Length of supply line = 680 m
Maximum flow in supply line = 4.84 m3/h
Available head = 42.97 m
Required pressure at start of distribution pipe = 24.95 + 2.117 =27.067 m
Allowed loss in supply line = 42.97-27.067 =15.903 m
Trial 1:
Let’s adopt 50 mm diameter hard polythene pipe.
For hard polythene pipe, friction factor = 0.0363
Friction loss =11.797 m < Allowable head loss (15.903m)
(OK)