Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Recycling of waste tire rubber as aggregate in concrete:

durability-related performance
Blessen Skariah Thomas*, Ramesh Chandra Gupta, Vinu John Panicker
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation to comparatively study the depth of
Received 14 March 2015 chloride penetration, resistance to acid attack and macrocell corrosion of rubberized concrete and
Received in revised form control mix concrete. Waste tire rubber in the form of crumb rubber was replaced for natural fine ag-
24 July 2015
gregates from 0% to 20% in multiples of 2.5%. Analytical studies were performed with Abaqus and the
Accepted 12 August 2015
results were compared with compressive and flexural strength obtained in the laboratory. It was
Available online 20 August 2015
observed that the depth of chloride penetration of the concrete with 2.5e7.5% crumb rubber was lower
than or equal to the control mix concrete. In the water absorption test of acid attacked specimens,
Keywords:
Recycling
gradual increase was observed as the percentage of crumb rubber was increased. After acid attack, more
Waste tire rubber losses in the weight and compressive strength were observed in the control mix concrete than the
Mechanical properties rubberized concrete. There was no presence of sufficient corrosion in the specimens from the macrocell
Corrosion corrosion test. The analytical results have shown the same trend for compressive strength and flexural
Analytical modelling tensile strength as obtained in the laboratory. It can be concluded that the rubberized concrete is highly
resistant to the aggressive environments and can be implemented in the areas where there are chances
of acid attack.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to create serious fire hazards and environmental pollution. Disposal

by land filling has become difficult because of the depletion of the
The invention of concrete has been one of the key events in available sites and due to sanitary infections by insects and rodents
evolution because of its simplicity, strength, durability and the (Garrick, 2001; Benazzouk et al., 2007; Onuaguluchi and Panesar,
affordability for the society. It is the third most used substance in 2014; Su et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2015a,b).
the world after air and water. One of the greatest challenges for the The alternatives include the use as a fuel in cement kilns, to
concrete industry is to help in the transformation of the con- produce carbon black, use in asphalt pavements or to use as ag-
sumption based society to a sustainable society by helping to lower gregates in concrete. Use of tires as fuel is technically feasible, while
the pollution of natural environment and to prevent the exhaustion it is not economically attractive due to the high initial costs. It also
of natural resources (Gencel et al., 2012a,b, 2013; Thomas et al., pollutes the environment by emitting large quantities of carbon
2013, 2014; Meddah et al., 2014; Alnahhal, 2006; Thomas and dioxide. The carbon black produced by the pyrolysis process is
Gupta, 2015). expensive and the product is inferior to that produced from pe-
Disposal of used tires is a global problem. It is estimated that, troleum products. The use of tires in asphalt pavements is techni-
every year almost 1000 million tires end their service life and more cally and economically feasible but only a small percentage of the
than 50% are discarded without any treatment. By the year 2030, waste tires are used in the asphalt industry. One of the possible
the number would reach to 1200 million tires yearly. (Including the solutions for the use of waste tire rubber is to incorporate into
stockpiled tires, there would be 5000 million tires to be discarded cement based materials, to replace some of the natural aggregates.
on a regular basis.) The practice of disposal by burning has proved This attempt could be environmental friendly (as it helps to dispose
the waste tires and prevent environmental pollution) and
economically viable (as some of the costly natural aggregates can
* Corresponding author. be saved) (Raghavan et al., 1998; Flores-Medina et al., 2014; Thomas
E-mail addresses: chaprathu44@gmail.com (B.S. Thomas), irarcg@hotmail.com et al., 2015a,b).
(R.C. Gupta), vinu_john@outlook.com (V.J. Panicker).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.08.046
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513 505

Guneyisi (2010) explained that the use of crumb rubber as fine spray test for rubberized concrete and the corrosion studies of
aggregates prolonged the setting time and the viscosity of concrete. reinforcement are missing.
Use of fly ash helped to diminish the negative effect of the crumb In this paper, a comparative study on the depth of chloride
rubber and decrease the viscosity of the concrete. Issa and Salem penetration, resistance to acid attack and macrocell corrosion of
(2013) studied on the use of recycled crumb rubber as fine aggre- rubberized concrete and control mix concrete has been reported.
gates in concrete. They have recorded good compressive strength Waste tire rubber in the form of crumb rubber was replaced for
for less than 25% replacements (for fine aggregates), while huge natural fine aggregates from 0% to 20% in multiples of 2.5%.
drop was noticed beyond 25% replacements. In the specimens with Analytical studies were performed with Abaqus and the results
25% crumb rubber, almost 8% reduction in concrete density was were compared with compressive and flexural strength obtained in
noticed. Dong et al. (2013) explained that the compressive and the laboratory.
splitting tensile strength of concrete with treated rubber increased
by 10e20% when compared to the concrete with uncoated rubber.
2. Materials and methods
The chloride ion resistance of concrete with coated rubber and the
concrete without rubber was almost similar. The energy absorption
The properties of the raw materials and the methods of prepa-
capacity of the concrete with coated rubber had shown
ration of the specimens for testing are described below.
improvement.
Ordinary Portland Cement of grade 43, conforming to IS: 8112
Yilmaz and Degirmenci (2009) have observed decrease in the
(1989) was used. Specific gravity was 3.15, Normal consistency
water absorption upon increase in size of the rubber particles in the
34%, Initial setting time 99 min, Final setting time 176 min. Natural
concrete. Bravo and de Brito (2012) have reported that the water
river sand confirming to zone II as per IS: 383 (1970); void content
absorption (by the process of immersion) of rubberized concrete
34% as per ASTM C 29, Specific gravity 2.63, free surface moisture
increases as the percentage of rubber and the particle size of rubber
1% and fineness modulus 2.83. Coarse aggregates, 10 mm size was
increases. The results were not conclusive when the capillary water
used 40% (fineness modulus e 5.573) and 20 mm size was used 60%
absorption test was done. Azevedo et al. (2012) explained that it is
(fineness modulus e 7.312) crushed stone were used as coarse
possible to maintain a low capillary action even at the rubber
aggregates with an average specific gravity e 2.63. The particle size
content of 15% in concrete. Li et al. (2004) observed higher strength
distribution of aggregates is given in Fig. 1. Tire rubber was grinded
and stiffness in the waste tire fibre modified concrete when
into three sizes (powder form of 30 mesh, 0.8e2 mm, 2e4 mm).
compared to the tire chip modified concrete. Both the specimens
The specific gravity of rubber powder was 1.05 and that of the other
had higher post crack toughness when compared to the control
two sizes were 1.13. The three sizes of crumb rubber were mixed in
specimens (without rubber). Increasing the stiffness of the tire fi-
definite percentages (2e4 mm size in 25%, 0.8e2 mm size in 35%
bres and the use of thin fibres can help to increase the strength and
and rubber powder in 40%) to bring it to zone II. The chemical
stiffness of rubberized concrete.
composition of Crumb Rubber is given in Table 2. The physical
Mohamed (2014) studied on high strength rubberized concrete
properties and chemical composition of cement are given in
containing silica fumes. Tire-rubber particles composed of a com-
Thomas et al. (2014). The properties of cement were measured as
bination of crumb rubber and fine rubber powder that replaced the
per IS: 8112 (1989) and IS 4031. The physical properties of aggregate
total weight of the fine mineral aggregate by 10e40%. The fresh
are measured as per the procedures given in IS 2386 (1963).
rubberised concrete exhibited lower unit weight, acceptable
To investigate the suitability of discarded tire rubber as a sub-
workability and good resilience when compared to plain concrete.
stitute for fine aggregates in concrete, design of concrete was done
Considerable reductions were noticed in axial strength, flexural
as per IS: 10262 (2010) and IS 456 (2000) with waterecement ratio
strength, and tangential modulus of elasticity. Zhang and Li (2012)
0.4. Waterecement ratios of 0.45 and 0.5 were also studied to study
studied on the abrasion resistance of rubberized concrete. Silica
the variation in different properties. Crumb rubber was replaced for
fumes and crumb rubber were taken as the additives. It was re-
natural fine aggregates from 0% to 20% in multiple of 2.5%. The mix
ported that the addition of silica fume enhanced both compressive
proportions of the control mix are given in Table 1. Super plasticizer
strength and abrasion resistance of concrete, and the addition of
was used as the admixture to arrive at the desired workability
crumb rubber reduced the compressive strength but the abrasion
(above 0.91 in compacting factor test, given in Thomas et al., 2014).
resistance of the concrete was increased notably. Silica fume con-
In these mixes, fifteen concrete specimens of size 100 mm were
crete performed a better abrasion resistance than control concrete,
casted for acid attack test. Three concrete specimens of size
and the rubberized concrete performed a much better abrasion
250 mm  200 mm  120 mm were prepared as per ASTM G 109-
resistance than silica fume concrete.
2005 for the corrosion test and three concrete specimens of
Xue and Shinozuka (2013) have mentioned that the bonding
100 mm size were prepared to study the chloride ion penetration.
between the cement paste and the crumb rubber can be improved
The mixtures were prepared and casted at indoor temperature of
by the addition of silica fumes in concrete, which is proven by the
25e30
C. Moulds were covered with plastic sheets, soon after
increase in compressive strength of the rubberized silica fume
casting and de-moulded after 24 h. Curing was done for 28e90 days
concrete. Nayef et al. (2010) explained that the use of 5% silica
in water tank, with controlled temperature of 25e27
C. Prepara-
fumes in rubberized concrete helps to minimize the loss in
tion of specimens and testing were performed as per the ASTM and
compressive strength at elevated temperatures. At elevated tem-
IS codes given in the References.
perature of above 400
C, the compressive strength was similar to
that of control concrete.
Hence, the reuse of waste tire rubber in concrete could have 3. Experimental program
both environmental advantages and at the same time ensure eco-
nomic viability. In this regard, an attempt may be done to control Silver nitrate spraying test was used to study the depth of
the environmental pollution and to save the natural resources by chloride penetration as per Baroghel-Bouny et al. (2007a,b). The
using the discarded tire rubber for partial replacement for fine test specimens (100 mm concrete cubes) after 28 days of water
aggregates in cement concrete. In the literature, the studies on the curing, were subjected to continuous soaking for 91 days in 4% NaCl
behaviour of rubberized concrete in sulphuric acid, silver nitrate solution. The specimens were periodically withdrawn at 28, 56 and
506 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of aggregates.

Table 1
Mixture proportions of fresh concrete.

Waterecement ratio Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Coarse aggregates 10 mm (kg/m3) Coarse aggregates 20 mm (kg/m3) Fine aggregates (kg/m3) Admixture (%)

0.40 388.0 155.0 465.0 737.2 698.4 0.65

0.45 388.0 174.6 465.0 737.2 698.4 0.30
0.50 388.0 194.0 465.0 737.2 698.4 0

91 days from the soaking tank and tested to measure the depth of structures in industrial zones, there can be possibility of deterio-
chloride penetration. The cubes were split into two halves from the ration due to acid rains in which sulphuric acid can be one of the
middle and the freshly split pieces were sprayed with 0.1 N Silver key components. Sulphuric acid attack is more disastrous than
Nitrate (AgNO3) solution. The AgNO3 reacts with the free chloride sulphate attack because of the fact that there would be a dissolution
on the concrete surface and form a white precipitate of silver effect by the hydrogen ions in addition to the attack by sulphate
chloride (AgCl). In the places where the free chlorides are absent, ions. Corrosion of concrete due to the action of sulphuric acid can
AgNO3 reacts with hydroxide to form a brown precipitate of silver be characterized by the following reactions (Bassuoni and Nehdi,
oxide (AgO). Thus, the boundary of colour change indicates the 2007).
depth of chloride permeability.
Degradation can take place if the concrete is exposed to sul- Ca(OH)2 þ H2SO4 / CaSO4 $ 2H2O
phuric acid environments. It is one of the key durability issues that
affect the maintenance costs and life cycle performance of all the CaSiO2 $ 2H2O þ H2SO4 / CaSO4 þ Si(OH)4 þ H2O
concrete structures. There can be presence of sulphuric acid in
chemical waste, ground water, etc. In the case of concrete 3CaO $ Al2O3 $ 12H2O þ 3(CaSO4$2H2O)þ14H2O
/3CaO$Al2O3$3CaSO4$32H2O
Table 2
Chemical composition of crumb rubber.a Gypsum enables volume expansion in concrete, which induces
tensile stresses that result in cracking and spalling. Further reaction
Sl. no. Test Results
of gypsum with calcium aluminate can lead to the formation of
1 Ash content % 5.11 ettringite which leads to further expansion and more micro and
2 Carbon black content % 28.43
macro cracking. In addition to this, sulphuric acid decalcifies the
3 Acetone extract % 9.85
4 Volatile matter % 0.56 calciumesilicateehydrate (CeSeH) and thus decomposes the
5 Hydrocarbon content % 56.05 cementitious matrix and leads to the strength loss of concrete
6 Polymer analysis SBR (Bassuoni and Nehdi, 2007).
a
Test certificate provided by S&J Granulate Solutions, Mumbai, India. Performed Acid attack test was performed as per ASTM C 267-97 for a
as per IS 3400 (part 22) 1984, reaffirmed in 1993. period of for total 84 days. Sulphuric acid of 3% concentration was
 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513 507

taken as a medium for acid resistance test. Concrete specimens of to the onset of micro-cracking in the concrete material. Beyond the
100 mm size were immersed in a container with dilute sulphuric failure stress the formation of micro-cracks is represented macro-
acid solution. The solution was replaced once in 4 weeks. Three scopically with a softening stressestrain response, which induces
different tests were done on acid attacked specimens. Water ab- strain localization in the concrete structure. Under uniaxial
sorption test was performed ASTM C 642 (2006) to study the compression the response is linear until the value of initial yield. In
changes in porosity of concrete due to acid attack. The concrete the plastic regime the response is typically characterized by stress
specimens were tested for water absorption after 28, 56 and 84 hardening followed by strain softening beyond the ultimate stress.
days of immersion in dilute sulphuric acid. The specimens were This representation, although somewhat simplified, captures the
oven dried at 60
C for 3 days and then kept at room temperature main features of the response of concrete. It is assumed that the
for at least 1 day (24 h) and initial weight noted. Then it was uniaxial stressestrain curves can be converted into stress versus
immersed in water such that about 50 mm water was maintained plasticestrain curves (www.egr.msu.edu). The stress-strain values
on the top surface of the specimen. Then the final weight was noted defining the tension and compression of the concrete and the
after 48 h. The values were compared with the water absorption density of the individual concrete specimens were used as the input
values of the non-acid attacked specimens. values, due to the fact that there are no pre-defined values for
The saturated surface dry weight of concrete specimens rubberized concrete (concrete þ rubber) in abacus.
immersed in sulphuric acid solution was determined after a light
surface brushing and washing them lightly in tap water. Weight
4. Results and discussion
measurement was done after 28, 56, and 84 days of immersion in
acid. The variation in weight was compared with the initial weight
The results obtained from the experimental procedure were
before immersion in acid solution. The compressive strength of acid
analyzed and discussed as below:
attacked specimen was determined after 28, 56 and 84 days of
immersion in acid solution. The cube specimen was placed on the
compression testing machine in such a manner that the load was 4.1. Chloride ion penetration
applied to the opposite side of cubes as cast (not to the top and
bottom.) The load was applied without shock and increased grad- The results for the chloride penetration for the mixes with w/c
ually at a rate of 140 kg/sq cm/min until the resistance of the 0.4, 0.45 and 0.5 are reported in Figs. 2e4. It was observed that
specimen breaks down to a stage where no greater load can be there was an increase in the depth of chloride ion penetration for
sustained. It was compared with the compressive strength of higher waterecement ratios and with respect to age. When we
normal concrete (non-acid attacked), which was water cured for 28 consider the concrete mixes with waterecement ratio 0.4, the
days after casting (as given in Thomas et al., 2014) and the per- chloride penetrations of all the mixes in which crumb rubber was
centage loss in weight was reported. replaced up to 7.5% of fine aggregates were lesser than or equal
The corrosion specimens were prepared as per ASTM G 109- when compared with the value of the control mix specimens.
2005 and tests were performed as per ASTM C 876-09. Steel bars of Similar trend was observed for the mixes with waterecement ra-
12 mm diameter and 350 mm length were used. The two steel bars tios 0.45. In the case of the series with w/c 0.5, the depth of chloride
were embedded centrally at the bottom area (with a cover of penetration of the concrete mixes with crumb rubber above 5%
30 mm from bottom) and one steel bar was placed centrally at the were higher than that of the control mix. A decreasing trend was
top (with a cover of 15 mm) The top steel bar behaves as the anode observed in the depth of chloride penetration for the concrete
and the two bottom bars behave as the cathode. The specimens mixes in which crumb rubber was substituted from 0% to 5% of fine
were taken out of curing and dried at room temperature for 1 aggregates. In the mixes where crumb rubber was above 5%, there
month. All the four vertical sides of the concrete specimen were was gradual increase in the depth of chloride ion penetration. At 91
then coated with two layers of epoxy paint. With the help of electric days, the depth of penetration was 21 mm for the control mix (0%
wires, a standard resister of 100 U was connected between the crumb rubber), 22 mm for the mix with 10% crumb rubber and
common terminal of the bottom steel bars and the terminal of the 25 mm for the mix with 20% crumb rubber.
top steel bar. On the reservoir at the top of the specimen, a solution Oikonomou and Mavridou (2009) explained that the chloride
of 3% sodium chloride (by weight) was poured. Then the specimens ion penetration decreased as the amount of rubber was increased in
were subjected to alternate wetting and drying cycles (2 weeks
wetting with sodium chloride solution, followed by 2 weeks dry-
ing). The potential measurements were taken for both the wetting
and drying cycles. The first reading for the macro-cell corrosion was
taken at the beginning of the second week of the ponding and after
this, readings were taken after every 2 weeks. The potential dif-
ference between the anode and cathode was taken with a high
impedance voltmeter.
The analytical study was used to compare the values obtained in
the experimental procedure (performed as per IS: 516 (1959)) and
to study the trend of compressive and flexural tensile strength.
Damaged plasticity model was used in the modeling of concrete.
The model is a continuum, plasticity-based, damage model for
concrete. It assumes that the main two failure mechanisms are
tensile cracking and compressive crushing of the concrete material.
The evolution of the yield (or failure) surface is controlled by two
hardening variables linked to failure mechanisms under tension
and compression loading, respectively. Under uniaxial tension the
stressestrain response follows a linear elastic relationship until the
value of the failure stress is reached. The failure stress corresponds Fig. 2. Depth of chloride penetration of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.4.
508 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513

However beyond 7.5% the chloride penetration increased and it

may be due to the lack of internal packing of the concrete.

4.2. Acid attack test

Concrete specimens were immersed in 3% sulphuric acid solu-

tion for a period of 84 days. The following 3 tests were performed
on the acid attacked specimens. Azevedo et al. (2012) studied on
the acid resistance of HPC with 10% concentration of sulphuric acid.
Increase in the rubber content lead to high mass loss degree. The
concrete mix with 5% rubber, partial cement replacement with 15%
flyash and 15% metakaolin exhibited almost same resistance of the
control mix. The mix with 45% flyash and 15% metakaolin showed
much higher acid resistance than the control mix.

4.2.1. Water absorption of acid attacked specimen

Fig. 3. Depth of chloride penetration of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.45.
Figs. 5e7 show the comparison of the water absorption values of
acid attacked specimens at 28, 56 and 84 days. In the case of con-
crete mixes with waterecement ratio 0.4; gradual increase in the
mortar. In the mix with 2.5% rubber, the reduction was 14.22%
amount of water absorption was noticed at 28 days in the mixes
when compared to the control mix and there was a reduction of
where the crumb rubber was replaced from 0% to 20% for fine ag-
35.85% for the mix with 15% rubber. When a bitumen emulsion was
gregates. Same trend was noticed at 56 days and 84 days. At 84
used as an additive, the mixture with 12.5% tire rubber had shown a
days, the amount of water absorption for control mix was 2.89%, for
reduction in chloride ion penetration up to 55.89% when compared
the mix with 10% crumb rubber it was 3.15% and for the mix with
to control mix concrete. Bravo and de Brito (2012) performed
20% crumb rubber it was 3.32%. Similar pattern was observed for
chloride migration test on rubberized concrete. Increase in chloride
the series with waterecement ratios 0.45 and 0.50.
diffusion coefficient was observed for 5e15 replacement with tire
The amount of water absorbed by the specimens had increased
rubber. Increasing the size of rubber aggregate leads to higher
in all the concrete mixes when compared to the control mix with
chloride diffusion coefficient. Concrete containing tire aggregates
respect to the amount of crumb rubber and with respect to age. At
from cryogenic technique offered lesser resistance to chloride
the end of 28, 56 and 84 days, more destruction of the specimen
penetration than those containing mechanically ground tire ag-
took place with respect to the increase in the amount of crumb
gregates. Increase in curing period lead to decrease in the amount
rubber. This may cause the occurrence of micro voids around the
of chloride penetration.
lu and Güneyisi (2011) have observed a progressive in- surface of the specimen and have enabled more water absorption.
Gesog
When we compare the water absorption of the control mix and that
crease in the chloride penetration with the increasing amount of
at 28, 56 and 84 days of acid attack, we can observe that the water
crumb rubber in self compacting rubberized concrete. When fly ash
absorption of specimens increases with time. As the waterecement
was added to the rubberized concrete, there was significant resis-
ratio increases, the internal voids increase resulting in the increase
tance to the chloride ion ingress at 90 days of curing. The concrete
in amount of water absorption for the increase in the rubber
containing 20%, 40% and 60% flyash exhibited an average reduction
content.
of 67%, 79% and 78% respectively in the chloride ion permeability.
When we observe Fig. 8, the top layer of the concrete specimens
In the present study, the reason for the gradual reduction in the
with 0% crumb rubber was completely removed (100%) by the ac-
depth of chloride penetration from the mixes with 0e7.5% crumb
tion of sulphuric acid. In the case of the mix with 20% crumb rubber,
rubber would be due to the fact that the rubber particles are
less than 100% top surface were attacked by acid. The rubber par-
impervious and does not absorb water and simultaneously does not
ticles and the cementitious layer surrounding the rubber particles
allow the passage of chloride ions. As the percentage of crumb
rubber increased, the depth of chloride penetration decreased.

Fig. 4. Depth of chloride penetration of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.5. Fig. 5. Water absorption of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.4.
 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513 509

Fig. 6. Water absorption of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.45.

Fig. 9. Weight loss of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.4.

4.2.2. Weight loss of acid attacked specimen

Figs. 9e11 show the comparison of the weight loss values of acid
attacked specimens at 28, 56 and 84 days. At waterecement ratio
0.4, 0.45 and 0.5; more amount of weight loss was observed in the
control mix specimens and it was found decreasing as the amount
of crumb rubber was increased in the concrete. It means that the
control mix specimens have recorded maximum loss in weight and
the specimens with 20% crumb rubber have recorded the least loss
in weight. In the case of w/c 0.4 and at 84 days, Maximum weight
loss (8.5%) was recorded for the control mix and minimum weight
loss was for the mix with 20% crumb rubber (7.24%). The percentage
loss in weight was 7.61 for the mix with 10% crumb rubber. Similar
trend has been observed for the series with waterecement ratios
0.45 and 0.50.
The crumb rubber particles present in the rubberized concrete
were holding the constituent particles of the concrete from
breaking away by preventing the formation of cracks and material
separation. While in the concrete with no crumb rubber or less
Fig. 7. Water absorption of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.5. amount of crumb rubber, more cracks were developed and the
constituent materials were easily separated.

were unaffected by acid and have projected outwards by providing 4.2.3. Compressive strength loss of acid attacked specimen
extra pockets to arrest the water. So the water absorption of Figs. 12e14 show the comparison of the compressive strength
rubberized concrete was higher than the control mix concrete. loss values of acid attacked specimens at 28, 56 and 84 days. There

Fig. 8. Images of acid attacked specimen at 84 days. The specimen with 0% (left) and 20% (right) crumb rubber.
510 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513

Fig. 13. Reduction in compressive strength of acid attacked specimens, waterecement

ratio 0.45.
Fig. 10. Weight loss of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.45.

Fig. 14. Reduction in compressive strength of acid attacked specimens, waterecement

ratio 0.5.
Fig. 11. Weight loss of acid attacked specimens, waterecement ratio 0.5.

was more loss in compressive strength for the entire concrete

specimen with respect to age and with respect to waterecement
ratio. In the case of concrete mixes with w/c 0.4, 0.45 and 0.5, more
reduction in compressive strength was observed when the expo-
sure time in sulphuric acid was increased. Also, gradual reduction
in the ‘loss’ was observed with the increase in the percentage of
crumb rubber in concrete. In waterecement ratio 0.4 and at 84
days, the maximum loss in compressive strength (77.65%) was
recorded for the control mix with 0% crumb rubber. The value was
65.67% for the mix with 10% crumb rubber and it was 56% in the
mix with 20% crumb rubber. Similar trend has been observed for
the mixes with waterecement ratios 0.45 and 0.5.
The crumb rubber particles present in the rubberized concrete
was holding the constituent particles of the concrete from breaking
away by preventing the formation of cracks and material separa-
tion. While in the concrete with no crumb rubber or less amount of
crumb rubber, more cracks were developed and the constituent
materials were easily separated. This may be one of the reasons for
reduced loss in compressive strength for rubberized concrete. In
the case of control mix concrete, it was noticed that all the six
surfaces were affected by acid attack and 100% surface layer got
Fig. 12. Reduction in compressive strength of acid attacked specimens, waterecement
ratio 0.4. deteriorated. In the case of rubberized concrete, all the six surfaces
 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513 511

were affected by acid but less than 100% surface layer got deteri-
orated. Reduction in cross section of control mix was more than
that of the rubberized concrete. After the acid attack, the net cross
section of rubberized concrete was more than the control mix
specimens.

4.3. Test for corrosion of steel reinforcements

The results of the macrocell current for the concrete mixes with
waterecement ratio 0.4, 0.45 and 0.5 have been calculated for 0 day
(Initial reading taken after 15 days), 28 days, 56 days, 91 days and
182 days have been reported in Figs. 15e17. The corrosion test is a
qualitative method and cannot be totally conclusive. As per ASTM G
109-99a, a minimum of 10 mA is required to ensure the presence of
sufficient corrosion. If the macrocell current is positive, it indicates
active corrosion in progress and vice versa. It was noticed in all the
series that all the macro cell readings were negative up to 182 days.
In the series with waterecement ratio 0.4, the initial readings of the
control mix were 2.31and the readings at 182 days were 1.27. Fig. 16. Macrocell current of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.45.
For the concrete mix with 10% tire rubber, the readings were 2.02
and 1.02 respectively and in the concrete mix with 20% crumb
rubber, it was 2.59 and 1.67 respectively. The readings were
found to be gradually increasing from 0 day to 182 days. Similar
trend could be observed in the waterecement ratios of 0.45 and 0.5.
We could understand that the readings were changing from
negative to positive for all the mixes. As all the readings obtained
were less than 10 mA, we could conclude that there is no presence of
sufficient corrosion in the specimens.

4.4. Analytical results from Abaqus

The results obtained from the analytical studies for the mixes
with 0e20% crumb rubber are reported in Figs. 18 and 19. From the
analytical results of the compressive strength, brittle failure could
be seen in the mixes with crumb rubber and it was not found in the
case of control mix. But when we check the practical test results,
the control specimens exhibited brittle failure while the rubberized
concrete did not show brittle failure under compression loading.
Gradual reductions were observed in the compressive and flexural Fig. 17. Macrocell current of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.5.
tensile strengths with increase in the amount of crumb rubber. The
analytical study was performed only in the case of the mixes with
waterecement ratio 0.4. It was expected that the compressive and
flexural tensile strength would be more affected in the case of
waterecement ratios 0.45 and 0.5. The same was observed in the
laboratory testing procedure. The analytical result of the
compressive strength of control mix concrete was higher than that

Fig. 15. Macrocell current of specimens with waterecement ratio 0.4. Fig. 18. Comparison of compressive strength of experimental and analytical results.
512 B.S. Thomas et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 112 (2016) 504e513

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Yilmaz, Arin, Degirmenci, Nurhayat, 2009. Possibility of using waste tire rubber and
fly ash with Portland cement as construction materials. Waste Manag. 29, http://www.egr.msu.edu/software/abaqus/Documentation/docs/v6.7/books/usb/
1541e1546. default.htm?startat=pt05ch18s05abm36.html