A GUIDE TO ROCK CORE LOGGING

Mr Darshan LECKRAZ
Lecturer

Université des Mascareignes

 A GUIDE TO CORE LOGGING FOR ROCK ENGINEERING

A guide for the logging of borehole core for rock engineering purposes is proposed. General
acceptance of such a guide ensures that core logs will generally contain meaningful
descriptions of the rock mass parameters most significant in rock engineering problems. The
use of defined terms and format ensures that any reader of the log will have an appreciation
of the original appearance of the core, and in particular those aspects important to rock
engineering. The proposed guide takes due cognizance of existing accepted systems of soil
and rock mass description or classification and attempts to remain compatible with these
wherever feasible.

Only those parameters which are commonly of interest in rock engineering are described.
Qualitative descriptions depending only on visual inspection and simple mechanical field
tests are used.
Primary core descriptions include descriptions of colour, weathering, fabric, discontinuity
surface spacing, hardness, rock name and stratigraphic horizon. This is followed, where
required, by a description of the discontinuity surfaces including their type, separation,
fracture filling (presence or absence), roughness and orientation.

If significant an additional description of the nature of the fracture filling including moisture,
colour, consistency or hardness, soil or rock type and origin is added. The significance of
each of these parameters with respect to engineering behaviour is discussed and standard
descriptive terms defined.

Other information commonly recorded on the borehole log, such as drilling method and
size, core recovery, RQD, fracture frequency and standard tests are reviewed and
techniques of presentation are suggested.

Recommendations are made for the handling and storage of rock cores.

Some useful techniques for the logging of core are discussed.

1 INTRODUCTION
Purpose
(a) It should be sufficiently detailed to ensure that the resulting core log contains enough
information to enable reliable interpretations of geological and rock engineering conditions
for most typical engineering structures
(b) It should not be so complex as to render its use impractical or unnecessarily
cumbersome
(c) It must take due regard of such standardized procedures as may already exist and, where
feasible, incorporate these with a minimum of variations. A distinction is drawn between
the borehole log and the core log. The borehole log includes a description of relevant data
applicable to the drilling of the borehole and to the core recovered. It includes information
on the drilling machine, tools and materials used, progress, difficulties encountered and
tests performed. Part of the borehole log is the core log which is purely a description of the
recovered core.

Core log
A core log cannot be considered in isolation from the borehole login which it is to be
included and the parameters comprising the borehole log are therefore also given brief
consideration. The preparation of a core and borehole log presupposes that an adequate
driller's record is available.
The complexity of rock, as a variable material subject to fractures and weathering, and its
complicated inter-related behaviour with the structures formed in or on it, has resulted in
the development of a large variety of descriptive systems for logging cores. These systems
vary considerably both in the degree of complexity and nature of the parameters described.
Of necessity, the guide proposed by this Committee cannot include for all possible
eventualities and in the interest of usability has been kept as simple as possible. Only those
parameters which are commonly of interest in rock engineering are described using
qualitative descriptions dependent only on visual inspection and simple mechanical field
tests. Where a specific investigation requires the description of additional parameters or the
use of other specific or more detailed classifications or descriptions of properties, these may
be added to the suggested core log. The adoption of the proposed guide ensures that
descriptions of the most commonly required rock mass parameters are included in the log in
accordance with a set of standard descriptions, the interpretation of which is known to
anyone.

2 PROPOSED METHOD OF CORE LOGGING

The purpose of the core log is to enable the person reading the log to visualize the cores (as
seen by the compiler of the log) and hence to draw inferences on the likely behaviour of the
actual rock mass. Only those parameters which are significant to the rock mass behaviour or
which enable correlations between boreholes to be made or give a better understanding of
the general geology of the site are recorded. Whenever possible, classifications with five
class intervals are adopted since the extremes, middle and two intermediate values of such
a group are often self-evident. Class interval limits are defined using visual criteria or simple
field tests with equipment commonly carried by the core logger (knife, geological pick, etc.).
Many boreholes start in soil or pass through soil strata. Descriptions of these soil horizons
form an integral part of the borehole log.
The adoption of a system of core description which is similar and compatible with the soils
system would be a tremendous advantage. With such similar compatible systems the logger
and reader would not be required to work to a "different set of rules" or terms of reference
when comparing the soil and rock of a profile. Unfortunately, the soil profiling system was
not developed with rock descriptions in mind, and its simple extension into rock does not
produce an adequate rock mass description. It has therefore been necessary to modify and
adapt the soil profiling system for its application to rock. The resulting system is compatible
with the soil profiling system but varies considerably in detail.

The core description includes not only the description of rock material, but also the
discontinuity surfaces that occur through it and the fracture filling materials. It is recognised
that while discontinuity surfaces and their filling are of great importance to rock mass
behaviour they are often given a secondary role in the rock core description. A core
description comprising three parts is therefore proposed:
(1) The primary description is that of the parameters affecting the basic rock mass
properties.
(2) To supplement the above a description of the discontinuity surfaces may be given.
(3) Finally, a description of the fracture filling may be relevant.

Depending on the nature of the engineering problem, a decision may be made to describe
only (1), the basic rock mass parameters, alternatively two or all three parts of description
may be required. The core log should be a factual description of the core. Any interpretation
or assessments on the part of the core logger should clearly be distinguished from the
factual information. It is recognised that assessments and interpretations are best made
when actually looking at the core in its fresh and least disturbed state.

The logger of the core is therefore often in a very favourable position to make such
assessments and interpretations and to exclude these from the core log is to reduce the
value of the log. Such interpretations or assessments should be included in parentheses,
following the factual core description.

2.1 Description of the Primary Rock Mass Parameters

In the description of the rock mass, six basic parameters were selected as being of primary
importance for rock engineering purposes. These are illustrated in Table 1 in which they are
compared with the descriptive parameters chosen for soil descriptions.

Definitions of each of these parameters are given in the following sub-sections. It is

recommended that all the parameters be described even in situations where one or more
do not appear to be significant at the time of logging. It is not intended that the logger
should accept that these are the only rock mass parameters which are significant and which
are to be described. In specific applications other parameters may be of equal and greater
importance and should be included in the descriptions. The inclusion of such additional
parameters and the definitions of their application is left to the specialist core logger in
question. He should, however, indicate clearly the additions to the core log that he is
making.

2.1.1 Colour
Colour is one of the most obvious characteristics of a rock stratum and therefore one of the
most basic and useful in the description of a rock to both the specialist and layman alike. It
often provides A guide to core logging for rock engineering an excellent guide for rock strata
correlation and may be used to identify various "marker" horizons. Colour variation is a
primary indication of weathering.

Colour is usually one of the most variable of rock characteristics and a single rock type may
exhibit a large range of colours. Nevertheless, when judiciously used, it will afford a valuable
indication as to the probable nature and composition of the rock.

Colours of igneous rocks are related to their rock forming minerals, the light coloured
minerals, quartz, feldspar and felspathoids giving rise, for instance, to granite and syenite,
while dark rock forming minerals mica, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine give rise, for
instance, to dolerite and gabbro.

The colour of shales and slates generally result from a pigmentation of some kind, which
may be carbonaceous material or iron oxide. The colour difference in these rocks often
reflects only the state of oxidation of the iron produced by the process of weathering. Since
colour varies with moisture content it is essential that all colours are described at a known
moisture content. It is recommended therefore that core should be wet when described.
Where descriptions are made of core at other moisture contents this should be described as
dry, slightly moist, moist, wet, very wet.

To ensure that surfaces are representative of the rock material only recently broken
surfaces should be used for the description. Surfaces altered by weathering, contaminants
or surface abrasion should be avoided. It is usually good practice to wash the core before
commencing core description. Every colour sensation comprises two dominant qualities;
each of which may vary without disturbing the other

Colour descriptions should be kept as simple as possible and the actual terms used should,
where possible, correspond with those on accepted colour charts. The use of the Munsell
Colour Chart is recommended. The rock colour is its predominant colour i.e. brown, green,
red, pink, khaki.

Where a secondary colour is also evident this colour can be included in the description as an
adjective i.e. reddish brown, greyish green, yellowish khaki. Where significant, the colour
should be further amplified by using the following descriptions for value: very light, light,
medium, dark, very dark i.e. dark reddish brown, light yellowish khaki. In many rock types
especially igneous and metamorphic rocks, the rock texture may give rise to an ill defined or
variable colour. In these cases the colour of the dominant minerals or the overall ground
mass should be described and the colours of secondary features should be described
separately. The secondary colouration usually has a characteristic geometric pattern which
may be described by one of the following terms:

• banded approximately parallel bands of varying colour

• streaked randomly orientated streaks of colour
• blotched large irregular patches of colour ( >75 mm ø)
• mottled irregular patches of colour
• speckled very small, less than 10 mm diameter, patches of colour
• stained local colour variations associated with other features, i.e. bedding, joints,
etc.

An example: Light greenish grey speckled black and streaked white. The colour of inclusions
such as lenses, veins, vesicles, amygdales or discrete and large crystals should also be
described if they are considered to be significant features, e.g. dark greyish brown mottled
white with pink veins.

2.1.2 Weathering
Weathering of rocks takes place under the influence of the hydrosphere and the
atmosphere as a result of their instability in environments which differ from those in which
they were formed. It is a process of alteration by means of mechanical, chemical and
biological action which drastically affects the engineering properties of both the rock
material and the rock mass. Some of the more important effects of weathering on rock is
the decrease in strength, density and volumetric stability and the increase in deformability,
porosity and weatherability.

Weathering normally starts at the earth's surface but its development and extent depend on
a large number of variables, the most important of which are the rock types, climatic
environment and rock fabric. The zones of weathering are often very irregular and variable
over small distances. As it is not intended to describe or define the mechanisms of
decomposition or disintegration, the more general term "weathering" is used throughout.
The definitions of weathering are as follows:
Unweathered - No visible signs of alteration in the rock material out fracture planes may be
stained or discoloured.
Slightly weathered - Fractures are stained or discoloured and may contain a thin filling of
altered material. Discolouration may extend into the rock from the fracture planes to a
distance of up to 20% of the fracture spacing (i.e. less than 4o% of the core is discoloured).
Medium weathered - Slight discolouration extends from fracture planes for a distance
greater than 20% of the fracture spacing (i.e. generally greater part of the rock). Fractures
may contain filling of altered material. The surface of the core is not friable (except in the
case of poorly cemented sedimentary rocks) and the original texture of the rock has been
preserved. Partial opening of grain boundaries may be observed.
Highly weathered - Discolouration extends throughout the rock. The surface of the core is
friable and usually pitted due to washing out of highly altered minerals by drilling water. The
original texture of the rock has mainly been preserved but separation of grains has
occurred.
Completely weathered - The rock is totally discoloured and the external appearance of the
core is that of a soil. Internally the rock texture is partly preserved but grains have
completely separated.

Note that the boundary between soil and rock is defined in terms of strength or hardness
and not in terms of weathering.

Only those sections of core which are present in the core box can be described out any core
loss must be considered. The degree of weathering observed is not always representative of
the section under consideration. Other properties of the rock such as rock type, core
recovery, rock strength, fracture spacing and condition must be taken into account in
combination with the degree of weathering to determine the true condition of the section.
An approximate guide is presented in Table 2.
Where slaking of the core is observed or suspected its nature and degree should be
recorded after the description of the basic parameters. Where the assessed condition of the
rock intersected in a drill run differs from that observed in the core this should be noted at
the end of the core description.

An example: Grey slightly weathered fine grained medium jointed hard rock dolerite. (Core
loss and fracture filling suggest rock mass is highly weathered to spheroidal boulders. 50%
boulders + 50% matrix not recovered)

2.1.3 Fabric
Fabric is the term used to describe the micro structural and textural features of the rock
material. It is these structural or textural features which affect rock material behaviour and
would therefore be accounted for in the testing of laboratory samples. Larger structural
features are termed discontinuity surfaces2 . These are of such a scale that their effects
cannot be determined on laboratory specimens and they are not considered to affect the
rock material properties but influence rock mass properties. Fabric description can usefully
be subdivided into two parts, namely texture and micro structure.
(i) Texture
Rocks are composed of assemblages of minerals. The arrangement and size of
the individual grains of these minerals give the rock an individual form or texture.
Since the size or arrangement of the individual minerals can affect the physical
properties of the rock such as permeability or angle of internal friction, it is
necessary to describe them so that their engineer- log significance can be
assessed. The most noticeable textural feature is grain size. The majority of
sedimentary rock names imply a grain size distribution and therefore a formal
classification equivalent to that of soil" particle size is not considered to be
necessary. The obvious exceptions are the sandstones where a grain size
qualification is considered to be valuable. A five-fold grain size classification has
been chosen based on visual identification using a hand lens. For metamorphic
and igneous rocks the same reasoning is applicable, with a grain size qualification
only being necessary in the coarser grained rocks. The suggested terminology
and grain sizes are given in Table 3.
(ii) Micro Structure
Many rock types exhibit a definite structure characteristic of their origin. For
example, bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, foliations in metamorphic rocks
and flow banding in igneous rocks. These preferentially oriented features impart
to the rock material a distinct anisotropy of physical properties. It is therefore
usually necessary to include their description in the core log. It is recognised that
the scale of many of these features varies from very small (and can therefore be
evaluated as affecting rock material properties in the laboratory) to very large
(affecting rock mass behaviour which cannot be measured by laboratory testing).
The smaller scale features are therefore considered to be part of the fabric of the
rock material while the larger scale features form part of the discontinuity
surface pattern of the rock mass. The boundary between micro structure and
discontinuity surface spacing is defined here as a feature spacing of 10 mm. It is
proposed that the terms defined in Table 4 be used.
 For very coarse grained rock the average grain size may be recorded.
2.1.4 Discontinuity Surface Spacing
Discontinuity surface is defined as any surface across which some property for a rock mass is
discontinuous. This includes fracture surfaces, weakness planes and bedding planes. The
term is restricted only to mechanical continuity.

Fracture is the general term for any mechanical discontinuity in the rock; it is therefore the
collective term for joints faults, cracks etc.

Joint is a break of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock occurring either singly,
or more frequently in a set or system, but not attended by a visible movement parallel to
the surface of discontinuity.

Discontinuity surfaces include two major categories. Firstly features characteristic of the
origin of the rock such as bedding, foliations and flow bands, and secondly features
occurring as a result of tectonic rupture (fractures) such as joints, faults and shear-zones.

It is recognised that rock mass behaviour is influenced and often controlled by the
discontinuities that occur within in. It is therefore necessary to include a description of these
features in the core log. In the primary rock mass description only the discontinuity surface
spacing is indicated. Where a more detailed description of the discontinuity surfaces is
required this is given separately following the primary rock mass description.

The proposed description of discontinuity surface spacing is given in Table 4.

In the determination of discontinuity surface spacing only natural discontinuities are
included. In some instances it may be necessary to record separately the spacing of man
made fractures such as those caused by blasting.

Where discontinuity surfaces are parallel or sub-parallel the spacing is taken in the direction
normal to the surface orientation.

An example of the two-fold spacing description could be "thinly bedded, widely fractured".
This description would apply to a rock mass of sedimentary origin with a bedding plane
spacing of 30 mm to 100 mm and a spacing between other natural breaks, most probably
joints, of 300 mm - 1 000 mm.

Where the end terms are used the actual spacing should be placed behind the description
e.g. very thickly banded (1,8 m) or very intensely laminated (0,5 mm).

2.1.5 Rock Hardness

In rock engineering, the rock material strength plays a dominant role. Excavation methods,
permissible bearing pressures and tunnel support requirements are usually directly related
to this rock property. Rock mass strength is determined not only by the strength of the rock
material but also by the discontinuities occurring in the mass. Rock hardness, defined as the
resistance to indentation or scratching may be used as an index type test which provides
some measure of rock material strength.
Knowing the rock type and rock material hardness, it is possible for the experienced
engineer or engineering geologist to make fairly accurate estimates on rock material
strength. These can be readily verified by uniaxial compressive strength or point load tests.

In view of the ease of testing and the portability of the point load test apparatus, the
extensive use of point load tests, as a more precise index of strength is recommended for
field use on samples with a strength of more than 25 MPa.
Experience has shown that there are two distinct ranges of rock material strength required.
The engineer responsible for the design of foundations or slope stability, where stress levels
are usually low, is generally particularly interested in obtaining a fairly close subdivision in
the lower strength ranges7 . The mining or tunnelling engineer on the other hand, working
in environments where stress concentrations are greater and where excavation tools and
techniques are of great importance, generally requires a close subdivision in the higher
strength ranges8 . To accommodate the small subdivision of the range at both ends of the
scale it is necessary to adopt six classifications in the range of rock material hardness. These
are defined in Table 5.
These classifications and their possible uniaxial compressive strength ranges are also shown
on Figure 1.
2.1.6 Rock Type and Stratigraphic Horizon
Rock name or type is most significant in core logging. Not only does it identify the rock but it
also provides an immediate picture of the likely engineering behaviour of the rock.

Problems posed by construction on, in or through mudstone, schist, dolerite or granite are
vastly different. From previous experience the design engineer may recognise the effect that
weathering produces on mudstones on exposure; he may identify the problems caused by
sound dolerite boulders in a soft clay matrix; he would appreciate the significance of widely
spaced weak joints in a massive granite. It is recommended that the individual core logger
should identify and classify rock cores in terms of standard conventions.

Rocks are classified chemically, petrographically or in terms of their origin, depending on the
purpose of the classification. When classified in terms of origin, there are three rock types,
namely igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Standard classification charts for igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, usually based on mineralogy and texture, are readily
available in most geological textbooks.

From an examination of the rock core, and knowing the regional geology, it is relatively easy
to make the primary division and to apply a purely descriptive name to the rock. Simple
descriptive names are usually sufficient. More precise identification may have to be
accomplished with a microscope.

The stratigraphic horizon from which the core was taken is often of engineering significance;
for example the slaking characteristics of the Beaufort mudstones. It also indicates what
other rock types that may·be anticipated on the site. The stratigraphic horizon is recorded
following the rock type. It is usually sufficient to record this once per core log.

Examples of the primary core rock descriptions are:

(i) Light yellowish green streaked grey unweathered intensely laminated widely
fractured medium hard rock mudstone, Ecca Group, Karoo Supergroup9 .
(ii) Dark greyish green speckled white slightly weathered very fine grained medium
fractured very hard rock amygdaloidal andesite, Ventersdorp Supergroup.

2.2 Description of the Discontinuity Surfaces

The engineering behaviour of rock masses is often controlled by the discontinuity surfaces
which occur within them. Discontinuity surface frequency or spacing is often the most
effective feature to use singly to convey the effect of the discontinuities on rock mass
behaviour. It is therefore selected for inclusion in the primary rock mass description. It is not
necessarily the most significant feature controlling rock mass behaviour of any particular
type.· The extent of joints and their separation may control permeability while orientation
and fracture filling may be more significant to shear failure.

Depending on the nature of the engineering problem for which the core logging is being
done, a number of other discontinuity surface features may be described in the core log.
These are:
(i) Discontinuity surface type- or origin
(ii) Separation - of fracture walls
(iii) Filling - its presence or absence
(iv) Roughness -or the nature of the asperities on the fractures
(v) Orientation

In view of the disturbance of fracture filling and core orientation in the drilling process and
the limited extent of any discontinuity surface exposed in the core, the accuracy or validity
of the discontinuity surface descriptions made from core is often dubious. The use of special
drilling techniques (core orientation) or exploratory methods (down-the-hole periscope or
cameras) may be warranted.

The primary description of the rock mass properties may be followed by a description of the
discontinuity surfaces which occur within it, which is in turn may be followed by a
description of the fracture filling. Where individual discontinuity surfaces are recognisable
as significant features, such as faults, shear zones or narrow dykes, they may be described
singly. Where they are observed to fall into distinct groups, that is, joint sets, with distinctly
different group properties, each group may be described separately.

The extent and complexity of the discontinuity surface description is at the discretion of the
core logger. Sufficient detail should be included to enable a valid assessment of the rock
mass behaviour to be made for the specific engineering problem at hand, but unnecessary
and often costly detail should be avoided. It should be borne in mind that the cost of logging
is small by comparison with the cost of recovering the core and that the core log is often
more durable than the core.

2.21 Discontinuity Surface Type

Discontinuity surfaces are any surfaces across which there is a discontinuity of physical
properties. Only those surfaces which have occurred as a result of natural geological
processes are described. Fractures resulting from the drilling process or subsequent to core
removal from the borehole are not described.

The properties of a discontinuity surface (extent, separation, filling, roughness, waviness

and orientation) are often characteristic of its origin. Recognition of surface type in terms of
its origin can therefore be extremely useful. For example bedding planes clearly have a
much greater extent than cross joints in the same sedimentary rock.

Classification of discontinuity surfaces from the information contained in the core is usually
limited to the more obvious surface types.
These may be divided into two main categories:
(i) Discontinuity surfaces originating during the rock forming processes such as
bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, flow banding in igneous rocks, foliation in
metamorphic rocks and lithological contacts between rocks of different types or
ages. Such discontinuity surfaces are usually of great extent with considerable
uniformity of properties.
(ii) Fractures due to local overstress of the rock material producing rupture surfaces.
The stress source may be tectonic, producing shear or tension joints, normal,
thrust or transverse faults or shear zones. Where such tectonic joints occur in
sedimentary rocks they are often referred to collectively as bedding joints or
cross joints depending on whether they are parallel to or cut across bedding
planes. Where stress occurs as a result of overburden removal or cooling,
exfoliation and cooling joints result. Where fracturing has been accompanied by
the intrusion of magma or the deposition of secondary materials, terms such as
dykes, sills and veins may be appropriate.

The competent core logger should be aware of the different discontinuity surface types and
be able to associate with each its origin and typical properties.

Discontinuity surfaces may occur singly (such as geological contacts) or in multiple sets (such
as joint sets). Single features should be described individually while multiple features may
be described collectively.
2.2.2 Separation
The separation between fracture surfaces controls the extent to which the opposing
surfaces can interlock. In the absence of interlocking of the fracture walls the fracture filling
controls entirely the shear strength along the fracture. As the fracture separation decreases
the asperities of the fracture walls tend to become more interlocked and both the filling and
rock material contribute to the fracture shear strength.

The shear strength along the fracture is therefore dependant on the degree of separation,
presence or absence of filling materials, nature of asperities or roughness of the fracture
walls and the nature of the filling material. The first three of these are included in the
discontinuity surface description. The latter is included, where necessary, in a description of
the filling material which follows the discontinuity surface description.

The effect of degree of separation and filling can be classified as follows:

(i) With no separation (no filling) the sliding plane passes entirely through or along
wall rock: the shear strength is entirely dependent on the properties of the wall
rock.
(ii) Slight separation (filling appears as a stain): The filling or separation is considered
only as modifying the friction angle
(iii) Appreciable separation (filling measurably thick) but still appreciable interlocking
of the wall asperities: The shear strength will be a complex combination of filling
and all rock material strengths.
(iv) Complete separation with no interlock of wall asperities: the filling material
determines the fracture shear strength. The suggested terminology for the
separation of fracture walls is shown in Table 6.

2.2.3 Fracture filling (Presence or Absence)

All materials occurring between the fracture walls are referred to as fracture filling. The
term includes in-situ weathered materials, fault zone materials and foreign materials either
deposited or intruded between the fracture surfaces.

Only the presence or absence of fracture filling is noted in the discontinuity surface
description. Where applicable a separate description of the fracture filling is given after the
discontinuity surface description.
The suggested terminology to be used to indicate the present or absence of fracture filling
materials is given in Table 7.

2.2.4 Roughness
Asperities which occur on fracture walls interlock, if the fractures are clean and closed, and
inhibit shear movement along the mean fracture surface. This restraint on movement is of
two types. Small high angle asperities are sheared off during shear displacement and
effectively increase the peak shear strength of the fracture. Such asperities are termed
roughness. Large low angle asperities cannot be sheared off and "ride" over one another
during shear displacement, changing the initial direction of shear displacement. Such large
order asperities are termed waviness and cannot be reliably measured in core.

Roughness asperities usually have a base length and amplitude measured in terms of
millimetres and are readily apparent on a core sized exposure of a fracture. The applicable
descriptive terms are defined in Table 8.

Where slickensides are observed the direction of the slickensides should be recorded after
the standard discontinuity surface description.

2.2.5 Orientation
The two necessary and sufficient conditions for the definition of the orientation of a
particular plane are its dip and dip direction.

There are at present a number of specialised methods that can be used to obtain the dip
and dip direction of discontinuity surfaces in drill core. One method is to remove an
orientated core from the rock mass using a special core orienter barrel. Alternatively the
discontinuity surface orientation can be measured in the wall of the borehole using an
orientated borehole periscope, camera or devices capable of taking an impression so the
borehole sides. Where a feature of known dip and dip direction, i.e. bedding, intersects the
core at an angle this may be used to orientate the core. A further method requires the
presence of at least one easily identifiable marked band and the use of a minimum of three
boreholes. This latter method enables three dimensional geometry, usually aided by
stereographic projection, to be used to establish the attitude of the maker horizons. The
above methods are costly and are only employed where the attitude of the discontinuity is
critical to the solution of the problem.

The dip of a particular surface is the maximum angle between the plane containing the
surface and the horizontal and is recorded in degrees from 0 to 90 degrees .

The dip direction is the compass bearing, from true north, of the direction of maximum dip
and is recorded in degrees (e.g. 045 and not NE) measured clockwise from north. A
complete definition of the orientation of any one surface is given by recording the dip and
dip direction, for example: 30deg at 036deg would indicate a surface dipping at 30 deg from
the horizontal with the direction of maximum dip having an orientation of 36o measured
clockwise from true north. A note should be made when the reading refers to true or
magnetic north.

Discontinuity surfaces rarely exist in isolation and usually occur in sets. It is the definition of
a number of sets and their relationship to each other that is necessary for design purposes.

On the core log the dip and dip direction of each discontinuity surface set is recorded at the
end of the discontinuity surface description.

Examples of discontinuity surface descriptions are as follows:

(i) Bedding joints are narrow oxide stained slightly rough dipping 30 at 145deg
(ii) Set "A" cross joints are closed clean very rough dipping 10deg at 270deg .

2.3 Description of the Fracture Filling

The influence of fracture filling is two-fold:
(a) Depending on the thickness, the filling prevents the interlocking of the fracture asperities
(b) It possesses its own characteristic properties, that is, shear strength, permeability and
deformational characteristics.

The effect of the former can be deduced from the description of the fracture separation and
fracture roughness. For the effect of the latter to be assessed, the nature of the infilling
materials must be adequately described.

The following parameters should be described.

Moisture
Colour
Consistency or Hardness
Soil or Rock Type
Origin

Moisture, consistency, soil type and origin should be described in accordance with soil
profiling techniques as described by Jennings et al1 . Colour, hardness and rock type should
be described as indicated under the appropriate sections in this paper. Where porosity is
important, an estimate of the porosity should be given; as a percentage.

It should be remembered that the drilling technique employed to recover rock cores may
not be suited to the recovery of relatively thin bands of softer material within the rock mass.
Recovery of fracture filling may therefore be only partial and recovered material may be
disturbed. Where drilling muds or fluids are used this may contaminate the filling materials
and moisture conditions are altered by drilling water.

3 THE BOREHOLE LOG

The borehole log serves to describe not only the rock core produced by drilling but also any
other relevant information which may be obtained from the drilling process, and from tests
on cores or in boreholes.

Data relative to the borehole, the tools and materials used to form it, the casing installed for
sidewall support and the tests conducted in it are significant in as much as they greatly
influence the condition of the core recovered, or provide indications of rock or soil mass
properties. Such information is obtained from the drillers record and forms an integral part
of the borehole log.

In the description of the borehole core it is usually advantageous to include a number of

other parameters or indices. These indices, for example "Rock Quality Designation" (RQD)
and "Standard Penetration Blow Count" (N), have been correlated with rock and soil
behavioural characteristics and are indicative of certain rock and soil mass properties.

3.1 Layout of Log Sheet

Illustrated in Figure 2 is a typical borehole log sheet of a form suggested for general purpose
usage. Where specific requirements necessitate additional information, this can be added at
the logger's discretion.
The information recorded on such a log is as follows:
(i) Borehole Number - This number should be used only once on any site and kept
as simple as possible.
(ii) Location
(a) Project - Name of Project e.g. Alrode Brewery
(b) Site - Particular site e.g. Workshops
(c) Location - Grid reference or chainage
(d) Elevation given above M.S.L. and orientation if not vertical.
(iii) Drilling Technique
(a) Machine - Make of machine with model number
(b) Drilling method and size; including type of flush, core barrel and bit.
(iv) Contract Details
(a) Contractor
(b) Driller
(c) Project Number - Consultants reference
(d) Name of Logger
 (e) Date of logging
(f) Date drilling started and drilling completed.

The suggested log sheet has been compiled so that the name of the Institute or Consultant,
the borehole number, location and contract details are given at the top of the sheet.
Conventionally, the sheet is divided into vertical columns to permit the sequential logging of
the various borehole details against a single depth scale. At the base of the sheet a space is
allowed for a key to the various symbols used on the log and for relevant remarks.
The sequence of vertical columns have been selected with due consideration to the
sequence in which information is recorded on the sheet, ease of completion, cross
referencing of information and ease of use of the completed log. Reading from the left the
columns occur in the following order.

3.2 Drilling Method and Size

This column is to be used for recording the drilling technique, flush type, drilling or sampling
tool and bit. Where casing is used, the type and size should be indicated. The use of
conventional symbols such as NXM as defined by the Diamond Core Drill Manufacturers
Association (DCDMA) or Swedish Method (Craelius).

3.3 Percentage Core Recovery

This is the measured core recovery per drill run expressed as a percentage. This value may
exceed 100% if core drilled during the previous run is recovered in the run described. As it is
only possible to describe the core seen in the core box it is necessary to know on what
proportion of the rock mass, intersected by the borehole, the description in the log is based.
It may generally be anticipated that weak rock and fracture zones are most likely to be
present in the sections of core not recovered. Poor core recovery is therefore indicative of
poor rock mass strength. This parameter is considerably affected by the quality of drilling
and drilling tools used. When recording the core recovery in any drill run, the core should be
reassembled as far as is possible, as many drillers tend to spread the core out in the core
box which gives a misleading impression of the recovery. Wherever possible the logger
should indicate the probable reasons for core loss.

3.4 Rock Quality Designation

This column is used for recording Rock Quality Designation, RQD. Measurement of the RQD
provides a method of assessing the quality of a rock mass, based on the size of individual
core sticks obtained when drilling NX (54 mm diameter) size core. This method yields a
numerical figure between 0 and 100.
RQD is measured per drill run and is defined as the total length of the individual core sticks
greater than 100 mm in length divided by the length of the drill run and expressed as a
percentage.

3.5 Fracture Frequency

The fracture frequency is obtained by counting the number of natural fractures (complete
separations) that occur per metre length of core recorded over the actual length of core
over which that frequency occurs. Unlike RQD, this parameter is not based on a specific size
of core. The fracture frequency is recorded as a number. It has been found that where the
number of fractures is greater than 20 the specific number is not significant and therefore
only numbers for 0 to 20 and >20 need be recorded.
The fracture spacing can readily be recorded as a histogram in order to illustrate graphically,
for example, where very closely or closely jointed zones are located within the core.
3.6 Test or Sample

The location and nature of any tests conducted in the borehole or on the core taken from
the borehole should be indicated in this column. Tests commonly conducted in the borehole
include standard penetration, shear vane, point load, permeability, pressure meter and
geophysical tests. Tests on selected core samples may include index, shear strength,
consolidation or permeability tests. Where symbols are used to indicate test types, these
should be defined in the key.

3.7 Value

Where appropriate, the value obtained in the various tests conducted can be shown in this
column. The nature of the value and the units in which it is quoted must be apparent from
the manner in which it is recorded or the definitions given in the key.

For example standard penetration test blow counts may be recorded in this column
following the symbol N = with the appropriate definition in the key indicating that the
number following N = indicates the number of blows per 300 mm advance in a Standard
Penetration Test.

3.8 Depth

This column records depth to a definite scale. All other records on the borehole log should
be referenced to this scale according to the depth in the borehole at which the data or
description applies.

3.9 Water Rest Level

The level at which the water comes to rest in the borehole and the date at which this level is
reached must be recorded on the log sheet in the test and value columns.

3.10 Legend

This column is used for the pictorial description of material type. The suggested symbols to
be used for soils are those given by Jennings et al. The suggested symbols for rock are those
recommended by the International Standards Organisation14. An example of the symbols
representing some rock type is included in Figure 3.
The reference should be consulted for a complete description of this symbolic system. At
the time of writing a standard had not been proposed for metamorphic rocks.

3.11 Description

This column is used for recording the core log in accordance with the proposals in this
paper. The proposed borehole log sheet can be used in the field as a field sheet or
alternatively, specially constructed field sheets can be used from which the final log is
completed in the office.
4 CORE HANDLING, LOGGING AND STORAGE TECHNIQUES

It is not the object of this section to prescribe standard methods for handling, logging and
storage of core, but to provide a number of useful hints which make core logging easier,
more accurate and consistent. It is assumed that the core has been obtained with due care
and in accordance with current good practice.
Most of the points mentioned under 1 and 2 below are the responsibility of the drilling
contractor but the core logger must be aware of these requirements in order to ensure that
they are met.

4.1 Extraction and Protection of Borehole

Bore Core drilling is an expensive and highly specialised operation aimed at the recovery of
a core which is as complete and undisturbed as possible. It is therefore of utmost
importance that great care be taken not only when drilling but also when extracting the
core from the barrel to avoid the further breaking up and loss of material.

Extraction under steady, carefully applied pressure or the use of split inner tubes is to be
preferred. Hammering or jetting of the core barrel should not be allowed under any
circumstances. Weathered cores or cores susceptible to weathering should be wrapped in
thin plastic tubing, tied at either end to retain moisture conditions.

Cores of slaking material must not be exposed to the sun but foil-wrapped and waxed as
soon as possible after recovery (within an hour). Logging should be done before waxing, if
possible, or otherwise as soon as possible thereafter. Wax should be removed without heat
and after logging, cores must be re-waxed.

4.2 Arrangement and Labelling of Core in Core Boxes

Core boxes should be of light but robust construction and of such a size that they can be
handled with ease (maximum size recommended is 1,5 x 0,5 m). Wooden boxes are
recommended. Boxes should be made to hold the particular size of core tightly, in rows
separated by wooden slats. The lid of the core box may have a foam rubber lining to keep
the core in position during transportation.

Core boxes should be clearly identified by painting the project number, site name, borehole
number, core box number, top and bottom depths of core contained and the drilling
contractor's name on the outside and inside of the lid as well as on at least one side of the
core box. Core must be laid out in the core box to read in book fashion, that is with the
shallowest cores in the left side of the top row next to the lid hinge and the next row of core
starting again with its shallowest depth in the left side and deepening towards the right.

At the beginning and end of every core run, a wooden block of appropriate dimensions
should be placed. On these blocks, and if possible also on the core, the direction of drilling
and the depth must be written in well-spaced figures with a size of at least 20 mm. The
marking of depths on the core box is not recommended. Core loss should be indicated by
placing a wooden block, with length equal to that of the loss, in the appropriate position
and by writing the depths at both ends of the block. Blocks indicating core loss are often
painted red. Where core samples are removed for laboratory testing, yellow blocks equal in
length to the core removed, should be instituted in the box.

Before logging or photographing is undertaken, it is advisable to make sure that the core is
properly packed and marked in a core box. It is usually necessary to turn cores around in
order to orientate according to a known marker feature such as bedding, schistosity or a
major joint set and to fit pieces of core together in order to measure core recovery etc. At
this stage it may be necessary to rewrite depths on the core or to add further depth marks.

4.3 Core Photography

It is recommended that colour photographs of all borehole core be obtained as a permanent

record and for comparison with the descriptive log. Core photography must be carried out
before the core is removed for description and testing.

The following procedures are recommended:

(i) One core box must be photographed at a time.
(ii) A label with the name of the site and borehole number must be attached to
the core box.
(iii) All lettering must be well-spaced and have a minimum size of 20 mm.
(iv) A colour chart must be attached to the core box.
(v) A frame is useful to support the camera vertically above the core box or to
support the core box in a tilted (60 deg) position so that its surface is normal
to the direction of photography.
(vi) The best results are achieved if photography is carried out under roof and
with flood lights. Good results can however be obtained in the field with the
use of natural light.
(vii) Machine printing of photo's is not recommended and it is useful to obtain
prints on a scale of 1:10.

4.4 Core Logging

Only persons trained and experienced in engineering geology or geotechnical engineering

should be allowed to log borehole core. It is recommended that the method of description
as presented in this paper be adopted. Equipment that is considered essential for the
logging of rock cores includes the drillers log, paper, pencil, metric tape, compass, clinorule,
water, brush or cloth, knife, geological pick and magnifying glass. A labourer to assist in the
moving of core boxes can be most helpful.

Useful additional equipment includes pre-printed logging forms, clip-board, geological

compass, clinometer, annular protractor to fit core, orientator box, insecticide type garden
spray for wetting cores, table or stand for core box, point load apparatus, camera and
accessories, and colour chart. The best place to log core is at the borehole position which
avoids unnecessary handling and disturbance of the core.
The best time to log is as shortly after the core is removed from the core barrel as is
possible, due to the rapid deterioration of cores (especially sedimentary rocks) and core
boxes. It is preferable that the driller be present while logging, in order to draw on his
intimate knowledge of drilling and rock conditions and to obtain drilling information
required on the core log.

The following comments apply to the filling in of the log sheet:

(i) Drilling method and size: This information is obtained from the driller's log.
(ii) Core recovery, RQD and fracture frequency: These measurements are
normally carried out after the core has been properly arranged and before
pieces are removed for laboratory testing. A 3 m retractable steel tape is a
most useful tool and it is advisable to record information on a special sheet
with space for calculations and the entering of percentages. Fracture
frequency is measured by counting all fractures intersecting an imaginary line
drawn along the top of the core.
(iii) Colour: Wetting of the core is best achieved by means of a garden insecticide
type spray, filled with water. Otherwise a bucket with water and a soft brush
or a cloth can be used.
(iv) Weathering and fabric: A magnifying glass is useful.
(v) Fracture spacing: The average spacing of all fractures intersecting an
imaginary line drawn along the top of a core is determined.
(vi) Hardness can be determined by using a knife (1-3 MPa), geological pick (3-25
MPa) and a portable point load apparatus (> 25 MPa).

4.5 Long-term Storage of Core Boxes

Cores are normally stored for a period of several years (until construction has been
completed). Core boxes must be stored in well ventilated, weatherproof rooms with
concrete floors and should preferably be placed on racks rather than in stacks. Provision
must be made for space around the racks or stacks in order to reach individual boxes for re-
examination.

5.0 BORING METHODS

5.1 Light Cable-Percussion Boring

Also known as shell and auger boring is used for most investigations in overburden. The
versatile trailer or semi-mobile. A-frame rig is able to penetrate most
unconsolidated soils to a depth of 40m with 150mm diameter steel casing using a 1.5–2
tonne winch.
Boring tools used to advance the borehole:
• clay cutter—an open-ended steel tube driven into the soil to recover a sample
• shell or baler—a steel tube with flap valve which retains granular soil as the tube is
surged into the soil with limited water added above the water table
• chisel—a shaped weight to break up boulders or rock
• rotary drilling attachments are available to ‘prove’ bedrock has been reached.
The hole usually has to be stabilised by lining with steel casing driven by the
chisel/jarring tool in the hole; casing may have to be jacked out.
Sampling methods:
• Reasonably undisturbed clay samples are obtained by driving 100mm diameter steel
tubes 450mm long (the ‘U100 tube’, as in BS 5930:1999, possibly with plastic liner)
into the formation with the jarring tool; care is required not to over-drive.
• Bulk disturbed samples of granular soils are obtained with a shell or baler, leading to
potential loss of fines when sampling below the water table or adding water to make
progress. Samples for geotechnical and contamination assessments can be taken at the
same time.
• Water samples should be representative and not contaminated by water added for
boring.
Specialist samplers can be used to improve quality:
• piston sampler, 75 or 100mm (250mm in special cases), for soils sensitive to
disturbance
• ‘Delft’ continuous sampler, 30 or 66mm diameter, pushed into the soil using a 2 or 17
tonne unit to a maximum depth of 18m
• ‘thinwall’ sampler, 75–100mm, for sensitive clays
• ‘window’ sampler for dry cohesive ground.

In situ tests using standard penetrometers (SPTs), field vane, piezometer and stand-pipe
installation, bore-hole pumping tests, permeameter tests, pressuremeter and ‘Dutch’ cone
tests (CPTs) are all carried out in boreholes.
The SPT also provides a sample when the split-barrel (‘spoon’) is used for the test in
soils; the borehole must be cleaned and the sampler properly seated.
5.2 Rotary Core Drilling
Core drilling is used to provide relatively undisturbed samples of rock (from weak to
strong) to evaluate the geological sequence beneath the site. The features of the rock
mass which govern its mechanical behaviour are likely to be the weakest (fractured,
loose) and therefore prone to disturbance by the drilling process or to loss in drilling
debris.
Advances in rotary core drilling now allow continuous cores of over-consolidated
clays, sands and gravels to be obtained for more precise engineering descriptions (Binns,
1998).
A wide range of drill rigs is available using ‘tophead drive’ and ‘chuck drive’ mounted
on skids, trucks, crawlers and tractors.
The hole is advanced and core recovered in a core barrel mounted behind an annular
drill bit, usually set with industrial cutting diamonds or tungsten carbide inserts (for
weaker rock) and rotated into the rock by drill rods fixed to the drive mechanism. Load
on the bit is provided by additional weight on the drill rods (collars) or by positive feed
using the rig hydraulic system.

Rotary core drilling equipment is specified in BS 4019:1993 Parts 3 and 4 and

described by alphabetic prefixes to denote core sizes—from B (42mm core diameter in a
60mm hole) to Z (165mm in a 200mm hole). X is used to denote the ‘nesting’ size of
casing and barrel (e.g. NWX core barrel will pass through NX casing and will drill a hole
to take BX casing). W denotes the appropriate drill rod/thread.

Most geotechnical drilling produces N and H size cores (54 and 76mm)—the larger the
core, the better is the recovery generally (but at a cost).
Casing of overburden and fractured rock has to be carried out with care to avoid hole
collapse and excessive wear on the casing shoe and reaming shell.
Core bits are ring-shaped, with channels for the flushing fluid. The shape of the cutting
edge and size of diamond are selected to match the strength and abrasiveness of the rock.
Settings range from 10 diamonds per carat for soft rock to 100 diamonds per carat on the
face or diamond grit ‘impregnated’ in a matrix around the head of the bit for strong rock.
Manufacturers should be consulted on the type to use. Worn bits must be replaced before
the hole and core size are adversely affected.

Core barrels are mainly of the double-tube swivel type mounted on bearings above the
bit so that the core and inner barrel are not rotated. The core passes up the inner barrel
(which can be lined with a mylar tube to improve recovery in weak rock—the triple
system) as rock is penetrated. Core is retained in the tube by a spring assembiy
(corecatcher) suited to the particular formation. The core barrel is brought to the surface on
drill rods after each ‘run’ (say 3m of core). Care is required in removing the core from the
inner barrel; never hammer the barrel.
Flushing to remove drill cuttings from the hole uses air, water or drilling mud pumped
down hollow drill rods (in ‘conventional drilling’; see 11.1) to the annulus between the
inner and outer barrel, limiting erosion of the core. Discharge is through ports in the face
or sides of the core bit.
Triplex piston pumps are preferred for water flush, and positive rotary displacement
pumps for mud.
Flushing with chemical foams can adversely affect the quality of core, but polymerfluids are
now in use.
In situ tests can be carried out in stable, unlined cored holes, e.g. high-pressure
dilatometer tests, vane tests, borehole CCTV surveys, impression packer tests and core
orientation.
Inclined holes can be readily drilled with coring rigs to intersect sub-vertical features
such as dykes and faults. It is necessary to survey such holes along their length to check
orientation of the core.
‘Wireline’ drilling avoids the loss of time spent in lifting the drill rods and core barrel
from deep holes after each core run. Here the core barrel is lowered down the centre of
the drill string (parallel wall steel tubes) by wire and latched onto the core bit at the end
of the string. The outer barrel and bit are rotated on the string and when the non-rotating
inner barrel is full of core, it is winched to the surface. Equipment is designated ‘Q’, (e.g.
HQ), but the core size is about 80 per cent of a coventional core for the same size of hole.
Temporary casing is not used, but if the bit has to be replaced, the whole string has to
be removed from the hole, leading to possible collapse.
Flushing volumes and pressures are less than conventional drilling.
Special equipment is available for coring in silts and soft clays.

5.3 Rotary Percussive Drilling

In top hammer drilling the hole is advanced by rotation of the drill rod and bit
combined with rapid impact from a hammer in the top-drive motor. Track-mounted air and
hydraulically powered drills produce rapid, low-cost probe holes when detailed
stratigraphy of the rock is not required. They are useful for probing for cavities in rock
and drilling overburden using the duplex method of simultaneously drilling/driving
76mm diameter casing to a maximum depth of 40m (11.1). The rate of penetration should
be recorded.
Flushing media are air, water, mud or foam. Fine cuttings are rapidly brought to the
surface with air flush and can be used by an experienced geologist to identify rockhead,
major strata changes and the presence of voids—but dust needs to be suppressed and
noise abated (HSE, 1997, 1998 and TSO, 2002). Some core drilling to correlate probes is
desirable.
Strata changes can only be estimated from changes in colour of the water when using
water-flush probing—very difficult to assess in chalk (Lord et al., 2002) and mudrocks.
Note must be made of loss of flushing media, indicating fractured and cavernous ground.
In water flush the returns may be increased by groundwater flow.

‘Down-the-hole’ percussive drills are similar to rotary percussive drills, but here the
hammer and rotation unit is located above the drill bit at the bottom of the hole. Air flush
is used for cuttings inspection; casing is duplex.
There have been useful developments in recent years in power and duplex diameter
(11.1). The equipment is more efficient in hard rock.

5.4 Rotary ‘Open Holing’

A powerful top-drive rig is used to rotate a ‘tricone’ rock bit (a full-face toothed wheel bit
as developed by the oil industry) through rock—and overburden when casings are
adapted. A wide range of depths and diameters is available. The equipment is useful for
drilling dewatering wells up to 450mm, instrumentation holes, grout holes.
Flushing media are air, water, mud or foam. Wash boring is not usually specified for
ground investigation in the UK, even in sands and gravels.

5.5 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Rigs

Top-drive rotary drills can be used to rotate augers with a hollow stem into cohesive soil
to recover samples accurately and rapidly using a wireline tool. The diameter of the auger
flight is usually 250mm maximum, and depths of 30m can be achieved to recover 50mm
samples.
No flushing media are required.