EGN-5439 The Design of Tall Buildings

Lecture #20

Post-Tensioning for Two-Way Flat Plates

- Preliminary sizing of the slab or plate thickness
- Choosing the amount of pre-stressing required
- Calculating the pre-stress losses
- Choosing the minimum reinforcement
- The layout of the post-tensioning system

© L. A. Prieto-Portar - 2008
The world is experiencing a return of their populations to their cities. As the world population
explodes, the renovation of downtown areas has required new construction techniques that
reduce the cost of high-rise buildings. In this resurgence of downtown residential living, the
use of two-way post-tensioned flat plates appears to be the ideal structural floor system.

The Post-tensioning system.

The most common post-tensioning system for two-way slab building construction uses mono-
strand un-bonded tendons. In this type of construction, the pre-stressing steel is composed
generally of high-strength, single-wire steel, wrapped with another six wires to form a seven-
wire strand.
The sheathed (blue) tendon at
the left, and the bare seven-
wire, 0.5-inch-diameter, 270
ksi tendon at the right.
A gripper jack stressing a tendon.
A heavy duty jack, used here to stress several tendons at the same location.
Improperly cut strand extension, resulting in a void inside the mortar.
Locations for corrosion to occur in a mono-strand.
The common strand has a specified tensile strength fult of 270 kips per square inch (ksi), a
nominal diameter of 0.5 inch, and an area of steel, As equaling 0.153 square inches. By
design, un-bonded tendons have a continuous plastic sheathing to prevent the strand from
bonding with the concrete along its length. This sheathing serves as (1) a bond breaker, (2)
provides protection during handling, shipping, and construction, and (3) limits the intrusion
of corrosive elements, such as salt in ocean front areas (for example, Miami Beach).
Corrosion-inhibiting grease coats the strands to reduce friction between the strand and the
sheathing during stressing.

The force in a stressed tendon is transferred to the concrete via serrated wedges that lock into
anchor plates provided at its ends. Anchors are classified as either live (stressing) ends or
dead ends.

Dead end anchors are embedded into the concrete and will not be stressed. These anchors are
mounted to the tendon at the fabrication plant.

Live end anchors are mounted and stressed in the field. Each tendon is stressed individually
and has its own anchor plate (thus, mono-strand) with approximate dimensions of 2.25 inches
by 5.25 inches. This small, ductile iron casting transfers 33 kips of force for a seven-wire, 0.5
inch-diameter, 270-ksi tendon in a concentrated area. Since this involves high local stresses,
it is essential to place the anchors accurately, consolidate the surrounding concrete, limit or
eliminate penetrations in the immediate vicinity (for example, utility boxes), and sufficiently
reinforce the anchorage zone to preserve its long-term integrity.
The Analysis of a Post-Tensioned Plate.

Computers have increased the speed of post-tensioning design significantly, but it is still
important to understand the concepts and calculations to arrive at an accurate output. When
performing manual calculations, the Equivalent Frame Method (EFM) of the American
Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05)
within Section 13.7 (excluding sections 13.7.7.4-5) often is used for the structural analysis of
a post-tensioned, two-way, flat slab structure.

The EFM models a 3-D slab system as a series of equivalent 2-D frames along the support
lines, taken longitudinally and transversely through the structure.

Each equivalent frame then can be analyzed individually as an isolated plane frame,
consisting of a row of columns or supports (for example, shearwalls) and the corresponding
tributary slab width, bounded laterally by the centerlines of the adjacent slab panels, as
shown in the figure on the next slide. The analysis and design of post-tensioned, two-way
slabs incorporate the full tributary slab width without the distribution of forces and
reinforcement between column strips and middle strips, synonymous with mild reinforced
two-way slab designs. This allowance eases the structural engineer's design process and
ultimately simplifies construction.
This figure shows how the slab is divided into tributary slab widths for an equivalent frame
analysis, by following the lines of columns and shearwalls.
Preliminary sizing of the slab.

Before design can begin on the structure, there needs to be a starting point for the slab
thickness. For common occupancy structures with live load to dead load (LL / DL) ratios less
than 1.0, a preliminary slab thickness can be estimated using a longest span to thickness ratio,
L / h of 45 for floors and 48 for roofs.

For example, an 8-inch-thick slab is typical for a 30-foot-long floor span [ 30 feet x 12
inches/foot) / 45 = 8 inches]. Because of post-tensioning's ability to balance loads and greatly
reduce service load deflections, there is a 25 percent to 35 percent reduction in slab thickness
in post-tensioned structures compared with mild reinforced structures. Therefore, in addition
to the ability to span further, the reduced structural depth economizes material quantities for
the slabs and consequently the columns and foundations.

The plywood deck is marked to show where the strands are to be placed.
Designing the Prestressing.

The amount of pre-stressing in a slab system is guided by parameters and requirements given
in ACI 318-05 as well as numerous other references. However, the engineer has flexibility in
adjusting the design for the optimization of an individual project. Tendons for building
construction usually are placed with a parabolic vertical profile to counteract a portion of the
gravity loads on the structure as shown below. This undulating profile places the center of
gravity (CGS) of the tendon force P, eccentric to the neutral axis of the concrete section
creating the primary moment, P x e. The eccentricity, e, is the distance from the tendon’s
CGS to the section's neutral axis at any examined cross section.

The tendon’s profile along a continuous slab.

The high and low points shown in the figure are governed by several parameters. The ends of
the tendons usually are located at the section's neutral axis (mid-height for a slab), so as to not
induce additional moments at the anchors. In building construction, minimum cover
requirements per ACI 318-05 are sufficient for slabs not exposed to a corrosive environment.

Fire protection often governs the minimum concrete cover of these structures. Fire resistance
issues are addressed in model building codes, assigned at the local level for a given structure,
and should be evaluated during the preliminary design. As it pertains to pre-stressed concrete
two-way slabs, fire resistance requirements are dependent on the restrained versus unrestrained
conditions.

For most applications, the interior spans in the direction of frame design are considered
restrained. That is, they are restrained against moving during a fire loading. However, the end
spans for a flat slab system are considered unrestrained in the direction of the tendon design.
The fire resistance provisions do not match the minimum cover requirements per ACI 318-05
for reinforcement protection, so it is necessary to reference the governing building code (most
likely Section 720 of the International Code Council's 2003 International Building Code) for
setting concrete cover parameters of the pre-stressed tendons. Typical two-hour bottom covers
to the tendons for slabs are 0.75 inch for restrained, interior spans and 1.50 inches for
unrestrained, exterior spans.
When the design is performed manually, the post-tensioning force typically is selected to
balance a specified percentage of the floor self weight. Superimposed dead loads such as
partitions, flooring, mechanical equipment, and live loads are not included, since they are not
present at the time of stressing. Common load-balancing percentages are in the 65-percent to
80-percent range and should be kept relatively consistent between spans. Codes do not
prescribe limitations for these percentages, but engineers still need to design to appropriate
balancing loads to limit slab deflections and cracking.

The load-balancing effects reduce the amount of flexural stresses for ultimate requirements,
helping economize member sizes and materials. Another advantage is the significantly
reduced deflections. With a percentage of the dead load being balanced by an upward
uniform load, the result is little or no dead load deflection. The benefits are most noticeable
in the long-term deflection calculations because the structure experiences deflection only
from the remaining unbalanced dead load and the live load. These advantages are significant,
but excessive use of post-tensioning can be detrimental. Note that it is not considered
conservative to over-balance the gravity loads or over-pre-compress the section because
unwanted camber and excessive cracking may occur. It is imperative to remember that post-
tensioning is active reinforcement, exerting its load for the life of the structure.
The effect of a pre-stressing force on a member can be evaluated by replacing the tendon with
an equivalent externally applied load. The designed force in the tendons P, will be a function
of the designer-specified equivalent balancing load, wb , the span length l, and its associated
maximum drape, a. For a simply supported determinate span with a parabolic tendon profile,
the formula for balancing a uniformly distributed load is,

P = wb l2 / 8 a

For a multi-span indeterminate structure, the design process has additional considerations.
Since the eccentricity and lengths may vary between spans, the pre-stressing force P, needs to
be determined for each span. The greatest force, Pmax, typically is selected for the entire
equivalent frame, but code requirements and other guidelines may influence the final effective
force.

Post-tensioning design is an iterative process to determine an optimized solution. From the

selected equivalent frame force, the resulting balancing load in each span must be checked to
ensure the percentages are within the range selected by the designer. The percentage is
determined from wb / wDL, where wb = 8 Pmax a / l2.
These bonded tendons have been placed too low at the column.
If the balanced loads are above the acceptable limits in a given span, in lieu of adjusting the
force, the engineer has the option to alter the tendon drape a, to reduce the balanced load, wb. It
is more efficient to alter the drape by raising the bottom tendon ordinate while maintaining the
top ordinates. By doing so, the only change in the construction process is to provide higher
supporting chair heights, instead of altering the entire top steel configuration at the supports as
shown in the figure below. It can be difficult to balance a long end bay with the same force
calculated for the same length or shorter adjacent interior bays. This is because of the reduction
in eccentricity from the anchors being located at the neutral axis and the increase for bottom
cover requirements at the end bay. Many times, the end bays will require additional single-
span tendons for an increased force to achieve an appropriate balancing load.
This reversed curvature placement of the strand is to push the slab down at this location.
Calculating the Prestress losses.

Although 0.5-inch-diameter, 270-ksi un-bonded tendons can be stressed to 33 kips of force

per ACI 318-05 Section 18.5.1 (that is, 0.8 x 270 ksi x 0.153 square inch = 33 kips), they will
not retain this maximum force for the life of the structure.

The force calculated from the balancing load wb, is an effective value fse x Aps, where fse is the
reduced effective stress, and is found after calculating pre-stress losses. Instantaneous pre-
stress losses arise from the seating of the wedges into the anchor, the elastic shortening of
the concrete, and the friction along the length of the tendon.

The long-term stress losses are caused by the creep and shrinkage of the concrete and the
relaxation of the pre-stressing steel. Further explanations of pre-stress losses can be found in
the Post-Tensioning Institute's Post-Tensioning Manual.

Common pre-stress losses range from 15 ksi to 20 ksi. Therefore, an effective force of 26.6
kips commonly is used for one, 0.5-inch-diameter, 270-ksi tendon calculated from the
equation Aps(0.7 fpu-losses). Assuming a loss of 15 ksi comes from (0.153 square inch)[(0.7 x
270 ksi) - 15 ksi] = 26.6 kips. By specifying the effective force as a multiple of 26.6 kips will
result in a more efficient and constructible design.
Additional design parameters and requirements.

With the required effective tendon force calculated, the following code parameters and
requirements may influence the final design value:

(1) Limitation of the average prestress. For slabs not exposed to corrosive environments, the
minimum average pre-stress is 125 pounds per square inch (psi) and the recommended
maximum average pre-stress is 300 psi. Therefore, the pre-stress force is limited by,
125 psi < P / A < 300 psi, where A is the gross cross-sectional area of the total tributary
slab width.

(2) Limitation for service load stresses. The ACI 318-05 provisions limit tensile stresses in the
concrete to control the development of flexural cracking. First introduced in the 2002
version, the new ACI 318-05 classifies flexural members based upon computed extreme
fiber stress in tension ft, at service loads as Class U (Un-cracked), Class T (Transition), or
Class C (Cracked). Depending upon the classification, members are assumed to behave as
cracked or un-cracked sections for service load stress and deflection calculations. Per ACI
318-05 Section 18.3.3, pre-stressed two-way slabs are to be designed as Class U with,
ft 6 f'c where f'c is the specified concrete strength. This requirement permits service
load stresses to be computed using un-cracked section properties.
The remaining unbalanced service loads, wnet = wDL+LL - wb create stresses in the concrete.
Upon determining the resulting net moments Mnet, flexural stresses can be evaluated at the top
and bottom fibers of each critical section, typically at the mid-spans and supports.
Therefore,
ft = - P/A + Mnet c / Ig

These stresses then are compared against the maximum code permissible values for
compressive stress fc < 0.45 f‘c (certain conditions may allow < 0.60 f'c) and tensile stress,
ft 6 f‘c .

Generally, the most economical design for flexural strength will be obtained by using the
maximum permissible tensile stresses. Some limitation may result from serviceability
restrictions, such as deflection.

(3) Limitation for initial stresses. Compressive and tensile stresses also need to be checked at
the time of stress transfer, also referred to as the initial stage. These stresses typically are
computed with self weight and the forces induced by the pre-stressing, since live loads and
superimposed dead loads will not be on the structure during the stressing procedure. Code
limitations are in terms of the initial concrete compressive strength f‘ci, at the time of
stressing. For most designs, this value is a minimum of 3 ksi, correlating to the bearing
strength allowed in a typical anchor. The compressive stresses shall be no greater than 0.6 f‘ci ,
and the tensile stresses are not to exceed 3 f‘ci . If the tensile stresses exceed this limit,
additional mild reinforcing needs to be provided to resist the total tensile force in the concrete.
Minimum reinforcement requirements.

Minimum bonded reinforcement must meet the ACI 318-05’s Section 18.9.3 requirements for
two-way slab systems. When tensile stresses in the concrete at service loads are less than 2 f’c
in the positive moment regions, Section 18.9.3.1 does not require bonded reinforcement in
those areas.

When the tensile stresses exceed 2 f’c , the minimum area of bonded reinforcement for the
positive moment regions is As = Nc / 0.5 fy (18.9.3.2), and the minimum lengths shall be 1 /3 of
the clear span ln, and centered in the span (18.9.4.1). Nc is the tensile force in the concrete due
to the service load combination, DL+LL, where DL is the dead load and LL is the live load,
and fy is the specified yield strength of mild reinforcement.

The minimum bonded reinforcement in the negative moment regions (top steel at supports) is
computed by A = 0.00075 Acf , where Acf is the greater of the gross cross-sectional area of the
slab panel on either side of the column in the direction of the design (18.9.3.3). This top steel
shall be at least four bars and placed within 1.5 times the slab thickness from each face of the
column. The minimum lengths for the negative moment reinforcement shall extend 1/6 of the
clear span, ln, on each side of the support (18.9.4.2).
For ease of placement at column locations, the use of No. 4 bars is recommended. Since the
diameter of a No. 4 bar is equivalent to the typical 0.5-inch tendon diameter, the top mild
reinforcement and post-tensioning tendons can be at the same elevation and placed on the same
supporting chairs (as shown in the previous figure).

Compared to mild reinforced two-way slabs, post-tensioned slabs appear lightly reinforced.
With the high strength of the continuous post-tensioning reinforcement, the slabs have minimal
reinforcement congestion. This makes it easier and faster for the construction crew to place the
rein-forcement and the concrete. In addition, it facilitates inspection for compliance with
construction documents.
Ultimate strength.

The primary moment, P x e, is not the only force generated with the post-tensioning.
Secondary forces are induced in multi-span indeterminate structures as a consequence of the
constraint by the supports to the free movement of the pre-stressed member (see the next slide
for a figure with the primary and secondary moments). The vertically profiled tendons cause a
"lifting off" action at the interior support upon stressing and generate a secondary reaction.
This reaction in turn, creates a secondary moment in the concrete slab. Since the secondary
moment is a result of the secondary reaction and no other applied load along the span, the
moment will only vary linearly between the supports.

These secondary forces can impact the calculated demand significantly in both the positive and
negative moment regions and must be accounted for in design. Secondary moments are
calculated by subtracting the primary moment, P x e, from the total moment generated by the
prestressing, Mbal and are incorporated in the strength design, with a factor of 1.0 per Section
18.10.3 ACI 318-05.
The flexural design capacity of the slab Mn, must be checked starting with the minimum
reinforcement required from 18.9.3. If the nominal strength is less than Mu / , where is
the strength reduction factor, the minimum reinforcing requirements do not govern and the
rein-forcement must be increased to meet the ultimate strength requirements.

Punching shear and deflection calculations also are important. Punching shear is critical and
often can govern design criteria. Approved in the new ASTM A-1044 Standard
Specification for Steel Stud Assemblies for Shear Reinforcement of Concrete, shear stud
rails are a common form of shear reinforcement. Design guidelines for stud rails are found
in ACI 421.1R-99: Shear Reinforcement for Slabs.
The post-tensioning layout.

Designing and detailing with constructability in mind will improve the success of a post-
tensioned concrete project and the relationship of the design-contractor team. The
constructability aspect is arguably the most important component of a post-tensioned
concrete project. Experience provides the best tool, but there are several code provisions and
recommended guidelines to help facilitate construction through design.

Banded tendon distribution is the industry's common practice for two-way slab tendon
arrangement. The next slide shows a typical arrangement. The code allows for grouping of
tendons in one direction along the support lines with the transverse tendons spaced
uniformly. This layout simplifies the construction sequence, reducing labor costs and
construction time compared to the "basket weave" configuration. It also provides more
flexibility in accommodating post-construction floor penetrations. Especially for an irregular
column layout, the banded tendon arrangement makes it easier to visualize the load path to
the supports.

In addition to the minimum amounts and placement requirements for the mild reinforcing,
ACI 318-05 also gives provisions for the post-tensioning reinforcement. At least two tendons
are required to pass through the critical shear area over columns in each direction. The
uniformly spaced tendons must meet a minimum spacing per ACI 318-05 Section 7.6.7 and a
maximum spacing of eight times the slab thickness or 5 feet.
 The banded tendons anchored in the fore-ground follow the column lines. The transverse
tendons, called distributed tendons, are spaced uniformly (from the Post-Tensioning Institute).
An alternative to the banded-distributed layout is the distributed-only layout, seen in this photo.
The choice is based on the designer’s experience and local practices.
A typical PT reinforcing of a
two-way slab, showing the
banded strands following the
column lines, and the
distributed strands in the
orthogonal direction.
A poorly located utility block-out in front of the anchors will produce a blow-out.
This anchorage blow-out has occurred due to the reinforcing congestion.
For faster placement, tendons may be bundled as many as five strands flat per bundle. While
maintaining the flat plane, the tendons can transition to meet the design parabolic profile.
Horizontal curvature necessary to follow a non-linear column layout or to avoid an opening
increases the risk for a blowout. Curves should be smooth and without kinks and limited to a
minimum radius of curvature of 10 feet. The addition of hairpins along tight curves resists
the lateral thrust from the tendons and helps minimize the blowout risk. Through the curve,
the flat tendon bundle also should be splayed at a minimum 2-inch spacing and the tendons
tied individually to the support bars, eliminating the opportunity of tendons to "roll over" one
another during stressing.

Proper detailing of a post-tensioned structure has a large impact on constructability and

serviceability issues. Because post-tensioned slabs shorten approximately 1 inch for every
100 feet of unrestrained slab, excessive restraint to that inherent movement will cause
cracking. Mild reinforced concrete slabs require similar movement and restraint
considerations, but the elastic shortening of post-tensioning slabs generates comparatively
more movement.

Restraint can be minimized by locating lateral resisting elements toward the center of the
floor plate, where little movement occurs. When stiff supports are located away from the
center of mass, detailing a slip connection at the slab interface will allow for some
move-ment and help relieve restraint.
Long, continuous sections of a building may require the incorporation of pour strips. A pour
strip is a section of slab left open during the initial pour and filled in at a later date. These
openings help reduce movement and restraint from early age volume changes, but they will
not be effective if filled prematurely. Pour strips typically must be left open for 30 days,
without any continuous reinforcement connecting the slab sections.

Along with pour strips, construction joints allow for interior stressing in zero-setback and
subterranean construction. Placing construction joints between the 1 /4 and 1 /3 points of a
span typically provides the best location for intermediate stressing, where the tendon
elevation is naturally at or near the centroid of the slab.
This is an expansion gap, or pour strip, that will be poured at a later date, in order to permit the
slabs to shrink and creep without affecting the final slab.
This is a slip joint. The contractor has used these foam rubber inserts that extend into the
masonry wall at left.
The wall below the slab
is not connected to it.
Therefore, this slip joint
is effected by placing
the plastic sheet seen on
top of the wall.

The slab is thus un-

restrained by the wall.
References.

1. www.cement.org/buildings/design_aids.asp

2. A. R. Trygestad, “Post-tensioning for Two-way Flat Plate Construction”, October 2005

issue of Portland Cement Association, Structural Engineer.

3. www.deconusa.com (specialists in stud-rails for punching shear)

4. www.dsiamerica.com (the Dywidag Systems company)

5. www.adaptsoft.com (a very popular post-tensioning software)

6. www.VSL.net (for the VSL Cables and Post-tensioning repair industry leader)

7. www.williamsform.com (for the Williams Strand Anchor System)

8. www.gostructural.com (for PTE Strand Company).

9. www.suncoast-pt.com (experienced PT engineers/contractors since 1983)