Basic Computer Concepts

Data and Information

Data is a collection of unorganized facts and figures related to an object. The objectmay be a person, an organization, an
event or any other things. Data may be in the form of texts, numbers, images, sounds or even videos.

An organization collects and stores data from various sources. Usually, data gathered are not meaningful and are not in
proper format. Various operations are performed on collected data to get the required results that give proper and useful
meanings. Processed data are called information.

Organization of Data

Bit – a binary digit (0 or 1) which is the smallest storage unit in a computer.

Byte – a group of adjacent bits (usually 8) that is treated as a single unit, or character, by the computer. Printable
alphanumeric characters (e.g., A-Z, a-z, 0-9); special characters (e.g., $, %, ?, @, etc.) and unprintable control codes (e.g.,
those that control peripheral devices such as printers) can be represented by an 8-bit Byte. Character-encoding schemes
for computers, such as ASCII and UTF-8,ensure universal interpretation of the 8-bit codes

Field – a group of related characters (e.g., a social security number).

Record – an ordered set of logically related fields. For example, all payroll data (including the social security number field
and others) relating to a single employee.

File – a group of related records (e.g., all the weekly pay records year-to-date), which is usually arranged in sequence.

Database – a group of related files.

Data Processing

Data processing is the collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful information. Data processing
usually includes the originating, collecting, validating, recording, organizing, analyzing, alteration, retrieval, summarizing,
reporting, and storing of data.

The common methods of data processing are manual, mechanical, electronic data processing.

Manual Data Processing

In manual data processing, data is entered and processed by hand without using anymachine to achieve the desired results.
All the calculations and logical operations are performed manually on the data. Also, data is transferred manually from one
place toanother.

Manual data processing is very slow and errors are likely to occur in the output. Ordinarily, data is processed manually in
small business firms as well as in some government offices and institutions. In an educational institution, for instance, fee
receipts and other financial calculations (or transactions) are often performed by hand.

Mechanical Data Processing

In mechanical data processing, data is processed by using different devices such as typewriters, mechanical printers or
other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is faster and more accurate than manual data processing.
Printing press use mechanical data processing devices frequently.

Electronic Data Processing (EDP)

Electronic data processing is the modern technique to process data. The data and setof instructions or programs are given
to the computer as input. The computer processes data according to specified instructions and generates useful information
asoutput. Processed data (or information) is used for making decisions. Information maybe further processed to meet the
changing requirements of an organization.

This method of processing data is very fast and accurate. For instance, in an educational institution, students' data could
be analyzed and summarized using different tools. It could also be presented in graphical form. Records of the students
can be sorted on the basis of their names or ratings. In banks, accounts of customersare maintained (or processed) through
computers.

The main components of an EDP system are:

Hardware. It refers to the physical part or equipment of a computer system and can either be central processing unit or
peripheral equipment.
Software. It refers to the programs used to direct the operation of a computer,as well as documentation giving instructions
on how to use them.
Peopleware. It refers to the human aspect of a computer system and includesthe programmers, the IT personnel, and
the end users.

Data and information. It refers to the raw facts to be gathered and processed,and the resulting information to be presented
to users as the basis for decision making.
Procedures. It refers to the process of obtaining data, operating the computer, controlling computer processing, and
distributing computer output.

Types of Computers

typically have greater capacity (faster processors, more RAM, more storage capacity) than their clients (microcomputers)
and often act as a central repository fororganizational data. Servers today are often configured as a “virtual machine,”
meaning multiple operating systems can coexist and operate simultaneously on the same machine. Virtual machines are
appealing because they lower hardware costs andthey create savings in energy.

Microcomputers (e.g., desktop computers, laptop computers) are designed to be used by one person at a time. They are
often called personal computers. Typically, microcomputers are used for word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets, surfing the
web,creating and editing graphics, playing music, and even gaming.

Tablets/Smart Phones/Personal Digital Assistants (e.g., iPad, iPhone, Android)are typically smaller, hand-held wireless
devices that depend on WiFi and/or cellular technology for communication. These devices support touch screen input.

Hardware (Central Processing Unit)

Central processing unit or CPU refers to the principal hardware components of a computer. Its major function is to fetch
stored instructions and data, decode the instructions, and carry out the instructions. The CPU can be divided into control
unit,arithmetic and logic unit, and primary storage.

Control Unit (CU)

The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components. Its
function is to supervise, monitor, coordinate, control and manage the various operations of the computer. The control unit
directs and coordinates the entire computer system in carrying out program instructions. It does not execute the instructions
itself but instead directs other parts of the computersystem to do so. The control unit supervises the flow of information
between various units. It regulates the operations of the computer and enables it to communicate withthe operator and other
devices in the system. Control units act as a central nervous system for other data-manipulating components of the
computer.

Control unit can be compared to the brain of the human body that controls the whole body. We perform work with our hands,
we can see with our eyes, we can hear with our ears, but all of these are controlled by the brain (CU).

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit is the manipulating part of the CPU, where actual dataprocessing occurs. All calculations and
comparisons take place in this section. The data and instructions, stored in the primary storage prior to processing, are
transferred as and when needed to the ALU where processing takes place. No processing is donein the primary storage
unit.

The arithmetic and logic unit is designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, and logical operations or comparisons such as equal to, less than or greater than. Because of
these capabilities, the ALU is considered the accountant of the computer.

Primary Memory or Storage Unit (SU)

Various types of memory, including RAM and ROM, are often considered to be part of the CPU, particularly in modern
microprocessors where a single integrated circuit maycontain one or more processors as well as any or all of the above
types of memory.

The storage unit is a device where information can be stored and from which it can be retrieved at a later time. Information
stored in the memory may represent letters,numbers, or graphics; even computer instructions can be placed into memory
with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility
to give significance to what the memorysees as nothing but

A read only memory (ROM) is one in which information is permanently stored. The information from the memory can only
be read and it is not possible to write new information into it. When the power supply is switched off, the information stored
inside a ROM is not lost. Simply stated, data is written only once and cannot be changed thereafter but can only be retrieved
(read). ROM is often used for storing programs which must be permanently held in memory so that the set of instructions is
immediately available for execution when power is supplied to the equipment (e.g.,operating system). In ROM, the memory
device is pre-programmed during the manufacturing stage, leaving the information permanently stored for later retrieval.

The concept of permanently installing essential programs into the computer’s ROM is called “firmware”.

Conversely, random access memory (RAM) is viewed as a collection of memory location in which program instructions
and data are stored. Each memory location is referenced by a unique address assigned to it. The main memory of the
computer is faster compared to external memory. The contents of each memory location are directly accessed in any
random order using the address of location. Reading and writing of data is done electronically without any mechanical
movement.

The contents of RAM get lost when the computer is turned off, leading to the name "volatile memory". The program which
is currently being executed and data which iscurrently being manipulated are transferred from external memory to RAM.

Hardware (Peripheral Equipment)

Peripheral equipment refers to all non-CPU hardware that may be connected or attached to the central processing unit
(CPU). This equipment includes input, output,and secondary storage devices.

Input Devices

Input Devices are used to read and feed data and instructions into the computer. Common input devices include:
Online entry

Visual display terminal/monitors – uses keyboard to directly enter datainto the computer.

Input interface – a program that controls the display for the user (usually on a computer monitor) and that allows the user
to interact with the system. Graphical user interface (GUI) – uses icons, pictures, and menusinstead of text for inputs
(e.g., Windows).

Command line interface – uses text-type commands.

Mouse, joystick, light pens – familiar devices that allow data entry.

Touch-sensitive screen – allows users to enter data from a menu of items by touching the surface of the monitor.

Automated source data input devices

Magnetic tape reader – a device capable of sensing information recorded asmagnetic spots on magnetic tape.
Magnetic ink character reader (MICR) – a device that reads characters thathave been encoded with a magnetic ink (e.g.,
bank check readers)

Scanner – a device that reads characters on printed pages.

Automatic teller machine (ATM) – a machine used to execute and recordtransactions with financial institutions.

Point-of-sale (POS) recorders – devices that read price and product code data(e.g., purchasing groceries). POS recorders
ordinarily function as both a terminaland a cash register. POS processing allows one to record and track customer orders,
process credit and debit cards, connect to other systems in a network, andmanage inventory.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) – uses radio waves to track and input data. Increasingly used for inventory and
contactless payment systems. RFID tagscan be read wirelessly by RFID readers and does not require line-of-sight access
like bar code technology (e.g., toll collection system).

Voice recognition – a system that understands spoken words and transmits theminto a computer.

Output Devices

Output devices are used to display information from the computer or to transfer dataout of the computer.

Many automated source data input devices are capable of outputting data (“writing” in addition to “reading”) and therefore
become output devices as well as input devices.In addition, common output devices include:

Monitors – visually display output.

Printers – produce paper output.
Plotters – produce paper output of graphs.
Computer output to microfilm or microfiche (COM) – makes use ofphotographic process to store output.

Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage devices are devices that are external to the CPU which store information that may be subsequently
used by the CPU.

External memory devices are subdivided into two main categories, and these are called:

Sequential Access Memory. It involves examining all the records in sequence from the beginning to the desired records.
This form of storage is non-addressablebecause an operator cannot directly refer to the contents of a particular storage
location. For instance, if data is composed of items from 1 to 100, items 1 to 99 must be read first before reading item 100.

Examples of sequential access external storage devices include:

Punched paper tape. Data are coded on paper tape in the form of punchedholes combination. The tape is normally one-
inch wide, comes in rolls, and may be used in any length up to several hundred feet. There is a line of sprocket holes in
the middle of the tape for the purpose of feeding the tape through the tape punching and reading device. Information is
recorded as holes punched in rows across the width of the tape, with one row representing one character. The maximum
number of holes per row is referred to as the number of channels on the tape. The particular coding system used to record
information on the tape depends on the number of channels. The paper tape media, however, is easily torn and mutilate.
Hence, the use of paper tapes asa secondary storage device is very rare nowadays. Nevertheless, the storage capacity of
punched paper tape is virtually unlimited, and the cost per bit storedis very low.

Magnetic tape. It is used to be the most popular storage mediums for large data that are sequentially accessed and
processed. The tape is a plastic ribbonusually ½ inch wide that is coated on one side with an iron-oxide material whichcan be
magnetized. The tape ribbon itself is stored in a small cartridge or cassette. It is similar to the tape used on a tape recorder
except that it is of higher quality and is more durable. Like recorder tape, computer tape can be erased and reused
indefinitely (destructive media). Old data on a tape are automatically erased as new data are recorded in the same area.
Magnetic tapes are primarily used for archiving purposes nowadays.

Direct Access Storage. This form of storage is addressable. A given item can be selected from any place in the storage
simply by specifying the address where it islocated.

Examples of direct access external storage devices are:

Floppy disks. This direct access secondary storage medium is very popular for micro- and mini-computers. A floppy disk
is made of flexible plastic which is coated with magnetic oxide. The flexible disk is enclosed within a squire plastic of
cardboard jacket. The jacket gives handling protection to the disk surface. The floppy disk can be very easily loaded into,
and unloaded from, a drive unit. The capacity of diskettes varies depending on their size and type. Moreover, floppy disks
are very cheap as compared to other storage devices.

Magnetic disks. It is a thin, circular metal plate coated on both sides with a magnetic material. It is very similar in
appearance to a gramophone record. Magnetic disks are also called “hard disks” or “hard disk drives” (HDD). RAID
(Redundant array of independent [previously, inexpensive] disks) is a way of storing the same data redundantly on
multiple magnetic disks. When originally recorded, data is written to multiple disks to decrease the likelihood of loss of data.
If a disk fails, at least one of the other disks hasthe information and continues operation.

Compact Discs (CDs) and Digital Video Discs (DVDs). Both storage devices are the same physical size and both use
optical technology to read andwrite data to the disc. A standard CD is 120 mm (4.75 inch) in diameter and 1.2 mm (0.05
inch) thick. It is composed of a clear polycarbonate plastic substrate, a reflective metallic layer, and a clear protective
coating of acrylic plastic.

Flash drive. It is a small, ultra-portable storage device that uses microchips to store data and includes flash memory with
an integrated USB interface. Flash drives connect to computers and other devices via a built-in USB Type-A plug, making
a flash drive a kind of combination USB device and cable. Flashdrives are often referred to as pen drives, thumb drives, or
jump drives. The terms USB drive and solid state drive (SSD) are also sometimes used but mostof the time those refer to
larger and not-so-mobile USB-based storage devices.

Cloud-Based Storage. It is also called “Storage as a Service” (SaaS). This type of storage is hosted offsite, typically by
third parties. Cloud storage isa cloud computing model that stores data on the Internet through a cloud computing provider
who manages and operates data storage as a service. It is delivered on demand with just-in-time capacity and costs, and
eliminates buying and managing your own data storage infrastructure.

Software

Software refers to computer programs that control hardware. It can either besystems software or applications software.

Systems Software

Systems software refers to a set of one or more programs designed to control thebasic operations and functions of a
computer system.

The types of system software are:

Operating System (OS). It is a collection of control, processing, and data management programs specially designed to
manage the resources of the computer system and to facilitate the creation of programs and control their executions. OS is
comprised of a series of programs that monitor and control the overall operations of a computer. The leading operating
systems for personal computers are DOS, Windows, UNIX and Mac Operating System.

Utility Programs. It enhances the understanding and communication of users with the computer. They handle common
routine “housekeeping tasks” such as copying files, making and listing files and folders/directories, comparison ofcontents,
finding, sorting and deletion of files, renaming files, and sending files to the printer.

Communication Software. It is any software program that allows computers to connect to one another using the modem
and telephone line. A MODEM, short formodulator-demodulator, transforms the computer’s digital information into signals
(modulate) that can be sent over ordinary phone lines. When the signal reaches its destination, another MODEM transforms
the signals received from the phone lines into digital information (demodulate) that can be read by the recipient computer.

Application Software

An application software is a computer pre-written software designed for specific uses, or “applications”, such as word
processors, spreadsheets, presentation designers, database management system, accounting software, etc.

Low-end accounting software are sold as all-in-one package, and are designed for small organizations. High-end accounting
software, on the other hand, are often available in modules (e.g., general ledger, receivables, payables, payroll)

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is designed as relatively complete informationsystem “suites” for large and medium
size organizations (e.g., human resources, financial applications, manufacturing, distribution). Major vendors of ERP include
SAP,PeopleSoft, Oracle, and J.D. Edwards. ERP systems allow integration of various portions of the information system
and permits direct electronic communication with suppliers and customers. It also increases responsiveness to information
requests fordecision-making purposes. However, ERP systems are complex in nature, entail a lotof costs, and integration
with supplier and customer systems may be more difficult than anticipated.

Shareware is commercial software offered to users without initial charge and is generally offered by less established
software developers. Oftentimes, it comes with some features disabled and can only be used without charge for a limited
period of time. Similarly, freeware is software that is available free of charge. Freeware is distributed without charge
because sometimes developers might want to see how users respond to their product, so they can make improvements in
a later version. Freeware developers often retain all rights to their programs, so that technically, usersare not supposed to
duplicate and distribute them further. However, making several copies for the user’s personal use is generally allowed.

Freeware may be used without licensing fee on a much limited basis than shareware.

Single-User and Multi-User Operation Systems

A single-user operating system is a type of operating system (OS) that is developedand intended for use on a computer or
similar machine that will only have a single user at any given time. This is the most common type of OS used on a home
computer,as well as on computers in offices and other work environments.

There are two general types of single-user operating system:

Single task system. It is developed for use with a computer or electronic device that will only run one application at a time.
This type of OS is ordinarily used on devices like wireless phones and two-way messaging devices. A single task operating
system can only run one program or application at a time, and so it is not as useful for a computer or other devices intended
to run multiple programs atonce.

Multitasking system. This type of operating system can run multiple applicationsand programs at once. This is often used
on computers where someone may wishto browse the Internet, run a graphics editing program, play music through a media
playing program, and type using a word processing program all at the same time.Although this type of operating system
can connect to other computers through anetwork, it is still being used by a single user only.

A multi-user operating system, on the other hand, allows multiple users to accessthe data and processes of a single
machine from different computers or terminals. Thistype of system was previously often connected to a larger system through
a wired network, although wireless networking is more common nowadays. A multi-user operating system is often used in
businesses and offices where different users need toaccess the same resources, but these resources cannot be installed
on every system.In a multi-user operating system, the OS must be able to handle the various needs and requests of all of
the users effectively.

Multiprogramming vs Multiprocessing

Multiprogramming permits the running of several programs concurrently; that is, it allows several unrelated programs,
probably from many different users, to compete for the processor. Although programs are said to run concurrently, this does
not meanthat they run simultaneously. The programs actually take turns in using the CPU. For instance, one program could
be using the CPU while another program prints a record.The operating system keeps track of everything and ensures that
the programs do notget entangled.

With the concurrent use of a single computer by many users, each having his own input/output devices and accessibility to
the computer at the same time, the computergives each user a small, but frequently repeated slice of time, so that each user
gets almost immediate response. This concept related to multiprogramming is made possible through timesharing.

Time-sharing is the sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming and multi-tasking.
By allowing a large number of users to interact concurrently with a single computer, time-sharing allows a large number of
users to interact concurrently with a single computer. In effect, this contributes to lower cost of providing computing
capability, makes it possible for individuals and organizations to use a computer without owning one, and promotes the
interactive useof computers.

In multiprocessing, the CPUs of several computers are linked, or the CPU of a single computer has more than one
arithmetic-logic unit. These CPUs or arithmetic-logic units operate in parallel, thereby allowing simultaneous execution of
several programs.

While multiprogramming uses concurrent processing with one CPU, multiprocessing uses simultaneous processing with
multiple CPUs.

Programming Languages

Language is defined as the communication of thoughts and feelings through a systemof arbitrary signals, such as sounds,
gestures, or written symbols. Similarly, programming languages consisting of symbols and characters are used to permit
communication with or between computers.

While using a computer language, a programmer instructs a computer what he wantsto do. Writing sequence of instructions
is called coding. Coding can occur at various levels running from computer basic language called machine language, to
English-likestatements called natural languages.

Programming languages are of several types. These are:

Machine Language. It is a common language for computers and does not need further translation before being executed
by the computer. A program written in machine language is a sequence of 1's and 0's. This is the fundamental languageof
a computer, because computer can only understand the language of zero's and one's.

Assembly Language. Also called symbolic or low level language, assembly language uses mnemonic operation codes
and symbolic addresses. A mnemonic is a word or set of letters which can represent a function code and which is easy to
remember. A mnemonic (or memory aid) is any kind of mental trick we use to help us remember. Assembly language,
however, is machine dependent and needsto be converted into machine language before execution using software called
an assembler program.

High Level or Procedure Oriented Language. It is developed in order to facilitate the programmers in using computers
without the need to know in detail the internal structure of the computer. Unlike machine and assembly languages, high
level languages are programmer-friendly and machine-independent because they relate to procedure being coded. High
level languages use natural languages,and therefore, are easier to use. However, programs written in high level language
need to be translated into machine language by using a compiler program. Common examples of high level languages include
BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, C++,Java and Pascal.

Non-Procedural Language or 4GL (4th Generation Language). Such do not involve writing a detail procedure. In non-
procedural languages, we simply specify what is required and leave the database system to analyze the request and
generate the results. 4GLs are essentially shorthanded programming languages.

Centralized, Decentralized, and Distributed Processing Systems

In a centralized processing system, processing is performed in one computer at asingle location. It is usually based on a
centrally situated mainframe where all processing and storage operations have effect at a central location. This kind of
system is typically intended to computerize a diversity of operations within the organization. For instance, by using a big,
central computer, an industry can automateits order entry, inventory control, billing, and accounting operations.

Decentralized processing system is characterized by built up of computer systemsin different locations. In this approach,
data is processed in stand-alone or localized computers. Ordinarily, the computers involved are not interconnected by a
network, so users at various sites cannot share data. One benefit of a decentralized system is that users have more
immediate access to information and do not have to wait for processing time as they might have to with a centralized system.

In a distributed processing system, transactions for a single database are processed at various sites. Processing can be
done on either a batch or online real- time basis. An overall single database is ordinarily updated for these transactions and
available at the various sites. For instance, payroll is process for Iloilo employees in Iloilo, and for Bacolod employees in
Bacolod. However, the overall payroll informationis in one database.