ST.

ALOYSIUS
INTER
PURULIA ROAD,
COLLEGE
RANCHI
PROJECT ON:-
BIOMOLECULES

SESSION: 2018-2020
Guided By:- Submitted By:-
Name :- Ajay Munda
Rewa Thakur Ma’am Class :- XIIth “B”
Roll Code :- 11127
Class Roll No.:- 110
Exam Roll No.:-
Subject :- Chemistry
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the content of this project entitled,
“BIOMOLECULES” by AJAY MUNDA is the bona
fide the work of her submitted to ST. ALOYSIUS INTER
COLLEGE RANCHI for the partial fulfilment of the
requirements of CHEMISTRY Extension has been found
satisfactory.
The original research work was carried out by her under
my supervision in the Academic year 2019-2020. On the
basis of the declaration made by her I recommend this
project report.

Teacher’s Principal’s External Teacher’s

Signature Signature Signature

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to the

Principal, ST. ALOYSIUS INTER COLLEGE RANCHI for
him encouragement and for all the facilities that he provided for
this project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by
taking me into him fold for which I shall remain indebted to
him. I extend my hearty thanks to Mrs Rewa Thakur Ma’am ,
chemistry teacher, who guided me to the successful completion
of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense
of gratitude for her invaluable guidance, constant
encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude
and immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all
stages of this project work.
I can’t forget to offer my sincere thanks to my family who
helped me to carry out this project work successfully & for their
valuable advice & support, which I received from them time

Ajay munda

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Index
Sl Content Page
No. No.
1 BIOMOLECULES 3
2 TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES 4
3 MICROMOLECULES 5-6
4 AMINO ACID 6
5 SUGAR 7
6 LIPID 8-9
7 NUCLEOTIDE 10-11
8 MACROMOLECULES (POLYSACCARIDES) 12
9 NUCLEIC ACID 13-15
10 PROTEINS 16-18
11 MONOMERS 19
12 METABOLIC BASIS FOR LIVING 20
13 THE LIVING STATE 21

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 BIOMOLECUL A biomolecule or bio
l ES ogical molecule is a
loosely used term
for molecules or more commonly ions that are present
in organisms. Biomolecules including
large macromolecules (or polyanions) such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,and  nucleic acids, as
well as small molecules such as
primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural
products.

Biology and its subsets of biochemistry and molecular

biology study biomolecules and their reactions. Most
biomolecules are organic compounds, and just
four elements—oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
—make up 96% of the human body's
mass. But many other elements, such as the various bio
metals, are present in small amounts.

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TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES
MICRO MOLECULES
BIOMOLECULES
MACROMOLECULES
M < 1000 MICROMOLECULE
AMONIO ACID
SUGARS
LIPIDS
NUCLEOTIDES
M>1000 MACROMOLECULE
POLYSACCARIDES
NUCLEIC ACID
PROTEINS

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MICROMOLECULE
AMONIO ACID

Amino acid contain both amino and carboxylic

acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term
amino acid is used when referring to those amino acids
in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are
attached to the same carbon, plus proline which is not
actually an amino acid).
Modified amino acids are sometimes observed in
proteins; this is usually the result of enzymatic
modification after translation (protein synthesis). For
example, phosphorylation of serine by kinases and DE
phosphorylation by phosphatases is an important
control mechanism in the cell cycle. Only two amino
acids other than the standard twenty are known to be
incorporated into proteins during translation, in certain
organisms:

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  Selenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins
at a UGA codon, which is normally a stop codon.
 Pyrrolysine is incorporated into some proteins at a

UAG codon. For instance, in some methanogens in

enzymes that are used to produce methane.
Besides those used in protein synthesis, other
biologically important amino acids
include carnitine (used in lipid transport within a
cell), ornithine, GABA and taurine.

AROMATIC AMONIO ACID

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SUGAR
MONOSHACCARIDES:
Simplest sugar,which cannot ne hydrolysed
further into smaller sugars
 Composed of 3-7 C atoms:
 Triose (3C)
 Tetrose (4C)
 Pentose (5C)
 Hexose (6C)
 Heptose (7C)

GLUCOSE:

GLACTOSE:

LIPID
For lipids present in biological
membranes, the
Lipids (oleaginous) are chiefly fatty acid esters, and are
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the basic building blocks of biological membranes.
Another biological role is energy storage
(e.g., triglycerides). Most lipids consist of
a polar or hydrophilic head (typically glycerol) and one
to three nonpolar or hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and
therefore they are amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of
unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are connected
by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both
single and double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). The
chains are usually 14-24 carbon groups long, but it is
always an even number.
hydrophilic head is from one of three classes:
 Glycolipids, whose heads contain
an oligosaccharide with 1-15 saccharide residues.
 Phospholipids, whose heads contain a positively

charged group that is linked to the tail by a

negatively charged phosphate group.
 Sterols, whose heads contain a planar steroid ring,

for example, cholesterol.
Otherlipids
include prostaglandins and leukotrienes which are
both 20-carbon fatty acyl units synthesized
from arachidonic acid. They are also known as fatty
acids

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NUCLEOTIDES
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Nucleotides are organic molecules that serve as
the monomer units for forming the nucleic
acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid(RNA), both of which are
essential biomolecules in all life-forms on Earth.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids;
they are composed of three subunit molecules:
a nitrogenous base a five-carbon
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least
one phosphate group. They are also known
as phosphatenucleotides.
A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base and a 5-carbon
sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a phosphate group yields
a nucleotide.
Nucleotides also play a central role in life-form
metabolism at the fundamental, cellular level. They
carry packets of chemical energy—in the form of
the nucleoside triphosphates ATP, GTP, CTP and UTP
—throughout the cell to the many cellular functions that
demand energy, which include synthesizing amino
acids, proteins and cell membranes and parts; moving
the cell and moving cell parts, both internally and
intercellularly; dividing the cell.

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Purine + pyridimine monomers

Higher nucleotides store energy in their higher energy P

bond
Nicotinamide + riboplavin coenzymes
Coenzymes: non protein organic moiety of
holoenzymes

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MACROMOLECULE
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides, or
complex carbohydrates. They have multiple simple
sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
They are generally large and often have a complex
branched connectivity. Because of their size,
polysaccharides are not water-soluble, but their many
hydroxy groups become hydrated individually when
exposed to water, and some polysaccharides form thick
colloidal dispersions when heated in water. Shorter
polysaccharides, with 3 - 10 monomers, are
called oligosaccharides .A fluorescent indicator-
displacement molecular imprinting sensor was
developed for discriminating saccharides. It
successfully discriminated three brands of orange juice
beverage. The change in fluorescence intensity of the
sensing films resulting is directly related to the
saccharide concentration.

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Nucleic acid
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules,
essential to all known forms of life. They are composed
of monomers, which are nucleotides made of three
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and
a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a simple ribose,
the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is
derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer
is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Nucleic acids are the most important of all
biomolecules. They are found in abundance in all living
things, where they function to create and encode and
then store information in the nucleus of every living cell
of every life-form organism on Earth. In turn, they
function to transmit and express that information inside
and outside the cell nucleus—to the interior operations
of the cell and ultimately to the next generation of each
living organism. The encoded information is contained
and conveyed via the nucleic acid sequence, which
provides the 'ladder-step' ordering of nucleotides within
the molecules of RNA and DNA.

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DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE
DNA structure is dominated by the well-known double
helix formed by Watson-Crick base-pairing of C with G
and A with T. This is known as B-form DNA, and is
overwhelmingly the most favourable and common state
of DNA; its highly specific and stable base-pairing is
the basis of reliable genetic information storage. DNA
can sometimes occur as single strands (often needing to
be stabilized by single-strand binding proteins) or as A-
form or Z-form helices, and occasionally in more
complex 3D structures such as the crossover at Holliday
junctions during DNA replication.

Stereo 3D image of a group I intron ribozyme gray lines

show base pairs; ribbon arrows show double-helix
regions, blue to red from 5' to 3' end; white ribbon is an
RNA product.
RNA, in contrast, forms large and complex 3D tertiary
structures reminiscent of proteins, as well as the loose
single strands with locally folded regions that
constitute messenger RNA molecules. Those RNA
structures contain many stretches of A-form double

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helix, connected into definite 3D arrangements by
single-stranded loops, bulges, and junctions. Examples
are RNA, ribosomes, ribozymes, and rib switches.
These complex structures are facilitated by the fact that
RNA backbone has less local flexibility than DNA but a
large set of distinct conformations, apparently because
of both positive and negative interactions of the extra
OH on the ribose. Structured RNA molecules can do
highly specific binding of other molecules and can
themselves be recognized specifically; in addition, they
can perform enzymatic catalysis (when they are known
as "ribozymes", as initially discovered by Tom Cech
and colleagues.

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PROTEINS
Proteins  are large biomolecules, or macromolecules,
consisting of one or more long chains of amino
acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions
within organisms, including catalysing metabolic
reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli,
and transporting molecules from one location to
another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in
their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by
the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which
usually results in protein folding into a specific three-
dimensional structure that determines its activity.

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
The particular series of amino acids that form a protein
is known as that protein's primary structure. This
sequence is determined by the genetic makeup of the
individual. It specifies the order of side-chain groups
along the linear polypeptide "backbone".
Proteins have two types of well-classified, frequently
occurring elements of local structure defined by a
particular pattern of hydrogen bonds along the
backbone: alpha helix and beta sheet. Their number and
arrangement is called the secondary structure of the
protein. Alpha helices are regular spirals stabilized by
hydrogen bonds between the backbone CO group
(carbonyl) of one amino acid residue and the backbone
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NH group (amide) of the i+4 residue. The spiral has
about 3.6 amino acids per turn, and the amino acid side
chains stick out from the cylinder of the helix. Beta
pleated sheets are formed by backbone hydrogen bonds
between individual beta strands each of which is in an
"extended", or fully stretched-out, conformation.

When two or more polypeptide chains (either of

identical or of different sequence) cluster to form a
protein, quaternary structure of protein is formed.
Quaternary structure is an attribute of polymeric (same-
sequence chains) or heteromeric (different-sequence
chains) proteins like hemoglobin, which consists of two
"alpha" and two "beta" polypeptide chains.

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Apoenzymes
An apoenzyme (or, generally, an apoprotein) is the
protein without any small-molecule cofactors,
substrates, or inhibitors bound. It is often important as
an inactive storage, transport, or secretory form of a
protein. This is required, for instance, to protect the
secretory cell from the activity of that protein.
Apoenzymes becomes active enzymes on addition of
a cofactor. Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal
ions and iron-sulfur clusters) or organic compounds,
(e.g., flavin and heme). Organic cofactors can be
either prosthetic groups, which are tightly bound to an
enzyme, or coenzymes, which are released from the
enzyme's active site during the reaction.

Isoenzymes
Isoenzymes, or isozymes, are multiple forms of an
enzyme, with slightly different protein sequence and
closely similar but usually not identical functions. They
are either products of different genes, or else different
products of alternative splicing. They may either be
produced in different organs or cell types to perform the
same function, or several isoenzymes may be produced
in the same cell type under differential regulation to suit
the needs of changing development or environment.
The relative levels of isoenzymes in blood can be used
to diagnose problems in the organ of secretion.

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MONOMERS
A monomer is a molecule that, as a
unit, binds chemically or supramolecularly to other
molecules to form a supramolecular polymer. Large
numbers of monomer units combine to form polymers
in a process called polymerization. Molecules of a small
number of monomer units (up to a few dozen) are
called oligomers. The term "monomeric protein" may
also be used to describe one of the proteins making up
a multiprotein complex.
Biopolymer groupings, and the types of monomers
that create them.
 For lipids (Diglycerides, triglycerides), the

monomers are glycerol and fatty acids.

 For proteins (Polypeptides), the monomers

are amino acids.
 For Nucleic acids (DNA/RNA), the monomers

are nucleotides, each of which is made of a

pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate
group.
 For carbohydrates (Polysaccharides specifically

and disaccharides—depends), the monomers

are monosaccharides.

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METABOLIC BASIS FOR
LIVING
Metabolic pathways can lead to a more complex
structure from a simpler structure (for example, acetic
acid becomes cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure
from a complex structure (for example, glucose
becomes lactic acid in our skeletal muscle). The former
cases are called biosynthetic pathways
or anabolic pathways. The latter constitute degradation
and hence are called catabolic pathways. Anabolic
pathways, as expected, consume energy. Assembly of a
protein from amino acids requires energy input. On the
other hand, catabolic pathways lead to the release of
energy. For example, when glucose is degraded to lactic
acid in our skeletal muscle, energy is liberated. This
metabolic pathway from glucose to lactic acid which
occurs in 10 metabolic steps is called glycolysis. Living
organisms have learnt to trap this energy liberated
during degradation and store it in the form of chemical
bonds. As and when needed, this bond energy is utilized
for biosynthetic, osmotic and mechanical work that we
perform. The most important form of energy currency
in living systems is the bond energy in a chemical
called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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THE LIVING
STATE
 Thousand of chemical compound in a living
organism, otherwise called metabolities or
biomolecules are present at concentration
characterstics of each of them. For example the
blood concentration of glucose in a normal healthy
individual is 4.5-5.0 mm while that hormone would
be nanograms/ml
 The most important fact of biological system is that
all living organism exist in a steady-stale
characterised by concentration of each of these
molecule
 These biomolecules are in metabolic flux
 Any chemical or physical process move
simultaneously to equilibrium. The steady state is
non-equlibrium state . one should remember from
the physics that system at equilibrium cannot
perform work. As living organisms work
continuously ,they cannot afford to each
equilibrium. Hence the living state is the non-
equlibrium sready state to be able to perform work;
living process is a constant effort to prevent falling
into equilibrium. This is achieved by energy input.
 Metabolism provide a mechanismfor the
production of the energy. Hence the living state and

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metabolism are synonomus. Without metabolism
there cannot be living state.

THANK YOU

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