Module 4

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Educational assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms,

- knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs. Assessments focus on the individual
learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of
learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole. Assessment is one
of the most powerful educational tools for promoting effective learning
and in helping teachers use assessment, as part of teaching and learning, in ways
that will raise pupils‘ achievement. Assessment is an intrinsic part of the learning
process rather than something which is just 'tacked on' at the end in order to get
some marks. Assessment is therefore, a vital part of the initial design of the course or
module. According to Gray (2005) it is a ‗process by which evidence of student
achievement is obtained and judged. Ecclestone (1996), points out that assessment
requires two things – evidence and a standard or scale. Students are assessed for a
number of reasons, such as
 motivating students (Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development
2006),

 diagnose students' strengths and weaknesses,

 enable students identify their strengths and weaknesses (Howard 2006),

 monitor student progress (Marsh et al. 2005),

 determine the extent to which students have achieved specific learning

objectives,

 grade student learning (Singh 2006),

 provide a way to judge when a student is competent to practice or proceed on

a course (University of Nottingham 2002)

 inform the nature of feedback to students on their progress (Gray 2001),

 evaluate effectiveness of teaching and plan future teaching to facilitate

student progress
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Assessment to improve learning focuses on how well students are learning what we
intend them to learn. By establishing learning outcomes, assessment methods are
used to measure selected outcomes to see whether or not the objectives have been
met for the course/program:
a) Establish learning goals – clear measurable, expected outcomes of student
learning
b) Provide learning opportunities – ensuring that students have sufficient
opportunities to achieve those outcomes
c) Assess student learning – systematically gathering, analysing, interpreting
evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations
d) Use the results – using the resulting information to understand and improve
student learning
e) The type of assessment selected should be carefully chosen to relate to the
learning outcomes and should take into account the principles of validity and
clarity of purpose.

f) Each student has an individual learning style and react differently to forms of
assessment. It is therefore important to ensure an appropriate degree of
variety in their assessment diet so that the level of disadvantage implied by an
over-reliance on a narrow range of assessment is minimised.
The following are the most commonly used assessments:

1. formative and summative

2. objective and subjective
3. referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative)
4. informal and formal.
5. initial

Formative assessment is a self-reflective process that intends to promote student

attainment. Some important observations to consider:

 Cowie and Bell, 1999, define it as the bidirectional process between teacher
and student to enhance, recognize and respond to the learning.

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  Black and Wiliam, 1998, consider an assessment ‗formative‘ when the
feedback from learning activities is actually used to adapt the teaching to meet
the learner's needs.
 Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2006, have re-interpreted research on formative
assessment and feedback and shown how these processes can help students
take control of their own learning (self-regulated learning).

In the training field, formative assessment is described as assessing the formation of

the student. I do this by observing students as they:

* Respond to questions

* Ask questions

* Interact with other students during activities, etc.

This enables me to evaluate my own delivery, and relevance of content. Michael

Scriven (1967) coined the terms formative and summative evaluation and
emphasized their differences both in terms of the goals of the information they seek
and how the information is used. Benjamin Bloom (1968) just a year later made
formative assessments a keystone of ‗Learning for Mastery‘. He, along with Thomas
Hasting and George Madaus (1971) produced the ‗Handbook of Formative and
Summative Evaluation‘ and showed how formative assessments could be linked to
instructional units in a variety of content areas.

Formative assessments have evolved as a means to adapt to student needs.

Historically formative assessments were of instructional units and diagnostic
assessments were used for placement purposes. Formative assessments are part of
instruction designed to provide crucial feedback for teachers and students.
Assessment results inform the teacher of what has been taught well and
not so well. They inform students of what they have learned well and not
learned so well. As opposed to summative assessments designed to make
judgments about student performance and produce grades, the role of a formative
assessment is to improve learning. As opposed to benchmark tests that are used to
predict student performance on other tests (most often state assessments), formative
assessments are intimately connected to instruction.

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Formative assessments are ‘for learning’. The goal of formative assessment is
to improve. These assessments are embedded in instruction. They produce non-
threatening results since they are scored but not graded. Students mark their own
work and are encouraged to raise questions about the assessment and the material
covered by the assessment. Direct and immediate feedback or ―on the spot‖
results help my students and me to make the best of the ‗learning journey‘. I get a
view of both individual and class performances while students learn how well they
have done. Information can be structured efficiently as I can plan
improvements based on the formative results. Students can see progress and
experience success. Summarized formative results provide a basis for the me to re-
visit topics in the unit if necessary and lend itself to further improvement.
Individual student responses provide a basis for giving students additional
experiences in areas where they performed less well.

A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic

assessment measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of
identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic
assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking
assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future
situations.

Summative assessment refers to the assessment of learning and summarizes the

development of learners at a particular time. After a period of work, e.g. a unit for
two weeks, the learner appears for a test and then I mark the test and assign a score.
The test aims to summarize learning up to that point. The test may also be used for
diagnostic assessment to identify any weaknesses and then build on that using
formative assessment. It is characterized as assessment of learning and is
contrasted with formative assessment, which is assessment for learning.
Performance-based assessment is similar to summative assessment, as it focuses on
achievement. It is often aligned with the standards-based education reform and
outcomes-based education movement. Though ideally they are significantly different
from a traditional multiple choice test, they are most commonly associated with
standards-based assessment which use free-form responses to standard questions
scored by human scorers on a standards-based scale, meeting, falling below, or
exceeding a performance standard rather than being ranked on a curve. A well-
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defined task is identified and students are asked to create, produce, or do something,
often in settings that involve real-world application of knowledge and skills.
Proficiency is demonstrated by providing an extended response. Performance
formats are further differentiated into products and performances. The performance
may result in a product, such as a painting, portfolio, paper, or exhibition, or it may
consist of a performance, such as a speech, athletic skill, musical recital, or reading.

Characteristics of Summative Assessment

1. It tends to use well defined evaluation designs. [i.e. fixed time and content]

2. It provides descriptive analysis. [i.e. in order to give a grade, all the activities done
throughout the year are taken into account]

3. It tends to stress local effects.

4. It is un-oppressive and not reactive as far as possible.

5. It is positive, tending to stress what students can do rather than what they cannot.

Hence summative assessment or ‘Assessment of learning is more associated

with judgements based on grades and ranks and with public
accountability.’

2. Objective and subjective

Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective

or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single
correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more
than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer).
There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question
types include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching
questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays.
Objective assessment is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or
online assessment format. Some have argued that the distinction between objective
and subjective assessments is neither useful nor accurate because, in reality, there is

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no such thing as "objective" assessment. In fact, all assessments are created with
inherent biases built into decisions about relevant subject matter and content, as well
as cultural (class, ethnic, and gender) biases.

3. Referencing – A basis of comparison

Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the

performance of other students, or against previous performance:

Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as

the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and
objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to
establish a person‘s competence (whether s/he can do something). The best-known
example of criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers
are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as ―Not endangering other
road users‖).

Norm-referenced assessment or grading on the curve, typically using a norm-

referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is
relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of
comparing students. The IQ test is the best-known example of norm-referenced
assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-
referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass (―passing‖ in this
context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit
level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on
the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to
year (unless the criteria change).

Ipsative assessment is self-comparison either in the same domain over time, or

comparative to other domains within the same student.

4. Informal and formal

Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually implicates

a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a
numerical score or grade based on student performance, whereas an informal

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assessment does not contribute to a student's final grade. An informal assessment
usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories,
checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments,
participation, peer and self-evaluation, and discussion.

Further there are some other modes of assessment such as internal and external
assessment.

Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the
mark and feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the
governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel. With external assessment,
students only receive a mark. Therefore, they have no idea how they actually
performed.

5. Initial Assessment

This form of assessment delves into the learner‘s prior knowledge of the subject or
situation and helps the tutor to formulate the ILP based o the learner‘s needs and
learning style.

Formative Assessment Tools and Methods

1.Observation
2.Discussion about work in progress
3.Questioning to prompt new thinking
4.Feedback to;
• specify attainment
• identify difficulties
• specify improvement
• construct achievement
• constructing a shared way forward
• identify curricular targets

Pedagogy
1.Sharing learning intentions

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2.Questioning
3.Modelling
4.Scaffolding
5.Demonstrating
6.Explaining
7.Differentiation
8.Exemplification of standards
9.Shared criteria for next step
10.Shared involvement in and construction of activity
11.Guided tasks
12.Independent working
13.Collaborative working and partnerships
14.Rich descriptions of learning
15.Qualitative recording
16.Routines for pupil self-evaluation

Evidence
1.Reflection
2.Drafting
3.Profiling
4.Revisiting
5.Revising
6.Exploration
7.Editing
8.Interaction and collaboration
9.Talk
10.Pupils‘ designing own tasks
11.Pupils‘ self-evaluation
12.Pupils‘ improved self-esteem

Assessment Tools

The following tools of assessment can be considered - work-based learning, action

research, learning contract, portfolios, reflective logs, peer assessment and self-
assessment, to name a few.
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Essay
The objective of an assessed essay is to test the ability to discuss, evaluate, analyse,
summarise and criticise.
Oral Presentations
An assessed presentation is one of the best ways of assessing verbal key skills. It may
also assess interaction skills.
Projects
Most programmes involve a substantial piece of writing following an investigation or
piece of research.
Performances
Where an element of performance is an integral part of the assessment, establishing
criteria for assessment is extremely challenging.
Laboratory Work / Assessing Practical Skills
Practical demonstration of (learned matter) knowledge
Group Work
Given that the ability to work as an effective team member is a key skill required in
most areas, the use of group work can encourage development of this skill.
Viva/Oral Examinations
Viva can be very useful learning experiences and the most can be gained where it is
clear what the viva is for and that there is a debrief following the viva.
Assignments
Evidence of learned curriculum presented in writing (mostly)
Dissertation
Written presentation of results of an investigation or piece of research, normally
taking the form of an extended essay being less rigorous in its style and layout
requirements than a thesis. The content reflects the findings of the investigation.
Examinations
Examinations set out to test what has been learned rather than what has been taught.
They may take a number of forms but the common factor is that they are relatively
short, timed and observed to ensure it is the students‘ own work. ‗Unseen‘
examinations are very common because the assumption is students will revise the
whole syllabus: but they are criticised for producing superficial responses and may
encourage rote learning.
Variants on the traditional unseen examination are:

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‘Seen’: questions are given out at a pre-specified date beforehand. The advantage is
that students focus on preparation for the answer rather than second-guessing what
questions will be set. Anxiety is reduced, standards are likely to rise because students
can use it as a learning experience. But plagiarism can be a real issue.
‘Open-book’: students have access to specified texts and/or own notes: the
emphasis on memorising great chunks of material is lessened, anxiety is lessened
and more demanding questions can test what has been learned.
‘Case-study’ or problem centred exams: allow students to apply a wider range
of knowledge and use their skills in problem-solving. There is less reliance on
memorising and is a more realistic test of ability.
‘Multi-choice questions’: easy to mark using a computer and can ensure students
revise the whole syllabus: more difficult to assess higher-order skills. Structuring
good questions is very difficult.
‘Take-away’ papers: a mechanism for setting time-constrained assignment tasks –
whereby essay titles or problems are set at the start of a week and students have to
submit their paper by the end of the week.
Computer Assisted assessment is a broad term for the use of computers in the
assessment of student learning. Various other forms exist, such as Computer-Aided
Assessment, Computerised Assessment, Computer Based Assessment (CBA) and
Computer-Based Testing. Online Computer Based Assessment has existed for a long
time in the form of Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQ's). Computer Based
Assessment is commonly directly made via a computer, whereas Computer Assisted
Assessment is used to manage or support the assessment process.
Principles of Assessment
Principles help, guide and inform practice. Some of the important principles to
follow would be consistency, accessibility, detailed or covering curriculum, maintain
integrity, and transparency. As a practitioner, I must also ensure validity, reliability,
authenticity, sufficiency, based on levels of thinking – supporting a wide range of
abilities and differentiation, objectivity. Above all, strict confidentiality needs to be
maintained regarding the results of individual learners. This is to be shared with
concerned stakeholders only. The laws that guide this issue are:
Data Protection Act (1998); Freedom of Information (2000) and Human
Rights with reference to equality and diversity

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The primary goal is to choose a method which most effectively assesses the objectives
of the unit of study. In addition, choice of assessment methods should be aligned
with the overall aims of the program, and may include the development of
disciplinary skills (such as critical evaluation or problem solving) and support the
development of vocational competencies (such as particular communication or team
skills.) Hence, when choosing assessment items, it is useful to have one eye on the
immediate task of assessing student learning in a particular unit of study, and
another eye on the broader aims of the program and the qualities of the graduating
student. When considering assessment methods, it is particularly useful to think first
about what qualities or abilities the teacher/facilitator seeking to engender in the
learners.

1. The assessment of student learning begins with educational values.

Assessment is not an end in itself but a vehicle for educational improvement.
Its effective practice, then, begins with and enacts a vision of the kinds of
learning we most value for students and strive to help them achieve.
Educational values should drive not only what we choose to assess but also
how we do so.
2. Assessment is most effective when it reflects an understanding of
learning as multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in
performance over time. Learning is a complex process. It entails not only
what students know but what they can do with what they know; it involves not
only knowledge and abilities but values, attitudes, and habits of mind that
affect both academic success and performance beyond the classroom.
3. Assessment works best when the programs it seeks to improve
have clear, explicitly stated purposes. Assessment is a goal-oriented
process. It entails comparing educational performance with educational
purposes and expectations--these derived from the institution‘s mission, from
faculty intentions in program and course design, and from knowledge of
students‘ own goals.
4. Assessment requires attention to outcomes but also and equally to
the experiences that lead to those outcomes. Information about
outcomes is of high importance; where students ―end up‖ matters greatly.
Assessment can help us understand which students learn best under what

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 conditions; with such knowledge comes the capacity to improve the whole of
their learning.
5. Assessment works best when it is ongoing, not episodic. Assessment
is a process whose power is cumulative. The point is to monitor progress
toward intended goals in a spirit of continuous improvement. Along the way,
the assessment process itself should be evaluated and refined in light of
emerging insights.
6. Assessment fosters wider improvement when representatives from
across the educational community are involved. Student learning is a
campus-wide responsibility, and assessment is a way of enacting that
responsibility. Thus understood, assessment is not a task for small groups of
experts but a collaborative activity; its aim is wider, better-informed attention
to student learning by all parties with a stake in its improvement.
7. Assessment makes a difference when it begins with issues of use
and illuminates’ questions that people really care about. The point of
assessment is not to gather data and return ―results‖; it is a process that starts
with the questions of decision-makers, that involves them in the gathering and
interpreting of data, and that informs and helps guide continuous
improvement.
8. Assessment is most likely to lead to improvement when it is part of
a larger set of conditions that promote change. Assessment alone
changes little. Its greatest contribution comes on campuses where the quality
of teaching and learning is visibly valued and worked at.
9. Through assessment, educators meet responsibilities to students
and to the public. There is a compelling public stake in education. As
educators, we have a responsibility to the public that support or depend on us
to provide information about the ways in which our students meet goals and
expectations.

Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one

which consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of
students. Various factors affect reliability – including ambiguous questions, too
many options within a question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly
trained markers.

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Validity measures what the assessment item is intended to measure. For example, it
would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid
way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help
determine what a driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge,
and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual
driving. Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of
evidence in the following categories:

1. Content--Does the content of the test measure stated objectives?

2. Criterion--Do scores correlate to an outside reference? (ex: Do high scores on
a 4th grade reading test accurately predict reading skill in future grades?)
3. Construct--Does the assessment correspond to other significant variables?
(ex: Do ESL students consistently perform differently on a writing exam than
native English speakers?)

Testing standards

In the field of psychometrics, the Standards for Educational and Psychological

Testing place standards about validity and reliability, along with errors of
measurement and related considerations under the general topic of test construction,
evaluation and documentation. The second major topic covers standards related to
fairness in testing, including fairness in testing and test use, the rights and
responsibilities of test takers, testing individuals of diverse linguistic backgrounds,
and testing individuals with disabilities. The third and final major topic covers
standards related to testing applications, including the responsibilities of test users,
psychological testing and assessment, educational testing and assessment, testing in
employment and credentialing, plus testing in program evaluation and public policy.

Evaluation standards

In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation, the Joint

Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has published three sets of
standards for evaluations. "The Personnel Evaluation Standards" was published in
1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) was published in 1994, and
The Student Evaluation Standards was published in 2003.Each publication presents

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and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The
standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving
the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of
four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper,
useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability
considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student
accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound,
accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance. It has
been widely noted that with the emergence of social media and Web technologies and
mind sets, learning is increasingly collaborative and knowledge increasingly
distributed across many members of a learning community. Traditional assessment
practices, however, focus in large part on the individual and fail to account for
knowledge-building and learning in context. As researchers in the field of assessment
consider the cultural shifts that arise from the emergence of a more participatory
culture, they will need to find new methods of applying assessments to learners.

Learning Cycles

Reflective practice is important to the development of tutors as professionals as it

enables them to learn from their experiences of teaching and facilitating student
learning. Developing reflective practice means developing ways of reviewing their
own teaching so that it becomes a routine and a process by which they might
continuously develop.

Kolb (1984) provides one of the most useful (but contestable) descriptive models
available of the adult learning process, inspired by the work of Kurt Lewin. The
claimed Lewin cycle: from Concrete Experience, through Reflective Observation, to
Abstract Conceptualisation and then Active Experimentation, leading to new
Experience.

This suggests that there are four stages in learning which follow from each other:
Concrete Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience on a personal basis.
This may then be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the
experience, or the application of known theories to it (Abstract Conceptualisation),
and hence to the construction of ways of modifying the next occurrence of the
experience (Active Experimentation), leading in turn to the next Concrete

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Experience. All this may happen in a flash, or over days, weeks or months, depending
on the topic, and there may be a "wheels within wheels" process at the same time.

Kolb developed a theory of experiential learning that can give us a useful model by
which to develop our practice. This is called The Kolb Cycle, The Learning Cycle
or The Experiential Learning Cycle. The cycle comprises four different stages of
learning from experience and can be entered at any point but all stages must be
followed in sequence for successful learning to take place. The Learning Cycle
suggests that it is not sufficient to have an experience in order to learn. It is necessary
to reflect on the experience to make generalisations and formulate concepts which
can then be applied to new situations. This learning must then be tested out in new
situations. The learner must make the link between the theory and action by
planning, acting out, reflecting and relating it back to the theory.

Concrete Experience (doing / having an experience)

Application - through attending the workshops or, in the case of the on-line module,
reading of the on-line learning materials - together with actual experience of teaching
in the classroom, other teaching duties and practices. It may also derive from one‘s
own experience of being a student.

Reflective Observation (reviewing / reflecting on the experience)

Application - analysis and judgements of events and the discussion about the
learning and teaching that one engages in with the mentor, colleagues and fellow
participants. People naturally reflect on their experiences of teaching, particularly
when they are new to it and less confident in their abilities or when an experience has
been painful. It‘s common to come out of lectures thinking 'that went well or badly',
in an intuitive sense. This might be termed 'common-sense reflection'. But how do
we know it was good or bad and what was good or bad about it? For better
understanding reflections need to be articulated in some systematic way so that we
remember what we thought and build on that experience for next time.

For example: keeping a log or journal. It may also include student feedback, peer
observation of teaching (e.g. comments made by your mentor or colleague),
moderation of assessments, external examiner comments, discussion with the
mentor or a fellow student.

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Reflection in itself, though, is insufficient to promote learning and
professional development. Twenty years' experience may consist of twenty years
teaching the same content in the same way! Unless we act on our reflections of
ourselves and on the opinions of others then no development can take place.

Abstract Conceptualisation (concluding / learning from the experience)

In order to plan what one ought to do differently next time, one needs - in addition to
the reflections on one‘s experience - to be informed by educational theory e.g.
through readings of relevant literature on teaching and learning or by attending staff
development or other activities. Reflection is therefore a middle ground that brings
together theories and the analysis of past action. It allows one to come to conclusions
about our practice - 'Abstract Conceptualism'.

Active Experimentation (planning / trying out what you have learned)

The conclusions that are formed from the 'Abstract Conceptualisation' stage then
form the basis by which one can plan changes - 'Active Experimentation'. 'Active
Experimentation' then starts the cycle again when one implements those changes in
one‘s teaching practice to generate another concrete experience which is then
followed by reflection and review to form conclusions about the effectiveness of those
changes.

Honey and Mumford (1982) have built a typology of Learning Styles around this
sequence, identifying individual preferences for each stage (Activist, Reflector,
Theorist, Pragmatist respectively), Kolb also has a test instrument (the Learning
Style Inventory) but has carried it further by relating the process also to forms of
knowledge.

Forms of Knowledge and the Learning Cycle

The four quadrants of the cycle are associated with four different forms of
knowledge, in Kolb's view. Each of these forms is paired with its diagonal opposite.

Four kinds of knowledge located in Kolb's scheme –

Convergent and Divergent Knowledge -This distinction was first made by

Hudson (1967) in terms of styles of thinking rather than forms of knowledge:
convergent knowledge brings to bear a number of facts or principles on a single

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topic: problems have "right" and "wrong" answers. Hudson believed convergent
learners tended to be more highly valued in school, because most assessment
approaches focus on convergent skills. Examples include applied maths, engineering,
and some aspects of languages. It is located in the quadrant between Abstract
Conceptualisation and Active Experimentation.

Divergent knowledge on the other hand, is (very broadly) more about creativity — it
is about the generation of a number of accounts of experience, such as in literature or
history or art. Judgement about the quality of divergent knowledge and skills is much
more difficult, because these are private areas. It is generated between Concrete
Experience and Reflective Observation.

Assimilation and Accommodation

In Piaget’s view, Assimilation and Accommodation are two dialectically related

processes (i.e. opposing principles — thesis and antithesis — between which a
compromise — synthesis — has to be negotiated) which describe (roughly) different
relationship between knowledge of the outside world and knowledge already held in
our heads.

Application to Practice

Rationale for Assessment

The three key objectives to maintain quality in student assessment in higher

education are:
- guide and encourage effective approaches to learning;
- valid and reliable measuring of expected learning outcomes, in particular the
higher-order learning/thinking skills that characterises higher education;
- define and protect academic standards.

The following general principles underpin the assessment :

(i) It should be an aid to successful learning and encourage students to apply their
knowledge and skills in an analytical and critical manner;
(ii) It should be specifically linked to the learning outcomes of a unit and course;
(iii) Assessment requirements should be based on pre-determined and clearly
articulated criteria that describe standards of knowledge, skills, competencies and/or
capabilities;
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(iv) Students should receive feedback on their work in a timely manner that enable
them to monitor their progress towards the achievement of specified learning
outcomes and to improve the quality of their work;
(v) Assessment should be inclusive and equitable for all students;
(vi) Assessment should be valid and reliable

Quality Assurance Issues - Quality assurance, in higher education, has become a

generic term used as shorthand for all forms of external quality monitoring,
evaluation and review. Awarding bodies such as Edexcel, AQA, OCR, NCFE, etc
maintain and monitor the quality of standards. Assessment is formally restricted to
establishing whether the explicit or implicit pledge made by an institution on
program has been met. However, the mechanisms for QA, both internal and external
to an institution or program are so diverse that they overlap with mechanics and
rationales for reviewing and checking quality. Hence it is often difficult to be precise
about the dividing line between assuring, evaluating, assessing or auditing quality. It
is primarily about ensuring accountability to stakeholders some definitions allude to
an enhancement or improvement functions of QA. It is regarded by some as a self-
regulatory process to maintain standard and quality of HE. According to Campbell
and Rozsnyai, 2002, ‗QA is an all-embracing term covering all the policies, processes
and actions through which the quality of HE is maintained and developed.

The Learning Journey – Rationale for Assessment

Assessment for learning should be part of effective planning of teaching and learning
– it should focus on how students learn. To put this in practice therefore, the tutor
must start the learning journey, as the process may be aptly called with an initial
assessment of the learner. After the referrals and the skills check of the learner
prior to admissions to the course, the tutor takes the learner through an IA – which
helps establish individual needs and learning style of the learner. This type of
assessment enables the tutor to plan future learning sessions keeping the aspects of
equality, diversity and inclusion in mind, that would best suit the learner and help
him/her to achieve the outcomes. After the learning outcomes have been clearly
defined and the expectations shared with the learner, the tutor carries out
formative assessment – assessment for learning. In other words, FA should be
regarded as a key professional skill for teachers plan for assessment, observe

18
learning, analyse and interpret evidence of learning, give feedback to students and
support them in self-assessment. Thus, FA is a regular and continuous assessment
process which aims at helping the learner to make progress and achieve the
outcomes at his/her pace and level; leaving scope for self-evaluation, improvement,
taking responsibility of own learning and so on. FA further helps the tutor to reflect
upon and evaluate the assessment process and improve the system for the benefit of
learners. The most significant aspect of FA is that it improves student learning,
includes scope to modify learning programs/outcomes, helps to monitor course aims
and objectives, helps to maintain instructional quality, design and practice, based on
cumulative learning experience. To quote Black and William, Inside the Black Box,
‗Evidence shows that a high quality of FA does have a powerful impact on student
learning.‘

However, since the assessment objectives have to be quantified at some point in

time for maintaining the standard and quality of the teaching-learning process, in
the best interest of the stakeholders in this link, student, parents, tutors and
institution, the results have to be reported. Therefore, at the end of a
semester/course – module, as the case maybe, summative assessment needs
to be carried out by the tutor in order to determine the level of learning and
attainment of objectives, provide accountability and establish whether
program/course goals and objectives have been met. Therefore, summative
assessment is assessment that is used to signify competence or that contributes to
a student‘s grade in a course, module, level or degree. Formative assessment, on
the other hand, is assessment strictly used to provide feedback to the student on
their learning. It provides the student with advice on how to maintain and
improve their progress, but should not form part of their summative grade or
mark. ‗Continuous assessment can provide a more reliable estimate of a student‘s
capabilities and indirectly measure a student‘s capacity to manage time and
handle stress‘ (Brown, 2001). With continuous assessment, the total assessment
workload on both staff and students may seem greater that that experienced with
one-off final assessment, but it is more evenly distributed. Timely feedback is an
important part of continuous assessment as it informs the learner on how well
students are progressing and how they can improve. If students are given
feedback on each piece of continuously assessed work, then they can direct their

19
future learning in relation to this feedback. What students learn, how much effort
they put into it, and the nature if their learning is often determined by the extent
and nature of the summative assessment they expect to receive. However,
formative assessment is essential to learning, and ideally curricula should be
designed to maximize the amount of formative feedback students can receive on
their work.

In the final analysis, assessment to enable learning maybe summarised as follows:

 To determine that the intended learning outcomes of the course are being
achieved
 To provide feedback to students on their learning, enabling them to improve
their performance
 To motivate students to undertake appropriate work
 To support and guide learning
 To describe student attainment, informing decisions on progression and
awards
 To demonstrate that appropriate standards are being maintained
 To evaluate the effectiveness of teaching

The methods and timing of assessment sends messages to students. So when

creating assessment plans, the tutor needs to think about these messages, and
take care to prioritise the most important areas the students have to learn from,
create clear and upfront learning outcomes and assess appropriately. Tutors
should also be aware of the differences between ‗deep‘ and ‗surface‘ learning, and
use assessment to help students to become ‗deep‘ rather than ‗surface‘ learners.
When devising an assessment plan, tutors should consider the different
skills that you would like your students to achieve based on the
learning outcomes. Assessment should help equip students with a wide range
of transferable skills and competencies. Both deep and surface learning have a
place in assessment. Assessment can test memorising, acquiring facts or skills, or
methods that can be reproduced when and if required. However, it can also test
making sense of, or abstracting meaning, or of interpreting or re-interpreting
knowledge.

20
The critical to this issue is to align the entire teaching-learning process,
central to which is assessment (used in different forms and at varied
intervals, purposefully), so that achievement of the intended learning
outcomes is facilitated. In other words, the course and its intended aims and
learning outcomes, the teaching methods and resources used to support learning,
and the assessment tasks and criteria for evaluating it, are all aligned to maximise
learner success in the same. As discussed earlier, one of the most effective ways to
achieve learning outcomes is for the tutor to regard the learning styles of the
students. Kolb‘s theory postulates the concept of learning cycle and its impact on the
learning process. Taking into consideration the individual learning style and the
learning cycle, a tutor then has the facility to deliver/monitor the process to the
learners‘ advantage. What may be highlighted at this point is the implication of
equality and diversity issues in assessment for both teachers and learners.

Timeline/Mapping of learning process:

Aims – Learning Outcomes - Teaching Methods – Assessment Methods – Feedback

– Evaluation - Reflection - Reporting.

Underlying this process is tracking or monitoring of learner progress.

CASE STUDY

My learner X has a mild degree of ADHD with dyslexia. He is a kinaesthetic learner.

This was identified early while in school, confirmed through clinical testing and
observation; also, administration of questionnaire respectively. Teacher plans the
activities with scope for him to be focused on the tasks and engaged in learning in
order to achieve the learning outcomes. E.g. have enough structured opportunity for
him to learn kinaesthetically to role play, demonstration of skills through use of ICT
(one of his strong points), make oral presentations. Teacher observes that when he
assesses himself, he is better able to gauge and track his level of learning and identify
the gaps without feeling de-motivated; self-assessment helps him to work upon his
weaknesses. Mostly my formative assessment comprises worksheets (task
differentiation), apt for his level that fulfils the session aims and objectives as well as
observation of his progress. For summative assessment, teacher allows extra time for

21
writing and a reader to read out the assessment paper. This arrangement is within
the assessment policy and provision of the institution and also permitted by the final
awarding body for the qualifying level. All resources that are available to other
learners are available to him. A lot of audio-visual aid is used for him to learn
effectively and tasks designed such that he can explore and deduce meaning from the
same to help him learn. Online testing is especially beneficial to him.

Methods of assessment can be classified into two main types: direct and indirect.
Direct assessment involves evidence of the learners‘ work, whereas indirect
assessment refers to opinion or evidence from others. Some examples of direct
assessment are simulation, project, assignment, report, case study, written questions,
essays, professional discussion. Indirect assessment includes self, peer assessment,
group activities, witness testimony and so on. If assessment is to be effective, it
means that it should produce the desired results. In order for the teacher to make a
judgement regarding an effective assessment tool, one must therefore consider:

 The desired outcome

 The method or tool that I will implement
 Justify my choices
 Gather evidence – learners work

Effectiveness of assessment may be promoted through triangulation. This means

to confirm competence by using more than one assessment method. It also adds
variety and enthuses the learner to achieve in different ways and makes the process
more interesting. Communication adds to effectiveness as well. By agreeing,
sharing, negotiating plans, outcomes and methods, the teacher has the scope to
justify the processes and gain the confidence of the learner. Finally, the values (as
mentioned above) have to be strictly adhered to: the ethics concerning
confidentiality and integrity.

Differentiating – As compared to summative assessment, it is easier to

differentiate for formative purposes. This is because the teacher has more control
over the everyday situations. Kolb‘s (1984) learning cycle states that assessment is a
factor that is necessary to keep the cycle a circle. Something is done – a concrete
experience which can be thought about (self-assessment); try to understand

22
(questioning); experiment with solutions (observation, peer assessment and
evaluation) which leads to further action. Bloom‘s taxonomies (1956 – 1967) can and
are used to differentiate outcomes indicating the types of assessment. Multiple
choice questions suit lower order cognitive skills whereas essays, analytical
questions, suit higher order skills. Variations in summative assessment are usually
applicable to learners with special needs. For example, a learner with difficulty in
writing/reading, will be allowed more time and a reader to read out the question
paper. Sometimes scribes are also allowed to aid the SEN students. Some ways that
ICT can support assessment are using word processing; Power Point presentations;
using internet for research and so on. In this regard, the QCA (qualifications and
Curriculum Authority) has expressed commitment to the development of e-
assessment.

Another form of assessment is peer assessment. It may be defined as the

assessment of the work of others of equal status and power. In the context of student
learning, peer assessment is used to estimate worth of other students‘ work, and to
give and receive feedback. With appropriate training and close moderation, it is
possible that students can play a role in summative assessment, but generally peer
assessment works best in formative assessment where students give each other
feedback on each other‘s work. This approach to assessment requires careful
planning, agreement of criteria and use of common tools for analysing marks. The
other method is self-assessment, where students check their work, revisit
assignment drafts and texts, and research and reflect upon their past practice. Care
is needed to teach the student to make judgements on what was actually achieved
rather than what was ‗meant‘. But once mastered, in addition to judging one‘s own
work, the concept of self-assessment develops skills in self-awareness and critical
reflection. Self-assessment has been defined as ―the involvement of students in
identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgements
about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards‖ (Boud, 1991).

CASE STUDY:

(Note: All 6 learners are from non-English speaking backgrounds. 2 of them have
been selected for purpose of case study)

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SUBJECT – LITERACY/ESOL

LEVEL – ADULT/ EL-3

RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF ASSESSMENT METHOD FOR LEARNER ‗A‘

ASSESSMENT OUTLINE

Literacy may be defined as: the ability to understand, analyse, critically

respond to, and create spoken, written, and visual communications, and use
information communication technologies, in different contexts. This
assessment outline provides opportunity for learner A to develop literacy
skills. They are developed separately (tutor created) or integrated (e-testing),
depending on the purpose of each assessment task.

The teacher carried out an IA with the learner to identify the learner‘s learning
needs and preferred learning style. By observation and use of a questionnaire,
the teacher identified the following:

 Preferred learning style – kinaesthetic

 Learning needs – support in understanding grammatical structures in
English Language
 Specific needs – subject-verb agreement; tenses; appropriate use of
prepositions; vocabulary enhancement

To validate the findings, the teacher asked him to read an extract from any one
of his written assignments so that both purposes might be served. The teacher
followed this up with a (diagnostic) worksheet that gave a very clear picture of
his specific needs.

Though a confident speaker, he expresses a lack of interest in reading and lack of

skill in formal writing. His speaking skills definitely need to be strengthened through
regular practice of grammar, listening to accurate speech patterns, e.g. BBC news,
etc, reading well written articles and conversation in the language with a skilled
speaker. The teacher discussed with the learner how he might expect his teacher to
support him in his learning journey; which areas did he feel personally challenged

24
in; how might the course be designed to suit his individual needs especially in terms
of outcome achievement within a specified time frame. Once these aspects were
made clear, the learner felt more comfortable and motivated to follow the process.
Formative Assessment is used by effective questioning that leads to active learning.
The aim is to develop learners to become expert learners who take responsibility of
their own learning. Activities include online quizzes and games in grammar, reading
comprehension. The teacher uses his written assignments as specimens to assess his
knowledge in tenses, verb forms, prepositions, other word classes and sentence
structure. It serves two purposes: self-assessment helps him identify his weaknesses
and work towards improvement; as well as refine his written work. This process
helps the teacher in understanding his present level and enables the teacher to
modify the session plan for him in future. It helps the teacher to determine his
strengths and weaknesses and where one must focus to help him reach the learning
goals. Summative Assessment: Since this calls for final attainment standards and
reporting to authorities, a more structured and precisely-timed test tool is used.
Therefore, a test that assesses all outcomes at different levels, aiming at the student
achieving a Level 2 in Literacy is used.

CASE STUDY:

SUBJECT – LITERACY/ESOL

LEVEL – ADULT/EL - 3

RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF ASSESSMENT METHOD FOR LEARNER ‗B‘

Arguably assessment is an integral part of the learning process and, ultimately,

should aim to improve the quality of student learning. When the teacher designs,
runs and assesses a module or course, she clearly communicates to her learner what
that course or module is intended to achieve, what she should be able to do upon
completing it, and what she will have to demonstrate in order to succeed in it. The six
students, whom she tutors, are a mixed ability group and have a range of learning
styles. MY learner ‗B‘ is a visual learner. Hence it works better for her to have and
use resources both for learning and assessment, which have a range of visual inputs
or stimuli. She is a confident speaker but needs to develop her skills in grammar. An

25
advantage in her favour is that she is a willing learner, intrinsically motivated to
develop her language skills.

Resources being used in this program are thematically linked to online activities
from ‗BBC Skillswise‘ and a few other sites e.g. ‗Grammar Gorilla‘, etc. Resources
include tutor designed worksheet material and everyday texts. Speaking out, sharing
of views and difficulties – all to be expressed in English, is encouraged and rewarded.
She sets class guidelines at the beginning of the assessment session to ensure that the
classroom is a safe environment to foster connectedness and belonging, and
importantly less stressful for my learner. It is designed to provide a flexibility,
whereby the student can choose the levels of task-difficulty and caters for choice,
negotiation and builds confidence in her. This form of FA is very effective in her case,
as she is motivated to take risks the next time and better her standards. There are
options of self-assessment so she does not feel threatened and is able to understand
where and why she has made an error.

Analysis: Expected Outcomes of assessment for Case A and B:

They will have the opportunity to increase their understanding of appropriate use of
verbs, tenses, subject-verb agreement, relevant vocabulary, sentence structure/types
of sentences.

They will feel encouraged to explore various forms of language in texts – literary
piece, report, proposal, letter writing.

They will have the opportunity to reflect on their practical experiences in speaking
for communication and writing for formal academic work.

The assessments support the use of information and communication technologies;

thereby giving enough opportunities to them to expand and refine their range of
response styles.

The students will therefore develop the requisite skills to achieve level 2 in Literacy.

Derivations: At the end of the assessment period, i.e. formative and summative, she
found that -

26
  Learner A needs further support in the following areas:

 Subject verb agreement

 Accuracy in sentence structures
 Speaking accurately
 Develop reading skills
 Develop writing skills

(he has shown considerable improvement in appropriate use of Prepositions

and adjectives)
 Learner B has shown remarkable improvement in understanding the rules
underlying grammatical structures; is able to identify mistakes and rectify the
same; is more independent and is very close to achieving Level 2 in Literacy.
She qualifies the required standards for Numeracy and ICT.

 Some support needed in the use of accurate verb forms

 Reading comprehension is at a good level
 Creating meaning in context is fairly good

Recommendations for future:

Both learners must be self-directed especially A in order to fill the gaps in learning
and practice with intent, follow the guidance and support of tutor.

Keeping records is a very important reflective tool for both teachers and learners
in the educational setting. Accurate records taken throughout a course enables both
teacher and students to continually re-assess the effectiveness of the
teaching/learning relationship by giving an on-going measure against which to view
learning objectives. Records indicate whether pupils have learnt what has been
taught and are making sufficient progress with the course; who needs more help or is
ready for more extensive work by assessing better or worse progress than expected;
and whether teachers need to refine any aspects of their teaching by assessing
successes or shortcomings where teaching needs to be strengthened.

Attendance data taken gives an idea of where students may fall behind with learning
outcomes through non-attendance. Identifying non-attendance could indicate a

27
problem external to the teaching setting which may benefit from referral to other
professionals or could point to students‘ dissatisfaction with the teaching style which
could be addressed by reassessing the teaching methods used in order to promote
more inclusive practice.

Assessment on the course forms an on-going weekly record of how pupils are
grasping lesson plan objectives and provides valuable feedback for both students and
myself as their teacher. Monitoring student achievements, skills, abilities and
progress through on-going assessment tracks their progress with feedback given to
confirm that learning objectives have been met. Assessment also enables
identification of any special needs that require more attention through setting targets
for improvement in order to progress more effectively with the course. Recording
special needs allows for assessment of the effectiveness of interventions implemented
and gives students a measure of appropriate progress towards successfully achieving
their learning objectives. Annotation of scheme of work and lesson plans allows for
retrospective reflective practice concerning what happened during sessions and how
the teacher feels the session progressed. Critically recording her experiences in this
way enables her to evaluate and continuously monitor where adjustments may be
beneficial to subsequent teaching quality and performance. This form of record also
aids any teacher to take over a session if she should be unable to attend. Making note
of successful resource use, topics covered which need further attention and the
potential level of understanding within the group of students serve as valuable
information for the potential supply teacher. Her records help her to justify and/or
re-evaluate a student's final grade if necessary. If students ask to have a grade
changed or contest an answer, she considers who is responsible for decisions about
grade changes, and gives her time for further investigation in order to help her
prepare a fair and equitable response.

Record keeping is a constantly evolving process. Strategies that seem to work well in
some years don‘t seem to capture the essence of what she is looking for in succeeding
years. When she first began to take anecdotal notes often pile up as huge files for
students, without quite serving its purpose. As simply amassing the data without
using it does not yield the desired results. Therefore, she finds that evaluating fewer
interactions and samples makes much more sense; she can use this information to
make better curricular decisions for individuals, small groups, and the whole class.
28
An interesting term that she have recently come across, in a way sums up her system
of recording student progress - ―kidwatching,‖ a term coined by Yetta Goodman
(1978). Put simply, ‗kidwatching‘ includes direct, intentional, and systematic
observations by teachers. Carolyn Burke clarified and extended the idea by casting
‗kidwatching‘ as learning to see what‘s there and using that information to make a
better classroom (1991).‖

The importance of formative assessment is in giving effective and timely feedback.

Professor John Hattie statistically combined the results of 200,000 experiments in
classrooms and published a table listing the most effective teaching strategies in
order of effectiveness.

Good quality, comprehensive, timely feedback is a very important factor in driving

student learning. Assessment should provide feedback to students on their progress
towards the achievement of learning outcomes. Feedback will enable students to
realise where they have done well and indicate what they could improve on, as well as
justifying the grade/mark of summative assessments. Giving learner feedback on
their learning errors and omissions, and getting them to correct them or work
towards improvement of future work, significantly improves self-worth. (Source:
Focus of Hattie‘s research, LSDA, Quality Matters, June 2002)

Feedback may be said to be that information about the learner which tells both the
tutor and the taught how the learner has performed in relation to a stated goal.
Feedback informs what happened as well as what did not.

Effective feedback includes constructive criticism, information about what was done
– how well or otherwise and guidance on improvement. Some principles of effective
feedback:

 Is specific and avoids vague comments

 Is varied in its method of application

 Uses models showing desired outcomes

 Shows a variety of student work

 Use marks or grades only sometimes (Fran Daveley)

29
  Provides time for students to act upon advice

 Enables students to know how they will benefit

 Acknowledge success and indicate areas where improvement could occur

 Comments should focus on improvement

 Comments must be clear, succinct, and relevant to learning outcomes

Needless to say, that there is no one appropriate way of providing feedback to

students. Rather, the nature of the task and the context of the work in the particular
learning area should determine the form in which the feedback occurs. In some
cases, moderate and focussed praise is essential in building student self-confidence.
Peer feedback is also a means of effective feedback, in particular for FA.

An important aspect of feedback is reflective listening; such as prompting, asking

open-ended questions, rephrasing, using empathy questions, etc.

To summarize, effective feedback comprises two components:

1. Evaluation Process

a) Reflective listening

b) Effective questioning

2. Action Process

a) Target setting

b) Planning for achievement of targets

The student teacher may either video or role play but the content should
demonstrate effective feedback and target setting skills.

ANALYSIS

There are many ways to improve the quality of a feedback to make it more effective
for the learner. Simple things like not always using ticks to indicate a good point are
recommended as students will be more motivated by short words or phrases such as
―good work‖ or ―true‖. Feedback should be specific – don‘t just say ‗good‘, explain

30
why, in what respects. It should also be constructive, encouraging, honest, and
supportive; and where possible it should be frequent and substantial. Feedback is
also timely. It should not be provided too soon, as it could prevent students
reflecting on their work; neither should it be provided too late when it is no longer
salient to the student.

Feedback can be made time efficient by:

• Considering the nature of the feedback - Should it be individual or can it be group

feedback? Can it be oral or does it have to be written?

• Using the track and edit tool in Word to speed up feedback and comments on
student essays and reports.

• Considering using or creating generic feedback forms.

• Considering audio-taping feedback for learners.

• Providing detailed solution sets to reveal the appropriate underlying reasoning, to

identify potentially misunderstood concepts or principles, and to elaborate how
common student errors follows from these misunderstandings.

The benefits of effective feedback set in the context of learning outcomes are many.
For example, successful feedback will:

• build confidence in the students,

• motivate students to improve their learning;

• provide students with performance improvement information,

• correct errors,

• identify strengths and weaknesses

Teachers must involve learners in reflecting upon their learning by

documenting the course of the learning experience, gathering notes,
audio and video recordings, learner’s initial products. It gives scope to
the learners to develop into reflective learners who are capable of taking
ownership of their learning. At the end of the experience, learners reflect
together upon -what has occurred for them over the duration of the work. This
reflection socially constructs meta-cognitive understanding of learning. The elements

31
of risk, playfulness, interpersonal support, the honouring of uniqueness of individual
expression, acknowledgement of the challenges inherent in the representation of
experience, and the rewards of accomplishment are apparent in the experiences of
the group. When teachers explicitly set structures to draw these elements
out, pupils have the opportunity to view themselves as lifelong learners,
more able to assume responsibility for their next steps in learning.

The words of John Dewey offer guidance in this endeavour. The teacher, as leader,
brings a mature view of learner development, which will hopefully unfold over time,
and brings a thoughtful perspective on the long-term aims of this educational
endeavour. The teacher has experience in the evolution of knowledge, skills and
dispositions that lay beyond the learner's awareness. The teacher also brings his or
her evolving understanding of the relation of the current study to what it means to be
human. The content of a learning opportunity is ultimately social; it relates to what it
means to be fully enabled to act for the welfare of self and society. From maturity of
experience, the teacher brings a sympathetic understanding of individuals and
processes that open communication and collaboration among all involved. Learning
to learn, to acquire the essential knowledge, skills and dispositions to participate in
what John Dewey calls the reflective situation, is the essential aim of education. On
the one hand, the learner is evolving an attitude of direct open non-defensive attitude
of engagement in new areas of learning, an open-mindedness that welcomes
suggestions and information, an absorption or engrossment that brings full attention
to bear, and a responsibility to make clear choices and accept the results. These
dispositions become a matter of knowledge as a result of repeated experiences of
reflection. On the other hand, the teacher is evolving also. Each individual learner's
method, or way of attack, upon a problem is present in the continuity of his or her
experience, acquired habits and interests. Teachers study these ways in order to
illuminate and bring openness in the opportunities and challenges he or she provides
to the next learners. In this way, reflective processes enable both teachers and
learners to become ―experienced.‖

In sum, the experience of the classroom itself is continually open to analysis. By

involving every participant in reflection, holding a mirror to what they do, the
teacher both illuminates and engenders the dispositions to learn. Considering the
above methods that can be easily implemented in one‘s classroom practice of

32
teaching-learning, one may say that a successful program is critical to the teacher‘s
own attitude towards self and professional development.

Bloom‘s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) is a well-known, detailed

structured framework that helps identify and write appropriate learning outcomes.
This taxonomy identifies three domains of educational outcomes: cognitive, skills
and affective. Bloom and a team of educational psychologists formulated a
classification system for the cognitive and affective domains, although they did not
complete the system for the skills domain. (Other researchers have since developed
such a system). (http://www.tedi.uq.edu.au/downloads/Bloom.pdf)

Bloom‘s taxonomy has been under debate ever since it was published in 1956, so it is
not intended as the only way to write learning outcomes; however, it is a useful tool
nonetheless to guide for assessment purposes as well in terms of matching outcomes
with assessment criteria. Constructing assessment criteria is core to the process of all
assessment. The checklist below may be regarded for the same. When designing and
carrying out assessment it is important that both students are staff are clear on what
students are expected to do, the circumstances in which they are asked to do it and
how the marks are going to be awarded. In fact, students don‘t always know the
assessment criteria or how assessors interpret them – it is often considered the
property of examiners, but there is no reason for this secrecy. To be upfront with the
criteria is a sure way of minimising undue failures – it will help students enormously
to know what they are aiming for, or to see where they fell short, and consequently
lead to much deeper learning. Of course, assessment should also help to improve
teaching. When assessment and exams are over, there is a temptation for tutors, a
bit like there is for students, to breathe a sigh of relief and not to think about it until
the following semester. However, even a fairly perfunctory assessment analysis will
tell the tutor if the students have difficulty in mastering one particular area of the
course. The tutor can accordingly devise extra learning experiences to address this
problem, or fine tune their course where necessary.

When analysing assessment tasks, it helps me to ask the following:

• What types of questions did students do particularly well on? In what respect?

• What types of questions did they struggle with? In what respect?

• What kind of tasks was there a variety of responses to?

33
 • Which assessment questions did students avoid?

• Which assessment questions were the most popular?

• What can this tell us about the teaching, learning, and assessment?

It is thus desirable to give a little time to analysing the assessment

experiences in order to contribute to continuous improvement of
teaching and learning and to refine practices and policies of assessment.

Assessment Checklist

Are the aims and learner outcomes of the module clear?

Would attainment of these learner outcomes mean that the aims of
the module have been achieved?
Are the assessment criteria for this module clear and explicit?
Are all the appropriate learning outcomes assessed?
Does the assessment scheme enable students to obtain feedback on
major elements of the module?
Is each assessment method or task appropriate?
Is the marking scheme likely to be reliable?
Is the assessment task efficient?
Have I performed an analysis of the assessment results?

Planning assessment – what to consider

Is the assessment aligned with the aims?
Is the assessment aligned with the learning outcomes?
Is the assessment aligned with the teaching methods?
Are the methods of assessment chosen appropriate?
Are the methods of assessment varied?
Is formative assessment used?
Am I clear on what exactly is being assessed?
Do the assessments fall within the program assessment requirements?
Are progression issues dealt with?
Are award classifications clear? How will assessments be marked

34
(pass/fail/grade/feedback etc)?
Have I considered the possibility of group or peer assessment?
Do the assessments meet the individual needs of students with
disabilities?
Have I written a clear assessment criterion, or appropriate scoring
grids?
Have I considered evaluation strategies to on reflect on assessment?

It is likely that assessment will generate some of the following achievable skills:

• Analytic skills

• Communication skills

• Contextualization

• Critical awareness

• Independent judgement

• Intellectual powers

• Interrelation of knowledge and understanding

• Intuitive powers

• Problem solving skills

• Vocational demonstration of skills

In conclusion one may say that reflecting on and evaluating the assessments that the
teacher uses in the classroom and at the end of the term, gives one the scope to move
forward, facilitate a positive progress in his/her own professional development. In a
way implementing the SWOT analysis is critical to the practice of the teaching-
learning cycle. Assessment therefore reveals learner progress, effectiveness of
teaching and also effectiveness of assessment methods and tools used in this process.

35
Designing a 21st Century Assessment

Learning and teaching have significantly evolved over the past few decades. It has
gradually moved towards a greater emphasis on 21st century skills in the school
curriculum. New age skills are incorporated into national educational standards in
countries across the globe. However, assessments have been less emphasized as an
integral component in new curriculum / assessment models apt for a 21st century
classroom.

Assessment is one of the key components of learning as it aids in efficient

learning and create ways to improve it as well.

Assessment not only concerns evaluating student performance, but provides a way by
which educators can help motivate learners and aid in a better learning process.

With the passage of time, the society and educational institutes have evolved
assessments according to the need to cater to the multiple purposes and to make it a
success, a box full of assessment ideas to address all of them was required. This is
due to the fact that when an individual comes to know more about the process of
learning, changes the meaning of assessments. Educators across the world
understand that a sole purpose for assessment is not appropriate considering the
evolving time.

When considered as a whole, well-constructed assessments not only provide a

reliable and considerable measure of a student‘s learning and understanding, but

36
also helps in guiding both teachers and students on a daily basis. Assessments, be it
standardized tests or classroom-based evaluation, are vital as it acts as a cornerstone
of effective teaching and learning.

It is to be considered that while syncing assessments (to help learners as well as

educators meet the challenges of an increasingly complex world), it is vital to note
that present knowledge areas covered in the subjects, as per the curriculum, will need
to be redesigned with care to modern disciplines and a select set of traditional
disciplines, with options for interdisciplinary exploration for which themes are
woven throughout. The shifts in the assessment are explained better below.

Furthermore, modern age teachers need to consider crucial design elements into
their curriculum, the probable way for the teachers to do so is by creating specialized
habits around replacement thinking. The four important considerations for
replacement thinking regarding assessments are -

37
 1. Students must be given enough opportunities to demonstrate what they‘ve
learned. As for example: whatever they have created by making use of digital
tools should still represent what students were to learn. The idea is that the
assessment must not tell more on the use of digital tool rather focus on
student‘s progress using the tool.
2. Students must be able to demonstrate content expertise and sophistication.
The new creation also needs to be able to reflect the content knowledge that
they have learned and the multiple cognitive zones they participated in during
the learning process.
3. A student‘s emphasis should be to contemplating their choices frequently and
how they can articulate and defend their tool choices. They should also be able
to defend the content inclusion and degrees of audience interaction and how it
actually helped them to reach the final result or the end product.
4. Students also need to learn to give credit where it is due. It is of significance
that they learn about and acknowledge the importance of copyright, creative
commons licensing and ways to search for and use appropriate content, giving
full attribution to the source from which they have derived the information.

What methods to adopt in assessments?

1. Assessments should measure what is really important in the syllabus

2. Assessment need to look more like instructional activities rather than tests
3. Educational assessments should estimate the learning tasks of interest, so
that, when learners practice for the assessment, some valuable learning takes
place

There are, actually, two alternative forms of assessments. Namely, performance-

based assessment and portfolio assessment. With that said, teachers need to focus
more on pushing the performance for it has many real-time benefits attached to it.
Also, performance assessment brings testing methods more in line with instruction
and assessments should approximate closely what it is students should know and be
able to do.

Of late, modern instructional practice is receiving an enormous appeal, the

curriculum design is also kept in sync so that it invites learners to the design table
and allow them to put together a new learning experience. Taking it into

38
consideration, the benefit of putting emphasis on performance-based assessment is
that it allows teachers to evaluate higher-level cognitive skills so as to assess areas of
learning that traditional assessments fail to do.

Assessment in the Elementary School

Classroom assessment should be used to improve and enhance students learning

rather than considering it to be a tool to ‗judge‘ students‘ ability only. This is
irrespective of which school level they are in. More than three and a half decades
ago, Benjamin Bloom demonstrated how to conduct this process of assessing
students in simple and effective ways, when he explained the practice of mastery
learning (Bloom, 1968, 1971). However, the emphasis on assessments as tools for
accountability has shifted attention away from the more important and fundamental
purpose.

Starting at the elementary level, assessments should be used to help students achieve
their potential in learning and performance. Teachers should be helped to change the
way they use results, link learning goals to assessments as well as improve the quality
of assessments. Assessments should be integral to learning and the instructional
process.

Hence, assessments should be used more as sources of information to empower

students learning rather than for a final declaration of what they cannot achieve. This
should be further followed by corrective instructional measures and also giving
students a chance to demonstrate progress and improvement. This benefits the
students as they can identify their mistakes and follow through in future.

Let us consider sports & games coaches. For example, following a gymnast's
performance on the balance beam, the coach immediately explains to her what she
did correctly and what could be improved. Next the coach offers specific strategies
for improvement and encourages her to try again. As the athlete repeats her
performance, the coach watches carefully to ensure that she has corrected the
problem. Once the students get the same kind of mentorship from their teachers,
starting at elementary level, they feel motivated and confident to carry out any

39
corrective task out of their own accord. Students rework problems, look up answers
in their textbooks or other resource materials, and ask the teacher about ideas or
concepts that they don't understand.

Further, for elementary level, assessments are more informal and learner friendly in
nature – quizzes, one-word answers, fill in the gaps, tick the correct answer, match,
and several such types of ‗testing‘ tools are very appropriate for assessing elementary
school students.

However, whether elementary, middle or high school, assessments need necessarily

have to be taken as tools for improvement of student abilities and thus empowering
them to achieve their individual potential.

Assessment and Evaluation for the Middle School and Secondary Classes

A process that helps to bring attention towards the most important element in
education, beyond just access and participation is known as Assessment. In other
words, it is the actual learning outcomes of each student. Assessment and evaluation
influence each and every level of the education system and is the pivotal catalysts for
reform in curriculum and instruction. However, teachers, administrators, and others
who are responsible to choose or develop assessments, often face the difficulty of
finding if tasks are truly aligned with national or state standards and whether they
are able to reveal what students actually know.
The key to designing strategies for the further improvement of teaching and learning
process is by gathering information on where students stand in their learning and the
progress that they have made till so far.
Assessments are important as they help people gain important and useful
information from every situation. Quite like other professions, in education too, good
decision making is dependent on the accessibility to relevant, accurate, and timely
information. Besides the results and scores, assessment and evaluation must also
have other purposes, such as diagnosing and addressing students‘ remaining
difficulties to also bring about a change in direct subsequent teaching (Black, 1998;
Treagust et al., 2001). Proper use must be made from the information gained by
informing decisions about curriculum and instruction and ultimately accomplishing
the main goal, i.e., improving student learning.

40
Assessment in Secondary Education

Brief Introduction

Assessments in secondary education is actually a continuation of primary education

and is projected to prepare students to become responsible members of society
possessing the ability to interact with their social, cultural and natural environment
while further developing their ability in work environment or higher education.
Secondary education consists of general education, vocational education and special
education etc.

Evaluation in Secondary School

As we already know by now, final evaluation is directed to provide certificates to

students. The evaluation of implemented curriculum is conducted to assess the
relevance between school curriculum and the basis, function, and objectives of the
institution and the learners‘ ability and the demand for societal changes.

The evaluation techniques used in a secondary education setting includes various

factors such as institutional aspects, curriculum, students, teachers and other
educational professionals, facilities, infrastructure, administration and
circumstances of the institute in general. Evaluation findings will be used to improve
the learners and also the institution itself.

The evaluators are teachers, school principals, supervisors along with some other
educational professionals. Teachers are entrusted with the responsibility to assess
students‘ learning activities and monitor their progress and curriculum
implementation under their authority.

Objectives of secondary assessment:

1. To prepare students for the competitive world, as well as for professional and
specialized education
2. To develop students‘ personality into enlightened citizens of the State and as
responsible beings of the world at large
3. To ensure education for all aspiring learners willing to go for higher education
4. To prepare and make available such teaching-learning material which makes
learning a rewarding and engaging experience

41
 5. To introduce an evaluation structure which emphasizes on learning of
concepts and discourages rote learning
6. To remove ambiguities and contradictions in the operation of 3-tier system
education and design rules, procedures and practices that ensure smooth
functioning of the learning system
7. To adopt a balanced approach towards the incorporation of
technical/vocational education and evolve as a system, which is cost-effective
and practicable

Essential Design Aspects of 21st Century Assessments:

1. It should maintain a balance including superior standardized testing along with

effective classroom assessments (formative and summative).

2. It is essential to put stress to gather useful feedback regarding student

performances that is rooted into daily learning.

3. It must consist of a balance between technology-enhanced, formative and

summative assessments that measure 21st Century skills among students.

4. It should enable the growth in collection of student work that demonstrates 21st
century skills to educators and prospective employers.

5. Design should enable a balanced portfolio of measures to assess the educational

system‘s effectiveness at reaching high levels of student competency in 21st Century
skills.

The things that may differ are methods and assessment tools, but while designing
contemporary assessments, educators needs to consider the essential aspects while
designing modern-day assessment for students. Teachers also need to consider the
fact that, the main purpose of an assessment is and will always be to boost the
learning experience of the learners. It‘s not a way to analyse a student‘s performance,
rather, a way by which their strengths and weaknesses are acknowledged. They are
then provided the right guidance and shown a positive direction to improve their
learning in the future course of action.

42
Techniques used in assessing students' learning:

Assessments may be implemented in various ways, depending upon the depth of

information and nature of what is being assessed. The assessment methods may be
categorized into two divisions: direct and indirect assessment.

DIRECT ASSESSMENT METHODS

Direct assessment methods are termed so because they look at the actual student
work to determine whether they have learned what the teachers want them to.
Among the direct methods, following are the most commonly used:

Portfolios

Student portfolios may be collected from the very beginning of a program until they
successfully complete it. it may also be done for narrower time frames. Learners are
in control of collecting the information as per the instruction from their teacher.
Among the various types of materials that are collected in a portfolio, some may be:
essays, drafts of written material leading to a conclusion, laboratory research,
videotapes of presentations, displays of creative work, papers keeping a detail of their
research, examinations etc. A particularly valuable component of student portfolios
is the reflective essay, in which the student reflects back upon his/her growth in
creative efforts and draws conclusions about his/herself regarding strengths and
weaknesses while compiling the portfolio.

Embedded assessments

Embedded assessments utilise students‘ various works produced in particular

classes. As a result, the learners are unaware of the fact that their work is being used
for evaluation purposes. Moreover, the material used for evaluation is produced
within the normal workload of both teaching faculty and the students. Basically,
embedded assessments acts as a realistic source of information about student work.

Capstone experiences or senior projects

Capstone experiences most often occur in high school or middle school. It is a

complex kind of evaluation process that serves as a culminating academic and

43
intellectual experience for learners, typically during their final year, or at the end of
an academic program.

It is generally designed to inspire students to think in a critical manner, solve

challenging issues and develop various skills such as oratory skills and
communication, public speaking, media literacy, research skills, teamwork, self-
sufficiency, planning or goal setting, i.e., it focuses more on skills that will help
prepare them for college, modern careers, and the future. In most cases, the projects
are also interdisciplinary, in a way that they require students to use skills or examine
issues across many different subject areas or domains of knowledge.

Examinations / Standardized tests

Standardized tests refer to a large scale of assessments directed to considerable

groups of learners. It is a method of evaluation built on the principle of steadiness.
Standardized tests are used throughout an individual‘s education: to compare class
progress in elementary or high school to prepare them for higher education. Most
standardized tests involves multiple choice / true-false based questions. It allow
educators to compare class and learner progress across a wide topography and are
often considered to be a fair and objective format of large-scale testing due to the
consistency in the format and grading style.

Internships and other field experiences

Internships and field experiences offer learners the opportunity to apply their
learning outside the classroom setting. Evaluations of student work in certain
circumstances may provide valuable information regarding whether they are able to
use their learning in class, on facing real world situations.

INDIRECT ASSESSMENT METHODS

Indirect assessment methods need teacher‘s inference with learner abilities,

knowledge and values rather than observe them through direct methods. Among
these, some are mentioned below:

Surveys

Student surveys provide impressions from the respondents which are subjected to
change, over time. Respondents may reply strategically as per their understanding of

44
what they think those conducting the survey want to hear, rather than what they
truly believe in. Surveys are effortless in terms of administering, but often do not
result in the desired responses from everyone surveyed. They may, however, provide
clues to what should be evaluated directly and may be the only way to gather
information from learners, alumni, employers, or school faculty.

Exit interviews and focus groups

Exit interviews and focus groups allow faculty to ask specific questions face-to-face
with students. Their boundaries are that the students may not respond honestly or
fully, while their responses and impressions may change over time, along with
surveys. Often, for more objectivity, it may be the best idea to have someone outside
the actual section of faculty conducting the interviews. Interviews and focus groups
may offer clues to what should be assessed in a direct manner.

Inventories of syllabi and assignments

Inventories of syllabi and assignments brings out information about the curriculum
that is not apparent until an actual inventory is conducted. As an indirect technique,
the inventory does not specify what a student has learned, but it does provide a fast
way of knowing whether some courses are unnecessary in terms of what they teach or
whether there is any gap in the curriculum. It is a valuable tool within the total
assessment grouping of tools.

It is advisable that educators should not blend assessment with grading, as they often
do. This is a mistake. It needs to be understood that there‘s more to student
assessment than just grading. Remember, assessment relates a learner‘s performance
to specific learning objectives to provide useful information to instructors about
student‘s accomplishment. Traditional grading, then again, does not deliver the level
of detailed and specific information essential to link student performance with
improvement, because grades don‘t notify educators about student performance on
an individual basis or specific learning goals or outcomes, they provide little
information on the overall success of the course in helping students to attain the
specific and distinct learning objectives of interest. Educators, therefore, need to
remember that grading is just an aspect of student evaluation but does not establish
its entirety.
45
Definitions

The evaluation and assessment framework usually comprise of various components

such as student assessment, teacher appraisal, school evaluation, school leader
appraisal and education system evaluation, and includes the relation between the
components and their rational alignment to student learning objectives. The
meanings of the terms have been given below:

• Assessment: It refers to judgements on individual student growth and

accomplishment of learning goals and covers classroom-based assessments and also
large-scale, external assessments and examinations.

• Appraisal: It refers to judgements on the performance of professionals working

in schools, e.g. teachers, school leaders.

• Evaluation: It refers to judgements on the usefulness of schools and its systems,

policies and programs.

―So, how can assessment and evaluation policies work in tandem to improve student
outcomes in primary and secondary schools?‖

There are six primary levels where evaluation and assessment may operate at:
national education system, state education, local education authority, school, teacher
and student. Each of these levels comprise of evaluation and assessment mechanisms
that provide a basis for assessing how effectively education is being provided for
students. The ultimate objective is to improve the quality of education in countries
and, as a result, enhance learning outcomes.

Educational context

The educational context shapes the evaluation and assessment framework.

The development of evaluation and assessment frameworks take place within the
broader context of established education policies and existing traditions, cultures
and values in education. Evaluation and assessment is a result of education policy
while the nature and significance of evaluation and assessment activities are due to

46
traditions and cultures in education. Some of the examples of important contextual
aspects to the development of evaluation and assessment include:

• the evaluation culture within the education system • the tradition of quality-
focused policies in the education sector and within the public sector • existing
conceptions of evaluation and assessment • trust-worthiness of teachers as
professionals • the extent of decentralization of educational governance and of school
autonomy • existing approaches to school leadership • education levels of parents
and their culture as ―consumers‖ • the financial conditions of the public budget for
education

What is the main purpose of assessment?

The aim of assessment should be ―to educate and improve student performance, not
merely to audit it‖ (Wiggins, 1998, p.7). The relationship between curriculum and
instruction is of prime importance while evaluating the need for assessment in
improving learning. Usually, instruction follows curriculum and is faithful to it and
assessment reflects curriculum in such a way that it strengthens the best practices in
instruction.

The purpose of education is that all students must develop as knowledgeable and
confident individuals and they use their knowledge as part of their everyday lives
now and into the future.

There are usually two main assessment purposes followed by schools for enhancing
learning—known as Formative Assessment (FA) and for summarizing learning—
known as Summative Assessment (SA). SA in classrooms or assessment of learning is
generally conducted at the end of a unit, a chapter or a learning experience and takes
the form of tests that include questions based on the syllabus studied during that
time. Almost always conducted in a formal process, the results in SA are expressed
symbolically, as marks or letter grades identifying the gaps in student learning. Its
purpose is to certify learning and report to parents about the students‘ progress and
achievements at school.

On the other hand, FA or assessment for learning is an alternative perspective to

traditional tests in classrooms. FA is purposed as a cycle of events, where evidence
and judgements of student achievements are used to indicate the next steps in

47
teaching and learning—in terms of progress towards lesson goals. Feedback to the
teacher and students is important for promoting and improving teaching and
learning. Moreover, students have a central role in this procedure, as they become
responsible for their learning and should take action on this, working together with
their teachers.

Internal and external assessment

Traditionally, an important distinction has been made between internal (school-
based) assessment and external (standardised) assessment. Both these assessments
may be used in a summative or formative way.
Internal assessment or school-based assessment: this assessment is
designed and done by the students‘ own teachers, often collaborating with the
students. This kind of assessments takes place as part of regular classroom
instruction, within lessons or at the end of a teaching unit, or end of the session.
External assessment or standardised assessment: this assessment is
designed and done by outside schools to ensure that the questions, conditions for
administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are fair, consistent and
comparable among students (Popham, 1991). External assessments may be applied
to a group of students or only in some schools and classrooms.

PURPOSES AND CONTEXTS OF USE

Assessment influences the education system on every level and is considered to be

one of the most crucial catalysts for reform in relation to curriculum and instruction.
Teachers, administrators, and others associated with education, who choose,
assemble, or develop assessments, face the difficult task of judging whether tasks are
truly aligned with national or state standards and whether they are effective in
revealing what students actually know.

Assessment and evaluation usually come in many forms – in the form of certain
images of monthly class/unit test, a quarterly report card, a state-level examination
on basic skills, or the letter grade for a final laboratory report. However, these
familiar aspects of assessment and evaluation do not fully capture extent or subtlety
of how these functions operate on a daily basis in the classroom. Various classroom
assessments have been discussed here that focuses upon the daily opportunities and
interactions between teachers and students for collecting information about student

48
work and understandings, and then using that information for improving both the
teaching and learning methods. It is considered to be a natural part of classroom life
that is a world away from formal examinations—both in spirit and in purpose.

Educational assessment happens in two major contexts:

The first is the classroom where teachers and students take help of assessment
mainly to not only assist learning, but also to measure and understand students‘
combined achievement over the longer term.

Second is large-scale assessment, which is used by policy makers and educational

leaders to assess programs and/or obtain information about individual students to
ensure whether they have met their learning goals.

The above points have been elaborated below for better understanding:

The classroom teacher wants to find out how her teaching techniques is benefitting
the children and how well they are able to learn the things they have been studying
and what needs to be done next to get better result the next time. What is necessary
here, is a uniformity among the knowledge that the teacher has regarding the things
her students have been working on, what the teacher needs to learn about their
current understanding, and how acquiring that knowledge will help shape what the
students should do now to be able to learn further.

For the chief state school officer, the decisive question is whether larger aggregates of
students (such as schools, districts, or states) have had ―the opportunity to learn.‖
The state assessment is made to gather information to support essentially the same
inference about all students, so the information can most easily be combined to meet
the chief officer‘s purpose. For the teacher, the starting point is knowing what each
student as an individual has had the opportunity to learn.

Classroom quizzes are often designed to bring out the patterns of individual
knowledge (compared with the state grade-level standards) within a classroom set-
up in which students have been working to help the teacher make individual
decisions about next steps for each student or the class as a whole. As a matter of
fact, for the teacher, combining and comparing information across classes that are
studying and at the same time testing different content is not important or possible.

49
Paradoxically, the questions that are of most use to the state officer are of the least
use to the teacher.

Too much pressure is exerted on the assessment of student performance in the lives
of children and their families along with every level of the education system. If put to
good use good assessment can be a powerful catalyst for improving both curriculum
and instruction. On the other hand, poor assessment practices can be a detrimental
in various ways – it can diminish the students‘ expectations for learning, thereby
focusing the teachers‘ and the students‘ efforts on less important concepts and skills
or on test taking as an end in itself.

Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework has been discussed below summarizing the aspects involved
in assessment and evaluation and the way they interconnect. The conceptual
framework has four main interrelated themes as shown in Fig.1. They include:

• Governance: The first section discusses about the governance of student

assessment systems and describes the various purposes and objectives of student
assessment systems and the legal frameworks that are in place

• Procedures: This section involves the procedures and methodologies used for
student assessment across various countries. They include the scope of assessment,
i.e. the areas of learning that are covered by the assessment along with the main
features of student assessment, the format of assessments and the use of ICT in
assessment.

• Capacity: This third section involves the competencies and the support necessary
to assess students, to benefit from assessment, and to use the results of student
assessment.

• Use of results: The fourth section is involved with the ways of reporting
assessment results and using them for both summative and formative purposes.

50
Fig.1

The conceptual framework has been discussed in details below:

• Governance

Objectives and functions of evaluation and assessment

The ultimate objective of evaluation and assessment is improving student outcomes
through the improvement of practices at the different levels of the school system,
including teaching methods, school leadership processes, ways to organize learning,
and directions of education policy.
Evaluation and assessment have various functions to play. Evaluation and
assessment help provide a foundation for monitoring how effectively students are
educated and for assessing the performance of systems, schools, school leaders,
teachers and students, among others. They can serve school agents accountable when
the results of an evaluation or assessment have stakes for school agents such as
linkages to career advancement or salary progression, one-off rewards, sanctions, or
just information to parents in systems based on parental school choice. By gauging
student outcomes and holding teachers and schools responsible for results,

51
accountability systems are intended to create incentives for improved performance
and recognize ―underperforming‖ schools and school agents. Evaluation and
assessment are also used for identifying strengths and weaknesses of systems,
schools, school leaders, teachers and students which inform areas for development.
Additionally, evaluation and assessment can have a diagnostic function such as with
school readiness assessments or sampled-based standardized assessments in order
to measure the extent of achievement of student learning objectives across the
education system.

Alignment between goals for student learning and evaluation and

assessment
Alignment with student learning objectives is one of the critical aspects for the
successful implementation of evaluation and assessment. The main idea of criterion-
referenced systems depends upon the alignment of goals for: student learning,
specific content for learning, pedagogical approaches and evaluation and assessment.
The alignment is the result of some really hard work as it is involved with designing
and developing tools to correctly evaluate the competencies and expected learning
outcomes promoted by national student learning objectives; promoting evaluation
and assessment approaches as per the pedagogical approaches encouraged by
learning goals (e.g. formative assessment); developing teacher capacity to evaluate
against student learning objectives; designing mechanisms for teacher appraisal,
school evaluation and school leader appraisal whose reference standards (typically
teaching and school management standards, school evaluation frameworks) match
with student learning objectives; and maintaining all educational goals are included
in evaluation and assessment procedures (e.g. equity).

• Design
Procedures
In order to develop their evaluation and assessment frameworks, states depend on
varied principles typically in line with the overall goals for and traditions in their
education system and are expected to develop the usefulness of evaluation and
assessment procedures. These may involve putting students at the heart of the
evaluation and assessment framework, paying attention to student outcomes,
commitment to transparency by reporting evaluation and assessment results,

52
promoting a culture of sharing classroom practice, depending on teacher
professionalism, concentrating on varied learner needs and using latest technology
like various software, in assessment and evaluation.

Committing to transparency through the reporting of evaluation and

assessment results
To strengthen the overall evaluation and assessment framework, focus must be put
on transparency in monitoring and publishing results. As the primary purpose of
evaluation and assessment, reporting is becoming increasingly gaining importance as
reflected in requirements at numerous levels: system level (e.g. reports on the state
of education, education databases); school level (websites giving out school
information, school annual reports, inspection reports); and student level
(publication of standardized assessment results at the school level, giving out marks
to students and parents).

Responding to diverse learner needs

Evaluation and assessment play a key role to identify and respond effectively to the
needs of all students in the education system. Special attention is usually given to
those groups where underperformance is identified. They may include students from
cultural or language minorities, as well as students with special educational needs.
For instance, homogeneous student assessment has the potential to put certain
groups of students at a disadvantage by generating prejudices associated with a
particular characteristic of the student such as gender, ethnicity, physical disabilities,
and language of instruction that is differing from the primary language. Le and Klein
(2002) state that :a fair student testing system accounts for three conditions: (i) test
items are free of bias; (ii) students must have equal opportunities to demonstrate
skills; (iii) students must have ―sufficient opportunity‖ to learn the tested material‖.

• Capacity for evaluation and assessment

Competencies for evaluation and assessment
The effectiveness of evaluation and assessment relies to a great extent on the
capacities that students need to engage in and benefit from their assessment &
evaluation as well as the expertise and competencies of those who design and take on
evaluation activities as well as those who use their results. This is important in

53
providing the essential legitimacy to those responsible for evaluation and
assessment. Since evaluation is directly linked to the units assessed and since school
outcomes heavily depend on individual relations and co-operation at the school level,
successful evaluation and assessment procedures require meticulous attention in
developing competencies and defining responsibilities in evaluation processes.
Additionally, proper knowledge is also vital for using feedback to improve practice
and also to ensure that evaluation and assessment procedures are helpful. Most
countries have put generous efforts to reinforce assessment and evaluation activities,
to the extent of providing competency-developing learning opportunities in some
cases, however, there are still restricted evaluation and assessment competencies
throughout education systems.
Capacity building needs for evaluation and assessment are extensive and include vast
areas such as:
• teacher capacity to be able to gauge the whole range of curriculum goals to ensure
uniformity of marking across schools
• teacher capacity for formative assessment
• student capacity to engage in and benefit from assessment & evaluation
• data handling ability of school agents (e.g. use of results from student standardized
assessments)
• Information for parents and other stakeholders properly understand some
outcome reporting
• capacity for taking on the role of external evaluator (e.g. in school evaluation,
teacher appraisal)
• evaluation skills of groups or agencies responsible for evaluation activities such as
school evaluation or teacher appraisal, including school governing boards
• standardized assessment development, educational measurement, psychometrics,
validation of test items, scaling methods
• external assessment (e.g. national examinations for certification)
• analytical capacity for educational planning and developing policy

• Use of results
Knowledge Management Information systems
This section describes how assessment results are reported and used for both
summative and formative purposes. Large amounts of information and data are

54
produced by the overall evaluation and assessment framework to be used for public
information, policy planning and development of practices across the education
system. As analysed by Fazekas and Burns (2012), knowledge and governance are
directly proportional to each other. Knowledge is crucial for governance and
governance is indispensable for knowledge creation and distribution. With the
increase in complexity in education systems, governance systems‘ capacity to learn
also becomes more and more critical. Most institutions involved in education policy
have become knowledge-intensive organizations whose success depends most
critically on their ability to learn (Fazekas and Burns, 2012). Proper use of the
evidence as a result of evaluation and assessment activities to a large extent is
dependent on the development of coherent information management systems. These
include elements such as:
• standard framework for collecting data and reporting
• data information/management systems –data collection on students, teachers,
schools and their performances
• public information – arrangements to share information about evaluation and
assessment results with the public at large
• identifying best practices and spreading them across the system

Video references

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1UjiHA3g39g

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wePut0cfzA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2G_vWcS1NTA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=woVtj8GH678

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 Biggs, J. (1997) ―Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment.‖

Higher Education. 32, 347-64

 Bloom, Benjamin S (ed) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,

Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, London: Longmans

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 M. Hunter, Reinforcement (Tip Publications, El Segundo, California),

1983.

 Kenneth D. Moore, Classroom Teaching Skills: A Primer (Random

House, New York) 1989.

 Peter J. Frederick, ―Student Involvement: Active Learning in Large

Classes.‖ In Teaching Large Classes Well, Edited by M.G. Weimer. New
Directions for Teaching and Learning No. 32 (Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco) 1987.

 Brenda Wright Kelly and Janis Holmes, ―The Guided Lecture

Procedure.‖ Journal of Reading 22:602-604.

 Robert J. Menges, ―Research on Teaching and Learning: The Relevant

and the Redundant.‖ Review of Higher Education 11: 259-268.

 Gordon E. Greenwood & Forrest W. Parkay, Case Studies for Teacher

Decision Making (Random House, New York), 1989.

 David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson and Karl A. Smith, ―Cooperative

Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity.‖
ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: The

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 George Washington University, School of Education and Human
Development. 1991.

 Robert E. Slavin, Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and

Practice, Second Edition (Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA
02194-2310), 1995.

 Carl R. Rogers, The Freedom to Learn (Charles E Merrill Publishing

Company, Columbus, Ohio) 1969, p. 102-112

 Bell and Cowie, Formative Assessment and Science Education, 2001

 Knowles Gianna, Ensuring Every Child Matters, 2009

 Fry Heather, Ketteridge Steve, Marshall Stephanie, A Handbook for

Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 2009

 O‘Farrel Ciara, Enhancing Student Learning

 Inside the Black Box is available at www.kcl.ac.uk/

 Dylan Wiliam "Does assessment hinder learning?"

 Evaluation of the Assessment is for Learning Programme: Final Report

2005 is available from www.scotland.gov.uk/

 What have we learnt today? -is an interesting article from the TES on
pupils' self-assessment www.tes.co.uk/

 Assessment for Learning: 10 principles. Research-based principles to

guide classroom practice. The leaflet was produced with support from
the Nuffield Foundation and included in QCA's March On Q update.
www.qca.org.uk/

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