“BORN WITH A RACE ”: WHITE SUPREMACY

IN YU’S INTERIOR CHINATOWN & STONE’S

DEAR JUSTYCE

BY
DUR-E-NAJAF
M.PHIL. ENG
(LIT)-003

SUPERVISOR

DR. UZMA IMTIAZ

DEPARTMENT OF
ENGLISH

FACULTY OF
ENGLISH (LIT)
FATIMA JINNAH WOMEN
UNIVERSITY RAWALPINDI
DATE OF
SUBMISSION
01-11-2021

Signature of Student Signature of Supervisor

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIO

Racism has always remained a part of history from the very beginning. It has always
prevailed within human civilization. Its origin is as long as the origin of race in the world.
There is no doubt to the fact that racism influenced minds as they started interpreting the
world. Racism became a concept known to the common minds right in the year 1902, when
Oxford English Dictionary used the term at first. (Qt. Bowser, 2017, 572)
With race and its constraints, the concept of racism gained popularity because of two factors.
One was the anti-Semitic movement which originated in early 1920’s and later on lead to the
Second World War, while the other was the Civil Rights movement where the Black activists
raised objections on the centuries old tradition of being considered inferior from the Whites.
It was in 1960, when the social scientists and the learners hailing from the common grounds
found their way to integrity and the anti-racist movement begun from right there. (573)
Right after its origin, racism has seen various forms and is being expressed in multiple
scenarios. Races from all across the world have been affected from the dreadful impacts of
this concept. With time, the concept has seen a gradual growth where new forms of racism
are continuously making up their part in writing the fates of “so-called inferior races”.
One form of racism that gained much recognition and remains active till date is the Anti-
Black racism which can be traced back right from the Reconstruction era and those norms of
slavery can be associated with the modern concept of subordination of Blacks and hatred out
of colour.
After the reconstruction era, civilization slowly moved to the modern world and within it,
the Cold War impacted American soil and the races living on it too. At that time, the issue of
race was the hottest, so Russia, a potential enemy of the U.S, rose up forward and “portrayed
itself to be the true friend of Blacks but with some benefits of course” (The Washington Post,
2020).
This narrative clearly proved that the anti-Black racism within America had yet to face and
witness a number of challenges where identity politics collaborated with race and culture.
Right after the Cold War, Blacks perceived the truth about the existing racism within
American culture and in their effort to get out of this dilemma, they slowly started raising
voices every now and then.
Though, the incidents which have provoked Blacks have occurred off and on. Still, things got
worse last year on 25th May when the police brutality took its worst shape and murdered a
Black man named “George Floyd” out of the racial hatred and this led to the Civil rights
movement of this century. The moment named “Black Lives Matter” started all across the
globe and condemned the traditional concepts of race associated with identity.
This movement just like the civil rights movement nullified the idea of being inferior. NBC
(2021) reports that the movement itself was so grand that it “galvanised Blacks from all
across America and helped them in understanding and responding to the collective cultural
trauma that has been inflicted on them for centuries.
This depicts that Anti-Black racism exists in every possible form in America till today. Even
after being given the constant reminder of a secular and free America, things are still there.
Black communities are still looked down upon by the White masses and every so often an
incident occurs depicting that Blacks lives are dependent on the acceptance of their servitude.
America is a hub of global communities. Members of all the ethnicities and races sustain their
life in this hub of wonders. Racism is not only the story of Black communities, but Asians
have also encountered such experiences every now and then. The history of Anti-Asia racism
goes back to the 1850s when the Chinese immigrants moved to American lands primarily in
“California and other Western lands for mining jobs and railroad construction”. Soon, this
created a popular belief of “Asians stealing White jobs” all across America and this was the
onset of the discrimination wave in America.
This later on led to the “Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882” approved by Congress openly
categorising Chinese as an inferior race. It was because of these instances that the Rock
Springs Massacre of 1885 took place where the victims were twenty eight Chinese mine
workers and their families. (The Washington Post, 2021). The Atlantic (2021) considers the
Asiatic inclusion and Jim Crow segregation “two variable modes of racial management
necessary for the survival of White supremacy” in America.
It was right after the devastation of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War
which gave birth to a “new identity”. This new identity named “Asian American identity”
gave the depraved Asians an identity of their own for the first time in 1968. (Teen Vogue,
2021). The partiality persisted during the Cold War era where we find the perceived notion of
“association of Asia with the communist manifesto” became very significant in the publi
(Harvard Business Review, 2021) which added immense difficulties in the already full bucket
of Asia Americans striving hard to prove themselves in the marathon of varying races. Time
(2020) considers that many of the Asian-Americans are still trapped in the “model- minority
experience” where they are subjected to discrimination because of their physical features and
geographical areas from which they belong. This is why Asian Americans still lack enough
“political and cultural rights” to express their true identities while living in America as the
Asians are still considered a “perpetual foreigner” living in the U.S.
Anti-Asian racism got intense when the world experienced the greatest tragedy of the 21st
century in the form of COVID-19. The reason behind the hate mostly comes from the origin
of the virus itself from Wuhan, China and this one truth has shaken the long laid foundation
of Asian American integrity in America. East Asia Forum (2021) discusses the research of
Kim Yi and Dionne where “the politics of pandemic Othering” is regarded as the biggest
reason for Anti-Asian crimes.
Atlanta shootings and an increase of hate crimes during recent times against Asians explain
the relatedness of the pandemic and the resulting anger in Whites against Asians. A recent
study conducted by Doctor Gloria Wong-Padoongpatt shows that “everyday racism has
resulted in lowering the Asian self-esteem besides giving them thoughts of being an inferior
race” and henceforth doomed worth. (Healthline, 2021).
Compared to the past, contemporary Anti-Black and Anti-Asian racism becomes a matter of
debate. This is because; despite the negation from the White community, the instances clearly
depict that it exists on many levels and has taken alternative forms. The expression of
contemporary anti-Black and anti-Asian racism has also influenced literature and now we are
finding many authentic narratives on this perspective.
Though, a lot of literature has been composed on the subject matter. However, for this study,
the approach is to find out the contemporary forms of Anti-Black and Anti-Asian racism
which prevails in America. Therefore, the works being chosen for the current study are also
composed recently. Two novels are selected for carrying out the current academic study. The
study aims to conduct an analysis of Interior Chinatown (2020) which is penned by Charles
Yu and Dear Justyce (2020) finding its narrative from the acclaimed author Nic Stone.
Both these works portray the impact of racism in the contemporary Black and Asian
communities. It appears as if the authors have given voice to their own experiences of racism
through the characters existing in the novel. The works consist of unique individual and
collective stories which are intertwined with the help of the racial string. In worlds of Real
Change News (2020) Charles Yu through his work “opens a window” to peek inside the lives
of Chinese-Americans and look at the discrimination faced by them. Dear Justyce is another
commendable piece. Kirkus reviews (2021) calls it a saga of expressing and narrating the true
conditions of Black prisoners who are incarcerated without any fault, reflecting the criminal
justice system and mocking it and depicting the hopelessness of a generation” which is
suffering for no particular reason.
The books are selected for the study because they provide an insight to the racial
discrimination and racism which is deeper than it seems. Both the native authors serve as the
authenticated voices and thus can be completely trusted as they express their own stories of
discrimination and violence at the name of race.

1.1. Significance & Rationale of Research

The current study finds its origin grounds from the historical concept of racism. The study
takes into account the historical concept and then attempts to understand the presence and
influence of contemporary Anti-Black and Anti-Asian racism inflicted upon the Black and
Asian communities which are sustaining lives in America.
Since the work is composed in the recent part of the century, the research attempts to find out
the impact of Racism within the daily and institutional life of the Black-Americans and
Asian-Americans as portrayed within the works. The research aims to find out the genuine
response from these communities against the persistent White supremacy which sets their
roles as nothing else but subjects. Furthermore, the research aims to explore the white
supremacy existing in the worlds of both communities.

1.2. Key Terms & Concepts

The concept which forms the backbone of the current study is of “White Supremacy”. This
concept is based in history and influenced by institutional, social and cultural oppression of
the inferior races. The idea suggests that, “a continuous system of oppression initiated by the
Whites begins to exploit people of color who have a history of belonging from lands not
native to Whites. The purpose of this oppression is to maintain and defend the system of
wealth, power and privilege as enjoyed by Whites.” (Martinez, 1998)
1.3. Research Objectives

1. To explore the concept of “White Supremacy” existing within Interior Chinatown and
Dear Justyce.
2. To examine and analyse the responses coming from the characters depicted in Interior
Chinatown and Dear Justyce against the racism being inflicted upon them.

1.4. Research Questions

1. How has White Supremacy been portrayed in Interior Chinatown and Dear Justyce
2. To what extent Interior Chinatown and Dear Justyce sustain the agenda of differential
racialization within them?
3. How do the characters of Interior Chinatown and Dear Justyce respond against the racial
stratification as depicted in the works?

1.5. Delimitations of the Study

Since racism is a vast concept, therefore, because of the constraints of time and word limit,
the current study aims to find the presence of White Supremacy and racism in two
communities as per the literary selection. The current study solely focuses upon two
contemporary selected works; Interior Chinatown & Dear Justyce.
The study incorporates the experiences of a Chinese and a Black protagonist respectively
within the settings being portrayed in the works and then analyses them on the basis of CRT
as it is difficult to study experiences of side characters due to the word limitation. Hence, the
present study is only based on the narrative of the main character selected from each of the
works.

1.6. Structure of the Study

The study will be comprehensively arranged and every section of the study will be indicated
through prominent headings and where it is necessary, subheadings will be added as well.
The overall study will be composed of five distinct chapters where every single one will be
linked in an identifiable pattern to the other. The first chapter will be titled as “Introduction”.
This chapter provides a precise introduction of the entire concept in a clear yet coherent
manner. This chapter also includes a brief introduction of the works which have been selected
for carrying out the study. It explains a bit about their nature and the specific attributes
assigned with the selected pieces of work. The second chapter is “Literature Review”.
As the name suggests, this chapter includes the review of literature which has been composed
on the said subject earlier. It consists of various literary works and scholarly articles which
shed further light on the concept. The third chapter involves, “Research Methodology &
Theoretical Framework”.
This chapter is significant because it tells the ways and sources through which the study is
conducted. It also specifies a theory which forms the backbone of the study and will also
serve as the guide when the analysis is carried out.
Fourth chapter adds up the “Analysis” portion of the study. This is the chapter where the
selected works will be carefully yet comprehensively analysed using the theory of concern.
Depending upon the requirement of the study as well as the theory, it will be divided into
subheadings thus creating the fragments of the entire whole.
The final chapter is “Findings & Conclusion”. This chapter will list down all the findings
which have been obtained after carrying out the analysis of the study. Based on the finding, a
conclusion will be then created which consists of the soul of the study more, where the
purpose and finding of the study are collectively accumulated and arranged into a brief yet
meaningful order.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Anti-Asian racism has a far stretched history within the American demographics. The
immigrations of 1885 found the basis of Asian entry in the land of diversity. Allerfeldt (2003)
notes that the immigrants boosted up the growth of Asian community in America. This
“growing Asian immigration provoked a hostile response” (54). This was the same time
when the White American population apparently felt the impact of “perceived threat”
because of the Asian influx in the American lands, thus coining the term “Yellow peril”
depicting the danger and hatred towards Asian community at that time (Chen et.al, 2020: 4).
The initial land inhabited by the Asian and specifically Chinese communities was California
because of the labour facilities and number of jobs. By 1920, the number of Asians migrating
to the western lands were estimated at 86,000 possessing the “only threat to white
supremacy” (56). The Asian communities residing in California compromised of the Chinese
as well as the Japanese whose allegiance with the “nativist sanctions and socialists groups
other than the American government” posed a big threat in the face of the government which
laid to the formation of an “overtly racist policy” encompassing the segregation of Asian
communities residing in the Western parts (69-72).
Zesch (2016) informs that the beginning of the anti-Chinese sentiment in America originated
right after their immigration where White journalists “denigrated Asian workers for the
impending flow of immigrants” (110). The anti-Asian sentiment became so “intense in Los
Angeles” by the year 1867 when “unprovoked, racially-motivated attacks on Chinese”
became a tale of everyday (127) eventually resulting in the massacre of 1871. Even after the
massacre, it was the Chinese community blamed as “barbarous” and “stain upon the name of
a fair city” (147) by the leading newspaper, clearly revealing the racist approach of Whites
toward the working Chinese surviving in those areas. This was the incident which later on
resulted in the formation of the Chinese Exclusion Act.
Chen (2015) notes that under the influence of the Exclusion Act, the immigration of Asian
communities have highly been “limited” and “selective”, where Chinese were restricted
based on the “skills” (325-326) indicating the evidence of skill-based distinction between
the Asian communities and Whites. The “model minority concept” became the racial
marker
for Asian Americans for the first time, creating a boundary between the White Americans and
those who became a part of America afterwards with the Asian background. The title itself
spoke of the positive implications associated with the Asians when compared to the beliefs
associated with Blacks, however still carried “strong racial implications” while stereotyping
the Asians, assigning them ranks still inferior to the White Americans (Ren & Feagin, 2020
:3).
In the wake of contemporary American society, things have altered totally in no time.
Especially, post-pandemic situation and the situation prevailing during the onset of COVID-
19 tribulation changed the narrative of the society in America. The racism which prevailed
during the pandemic included a high rise in hate crimes against the Asian Americans, where
the attackers considered them “racially foreign and dangerous” as becoming the indirect
vectors for COVID-19 (4). The notion of “disease carrying foreigners” has become one of the
many reasons that Xenophobia has become a character of contemporary American society in
which non-whiteness and Asian background is associated with potential danger (5-6).
One of the precautionary measures adopted to combat COVID-19 was face covering by using
face masks. However, this connotation was also characterized with the “portrayal of criminals
wearing face masks” and therefore became a potential trigger for the negative responses
inflicted upon the Americans of colour where the “veiled criminality” was wrapped up in the
racial belonging (10). Chen et.al (2020) considers that Asian Americans have never been
accepted as the integral part of the American society and are considered “perpetual
foreigners” despite the progress which has been made over the years against this racism
which intensified during the outbreak of COVID-19 where the graph of Asian hate is
elevated as Chinese people are mostly blamed for the “virus” (5).
Ho (2020) views White supremacy in American society as a constituent as vital as the “air
one breathes in and the water one drinks” (4). This “white privilege and normativity” intends
to deal with all the external sources with an iron head which are in any way against this idea (
5). These sources can either be Blacks or Asians who are intentionally or unintentionally
challenging this notion of White superiority in America.
Anti-Black racism in America has existed from the beginning. Vincent Harding, a renowned
champion of Black rights in America asserted in 1974 that, “Nothing that is black and whole
and alive in America can be fully comprehended apart from the endless white thrusts towards
our exploitation, deracination, death, and dismemberment” (Boston Review, 2021). This
explains that blackness from the very beginning existed not as a biological entity but as an
entity of division deciding the fates of people having it. Ajwani (2020) considers Anti-Black
racism as an evolutionary concept that has led to the current “scaffolding” of racism in
America (3).
Lavally & Johnson (2020) trace back the history to the origin of slavery right after the
colonisation begun. The concept of slavery became “indisputable” and dark skin became a
marker of slavery for the Whites. In the colonies, slavery existed as a concept normal and
hence their color formed the basis of enslavement (3).
The enslavement then took a permanent form and the religious identity no longer remained a
need to assume the status but it was the “colour and social identity” which kept Blacks at the
position of slave even after the existence of New America (4) Buggs et. al (2020) explains
that the Black slavery formulated the history of America and this was the factor that even
today the status of Blacks is assumed as “lesser humans” (1)
After the colonisation started fading out and the picture of new America became clear to
many, the racial exploitation of Blacks was still a norm prevalent. Sir Clair Drake was the
one who first drew barriers between the victimisation the Blacks experienced.
He talked about:
1. Primary Victimization: The direct discrimination experienced by the Blacks in
“labour market” and housing affairs.
2. Secondary Victimization: The indirect impact of primary Victimization started
producing criminals, drug junkies and unsuccessful breeds which were abhorred
and restrained from entering into the educational institutions and gatherings of
Whites. ( Daedalus, 2011)
Lavally & Johnson (2020) explain that in assigning this status, other than colour, the
occupation contributed a lot because it was a factor which “fortified the racist policies and
injustices across the whole society” as the White supremacy became dominant and gained the
status of absolute and divine authority in America over the years (10). Buggs et.al (2020)
names racism as “systemic” because of the system that led to the formation of another new
culture. The system involved in categorising Blacks as the inferior race is not new but relates
to the time of slavery, apartheid and then rests at today’s perception of racial discrimination
(2).
Anti-Black hatred which was originally based on personal perceptions gradually evolved into
“institutional racism”, which became one of the many dominant reasons of the civil rights
movement of 1960’s which later on “carved out institutional space for critical Black research
and scholarship.” (Boston Review, 2020)
Clair & Dennis (2015) find out that racism is a social process which evolves by
embracing the changes in society. It takes into account the emotions and expressions of
the subordinate groups, builds its narrative on existing racial inequalities victimising the
marginalised or degenerated groups. (860)
The collective racist attitude then starts impacting the society and enters into other spheres of
life which are not linked with the personal but make the professional part of an individual’s
life. Murray (1971) gives a classic example of institutional racism by linking the contribution
of Blacks in both the World Wars and still being discriminated against despite their active
participation. The revelation of enrolment of Black servicemen in American forces without
their consent and the distinctive attitude towards them by assigning them lower ranks
explains the institutionalized racism within forces (58).
The anger expressed by Whites on being examined by the Black doctors at the war time itself
became an issue when the authorities abhorred this act and disciplinary charges were imposed
on the Blacks because of this “sin” (60). It concludes that the institutional Anti-Black racism
takes hold of the basic rights and needs of Black men in service; catering only the needs of
Whites and taking action on their complaints, supporting the theories of Black inferiority till
date, however in the intense manner it was once but the subtle approach of abhorrence still
exists in all the official organizations (74).
Brar (1988) connects the institutionalized form of racism with the discrimination occurring in
schools and the resultant outcry over that. He notes that the reason anti-racism doesn’t work
in schools is because of the “White parents” who are interested in managing a status quo
which is impossible if the equality between Black and White children exists. Another reason
for the increased anti-Black racist comments in schools is because equal-opportunity and
giving authority to the Blacks about their own decisions challenges the White supremacy
(16).
Hence, the distinction exists in the form of divisions of schools specified for Whites and
Blacks. Bugs et.al criticises over the presence of Police especially in schools for Blacks
because such a presence constructs a “school to prison pipeline” where Black students are
often seen “behind the bars”. This develops a “car feral system” where the multinational
corporations are directly benefited from the “trauma of Black families” (2)
Wright (2018) believes that the Anti-Black racial oppression exists in all forms even if the
factor is as subtle as the environment itself where Black communities are excessively targeted
as the perpetrators causing pollution. They are not only held accountable for pollution but
there is a gradual rise in the contamination of areas where Blacks reside. Most often these
areas are considered inappropriate as the Black way of life is regarded as “unnatural and
therefore wasteable.” These areas become unsuitable for White residence because of being
considered nothing more but a slum. (14)
Majavu (2018) depicts another clear picture where Blacks are more often associated with the
notion of criminality. The “so-called African gangs” create a sensation and threat wrapped up
in hatred for all Africans in general. The label gets “discursively signifying” because it
amalgamates Black identity as the “Others” who are uncultured and savage (6) in association
with the “African gangs’ label”, the existence of the name, “the foreign born thugs” is what
pictures Blacks as criminals. These beliefs then strengthen the idea of “confining Blacks to
prisons” because of their “Blackness” (9).
Watts (2017) identifies that politics is responsible for marginalization of Blacks over
centuries and in the current era, as it creates a “democratic paradox destroying the history of
Blacks oppression.” The claim of standing by a Black president talks itself about the racial
politics in a subtle manner. The attempt to be “visible in the politics” appears too vague by
politicising the Black oppression (209-210). Michelle Alexander talks about the system of
mass incarceration among Black communities. The behaviour of Police towards Black
communities and prisoners is entirely different and racist based upon the color of the
prisoners which leaves a big question mark at the racial laws in America. (The NewYorker,
2020)
King & Nisbett (1996) interpret the interpersonal relationships among Whites and Blacks.
The behaviour of Whites while talking to Blacks shifts drastically as compared to their
interactions with members of their own community. The association of negative behaviour
with a Black personality is common and devastating. Whites are highly judgemental and if
they find such a trace in a Black’s behaviour, they “avoid or minimise the interpersonal
encounters with Blacks and the attitude of only a single Black individual is enough to create
a “judgemental comment regarding the entire group.” This judgment comes from the idea of
suppression which makes Blacks generally the suppressed ones (662). This kind of
generalisation is lethal for the existence of Black community as it leaves “more negative
perceptions about the Blacks” (663).
Not only the professional institutions but literature itself describes the history of Anti-Black
racist attitudes portrayed within some of the classics. NewYork Times (2017) reports that the
“canon of African-American Literature” is well established. Right from the Reconstruction
Era, many writers and poets wrote on this subject matter which raised “fiercest debates of
their times–the debates associated with racial segregation, slavery and mass incarceration.”
This point is supported by the all-time best classic of Margaret Mitchell, Gone with the Wind
(1936) whose live adaptation in the year 1939 “represents a belated reckoning with African-
American criticism” on race and the portrayal of slavery. The horrors of slavery and the false
depiction of race made many African-Americans object this sort of “biased attitude”
(NewYork Times, 2020). The Collider (2020) expresses disgust over the master/slave
narrative expressed in the novel and the disdain of Scarlett ‘O’ Hara for reputable Blacks
leaving the impression of absolute White supremacy. Gunning (2004) further explores this
impact of racism within Gilroy's 1993 work The Black Atlantic where racial formation and
racism are linked together forming “unifying assumptions” about the Black race (33-35)
Gilroy. The presence of anti-Black racial beliefs follows an “explicitly structured national
framework against which the anti-racist movements and the literature of resistance is
composed under constraints (41).
Mayani & Rayu (2016) conclude that three forms of white supremacy surround Doris
Lessing's The Grass is Singing (1950) i-e “behaviour, ideology and policies”, existing within
both the societies. White demands the complete submission of Blacks before them and thus
the Blacks are considered an outcast (33). The controlling attitude of Whites constitutes an
ideology in the society with respect to Blacks which reflects racism and oppression (37).
Whitsett & Whitsett (2008) relate racism with the “unconscious sense of shame” often
present in Blacks due to the racial subjugation that is inherent. This has been the subject of
Black novelists as Maya Angelou in her biographical account I Know why the Caged Bird
Sings (1969) hopes to be woken up “from the Black ugly dream” into a “White beautiful
girl” and similar idea exists in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye (1970), where the protagonist
wishes to get the “blue eyes” because these are socially acceptable and considered fine
compared to the Blackness. These “shame based self-concepts” reflect the impact of
continuous exposure to Anti-Black racism in a society where Whiteness is the standard of
being a human (76-77).
Angie Thomas is another name who gives an “autobiographical account” of the African-
American identity of hers within The Hate You Give (2017) while talking about the white
privilege, racism and discrimination” giving Blacks the identity of “thugs” and the reaction
which comes from Blacks upon being subjected to Police brutality and oppression. (D+C
Development and Cooperation, 2021).
Thomas herself indicates taking inspiration from the “unarmed people losing their lives”
every day because of their skin colour (NPR, 2017). Shelat (2019) considers Khalil’s death
“more than a murder emblematising perpetual racism” while attacking the marganilised
communities within a racist society (74). The Anti-Black racism in America is not only the
behavioural pattern found among Whites but Eswaran (2015) argues that the sense of
superiority exists in South-East Asians as well who enjoy the status of migrants as in Mira
Nair’s Mississippi Masala (1991), the migrant Indians have Anti-Black racist attitude which
becomes “apparent because of the cultural preference for light skin” (99). This reflects that
within the constraints of America and even beyond, the Anti-Black racism prevails because
of the cultural and social hatred existing in the minds of individuals with fair skins or White
heritage.
In opposition to excessive and continuous racism, the Civil Rights movement of this era or
the “Black Lives Matter” movement focuses on the “ police abuse faced by African-
Americans” and has assisted in shaping up “the current discussions concerning race and the
criminal justice system” in view of Clayton (2018; 2). Though the movement itself speaks for
the Black rights, however, there are still racial elements which have limited the “media
coverage of the movement” as compared to any other White protest for a cause (3).
The reason for existence of such a movement is the “systematic racism” which exists in
America till today as Whites have raised the slogan of “All Lives Matter” in opposition to the
demand for African-American liberty (14). Eversley et.al (2017) suggest that the Black
activists and “millennials” contributing for the cause of Black liberty are also losing their
interests because of the continuous expression of racism scattered in every aspect of their life
(9) as Cohen (2011) estimates that 23% of the activists really believe in the “complete
elimination of racism” from the American society in their lifetime. (Qt. Eversley et. al; 7).
Rickford (2015) puts forward that modern times have contributed to the establishment of a
“mass incarceration regime chiefly attacking the Black communities” (3). Since, Black Lives
Matter is against the regime and Police brutality, so it is the institution of Police itself which
is the biggest “opposer of the movement” and claims it “actually provokes Black attacks and
assaults on the cops” (6) which is a claim totally absurd and racist in nature.
Lajta- Novak who’s an academic Scholar of English Literature talks about the racism faced
by Black communities and its influence on the literature by taking into account the comment
of children’s author and a Black herself, Nic Stone who considers the “presence of Blacks in
literature only in the form of slaves or racially inferior subjects.” (OeAW, 2020)
These narratives clarify the negative portrayal of Blacks and Asians which continues to sting
in the systematic order of oppression. Canon of contemporary American literature is no
exception to this where false narratives and characterization kills the essence of Black &
Asian identity to preserve the “mighty White supremacy”. Hence, the need for the presence
of authentic voices coming to the foreground and sharing their experiences along with
challenging the conventional discourse of racism becomes stronger than ever.
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

For the current study, a qualitative approach will be adapted. As it is a literature-based

theoretical research, therefore, carrying out a qualitative analysis will be ideal. A qualitative
study according to Creswell (2014) is the one beginning with assumptions and then uses
theoretical frameworks contributing toward the identification of the research problems while
addressing the meaning “ascribed to a social or human problem” (44). This type of study is
conducted carefully with the help of philosophy and theoretical underpinnings which further
help to highlight the true connotation of a specific problem about which the study is
conducted.
In order to carry out the analysis of the selected works, textual analysis will be incorporated.
Textual analysis is a term “encapsulating a variety of different activities” including:
● Paraphrasing
● Searching for hidden meaning in a text
● Adapting a text and reflecting on it
● Examining the details in the text (Horowitz & Walsh, 2018)
All these factors will be observed during the analysis and for this purpose “Close Reading” of
the text will be carried out which proclaims “to give careful attention to the elements creating
a particular text” including the context, text itself and the author creating it (28). Along with
close reading, annotations will be made for the sake of interpreting the text in a better way.
The text notes will be taken from the selected works by using the “Note-System which
provides facts for future reference” (Sinha, 2018). Segments and significant quotations will
be highlighted as the highlighted portions are effective “to think about the importance of the
text” (Academic Learning Center, University of Manitoba).

3.1. Theoretical Framework

The crux of the study lies in “The Critical Racial Theory” as interpreted by Delgado &
Stefancic (2017). The theory itself has a long history and in academia, it is generally regarded
as “The Critical Theory Movement or CRT Movement.” Though, it consists of “many of the
same issues regarding race, racism and power taken up by conventional civil rights and ethnic
study discourses, yet it places them in a broader perspective” (18)
Parker & Lynn (2002) present three main aims of the critical race theory which include:
1. Depicting discrimination stories from the perspective of the discriminated ones.
2. Identifying race as a social construct and demanding the eradication of racism.
3. Explaining the intersectionality of discriminated communities by constituting their
identities along with class, gender and social rank. (Qt. Sinha, 2018).

Basic Tenets of the Critical Race Theory

Delgado & Stefancic (2017) derive six basic tenets of the theory which sum up the overall
purpose.

1. Racism is Not Unusual

The researchers claim that the process of formulating a new race and then setting up the
standards isn’t out of the ordinary but it occurs all the time in every society. It takes us to the
belief that racism “is difficult to address or cure because it isn’t acknowledged” but it exists
in an unconscious part of an individual’s mind.

2. White-Over-Color Ascendency is Purposeful

It can be considered “interest convergence and material determinism”, because it impacts

both the White elites who have the materialistic understanding of the world and working-
class Whites who have to interact with Black and people of colour when the interest calls for
it. Therefore, racism helps both to keep the boundaries of superior and inferior distinct from
each other.

3. Social Construction of Race

The idea that you are “born with a specific race” is a blatant joke. Racism isn’t biological but
“race and racism, both are the products of social construction and ideals which others set
about a particular community.” Hence, racism isn’t fixed but has a dynamic nature impacted
by the social situations at a very high degree.
 4. Differential Racialization

The people who have the power to create a race and set standards continue to alter the
standards as per their requirements. It means that the “standards are unstable and keep on
shifting” based on the requirements of the authority in power. If at a particular time, one ideal
seems unsuitable to a specific race then the same becomes suitable when the need for
expression arises from the ruling White side.

5. Intersectionality

It intends to express that an individual hailing from a specific race has a bunch of other
identities attached with him/her as well and there is no concept of a “unitary identity” of race
endowed by the Whites. One person may have a specific race, but then his religion, gender
and social rank is also there to be included within the concept of race.

6. Notion of Unique Voice of Colour

It calls for the writers and thinkers hailing from the communities which are subjected to
racism. These individuals carry the authenticity of expressing and sharing their “stories of
discrimination” with dominant Whites as well as the world because of the “legal storytelling”
which makes their narrative more believable and helps White to understand the long lasting
impacts of racism (20-22).

These tenets serve as the building block of the entire theory which will guide the direction of
the entire study. With the help of the extensive guidelines and directions provided by the
theory, the study will be finding out the existent contemporary Anti-Black racism within
contemporary American Literature.
 Works Cited

J. Douglas, Andrew, and Jared Loggins. “The Lost Promise of Black Study.” Boston Review,
28 Sept. 2021, bostonreview.net/race/andrew-j-douglas-jared-loggins-lost-promise-
black-study.

Ajwani, Neena. “Systemic Racism in the United States: Scaffolding as Social Construction.”
Smith College Studies in Social Work, vol. 90, no. 4, 2020, pp. 237–239.,
doi:10.1080/00377317.2020.1800551.

Allerfeldt, Kristofer. “Race and Restriction: Anti-Asian Immigration Pressures in the Pacific
North-West of America during the Progressive Era, 1885-1924.” History, vol. 88, no.
289, 2003, pp. 53–73., doi:10.1111/1468-229x.00251.

Alvarez, Alvin N., et al. “Asian Americans and Racism: When Bad Things Happen to ‘Model
Minorities.".” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, vol. 12, no. 3, 2006,
pp. 477–492., doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.3.477.

“Black Lives Matter – Also in Literature.” Österreichische Akademie Der Wissenschaften, 22

June 2020, www.oeaw.ac.at/en/detail/news/black-lives-matter-also-in-literature/.

Bowser, Benjamin P. “Racism: Origin and Theory.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 48, no. 6,
2017, pp. 572–590., doi:10.1177/0021934717702135.

Brar, Harbhajan Singh. “A ‘Black Perspective’ of Anti-Racism in Schools.” Pastoral Care in

Education, vol. 6, no. 4, 1988, pp. 14–17., doi:10.1080/02643948809470636.

Brockell, Gillian. “The Long, Ugly History of Anti-Asian Racism and Violence in the U.S.”
The Washington Post, WP Company, 20 Mar. 2021,
www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/03/18/history-anti-asian-violence-racism/.

Buggs, Shantel Gabrieal, et al. “Systemic Anti-Black Racism Must Be Dismantled: Statement
by the American Sociological Association Section on Racial and Ethnic Minorities.”
Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, vol. 6, no. 3, 2020, pp. 289–291.,
doi:10.1177/2332649220941019.
Chen, H. Alexander, et al. “Anti-Asian Sentiment in the United States – COVID-19 and
History.” The American Journal of Surgery, vol. 220, no. 3, 2020, pp. 556–557.,
doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2020.05.020.

Chen, Joyce J. “The Impact of Skill-Based Immigration Restrictions: The Chinese Exclusion
Act of 1882.” Journal of Human Capital, vol. 9, no. 3, 2015, pp. 298–328.,
doi:10.1086/683186.

Clair, Matthew, and Jeffrey S. Denis. “Racism, Sociology Of.” International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2015, pp. 857–863., doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-
8.32122-5.

Clark, Kimberly, and Kimberly Clark (1 Articles Published) . “Gone with the Wind: A Black
Woman Reckons with the Book's Problems.” Collider, 6 July 2020, collider.com/gone-
with-the-wind-book-problems/.

Clayton, Dewey M. “Black Lives Matter and the Civil Rights Movement: A
Comparative Analysis of Two Social Movements in the United States.” Journal of
Black Studies, vol. 49, no. 5, 2018, pp. 448–480., doi:10.1177/0021934718764099.

Creswell, John W., and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative &
Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE, 2018.

Delgado, Richard. Critical Race Theory: The Cutting Edge. Temple Univ. Press, 2013.

Dombrowski, Sinikka. “The Movie ‘The Hate u Give’ Addresses Racism in Today’s ...”
D+C, 23 July 2021, www.dandc.eu/en/article/movie-hate-u-give-addresses-racism-
todays-society-entertaining-way.

Eswaran, Nisha. “‘Stick[Ing] to Their Own Kind’: Melancholia and/as Anti-Black Racism in
Mira Nair's Mississippi Masala.” South Asian Review, vol. 36, no. 3, 2015, pp. 97–108.,
doi:10.1080/02759527.2015.11933036.

Garcia, Michelle. “The Monumental Impact of George Floyd's Death on Black America.”
NBCNews.com, NBCUniversal News Group, 25 May 2021,
 www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/monumental-impact-george-floyds-death-black-
america-rcna1021.

Gibson, Amber. “Anti-Asian Racism, Violence, and Virus-Blaming during the Pandemic. We
Need to Talk about This.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 17 Mar. 2021,
www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/anti-asian-racism-violence-and-virus-
blaming-during-the-pandemic.

Gunning, Dave. “Anti-Racism, the Nation-State and Contemporary Black British Literature.”
The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, vol. 39, no. 2, 2004, pp. 29–43.,
doi:10.1177/0021989404044734.

Hatcher, Nicholas L., and Illustration by Rose Wong. “A Brief Timeline of Anti-Asian
Discrimination in the U.S.” Teen Vogue, 10 May 2021,
www.teenvogue.com/story/history-anti-asian-discrimination-united-states.

“'The Hate U Give' Explores Racism and Police Violence.” Translated by Staff, NPR, NPR,
26 Feb. 2017, www.npr.org/2017/02/26/517305270/the-hate-u-give-explores-racism-
and-police-violence.

Henderson-King, Eaaron I., and Richard E. Nisbett. “Anti-Black Prejudice as a Function

of Exposure to the Negative Behavior of a Single Black Person.” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 71, no. 4, 1996, pp. 654–664.,
doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.71.4.654.

Ho, Jennifer. “Anti-Asian Racism, Black Lives Matter, and Covid-19.” Japan Forum, vol.
33, no. 1, 2020, pp. 148–159., doi:10.1080/09555803.2020.1821749.

Jones-Eversley, Sharon, et al. “Protesting Black Inequality: A Commentary on the Civil

Rights Movement and Black Lives Matter.” Journal of Community Practice, vol. 25,
no. 3-4, 2017, pp. 309–324., doi:10.1080/10705422.2017.1367343.

Kendi, Ibram X. “A History of Race and Racism in America, in 24 Chapters.” The New York
Times, The New York Times, 22 Feb. 2017,
www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/books/review/a-history-of-race-and-racism-in-america-
in-24-chapters.html.
Lavalley, Ryan, and Khalilah Robinson Johnson. “Occupation, Injustice, and Anti-Black
Racism in the United States of America.” Journal of Occupational Science, 2020, pp.
1–13., doi:10.1080/14427591.2020.1810111.

Majavu, Mandisi. “The ‘African Gangs’ Narrative: Associating Blackness with Criminality
and Other Anti-Black Racist Tropes in Australia.” African and Black Diaspora: An
International Journal, vol. 13, no. 1, 2018, pp. 27–39.,
doi:10.1080/17528631.2018.1541958.

Martinez, Elizabeth Betita. “What Is White Supremacy - Pittsburgh Arts Council.” Greater
Pittsburgh Arts Council, Feb. 1998,
www.pittsburghartscouncil.org/storage/documents/ProfDev/what-is-white-
supremacy.pdf.

Mayani, Melinda Retno, and Hujuala Rika Ayu S.S. “WHITE SUPREMACY AND
RACISM IN DORIS LESSING’S THE GRASS IS SINGING.” Litera-Kultura, vol. 04,
no. 02, 2016, pp. 27–37.

Murray, Paul T. “Blacks and the Draft.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 2, no. 1, 1971, pp. 57–
75., doi:10.1177/002193477100200104.

Ngai, Mae. “Racism Has Always Been Part of the Asian American Experience.” The
Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 22 Apr. 2021,
www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/04/we-are-constantly-reproducing-anti-asian-
racism/618647/.

Nguyen, Viet Thanh, et al. “How the Model Minority Myth of Asian Americans Hurts Us
All.” Time, Time, 26 June 2020, time.com/5859206/anti-asian-racism-america/.

Ong, Lynette, et al. “The Politics of Anti-Asian Racism.” East Asia Forum, 26 May 2021,
www.eastasiaforum.org/2021/05/26/the-politics-of-anti-asian-racism/.

Osei-Opare, Nana. “Perspective | around the World, the U.S. Has Long Been a Symbol of
Anti-Black Racism.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 5 June 2020,
www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/06/05/around-world-us-has-long-been-
symbol-anti-black-racism/.
“Reading: Text Marking and Underlining.” Edited by Manitoba Academics, University of
Manitoba,
www.umanitoba.ca/student/academiclearning/media/Text_Marking_and_Highlighting_
REVISED_2014.pdf.

Remnick, David. “Ten Years after ‘The New Jim Crow.’” The New Yorker, 17 Jan. 2020,
www.newyorker.com/news/the-new-yorker-interview/ten-years-after-the-new-jim-
crow.

Ren, Jingqiu, and Joe Feagin. “Face Mask Symbolism in Anti-Asian Hate Crimes.” Ethnic
and Racial Studies, vol. 44, no. 5, 2020, pp. 746–758.,
doi:10.1080/01419870.2020.1826553.

Rickford, Russell. “Black Lives Matter.” New Labor Forum, vol. 25, no. 1, 2015, pp. 34–42.,
doi:10.1177/1095796015620171.

Schuessler, Jennifer. “The Long Battle over 'Gone with the Wind'.” The New York Times, The
New York Times, 14 June 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/06/14/movies/gone-with-the-
wind-battle.html.

Shelat, Jay. “‘I Swear Those Things Are so Fresh’: Sneakers, Race, and Mobility in the Hate
U Give.” CEA Critic, vol. 81, no. 1, 2019, pp. 70–74., doi:10.1353/cea.2019.0011.

Singh, R P. Research Methods in English. Jaipur, Book Enclave, 2013.

Stone, Nic. DEAR JUSTYCE | Kirkus Reviews. 15 July 2020,

www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/nic-stone/dear-justyce/.

Walsh, Brandon, and Sarah Horowitz. Introduction to Text Analysis: A Course Book. 2018,
walshbr.com/textanalysiscoursebook/assets/introduction-to-text-analysis.pdf.

Watts, Eric King. “Politics, the Police, and Anti-Blackness.” Howard Journal of
Communications, vol. 28, no. 2, 2017, pp. 207–211.,
doi:10.1080/10646175.2017.1288180.
Whitsett, Doni P., and David A. Whitsett. “Anti-Black Racism and Its Consequences:”
Journal of Analytic Social Work, vol. 3, no. 4, 1996, pp. 61–81.,
doi:10.1300/j408v03n04_05.

Wold, Mike. “Book Review: 'Interior Chinatown' by Charles Yu.” Mar. 10-16, 2021 | Real
Change, Real Change, 10 Mar. 2021,
www.realchangenews.org/news/2021/03/10/book-review-interior-chinatown-charles-
yu.

Wright, Willie Jamaal. “As above, so below: Anti‐Black Violence as Environmental

Racism.” Antipode, vol. 53, no. 3, 2018, pp. 791–809., doi:10.1111/anti.12425.

Zesch, Scott. “Chinese Los Angeles in 1870-1871: The Makings of a Massacre.” Southern
California Quarterly, vol. 90, no. 2, 2008, pp. 109–158., doi:10.2307/41172418.

Zheng, Lily. “To Dismantle Anti-Asian Racism, We Must Understand Its Roots.” Harvard
Business Review, 30 Aug. 2021, hbr.org/2021/05/to-dismantle-anti-asian-racism-we-
must-understand-its-roots.