C H A P T E R

1
The Coffee Plant and Beans: An Introduction
Adriana Farah, Thiago Ferreira dos Santos
Núcleo de Pesquisa em Café Prof. Luiz Carlos Trugo, Laboratório de Química e Bioatividade de Alimentos,
Instituto de Nutrição, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

List of Abbreviations obvious reasons, however, this chapter focuses only on

the Coffea genus.2
FAO  US Food and Agriculture Organization
ICO  International Coffee Organization From the sixteenth century, when the first coffee
ISO  International Standardization Organization trees were reported,4 onward, coffee has attracted the
NCBI  National Center of Biotechnology Information attention of explorers and botanists from all over the
USDA  United States Department of Agriculture world, especially in the second half of the nineteenth
century, when many new species were discovered.
Because of the great variation in the types of coffee
1.1  THE PLANT plants and seeds, botanists have failed to agree on a
precise single system to classify them or even to desig-
The green coffee beans that we roast, grind, and nate some plants as true members of the Coffea genus.
brew to produce the popular beverage known all over Although it is said that hundreds of species have been
the world are actually the seeds contained in fruits from described, the NCBI in the United States, and Davis
trees and shrubs naturally grown in the shade of Afri- et al.1,5 described over 90 species within the Coffea
can forests, including the islands of Madagascar and genus, of which 25 have been more extensively stud-
Mauritius (the latter formerly known as one of the Mas- ied.1,5,6 Of these 25 species, only two have major com-
carene Islands), and cultivated in tropical areas such as mercial importance: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora.
equatorial Africa, Java, Sumatra, and other islands of It has been suggested that C. arabica, a tetraploid spe-
the Dutch East Indies, West Indies, India, Arabia, the cies (2n = 4x = 44) originated from natural hybridization
islands of the Pacific, Mexico, and Central and South between C. canephora and Coffea eugenioides, or ecotypes
America.1,2 related to these two diploids (2n = 2x = 22) species.4,7,8
The coffee tree is part of the subkingdom of plants Triploid hybrids originated from crosses between
known scientifically as the Angiosperm, or Angiosper- C. arabica, and diploid species have been reported.
mae, which means that the plant reproduces by seeds They tend to be robust plants but almost completely
that are enclosed in a box-like compartment, known as sterile.4 Coffea arabica trees reach up to 6 m in height,
the ovary, at the base of the flower.2 It belongs to the grow well at high elevations and mild temperatures,
botanical family Rubiaceae, which has some 500 genera and their seeds account for over 60% of the world’s
and over 6000 species.2 Other members of the family coffee production. Coffea canephora trees reach up to
include gardenias. Coffee belongs to genus Coffea, which 10 m in height, grow at low elevations and warmer
is by far the most economically important member of the climates, and have higher resistance to diseases, infe-
Rubiaceae family.3 Under the genus Coffea, there are sev- rior cup quality, and lower market value compared to
eral subgenera. One of them, to which coffee belongs, is Arabica trees. Their seeds account for less than 40%
the subgenus Eucoffea. Psylanthus is another important of the world’s coffee production. The species Coffea
genus in the Rubiaceae family; Psylanthus species often liberica (diploid, up to 18 m in height, hot climate, low
have been confounded with Coffea genus species. For elevations, poor cup quality, susceptible to diseases) is

Coffee in Health and Disease Prevention 5

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409517-5.00001-2 © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
6 1.  COFFEE PLANT AND BEANS

TABLE 1.1  Botanical Classification of Coffee and Some of the TABLE 1.2  Examples of Commercially Relevant Coffee Varieties
Main Species in Genus Coffea4,5,15,16 and Their Main Characteristics5,9,11,17,18
Kingdom Vegetable Species Varieties Origins Main Characteristics

Subkingdom Angiospermae Coffea arabica Typica Probably Growth habit:

Yemen upright, vigorous
Class Dicotyledoneae Rust resistance: very
Subclass Sympetalae or Metachlamydeæ susceptible
Cup quality: excellent
Order Rubiales
Coffea arabica Java Indonesia Growth habit:
Family Rubiaceae upright, vigorous
Rust resistance: very
Genus Coffea
susceptible
Subgenus Eucoffea Cup quality: excellent

Species Coffea arabica; Coffea canephora; Coffea liberica; A natural S 795 India Growth habit: tall,
Coffea eugenioides; Coffea congensis; Coffea hybrid between upright, and open
salvatrix; Coffea racemosa; Coffea zanguebariae; Coffea arabica Rust resistance:
Coffea pseudozanguebariae; Coffea mongensis; and Coffea susceptible but more
Coffea humilis; Coffea kapakata; Coffea betrandi; liberica tolerant with careful
Coffea perrieri; Coffea pervilleana selection
Cup quality: excellent

Coffea arabica Bourbon Brazil Growth habit: semi-

dwarf, dense foliage
Rust resistance: very
the third most relevant species and is responsible for a susceptible
very small slice of the market (less than 1%).9–11 Cup quality: fair
Because of the richness of coffee species and variet- A cross between Catuai Brazil Growth habit: ­semi-
ies, when referring to the main coffee species, some varieties caturra dwarf and dense
confusion has been observed regarding nomenclature. and mundo foliage
novo Rust resistance: very
For example, C. canephora has been described as Coffea
susceptible
robusta,2 when “robusta” is actually mostly reported as Cup quality: good;
being a variety6,11–14 or subvariety5 of the C. canephora good bean size
species. In the same way, the word robusta has been erro-
Catimor is a Catimor Colombia Growth habit: semi-
neously used for commercial and other purposes as a cross between dwarf compact
synonymous for kouilouensis or kouilon or conilon, which timor coffee and Rust resistance:
is a different variety of C. canephora5 widely cultivated in caturra coffee resistant to all races
Brazil. There is another misunderstanding with regard of rust provided
careful selection is
to the term Coffea dewevrei, which has been used referring
maintained
to a certain species and, in some cases, as a synonym for Cup quality: fair/
C. liberica.4,11 In fact, liberica and dewevrei (the latter also poor
called Excelsa coffee) are different varieties within the
A cross between Mundo novo Brazil Growth habit: semi-
C. liberica species.5,6,9 typica and dwarf cultivars
The botanical classification of coffee and some of the bourbon coffee Rust resistance: very
main species in the genus Coffea are shown in Table 1.1. susceptible
Examples of economically relevant varieties included in Cup quality: excellent
C. arabica and C. canephora species are depicted in Table 1.2. Coffea canephora Kouilouensis Brazil Growth habit: tall
Coffee is a perennial plant and evergreen in nature. or conillon Rust resistance:
It usually lives for about 10 to 15 years in nature before resistant/tolerant
Cup quality: lower-
dying, but fruit production decreases considerably ear-
quality coffee
lier; therefore, in commercial plantations trees must be
regularly renewed.
The shape of a coffee tree varies depending on the
species and variety. In general, the coffee tree consists of Each leaf pair is cross-positioned to the next leaf pair
an upright main shoot (trunk) with primary, secondary, (Figure 1.1). Leaves appear shiny, wavy, and dark green
and tertiary lateral branches. These branches are called in color with conspicuous veins. In the axil of each leaf
suckers at the developing stage and stems at the final are four to six serial buds, and directly above them is
stage. The leaves are opposite decussate on suckers. one slightly bigger bud called the extra-axillary bud

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 1.2  Green Coffee Production 7

FIGURE 1.2  Parts of the coffee cherry fruit.19,20

FIGURE 1.1  The coffee plant. which comprises a fleshy pulp and, in ripe fruits, a slimy
pectinaceous layer of mucilage adhering to parchment;
(3) the parchment or parch (endocarp), which is a thin,
crumbly, paper-like polysaccharide covering; (4) the
because of its relatively distant position. This extra-
silverskin, which is the seed coat composed of mainly
axillary bud develops into a plagiotropic or lateral, hor-
polysaccharides, especially cellulose and hemicelluloses,
izontal branch. Lateral or plagiotropic branches grow
in addition to monosaccharides, proteins, polyphenols,
at almost right angles from the main stems. No other
and other minor compounds; and (5) two elliptical or
bud in the same axil can grow into a lateral branch,
egg-shaped seeds containing endosperm and embryos
which means that if such a branch is cut off, no lateral
(Figure 1.2).3,11,19
regeneration can occur on the node of a main vertical
stem. Laterals are commonly called primaries. Each
serial bud on a primary can develop into an inflores-
1.2  GREEN COFFEE PRODUCTION
cence (flowers) or into a secondary branch, which has
a structure similar to that of the primary branch, with
serial buds that develop either into small bunches of
1.2.1 Harvesting
condensed cymose flowers or into tertiary branches. Harvesting is an important step to yield good-quality
If a secondary branch is cut or removed, another sec- coffee. The degree of maturation of the fruits is critical.
ondary on the same axil can replace it, so regeneration While coffee cherries (ripe fruits) tend to yield a better-
of secondaries on primaries is possible. A shallow root quality beverage, immature and overripe fruits yield
system comprises a main taproot and lateral and small defective, low-quality beans.21 Because coffee fruits on the
feeder roots. The feeder roots of C. arabica trees pen- same plant usually do not reach ripeness at the same time,
etrate relatively deep into the soil, whereas C. canephora harvesting usually begins when the majority of fruits are
trees have feeder roots concentrated very close to the ripe. This process can occur manually or mechanically.
soil’s surface.3,11 Manual harvesting may be performed by picking cher-
Coffee is a short day plant, and hence the floral initia- ries one by one or by stripping the twigs and collecting
tion takes place in conditions of 8–11 h of daylight. Tech- all fruits, including the ripe, immature, and overripe ones.
nically, the flowers form on the 1-year-old wood that is Mechanical harvesting is done either by shaking the trees
only slightly hardened. Pollination takes place within 6 h or by stripping the branches with an apparatus similar to
after flowering. The process of fertilization is completed a flexible comb.22,23 Compared to other methods, picking
within 24–48 h after pollination. After pollination, a fruit can be time-consuming and expensive in places where
develops into a 10- to 15-mm-long cherry containing two the required workforce is not readily available. However,
seeds (the coffee beans). The fruit comprises (1) the skin it tends to produce better-quality coffee beans compared
(epicarp or exocarp), which is a monocellular layer cov- to the other methods. The other methods yield a series
ered with a waxy substance that protects the fruit; it is of extrinsic and intrinsic defects derived from fruits at
usually red, dark pink, or yellow; (2) the pulp (mesocarp), different degrees of maturation as well as fermented or

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8 1.  COFFEE PLANT AND BEANS

oxidized fruits. Extrinsic defects are stones, husks, twigs, The wet processing is more sophisticated and tends
etc., that may be incorporated to the fruits during harvest- to generate a higher-quality beverage. There are many
ing. Intrinsic defects—considered to be the most relevant different versions of this method, but, in general, only
defects affecting cup quality—are immature beans, black ripe cherries are used. They can be selectively picked
beans, sour beans, black-immature beans, bored or insect- and separated mechanically or in flotation tanks. Sort-
damaged beans, and, less important, broken beans and ing is followed by mechanical (de)pulping, soaking,
other fruit tissues.21,23 and fermentation in a tank usually for 12–36 h. During
Not only is the degree of maturation of the coffee fermentation, which may occur naturally or with the
fruit important but avoiding undesirable contamination addition of microorganisms or enzymes, the remain-
with and growth of microorganisms, especially mold, ing pulp and silverskin are removed, acidity increases,
during harvesting, drying, and storage of the seeds is and pH may decrease to 4.5. The naked beans (parch-
critical as well. Such contamination may be detrimen- ment coffee) are then extensively washed in clean
tal not only to the sensory quality of the final bever- water tanks or in specific washing machines. Follow-
age but also—in the case of mycotoxin production—to ing this, the beans are dried in yards or on suspended
human health. Consequently, sweeping coffee (coffee (ventilated) tables; this is sometimes combined with
fruit found lying on the ground beneath coffee bushes, hot-air drying. After drying, the remaining part of the
detached during harvest or abscised during develop- hull often is mechanically removed [(de)hulled] after
ment) also is considered to be low quality and of lower washing. Wet processing frequently is used in places
market value because of contamination with and growth where coffee is harvested by manual picking, such as
of microorganisms.19,23 Colombia, Asia, and Central America,19,23,25–27 although
because of the higher market value various farms in
countries producing larger volumes, such as Brazil,
also have adopted it.
1.2.2 Processing The major difference between dry and wet process-
After harvesting, the fruits need to undergo primary ing is that in wet processing most of the material that
processing to separate the seeds from the rest of the fruit; involves the seeds is removed before drying, in addi-
then they are sorted according to the number and types tion to the silverskin, which is removed during and
of defects, size, etc., to assist in classifying and grading after the fermentation process. Alternatively, a method
the coffee lots.19 The most common methods for this pur- called semi-dry (or semi-washed), combining both dry
pose are known as the dry and wet methods. There are and wet methods, has been developed in Brazil. The
quite a few variations of both methods, depending on the method consists of washing and selecting the seeds
country and individual farm, but, in general, in the origi- in flotation tanks and (de)pulping as in the wet pro-
nal dry method (the first method ever used), harvested cess, excluding the fermentation step.19,23 Coffee seeds
seeds are parched by exposure to the sun in large yards treated by the dry and semi-dry processes, maintain-
(which may take from 1 to 2 weeks) and/or by air dryers ing the polysaccharide-rich silverskin, often are used in
until the moisture content is about 10–12% to avoid bac- espresso coffee blends because they tend to add more
teria and mold growth.23,24 Alternatively, seeds may be body and sweetness to the beverage than the wet pro-
washed and overripe seeds separated in floatation tanks. cessed seeds.23
Unless air dryers are available, low rainfall (or efficient After the beans are treated by either method, they are
protection from rain) during the harvesting period is stored or mechanically, manually, and/or electronically
very important to ensure a good-quality coffee.19,23 After sized and sorted to separate and count defective beans.
drying, fruits are cleaned and the dried pericarp, which This process may be followed by an additional sorting
consists of the endocarp, mesocarp, and epicarp (Figure with ultraviolet excitation to separate defects that may
1.2), is mechanically removed, leaving the mucilaginous be produced during both dry and wet processing and
material involving the seeds (silverskin) adhering to the that are very difficult to separate from healthy beans,
surface.19,20,23 Some authors suggest that the endocarp except for the fact that they show special fluorescence.
should not be peeled during this process. The dried peri- Figure 1.3 summarizes the steps in dry, semi-dry (or
carp is also popularly called the husk or dried cherry semi-wet/semi-washed) and wet methods used for the
pulp, and the name given to the process of mechanically primary processing of coffee.
removing the husk from dried coffee cherries is called Based on the results of the numbers and types of
(de)husking or (de)hulling. The product obtained after defects, sizes, etc., coffee lots are graded using various
the dry primary process is “natural” green coffee.19,23 international systems.19,23,25–27 After marketing, green
The dry method is commonly used in Brazil and Africa, coffee beans are ready to undergo roasting. They may
where sun and space are abundant and where stripping also be decaffeinated, steam-treated, or stored before
of the branches is also more common. roasting.

I.   INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL TEXT

 1.3  Summary Points 9

FIGURE 1.3  Coffee after harvesting: flow of the dry, wet, and semi-dry/semi-washed processes.

• A mong over 90 species in the Coffea genus, C. arabica

1.3  SUMMARY POINTS and C. canephora are the only commercially important
species in the world.
• C offee is the most consumed food product in the • The C. arabica species yields a beverage with superior
world, after water. quality compared to C. canephora.
• Coffee was originally grown in the shade of African • Harvesting and postharvesting methods used for the
forests, including on the islands of Madagascar and production of coffee beans play important roles in
Mauritius. aspects related to cup quality and health.

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10 1.  COFFEE PLANT AND BEANS

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