Long Term Evolution

What is LTE?:

Long-Term Evolution (LTE) of the UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access and Radio Access
Network is aimed at commercial deployment around 2010 timeframe. Goals for the
evolved system include support for high peak data rates, low latency, improved system
capacity and coverage, reduced operating costs, multi-antenna support, efficient support
for packet data transmission, flexible bandwidth operations and seamless integration with
existing 2G and 3G systems. LTE supports operations in Frequency Division Duplex
(FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) modes to provide operators with deployment
flexibility regarding spectrum allocation. Support for Half Duplex FDD is also included.

LTE can deliver peak rates exceeding 100Mbps (in a 20MHz channel – and up to
172Mbps using 2x2 Multiple In Multiple Out (MIMO)) using the Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) radio interface in the downlink and 50 Mbps (in a
20MHz channel) using Single Carrier- Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)
in the uplink. Developing in parallel, LTE and HSPA+ are expected to achieve similar
levels of spectral efficiency. Flexible and an efficient user of spectrum, LTE is
compatible with both Time Division Duplex (TDD) and Frequency Division Duplex
(FDD) operation. Latency is expected to be less than 100msec for call setup and to be
less than 5msec in radio access network (RAN) during data transfer, one of the operators
pioneering LTE.

What’s driving the need for LTE?:

The unprecedented take-up and demand for mobile broadband around the world, seeing
Connections jump from a few thousand in late 2006 to nearly 100M in early 2009, has
been the real driver and the need now for ever higher data rates and capacities.

LTE Technology:

Target performance objectives for LTE:

When the project to define the evolution of 3G networks was started, the following
targets were set by Network operators as the performance design objectives. It was
against these objectives that the different solutions were developed by various
organizations and then proposed to 3GPP. The 3GPP then had a study to consider the
proposals, evaluate the performance of each, and then make a recommendation for the
way forward that would form the basis of LTE.

Peak Data Rate :

- Instantaneous downlink peak data rate of 100 Mbps within a 20 MHz downlink
spectrum allocation (5bps/Hz)
 - Instantaneous uplink peak data rate of 50 Mbps (2.5 bps/Hz) within a 20MHz
uplink spectrum allocation

Control Plane Latency:

- Transition time of less than 100 ms from a camped state, such as Release 6 idle
mode, to an active state such as Release 6 CELL_DCH.
- Transition time of less than 50 ms between a dormant state such as Release 6
CELL _ PCH and an active state such as Release 6 CELL_DCH.

Control Plane Capacity:

At least 200 users per cell should be supported in the active state for spectrum allocations
up to 5MHz

User – Plane Latency:

- Less than 5ms in unload condition (ie. Single user with single data stream) for
small IP packet.

User Throughput:
- Downlink : average user throughput per MHz, 3 to 4 times Release 6 HSDPA
- Uplink: average user throughput per MHz, 2 to 3 times Release 6 Enhanced
Uplink

Spectrum Efficiency:
- Downlink: In a loaded network, target for spectrum efficiency (bits/sec/Hz/site), 3 to
4 times Release 6 HSDPA
- Uplink: In a loaded network, target for spectrum efficiency (bits/sec/Hz/site), 2 to 3
times Release 6 Enhanced Uplink

Mobility
- E-UTRAN should be optimized for low mobile speed from 0 to 15 km/h
- Higher mobile speed between 15 and 120 km/h should be supported with high
performance
- Mobility across the cellular network shall be maintained at speeds from 120 km/h to
350 km/h (or even up to 500 km/h depending on the frequency band)

Coverage
- Throughput, spectrum efficiency and mobility targets above should be met for 5 km
cells, and with a slight degradation for 30 km cells. Cells range up to 100 km should
not be precluded.

Further Enhanced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS)

- While reducing terminal complexity: same modulation, coding, multiple access
approaches and UE bandwidth than for unicast operation. Provision of simultaneous
dedicated voice and MBMS services to the user.
- Available for paired and unpaired spectrum arrangements.
Spectrum flexibility
- E-UTRA shall operate in spectrum allocations of different sizes, including 1.25
MHz, 1.6 MHz, 2.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz in both the uplink
and downlink. Operation in paired and unpaired spectrum shall be

Co-existence and Inter-working with 3GPP Radio Access Technology (RAT)

- Co-existence in the same geographical area and co-location with GERAN/UTRAN
on adjacent channels.
- E-UTRAN terminals supporting also UTRAN and/or GERAN operation should be
able to support measurement of, and handover from and to, both 3GPP UTRAN and
3GPP GERAN.
- The interruption time during a handover of real-time services between E-UTRAN
and UTRAN (or GERAN) should be less than 300 msec.

Architecture and migration

- Single E-UTRAN architecture
- The E-UTRAN architecture shall be packet based, although provision should be
made to support systems supporting real-time and conversational class traffic
- E-UTRAN architecture shall minimize the presence of "single points of failure"
- E-UTRAN architecture shall support an end-to-end QoS
- Backhaul communication protocols should be optimised

Radio Resource Management requirements

- Enhanced support for end to end QoS
- Efficient support for transmission of higher layers
- Support of load sharing and policy management across different Radio Access
Technologies

Complexity
- Minimize the number of options
- No redundant mandatory features
So we can see that LTE refers to a new radio access technology to deliver higher data
rates (50-100 MB/s), and fast connection times. The technology solution chosen by
3GPP uses OFDMA access technology, and MIMO technologies together with high
rate (64QAM) modulation. LTE uses the same principles as HSPA (in existing Release
6 3GPP networks) for scheduling of shared channel data, HARQ, and fast link
adaptation (AMC adaptive modulation and coding). This technology enables the
network to dynamically optimise for highest cell performance according to operator
demands (e.g. speed, capacity etc).

After evaluation of the different industry proposals, a recommendation was made to

adopt an OFDMA based approach as part of a completely new air interface. The
rationale for this was to chose ‘revolution’ rather than ‘evolution’ because in the long
term this new air interface would offer the required data rates with the ability to
implement in relatively low cost and power efficient hardware. It was felt that an
‘evolutionary’ approach based on further enhancement to WCDMA would be able to
meet the technical requirements, but the technology demands to implement this may
be unsuitable for mobile devices when considering power consumption, processing
power etc. The OFDM based technology offers a simpler implementation of the
required high speed data rates. The performance of the selected technology has been
modelled, and is predicted to meet the original requirements laid out in the LTE
requirements specification.

The key features of the LTE air interface are:

Downlink

• OFDMA based access, with QPSK, 16QAM 64QAM modulation

• Downlink multiplexing
• MIMO and transmit diversity
• MBM
• Scheduling, link adaptation, HARQ and measurements like in 3.5G

Uplink
• Single Carrier FDMA access, with BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK and 16QAM modulation
• Transmit diversity
• Scheduling, link adaptation, HARQ and measurements like in 3.5G
• Random Access Procedures

Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

• Employs multiple antennas at both the base station transmitter and terminal receiver
• If multiple antennas are available at the transmitter and receiver, the peak throughput
can be increased using a technique known as code re-use.

• Each channelization/scrambling code pair allocated for PDSCH transmission can

modulate up to M distinct data streams, where M is the number of transmit antennas.

• In principle, the peak throughput with code re-use is M times the rate achievable
with a single transmit antenna.

• Compared to the single antenna transmission scheme with a larger modulation

constellation to achieve the same rate, the code re-use technique may have a smaller
required Eb/No, resulting in overall improved system performance.

OFDMA is used to provide higher data rates than used in 3G through the use of a
wider transmission bandwidth. The 5 MHz channel is limiting for WCDMA data rates,
and use of a wider RF band (20 MHz) leads to group delay problems that limit data
rate. So, OFDM breaks down the 20 MHz band into many narrow bands (sub-
channels) that do not suffer from the same limitation. Each sub-channel is modulated
at an optimum data rate and then the bands are combined to give total data throughput.
Algorithms select the suitable sub-channels according to the RF environment,
interference, loading, quality of each channel etc. These are then re-allocated on a
burst by burst level (each sub- frame, or 1 ms). The OFDM frequencies in LTE have
been defined with a carrier spacing of 15 kHz. Each ‘resource block’ (that represents
an allocation of radio resource to be used for transmission) is a group of 12 adjacent
sub- carriers (therefore 180 kHz) and a slot length of 0.5 ms.

Key Features of LTE Air Interface:

Downlink:
- OFDMA based access with QPSK, 16QAM 64 QAM modulation
- Downlink Multiplexing
- MIMO transmit divfersity
- MBM
- Scheduling, Link adaptation, HARQ and measurements like in 3.5G

Uplink:
• Single Carrier FDMA access, with BPSK, QPSK, 8PSK and 16QAM modulation
• Transmit diversity
• Scheduling, link adaptation, HARQ and measurements like in 3.5G
• Random Access Procedures

Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

• Employs multiple antennas at both the base station transmitter and terminal receiver
• If multiple antennas are available at the transmitter and receiver, the peak throughput
can be increased using a technique known as code re-use.
• Each channelisation/scrambling code pair allocated for PDSCH transmission can
modulate up to M distinct data streams, where M is the number of transmit antennas.
• In principle, the peak throughput with code re-use is M times the rate achievable
with a single transmit antenna.
• Compared to the single antenna transmission scheme with a larger modulation
constellation to achieve the same rate, the code re-use technique may have a smaller
required Eb/No, resulting in overall improved system performance

OFDMA is used to provide higher data rates than used in 3G through the use of a
wider transmission bandwidth. The 5 MHz channel is limiting for WCDMA data rates,
and use of a wider RF band (20 MHz) leads to group delay problems that limit data
rate. So, OFDM breaks down the 20 MHz band into many narrow bands (sub-
channels) that do not suffer from the same limitation. Each sub-channel is modulated
at an optimum data rate and then the bands are combined to give total data throughput.
Algorithms select the suitable sub-channels according to the RF environment,
interference, loading, quality of each channel etc. These are then re-allocated on a
burst by burst level (each sub- frame, or 1 ms). The OFDM frequencies in LTE have
been defined with a carrier spacing of 15 kHz. Each ‘resource block’ (that represents
an allocation of radio resource to be used for transmission) is a group of 12 adjacent
sub- carriers (therefore 180 kHz) and a slot length of 0.5 ms. MIMO is an abbreviation
of “Multiple Input Multiple Output”. This is an antenna technology together with
signal processing that can increase capacity in radio link. In LTE, the user data is
separated into 2 data streams, and these are then fed to 2 separate TX antennas, and
received by 2 separate RX antenna. Thus the data is sent over 2 separate RF paths. The
algorithm used to split and then recombine the paths allows the system to make use of
the independence of these 2 paths (not the same RF losses and interference on both) to
get extra data throughput better than just sending the same data on 2 paths. This is
done by separating the data sets in both space and time. The received signals are then
processed to be able to remove the effects of signal interference on each, and thus
creating 2 separate signal paths that occupy the same RF bandwidth at the same time.
This will then give a theoretical doubling of achievable peak data rates and throughput
in perfect conditions where each RF path is completely isolated and separate from the
other path.

LTE Protocols and Signalling

When 3GPP started to develop the radio interface protocols of the Evolved UTRAN
the following initial assumptions were made:
• Simplification of the protocol architecture and the actual protocols
• No dedicated channels, and hence a simplified MAC layer (without MAC-d entity)
• Avoiding similar functions between Radio and Core network.

LTE Physical Layer Channel Structure

The E-UTRAN has been designed as part of an “all IP network”, see the section on
SAE for more details. But, some basic consequences from this are that there are no
longer any circuit switched elements in the network, everything is now packet based.
Further, the use of shared and broadcast channels that are introduced in earlier versions
of 3GPP (e.g. HSDPA, HSUPA, MBMS) are re-used in LTE. In fact, the design is
based fully on shared and broadcast channels, and there are no longer any dedicated
channels to carry data to specific users. This is to increase efficiency of the air
interface, as the network can control the use of the air interface resources according to
the real time demand from each user, and no longer has to allocate fixed levels of
resource to each user independent of real time data requirements.

The protocol stack for LTE is based on a standard SS7 signalling model, as used with
3GPP W-CDMA networks today. In this model, in layer 3 the Non Access Stratum
(NAS) is connected to the logical channels. These logical channels provide the
services and functions required by the higher layers (NAS) to deliver the applications
and services. The logical channels are then mapped onto transport channels in Layer 2,
using the RRC elements. These provide control and management for the flow of the
data, such as re-transmission, error control, and prioritisation. User data is managed in
Layer 2 by the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) entity. The air interface and
physical layer connection is then controlled and managed by the Layer 1, using RLC
and MAC entities and the PHY layer. Here the transport channels are mapped into the
physical channels that are transmitted over the air.
LTE radio channels are separated into 2 types, physical channels and physical signals.
A physical channel corresponds to a set of resource elements carrying information
originating from higher layers (NAS) and is the interface defined between 36.212 and
36.211. A physical signal corresponds to a set of resource elements used only by the
physical layer (PHY) but does not carry information originating from higher layers.

Based on the above architecture, the downlink consists of 5 physical channels and 2
physical signals:

Downlink Physical Channels

1. Physical broadcast channel (PBCH)
The coded BCH transport block is mapped to four subframes within a 40 ms interval,
40 ms timing is blindly detected, i.e. there is no explicit signalling indicating 40 ms
timing.

Each subframe is assumed to be self-decodable, i.e the BCH can be decoded from a
single reception, assuming sufficiently good channel conditions.

2. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH)

Informs the UE about the number of OFDM symbols used for the
PDCCHs;Transmitted in every subframe.
3. Physical downlink control channel (PDCCH)
Informs the UE about the resource allocation, and hybrid-ARQ information related to
DL-SCH, and PCH. Carries the uplink scheduling grant.

4. Physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH)

Carries the DL-SCH. This contains the actual user data.
5. Physical multicast channel (PMCH)
Carries the MCH. This is used to broadcast services on MBMS.

Downlink Physical signals

1. Reference signal
2. Synchronization signal

The corresponding uplink consists of 4 physical channels and 2 physical signals:

Uplink Physical Channels

1. Physical uplink control channel (PUCCH)
Carries ACK/NAKs in response to downlink transmission. Carries CQI reports.

2. Physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH)

Carries the UL-SCH. This contains the user data.
3. Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) Carriers ACK/NAKs in
response to uplink transmissions.
4. Physical random access channel (PRACH)
Carries the random access preamble.

Uplink Physical Signals

1. Demodulation reference signal, associated with transmission of PUSCH or
PUCCH.
2. Sounding reference signal, not associated with transmission of PUSCH or PUCCH.

So we can see that both the uplink and downlink are composed of a shared channel (to
carry the data) together with its associated control channel. In addition there is a
downlink common control channel that provides non user data services (broadcast of
cell information, access control etc…).

Within the LTE protocol stack, the physical layer channels (described above) are
mapped through to the higher layers via the functions of the MAC and RLC layers of
the protocol stack. This is shown below for both the user plane and control plane data.
Here we can see the simplification of the network due to the SAE architecture
discussed previously. The eNB is responsible for managing the air interface and flow
control of the data, and the aGW is responsible for the higher layer control of user data
within PDCP and NAS services.

LTE transport channel structure

Having now defined the physical layer channels, and the requirements of the higher
layers in the protocol stack, we can now take a look at the transport channels types in
EUTRAN, which are defined as follows:

Downlink transport channel types are:

• Broadcast Channel (BCH) characterised by:

- fixed, pre-defined transport format;
- requirement to be broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell

• Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) characterised by:

- support for HARQ;
- support for dynamic link adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit
power;
- possibility to be broadcast in the entire cell;
- possibility to use beamforming;
- support for both dynamic and semi-static resource allocation;
- support for UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving;
- support for MBMS transmission (FFS).
• Paging Channel (PCH) characterised by:
- support for UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving (DRX
cycle is indicated by the network to the UE);
- requirement to be broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell;
- mapped to physical resources which can be used dynamically also for traffic/other
control channels.

• Multicast Channel (MCH) characterised by:

- requirement to be broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell;
- support for SFN combining of MBMS transmission on multiple cells;
- support for semi-static resource allocation e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
prefix.

Uplink transport channel types are:

• Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) characterised by:
- possibility to use beamforming; (likely no impact on specifications)
- support for dynamic link adaptation by varying the transmit power and potentially
modulation and coding;
- support for HARQ;
- support for both dynamic and semi-static resource allocation.

• Random Access Channel(s) (RACH) characterised by:

- limited control information; collision risk;

LTE Logical channel structure

To complete the channel mapping, the transport channels are mapped onto the logical
channels in the protocol stack. These logical channels then provide the functionality to
the higher layers in the protocol stack, and they are specified in terms of the higher
layer services which they support. Each logical channel type is defined by what type of
information is transferred. In general, the logical channels are split into two groups:

1. Control Channels (for the transfer of control plane information);

2. Traffic Channels (for the transfer of user plane information).

Control channels are used for transfer of control plane information only. The control
channels are:
• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
A downlink channel for broadcasting system control information.
• Paging Control Channel (PCCH)
A downlink channel that transfers paging information. This channel is used when the
network does not know the location cell of the UE.
• Common Control Channel (CCCH)
• Multicast Control Channel (MCCH)
A point-to-multipoint downlink channel used for transmitting MBMS control
information from the network to the UE, for one or several MTCHs. This channel is
only used by UEs that receive MBMS.
• Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
A point-to-point bi-directional channel that transmits dedicated control information
between a UE and the network. Used by UEs when they have an RRC connection.

Traffic channels are used for the transfer of user plane information only. The traffic
channels are:
• Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH)
A Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) is a point-to-point channel, dedicated to one
UE, for the transfer of user information. A DTCH can exist in both uplink and
downlink.

• Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH)

A point-to-multipoint downlink channel for transmitting traffic data from the network
to the UE. This channel is only used by UEs that receive MBMS.
Advances in Technology:
Optimizing digital signal processing algorithms and advances in antenna technologies
will push the air interface’s spectral efficiency ever closer to its theoretical limits.
Improved IP transport (pervasive Gbit Ethernet) and QoS assurance technologies boost
packet-centric networks’ data and voice performance, efficiency and carrier-grade
reliability. Together with advances in IP integration in network equipment and
implementation of spectrally efficient VoIP techniques, this all will soon make the all-IP
vision a reality. LTE/SAE enables operators to implement all services on a single IP-
centric, purely packet based network. This will make IP applications as genuinely mobile
as voice is in today’s mobile networks. These advances, alongside a simplified
architecture, will also reduce operational expenditures and, consequently the network’s
lifecycle costs.

While many consumers have no particular interest in technology, they do expect

unimpeded access to the Internet and personalized services, at anytime and in any place.
Today’s residential broadband access shapes consumers’ expectations of Internet access
and their perceptions of network performance This perceived network performance, in
turn, is formed by a blend of the peak user data rate, average user throughput, cell
throughput, signaling delays, and user data latency. One of the keys to differentiating
mobile products is boosting perceived mobile broadband performance.

Air Interface Performance and Flexibility:

Driving down cost per MB entails improving the air interface’s efficiency and
applicability by:
• Increasing spectrum efficiency and cell edge bit rates, and flexibly allocating bandwidth
by making the most of available spectrum
• Operating in the 3G spectrum – if necessary, alongside a 3G system – and in soon-to-be
assigned new spectrum
• Gearing up to re-farm frequency bands such as GSM and possibly operating in lower
frequency bands to exploit spectrum options and to maximize coverage at lower
investment, especially in rural areas with lower traffic density. Re-farming GSM and
CDMA requires a solution suitable for small bandwidth allocations, as operators probably
cannot release much spectrum from the beginning due to legacy GSM or CDMA traffic.
• Reducing the latency of user data transmitted over the air interface in order to reduce
the overall download times of Web pages and thus improve the overall throughput on the
application level
• Supporting fast service access to minimize system load and maximize the number of
simultaneously served users Major operators formulated their expectations for the LTE
air interface performance in a whitepaper [1]:
• High spectral efficiency (3-4 times that of HSPA Rel 6 in DL and 2-3 times that of
HSPA Rel 6 in UL) and cell edge performance
• High peak data rate >100 Mbps in DL and >50 Mbps in UL for 20 MHz bandwidth•
Low latency (round trip delays below 20 ms)
• Flexible and scalable bandwidth deployable in all IMT2000 spectrum (450 MHz up to
2.6 GHz) both for paired (FDD) and unpaired (TDD) frequency bands.