Interventions For The Management of Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain: Revision 2021

Clinical Practice Guidelines
STEVEN Z. GEORGE, PT, PhD, FAPTA • JULIE M. FRITZ, PT, PhD, FAPTA • SHERI P. SILFIES, PT, PhD
MICHAEL J. SCHNEIDER, DC, PhD • JASON M. BENECIUK, DPT, PhD, MPH • TREVOR A. LENTZ, PT, PhD, MPH
JOHN R. GILLIAM, PT, DPT • STEPHANIE HENDREN, MLIS • KATHERINE S. NORMAN, DPT, MS
Interventions for the Management

of Acute and Chronic Low
Back Pain: Revision 2021
Downloaded from www.jospt.org at on February 22, 2022. For personal use only. No other uses without permission.
Clinical Practice Guidelines Linked to the International Classification

of Functioning, Disability and Health From the Academy of Orthopaedic
Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association
Copyright © 2021 Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®. All rights reserved.
J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2021;51(11):CPG1-CPG60. doi:10.2519/jospt.2021.0304
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS................................. CPG2

INTRODUCTION.................................................................. CPG3
METHODS........................................................................... CPG5
CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES
Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy®
Intervention: Exercise........................................................... CPG9

Intervention: Manual and Other Directed Therapies......... CPG16
Intervention: Classification Systems.................................. CPG21
Intervention: Patient Education......................................... CPG25
EVIDENCE MAPS............................................................. .CPG29
AUTHOR/REVIEWER AFFILIATIONS AND CONTACTS...... CPG31
REFERENCES.................................................................... CPG32
APPENDICES (ONLINE).................................................... CPG39
REVIEWERS: Paul F. Beattie, PT, PhD, OCS, FAPTA, NREMT • Mark D. Bishop, PT, PhD, FAPTA • Christine Goertz, DC, PhD
Stephen Hunter, PT, DPT, OCS, FAPTA • Kenneth A. Olson, PT, DHSc, OCS, FAAOMPT • Sean D. Rundell, PT, DPT, PhD
Michael Schmidt, PT, DPT, FAAOMPT, GCS, OCS • Mark Shepard, PT, DPT • Robert Vining, DC, DHSc
For author, coordinator, contributor, and reviewer affiliations, see end of text. ©2021 Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy, American Physical Therapy Association
(APTA), Inc, and JOSPT®, Inc. The Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy, APTA, Inc, and JOSPT®, Inc consent to reproducing and distributing this guideline for
educational purposes. This publication was made possible in part by Grant Number T32-GM081740 from NIH-NIGMS. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the
authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIGMS or NIH. Address correspondence to Clinical Practice Guidelines Managing Editor, Academy of
Orthopaedic Physical Therapy, APTA, Inc, 2920 East Avenue South, Suite 200, La Crosse, WI 54601. E-mail: cpg@orthopt.org
Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain: Clinical Practice Guidelines
Summary of Recommendations
EXERCISE FOR ACUTE LOW BACK PAIN B Physical therapists may use massage or soft tissue
Physical therapists can use exercise training interven- mobilization for short-term pain relief in patients with
C acute LBP.
tions, including specific trunk muscle activation, for pa-
tients with acute low back pain (LBP).
MANUAL AND OTHER DIRECTED THERAPIES
EXERCISE FOR ACUTE LOW BACK PAIN WITH LEG PAIN FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN
Physical therapists may use exercise training interven- A Physical therapists should use thrust or nonthrust joint
B mobilization to reduce pain and disability in patients with
tions, including trunk muscle strengthening and endur-
ance and specific trunk muscle activation, to reduce pain and chronic LBP.
disability for patients with acute LBP with leg pain.
B Physical therapists may use thrust or nonthrust joint mo-

bilization to reduce pain and disability in patients with
EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN chronic LBP with leg pain.
A Physical therapists should use exercise training interven-
B Physical therapists may use soft tissue mobilization or
tions, including trunk muscle strengthening and endur-
massage in conjunction with other treatments to reduce
ance, multimodal exercise interventions, specific trunk muscle
pain and disability in the short term for patients with chronic LBP.
activation exercise, aerobic exercise, aquatic exercise, and gener-
al exercise, for patients with chronic LBP. Physical therapists can consider the use of dry needling
C
in conjunction with other treatments to reduce pain and
B Physical therapists may provide movement control exercise
disability in the short term for patients with chronic LBP.
or trunk mobility exercise for patients with chronic LBP.
B Physical therapists may use neural mobilization in con-
EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN WITH LEG PAIN junction with other treatments for short-term improve-
ments in pain and disability in patients with chronic LBP with
B Physical therapists may use exercise training interven-
leg pain.
tions, including specific trunk muscle activation and
movement control, for patients with chronic LBP with leg pain. Physical therapists should not use mechanical traction for
D
patients with chronic LBP with leg pain, based on the lack
EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN WITH of benefit when added to other interventions.
MOVEMENT CONTROL IMPAIRMENT
A Physical therapists should use specific trunk muscle acti- CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR ACUTE LOW BACK PAIN
vation and movement control exercise for patients with Physical therapists may use treatment-based classifica-
chronic LBP and movement control impairment. B
tion (TBC) to reduce pain and disability in patients with
acute LBP. This recommendation is unchanged from the 2012
EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN IN OLDER ADULTS clinical practice guideline.
A Physical therapists should use general exercise training to
C Physical therapists can use Mechanical Diagnosis and
reduce pain and disability in older adults with chronic LBP.
Therapy (MDT) to reduce pain and disability in patients
with acute LBP.
EXERCISE FOR POSTOPERATIVE LOW BACK PAIN
C Physical therapists can use general exercise training for CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN
patients with LBP following lumbar spine surgery. Physical therapists may use MDT, prognostic risk stratifi-
B
cation, or pathoanatomic-based classification to reduce
MANUAL AND OTHER DIRECTED THERAPIES pain and disability in patients with chronic LBP.
FOR ACUTE LOW BACK PAIN
C Physical therapists can use TBC, cognitive functional
A Physical therapists should use thrust or nonthrust joint
therapy, or movement system impairment to reduce pain
mobilization to reduce pain and disability in patients with
and disability in patients with chronic LBP.
acute LBP.
cpg2 | november 2021 | volume 51 | number 11 | journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy
EDUCATION FOR ACUTE LOW BACK PAIN A Physical therapists should deliver pain neuroscience edu-
Physical therapists may use active education strategies cation alongside other physical therapy interventions,
B such as exercise or manual therapy, to patients with chronic LBP.
rather than passive strategies (ie, providing access to ed-
ucational materials only). Active education strategies include Physical therapists should use active treatments (ie, yoga,
one-on-one education on the biopsychosocial contributors to A
stretching, Pilates, and strength training) instead of stand-
pain and self-management techniques, such as remaining active, alone educational interventions for patients with chronic LBP.
pacing strategies, and back-protection techniques. Physical ther-
apists may also incorporate counseling on the favorable natural
EDUCATION FOR POSTOPERATIVE LOW BACK PAIN
history of acute LBP as part of the education strategy.
B Physical therapists may use general education (ie, post-
EDUCATION FOR CHRONIC LOW BACK PAIN surgical precautions, exercise, and resuming physical ac-
tivity) for patients with LBP following lumbar spine surgery. This
B Physical therapists may use standard education strate- recommendation applies to those undergoing discectomy or de-
gies for patients with chronic LBP, but not as a stand- compression surgery. No specific recommendation is provided for
alone treatment. Standard education strategies include advice education for patients undergoing other surgical procedures (eg,
related to exercise and advice about staying active. spinal fusion) due to lack of evidence.
List of Abbreviations
AMSTAR: A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews MSI: movement system impairment
AOPT: Academy of Orthopaedic Physical Therapy NPRS: numeric pain-rating scale
APTA: American Physical Therapy Association ODI: Oswestry Disability Index
CFT: cognitive functional therapy PA: posterior to anterior
CI: confidence interval PEDro: Physiotherapy Evidence Database
CPG: clinical practice guideline PNE: pain neuroscience education
ICD: International Classification of Diseases RCT: randomized clinical trial
ICF: International Classification of Functioning, Disability RMDQ: Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire

and Health SMD: standardized mean difference
JOSPT: Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy TBC: treatment-based classification
LBP: low back pain VAS: visual analog scale
MDT: Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy
Introduction
Low back pain (LBP) remains a musculoskeletal condition of chronic LBP have been increasing during this period of
with an adverse societal impact. Globally, LBP is highly prev- escalating costs.56
alent and a leading cause of disability.137 In the United States,
LBP remains one of the most common reasons to seek health In 2018, a series of articles in the Lancet called attention to
care and, along with neck pain, is the medical condition as- the high priority of improving the quality of care for oper-
sociated with the highest overall costs.45,50 Surgical cases are ative and nonoperative LBP management.29,54,72 Reducing
the costliest per care episode, but the majority of spending on variability of care to better represent evidence-informed ap-
LBP management can be attributed to the significantly larger proaches is one way quality of care could improve for LBP.
volume of nonoperative care episodes.89 Costs for LBP are es- Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) can serve as an important
calating at a faster pace than overall health care spending and resource in the process of improving quality of care for LBP
come with no evidence suggesting that there are improved by synthesizing existing evidence and providing recommen-
outcomes (ie, reduced pain or disability) at a societal level.45 dations for evidence-informed treatment options. This infor-
In fact, a population-based study has suggested that rates mation can then be used to assist individual providers with
journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy | volume 51 | number 11 | november 2021 | cpg3
clinical decision making and to encourage health systems to vide education and evidence-based information as a treat-
develop clinical pathways that structure care delivery that is ment supplement, (8) incorporate physical activity/exercise,
aligned with CPG recommendations.64 The development of (9) use manual therapy only as an adjunct to other active
CPGs for LBP is important, but admittedly only the start of treatments, (10) offer high-quality, nonsurgical care prior
improving patient care. Delivering guideline-adherent treat- to surgery, and (11) try to keep patients at work.100 An in-
ment as part of routine clinical practice remains a continuing press review of 5 high-quality CPGs for LBP produced a
challenge for physical therapists.172,173 synthesis of 13 very similar recommendations for screening,
assessment, and treatment approaches.101 This consistency
SCOPE AND RATIONALE of recommendations for LBP across diagnosis, differential
Rationale diagnosis, and examination was helpful in supporting the
This is an update to the 2012 Academy of Orthopaedic Phys- decision to de-emphasize these topic areas for the updated
ical Therapy (AOPT), formerly the Orthopaedic Section of AOPT CPG for LBP. That is, a decision to focus the 2021
the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), CPG update on treatments was made because diagnosis, differen-
for LBP.38 The 2012 guidelines made recommendations for tial diagnosis, and examination recommendations are well
LBP that encompassed a broad scope, including risk fac- covered in other guidelines.
tors, clinical course, diagnosis/classification, differential
diagnosis, examination, and interventions. Several key con- The importance of nonpharmacologic treatments is another
siderations guided the 2021 update (see box below). Since development directly relevant to the 2021 update’s focus
2012, many additional CPGs for LBP have been published, on treatments. Since the 2012 CPG, recommendations have
and the primary literature related to LBP has expanded been made for nonpharmacologic interventions as first-
exponentially. The proliferation of CPGs has resulted in choice treatments for chronic pain conditions and LBP,
convergent recommendations for topic areas included in as opposed to commonly prescribed pharmacologic treat-
the 2012 AOPT LBP CPG. For example, a 2020 review of ments like opioids.47,131 However, these recommendations
11 high-quality musculoskeletal pain CPGs (including 4 are made broadly, without providing guidance on differen-
for LBP) identified consistent best-practice recommenda- tiating the levels of evidence for specific nonpharmacolog-
tions to (1) ensure care is patient centered, (2) screen for ic treatments.47,100,131 Accordingly, this AOPT CPG update
red flag conditions, (3) assess psychosocial factors, (4) use focused on synthesizing new evidence, with the purpose of
imaging selectively, (5) undertake a physical examination to making recommendations for specific nonpharmacologic
assess impairments, (6) monitor patient progress, (7) pro- treatments.
Scope
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE 2021 CPG UPDATE Therefore, the overall objective of the 2021 LBP CPG update
• Recommendations focused on interventions: while there are was to provide recommendations on interventions delivered
many other CPGs for LBP, none specifically addresses inter- by physical therapists or studied in care settings that includ-
ventions commonly used by physical therapists ed physical therapy providers. The health question covered
• This CPG excluded studies in which interventions were not pro- by this CPG was to determine which interventions could be
vided by physical therapists or in care settings that did not recommended for their potential in providing effective pain
include physical therapists relief, functional improvement, and/or disability reduction
• Recommendations were made for specific subgroups (eg, acute (ie, the primary outcomes for this CPG). The interventions
or chronic, leg pain, and postoperative care) as allowed by the in the 2021 CPG were reviewed in 1 of the following catego-
available literature ries: (1) exercise, (2) manual and other directed therapies, (3)
• Recommendations were further differentiated with World Health classification systems, and (4) patient education. Our prima-
Organization ICF terminology as study eligibility criteria allowed ry goal was to make this CPG update applicable to physical
• This CPG includes interventions not considered in the 2012 therapists practicing globally, and, as such, our literature
CPG (eg, dry needling, cognitive functional therapy, and pain search was not limited to studies originating in the United
neuroscience education) States. We acknowledge that there are likely to be differences
• This CPG includes randomized trials published before July 1, in factors that influence care delivery for LBP that influence
2020. Thus, these guidelines cannot account for any more re- the applicability of these recommendations. For example,
cent individual studies, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses differences in health systems, cultural norms, and social de-
that could impact recommendations terminants of health could all influence the application of
these recommendations. Physical therapists are the intended
Abbreviations: CPG, clinical practice guideline; ICF, International Clas-
sification of Functioning, Disability and Health; LBP, low back pain. primary audience, but other stakeholders (eg, patients, the
public, other provider types, policy makers, and payers) may
find application in the 2021 CPG update if there is interest a successful outcome in every patient, nor should they be con-
in defining evidence-informed care for LBP. strued as including all proper methods of care or excluding
other acceptable methods of care. The ultimate judgment re-
STATEMENT OF INTENT garding a particular clinical procedure or treatment plan must
The 2021 LBP CPG update is not intended to be construed be made based on clinician experience and expertise in light of
or serve as a standard of medical care. Standards of care are the clinical presentation of the patient, in addition to the avail-
determined on the basis of all clinical data available for an in- able evidence, available diagnostic and treatment options, and
dividual patient and are subject to change as scientific knowl- the patient’s values, expectations, and preferences. However,
edge and technology advance and patterns of care evolve. The we suggest that the rationale for significant departures from
parameters of practice described in this CPG should be con- accepted guidelines be documented in the patient’s medical
sidered as guidelines only. Adherence to them will not ensure records at the time the relevant clinical decision is made.
Methods
Committee members for this CPG update were selected by siveness of the final search. For example, key word synonyms
the AOPT based on content expertise in LBP. The commit- for back pain such as “back ache” and “back strain” were add-
tee was charged with performing a systematic review and ed to all searches, and new concepts such as treatment-based
evaluation of the literature to produce an updated evidence classification (TBC), multidimensional clinical framework,
synthesis for LBP interventions. Meta-analysis of the extract- and cognitive functional therapy (CFT) were added to the
ed literature was not performed because it was considered classification search. All searches were limited by a filter to
outside the scope of a CPG update. The scope of this update include only randomized clinical trials (RCTs), systematic
was to consider all relevant literature that has been published reviews, CPGs, and meta-analyses.
since the search for the 2012 CPG. A large body of LBP litera-
ture was anticipated, and the committee was subdivided into The final search strategy consisted of a total of 8 subsearch-
4 focus groups, with each category led by a content expert. es, based on the aforementioned 4 intervention categories.
The 4 intervention categories for this CPG update included Multiple subsearches were necessary for the larger treat-
(1) exercise, (2) manual and other directed therapies, (3) clas- ment categories of exercise and manual and other directed
sification systems, and (4) patient education. therapies, following the previous LBP CPG search strategy.
Exercise subsearches included centralization, progressive
Committee members were required to submit conflict-of-in- endurance, and trunk coordination, while subsearches
terest forms to the AOPT as a condition of authorship. for manual and other directed therapies included manual
Funding and support for CPG development were provided therapies, traction, and mobilization. The final search was
through the APTA (CPG grant) and the AOPT, as well as conducted on June 25, 2020, with no date or language lim-
support from a dedicated librarian through Duke University. itations, to capture any new articles based on the addition
These sponsors did not have any influence over the recom- of updated search terms. Each search was conducted in
mendations in this updated CPG. The development of the MEDLINE via PubMed, Embase (via Elsevier), CINAHL
final CPG was guided by an expert in CPG development, fol- Complete (via EBSCOHost), and the Cochrane Library. The
lowing standards set by the Institute of Medicine and the 4 sets of search results were compiled in separate EndNote
APTA Clinical Practice Guideline Process Manual. X9 (Clarivate Analytics, Philadelphia, PA) libraries before
they were added to a Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation
LITERATURE SEARCH Ltd, Melbourne, Australia) project that contained search
A research librarian with experience in systematic reviews results from the 2016 update, which allowed Covidence to
updated the original searches that had been completed in deduplicate across all searches and filter to a unique set
2010 for the 2012 CPG. An initial literature search for this of articles for screening. Additional information on the
CPG was performed in 2016, a revised search was completed search strategies is included in APPENDIX A (available at www.
early in 2020, and the final search was completed in June jospt.org). EndNote, Covidence, and Excel (Microsoft Cor-
2020. The literature searches completed in 2020 used a poration, Redmond, WA) were used to manage literature
more inclusive list of search terms and removed duplicates searches, coordinate article selection, and complete criti-
from the 2016 search results. Several additional key words cal appraisals. The search results are presented in APPENDIX
and subject headings were included to increase comprehen- B (available at www.jospt.org). Four PRISMA figures that
describe the results of the literature search for each of the LEVELS OF EVIDENCE
intervention categories are included in APPENDIX C (available The level-of-evidence table (TABLE 1) used for the 2021 CPG
at www.jospt.org). update is provided below, and summary information is in
APPENDIX E (available at www.jospt.org). Given the size of the
EVIDENCE SELECTION body of LBP literature, the committee made the decision to
The evidence-selection process is summarized in FIGURE 1 and include all systematic reviews but only higher-quality RCTs
described in more detail in the subsequent sections. (PEDro scale score, 6 or greater) in the 2021 update. Thus,
the strength of evidence for all recommendations in this CPG
Title and Abstract Screening and Review of Full-Text Articles is either I or II. The distinction between level I and II evi-
Title and abstract screening and full-text article reviews were dence was made by focus group members for each interven-
independently conducted, using prespecified inclusion and tion category. Because all studies included in this CPG had
exclusion criteria, by 2 team members. Reviewers followed PEDro scale scores of 6 or greater, the distinction between
inclusion and exclusion criteria from the 2012 CPG for inclu- level I and II evidence was primarily based on number of
sion in the 2021 CPG update (APPENDIX D, available at www. studies for a given treatment (level I, multiple individual
jospt.org). Conflicts were resolved by a third team member RCTs or systematic reviews/meta-analyses), sample size of
and discussed with content experts as needed. individual RCTs (level I, larger sample size), and length of
Extraction
For each extracted full-text article, 2 reviewers evaluated ar- TABLE 1 Levels of Evidence
ticle quality using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PE-
Dro) scale for RCTs and the A MeaSurement Tool to Assess I Evidence obtained from high-quality diagnostic studies, prospective
Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) for systematic reviews. The studies, randomized controlled trials, or systematic reviews
PEDro scale rates 10 internal validity criteria from a Delphi II Evidence obtained from lesser-quality diagnostic studies, prospective
list for assessing RCT quality.164 The AMSTAR rates 11 differ- studies, systematic reviews, or randomized controlled trials (eg, weaker
ent criteria for methodological quality in systematic reviews.146 diagnostic criteria and reference standards, improper randomization,
no blinding, less than 80% follow-up)
Any conflicts regarding PEDro scale and AMSTAR scores were
III Case-control studies or retrospective studies
resolved by the 2 reviewers assigned to the same article. Dis-
IV Case series
agreements unable to be resolved were discussed with the CPG
V Expert opinion
lead author to arrive at the final decision on article score.
No + No
Title and Abstract Screening Irrelevant
Yes
or
Ma No
Yes or Maybe ybe
+ +N
o
Yes or Maybe Conflict Resolution
Exclude + Exclude with same reason

Review of Full Text Inc
Excluded
lud
Ex e+
Exc de
wit clude lud Exc
lu
hd e
Include iffe + Exc
ren lud
+ t re e
aso Conflict Resolution
Include n
e
lud
Inc
Extraction
FIGURE 1. The evidence-selection process started with title and abstract screening and included input from 2 reviewers. Titles and abstracts that were rated as “no” by both
reviewers were excluded (ie, irrelevant source). Titles and abstracts that were rated as “yes” or “maybe” by both reviewers were moved forward to full-text review. Disagreements
on ratings were resolved before a final decision was made. A similar process occurred during the full-text review, resulting in articles being extracted that were rated as “include” by
both reviewers. Adapted from the Covidence Knowledge Base (https://support.covidence.org/help/how-references-move-through-a-review, accessed June 25, 2020).
follow-up times (level I, short- and long-term follow-ups). presence of leg pain, older adults, and postoperative LBP as
Disagreements on evidence level were resolved by additional study eligibility criteria allowed. Therefore, the patient sub-
discussion until consensus was reached. groups in the 2021 CPG update were:
STRENGTH OF EVIDENCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS • Acute or chronic LBP

The strength of recommendations was then given a grade to - Studies that specifically recruited patients with symp-
reflect the confidence in and impact of the included evidence. toms for less than or equal to 6 weeks were grouped
The strength of recommendation was based on the evidence as acute LBP (ie, this was clearly indicated in the el-
grade from the 2012 CPG (if available) and the composition igibility criteria). All other studies were classified as
of level I and level II studies from the updated literature. chronic LBP
Our literature search was limited to RCTs, and there were • LBP with leg pain
very few examples of clear superiority for treatment options. - Studies that specifically recruited patients with LBP,
Therefore, we modified the language used to avoid any “must” buttock pain, and/or symptoms extending into the leg
recommendations. Instead, we framed recommendations to (above or below the knee) were grouped as LBP with
range from “should” (grade A) to “should not” (grade D). leg pain (ie, this was clearly indicated in the eligibility
These grades and how they were determined are summarized criteria)
in TABLE 2. Further information related to evidence grading is • LBP in older adults
available online (www.orthopt.org). - Studies that specifically recruited patients with LBP who
were aged 60 years or older
• Postoperative LBP
TABLE 2 Grades of Recommendation - Studies that intentionally recruited patients having

surgery for LBP in conjunction with the treatment of
interest were grouped as postoperative LBP (ie, this was
Grades of Level of clearly indicated in the eligibility criteria). Studies that
Recommendation Strength of Evidence Obligation
included patients with a history of surgery for LBP were
A Strong A preponderance of level I and/or level II studies Should included in other subgroups as indicated (eg, in chronic
evidence support the recommendation. This must
include at least 1 level I study
LBP if meeting the symptom duration criterion)
B Moderate A single high-quality randomized controlled trial May
evidence INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTION
or a preponderance of only level II studies

support the recommendation. This included An International Classification of Functioning, Disability
studies with short-term follow-up (eg, 3 and Health (ICF) LBP category was included with the rec-
months or less) and smaller sample sizes ommendation when a study provided enough information
(eg, fewer than 100 participants)
in the eligibility criteria. This information was presented to
C Weak A single level II study supports the recommen- Can
evidence dation
be consistent with the 2012 CPG and to match recommenda-
D Conflicting Level I and/or level II studies disagree with Should
tions to the current CPG’s ICF system. Briefly, the rationale
or no respect to their conclusions or provide no not for including an ICF category is that it provides additional
evidence evidence of benefit signs and symptoms to support clinical decision making at
the individual patient level. The ICF subgroups in this up-
dated CPG remain unchanged from the 2012 version, except
PATIENT SUBGROUPS for omitting the subacute group. Refer to the 2012 CPG38 for
Patient subgroups were included in the 2021 CPG update more details on ICF categories for LBP.
to allow for refinement of clinical recommendations. The
2012 CPG38 differentiated acute, subacute, and chronic LBP; CLASSIFICATION CODES
however, the 2021 CPG update only differentiates acute from There have been no changes in ICD-10 codes that would im-
chronic LBP. This decision was based on the lack of an ac- pact the 2021 CPG update. Therefore, this part of the CPG
cepted standard for definitions of subacute pain. Since 2012, was not updated or revised, as ICD-10 codes were part of the
there have been operational definitions for chronic LBP re- 2012 CPG. There is a transition planned to ICD-11 codes,
ported (eg, the National Institutes of Health Task Force on which will include coding for primary chronic pain and sec-
research standards for chronic LBP and the International ondary chronic pain conditions (eg, musculoskeletal).120,125
Classification of Diseases [ICD], 11th revision).42,120 The com- Changes to the ICD-11 codes are likely to be included in a
mittee decided it would be more practical and consistent with future CPG update, as we expect that the opportunity to
the existing literature to only differentiate acute from chronic directly code chronic pain will have a noticeable impact on
LBP in the 2021 CPG update. Additionally, we differentiated clinical classification of LBP.
TREATMENT DESCRIPTION There is an annual review of the AOPT CPG performed by

It was outside the scope of the 2021 CPG update to provide experts in physical therapy practice guideline methodology.
detailed descriptions for each of the individual treatments This review provides feedback to the CPG coordinator and
included in RCTs. However, for the intervention categories editors to continue to improve and develop APTA guidelines.
with many different treatment approaches (ie, exercise,
manual and other directed therapies), we provide opera- DISSEMINATION AND IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS
tional definitions that summarized key treatment character- The APTA developed a process of endorsing CPGs to in-
istics. These intervention category sections include a table crease the reach and adoption of evidence-based practice
providing the treatments and their supporting operational information. The updated CPG will also be presented at the
definitions. next Combined Sections Meeting in 2022. Future plans for
dissemination include other educational conferences and
GUIDELINE REVIEW PROCESS AND VALIDATION webinars for clinicians.
Drafts of the CPG update were reviewed by multiple stake-
holder groups to ensure that the goals and priorities of this In addition to publishing these guidelines in the Journal
publication were appropriately developed. Stakeholder of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy (JOSPT), these
groups include additional health care providers and orga- guidelines will be posted on CPG areas of the JOSPT,
nizations, consumers, patient representatives, and experts AOPT, and APTA websites, and made available for free
in physical therapy practice guideline methodology. The (open access) on the ECRI Guidelines Trust (guidelines.
AOPT provides a network of external stakeholders who ecri.org) and the PEDro (https://pedro.org.au/) websites.
regularly participate in formal reviews of CPGs, including The implementation tools planned to be available for pa-
consumer/patient representatives and claims reviewers, tients, clinicians, educators, payers, policy makers, and re-
medical coding experts, academic educators, clinical ed- searchers, and the associated implementation strategies,
ucators, physician specialists, and researchers. The guide- are listed in TABLE 3.
line draft was also posted for public comment and review
on www.orthopt.org, and a notification of this posting was ORGANIZATION OF THE GUIDELINE
sent to the members of the AOPT. All comments, sugges- Recommendations and accompanying evidence statements
tions, and feedback from the expert reviewers, the public, are presented in separate sections for (1) exercise, (2) man-
and consumer/patient representatives were provided to the ual and other directed therapies, (3) classification systems,
authors and editors for consideration and revisions. Addi- and (4) patient education. Each section has the same format.
tional health care providers who reviewed this CPG meth- First, the 2012 CPG recommendations are reviewed, then a
odology and publication include physical therapists and review of the literature supporting the 2021 updated recom-
assistants, physicians and assistants, and chiropractors. mendation is provided, and finally a distillation of the evi-
Acknowledgments of external stakeholders and reviewers dence is presented to summarize recommendations. Please
are provided at the end of the CPG. see the recommendation guidance for key elements.
Planned Strategies and Tools to Support the

TABLE 3
Dissemination and Implementation of This CPG
Tool Strategy
JOSPT’s “Perspectives for Patients” and/or “Perspectives for Practice” articles Patient-oriented guideline summary available on www.jospt.org
Mobile app of guideline-based exercises for patient/clients and health care Marketing and distribution of app via www.orthopt.org
practitioners
Clinician’s Quick-Reference Guide Summary of guideline recommendations available on www.orthopt.org
JOSPT’s Read for CreditSM continuing education units Continuing education units available for physical therapists and athletic trainers on
www.jospt.org
Webinars and educational offerings for health care practitioners Guideline-based instruction available for practitioners on www.orthopt.org
Mobile and web-based app of guideline for training of health care practitioners Marketing and distribution of app via www.orthopt.org
Intervention: Exercise
EVIDENCE STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS prove mobility and reduce symptoms in patients with acute,
2012 Recommendations subacute, or chronic LBP with mobility deficits.
The 2012 recommendations were not divided by patient sub-
group (eg, they did not include separate recommendations Flexion Exercises
for acute and chronic LBP). Physical therapists can consider flexion exercises,
Progressive Endurance Exercise and Fitness Activities

C combined with other interventions such as manual
therapy, strengthening exercises, nerve mobiliza-
Physical therapists should consider (1) moderate- tion procedures, and progressive walking, for reducing pain
A
to high-intensity exercise for patients with chronic and disability in older patients with chronic LBP with radi-
LBP without generalized pain, and (2) incorporat- ating pain.
ing progressive, low-intensity, submaximal fitness and en-
durance activities into pain management and health Exercise training interventions were categorized using the
promotion strategies for patients with chronic LBP with operational definitions displayed in TABLE 4.
generalized pain.
Trunk Coordination, Strengthening, and Endurance Exercises EVIDENCE UPDATE

Physical therapists should consider utilizing trunk Based on the results of our literature search, the 2021 update
A coordination, strengthening, and endurance exer-
cises to reduce LBP and disability in patients with
will include some of the same, but also different, treatment
categories as did the 2012 CPG.
subacute and chronic LBP with movement coordination im-
pairments and in patients post lumbar microdiscectomy.
EXERCISE TRAINING FOR ACUTE LBP
Centralization and Directional Preference General Exercise Training
Exercises and Procedures Aluko et al7 compared 6 weeks of specific trunk

Physical therapists should consider utilizing repeat- II muscle activation exercises added to a trunk
A ed movements, exercises, or procedures to promote
centralization to reduce symptoms in patients with
strengthening and endurance exercise program
with the exercise program alone in 33 participants with
acute LBP with related (referred) lower extremity pain. Phys- acute LBP. This RCT reported no between-group differenc-
ical therapists should consider using repeated exercises in a es at assessments conducted 3, 6, and 12 weeks after
specific direction determined by treatment response to im- enrollment.
TABLE 4 Operational Definitions for Exercise
Intervention Operational Definition

Trunk muscle strengthening and endurance exercise Exercise training prescribed to restore or improve strength, endurance, or power of trunk muscles or muscle groups
Specific trunk muscle activation exercise Exercise training prescribed to target specific deep trunk muscles (eg, transversus abdominis, multifidus) using cocontraction
to alter or restore control or coordination of the lumbopelvic region
Movement control exercise Exercise training prescribed to alter, restore, or retrain control of functional movements and tasks, with feedback on movement
patterns
General exercise Exercise training prescribed to restore or improve overall strength or endurance of the major muscle groups of the upper/
lower extremities and trunk, including exercises for flexibility/mobility and aerobic/conditioning exercises
Trunk mobility exercise Exercise training prescribed to restore trunk range of motion or to repeatedly move the trunk in a specific direction to achieve
a reduction of symptoms
Aerobic exercise Exercise training prescribed to restore or enhance capacity or efficiency of the cardiovascular system
Multimodal exercise Exercise training that combines 2 or more of the interventions described above
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale 2021 Recommendation

There is a lack of RCTs examining exercise training interven- Physical therapists may use exercise training inter-
tions for patients with acute LBP who do not have related leg
pain. This paucity of clinical trials is the primary limiting fac-
B ventions, including trunk muscle strengthening
and endurance and specific trunk muscle activa-
tor in making a stronger recommendation for exercise train- tion, to reduce pain and disability in patients with acute LBP
ing. A stronger recommendation will require the completion with leg pain.
of level I RCTs investigating the effects of exercise training in
patients with acute LBP. Gaps in Knowledge
More research is needed to examine exercise training inter-
2021 Recommendation ventions for patients with acute LBP with and without leg
Physical therapists can use exercise training inter- pain. There is a need for level I RCTs comparing exercise
C ventions, including specific trunk muscle activa-
tion, for patients with acute LBP.
training interventions against usual care or other control in-
terventions to clarify whether exercise training interventions
provide benefit beyond the favorable natural history of acute
LBP. There is also a need for direct comparisons of different

EXERCISE TRAINING FOR ACUTE LBP WITH LEG PAIN exercise training interventions for patients with acute LBP
Muscle Strengthening and Endurance with leg pain. Effort should be made to ensure that individ-
Huber et al79 compared a muscle strengthening and uals recruited into exercise RCTs match demographic and
II endurance exercise intervention, consisting of su-
pine isometric back extension and abdominal exer-
clinical characteristics of those seeking care for LBP.
cises, to advice to reduce activity and loading of the spine in

52 patients with acute back pain with leg pain. Assessments EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LBP
were made before treatment and after 20 days. Patients in Muscle Strengthening and Endurance
the muscle strengthening and endurance exercise group had Rantonen et al133 compared a muscle strengthening
a greater reduction of pain intensity after 20 days (mean dif-
ference, –1.7 on the numeric pain-rating scale [NPRS]).
I and endurance exercise intervention to either a
multidisciplinary rehabilitation program or a self-
care program in an RCT involving 126 patients with chronic
Specific Trunk Muscle Activation LBP in an occupational health setting. The group receiving
Ye et al170 compared 2 different exercise training muscle strengthening and endurance exercise had greater
II interventions in 63 young male participants (age,

20-29 years) with diagnosed lumbar disc hernia-
improvement in pain compared to the self-care group after 3
and 6 months (pain visual analog scale [VAS] between-group
tion. Patients were randomized to general exercise or specific mean difference, –10 mm for both follow-up occasions; ODI
trunk muscle activation exercises for 3 months. Outcomes between-group mean difference, –4 and –5, respectively).
were assessed after 3 months and 1 year. There were no dif- There were no differences among the groups after 24 months.
ferences at the 3-month assessment; however, at 1 year, those
receiving specific trunk muscle activation had greater im- Specific Trunk Muscle Activation
provement in back pain and disability (mean group differ- An RCT by Macedo et al104 compared specific trunk
ence, –6.7 on the Oswestry Disability Index [ODI]). I muscle activation exercise to a general exercise pro-
gram with cognitive behavioral principles in 172
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale patients with chronic LBP. Assessments at 2, 6, and 12
These 2 RCTs provide evidence of short-term benefit of exercise months found no difference in pain or disability between
training interventions, specifically muscle strengthening and groups.
endurance versus advice only. There was support for specific
trunk muscle activation having a superior long-term benefit Nine RCTs6,9,13,39,95,111,115,153,159 with small sample sizes
when compared to general exercise. The reviewed RCTs had
methodologic limitations in the duration of follow-up and gen-
II and primarily short-term follow-up compared spe-
cific trunk muscle activation exercise to other ex-
eralizability of the study participants. Based on the available ercise or an active intervention. Comparison exercise
evidence, there is support for incorporating muscle strength- training interventions were general exercise,6 yoga,39 manual
ening and endurance and specific trunk muscle activation ex- therapy,159 movement control exercise using proprioceptive
ercise training interventions for patients with acute LBP with neuromuscular facilitation,13 and muscle strengthening and
leg pain. This would include patients with ICF categories of endurance.9,95,111,115,153 Results were mixed, with some studies
LBP with related lower extremity pain and radiating pain. A finding differences favoring specific trunk muscle activation
stronger recommendation will require more level I RCTs. exercise for pain or disability after 4 to 12 weeks6,95,115,153 and
others finding no between-group differences.9,13,111 Demirel 0.06). Similarly, no differences were found between groups
et al39 found yoga to have a greater effect on pain than spe- for disability level in the short term (pooled SMD, 0.03) or
cific trunk muscle activation exercise after 6 weeks (mean long term (pooled SMD, 0.15). For walking plus other inter-
difference, –1.4 on the NPRS). Tagliaferri et al153 found that ventions versus other interventions alone, the review found
a muscle strengthening and endurance exercise intervention low- to moderate-quality evidence of no significant differ-
combined with manual therapy had a greater effect on dis- ence between groups for pain intensity in the short term
ability than specific trunk muscle activation exercise after 6 (pooled SMD, 0.04) or long term (pooled SMD, 0.00). Con-
months. Ulger et al159 found that manual therapy had a sistent with other findings, low- to moderate-quality evi-
greater effect on pain and disability after 6 weeks than spe- dence found no differences between groups for disability
cific trunk muscle activation exercise (mean difference, –7.5 level in the short term (pooled SMD, –0.08) or long term
on the ODI). (pooled SMD, –0.19).
Four RCTs12,121,130,169 compared specific trunk muscle Two RCTs compared aerobic exercise to minimal
II exercise with a wait-list group,121 modalities II intervention or control groups. Bruehl et al28 com-
alone,130 modalities and trunk exercise,12 or trunk pared aerobic exercise to a usual activity control
endurance exercises.169 All 4 RCTs found greater improve- group in 82 patients with chronic LBP. Posttreatment com-
ment in pain and disability in patients receiving specific parisons (6 weeks) found greater reductions in pain intensity
trunk muscle activation exercise at short-term follow-ups and pain interference in the group receiving aerobic exercise
ranging from 4 to 11 weeks. (NPRS between-group mean difference, –1.5 for average pain
and –1.7 for worst pain). Cuesta-Vargas et al34 compared a
Movement Control deep water–running aerobic exercise program along with

Four RCTs with only short-term outcomes com- care from a general practice physician to general practice care
II pared movement control exercise to other exercise
training interventions. Gatti et al63 compared
alone in 58 patients with chronic LBP and found differences
favoring the group receiving the deep water–running aerobic
movement control exercise (balance exercise) to a general exercise program in pain (pain VAS between-group mean
exercise program in 79 patients with chronic LBP. Both differences: –14.8 mm at 4 months, –14.2 mm at 6 months,
groups received flexibility exercises as well. Greater improve- –26.0 mm at 12 months) and disability (RMDQ score be-
ment of pain and disability occurred in the movement control tween-group mean differences: –3.4 at 4 months, –3.8 at 6
exercise group after 6 weeks (mean difference, –2.1 on the months, –2.5 at 12 months).
Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire [RMDQ]). Three

separate RCTs by Areeudomwong and Buttagat12,13 and General Exercise
Areeudomwong et al15 examined movement control exercise Four RCTs compared general exercise interventions
using proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation compared to
specific trunk muscle activation and a control group in 55
I to other exercise training interventions. Iversen et
al82 found no differences in pain and function
patients,12 compared to a control group in 42 patients,15 and across 1 year between general exercise and muscle strength-
compared to general exercise in 44 patients.13 Results favored ening and endurance using resistance bands in 99 patients.
movement control exercise versus control or general exercise Harris et al71 compared general exercise to cognitive behav-
after 3 to 4 weeks and after 12 weeks for pain and disabili- ioral therapy or a brief cognitive intervention in 214 patients
ty,12,13,15 and no differences were found when compared to and found no differences in pain and function at 1-year fol-
specific trunk muscle activation after 4 weeks.13 low-up. Bello et al20 compared a general exercise program to
a general exercise program using graded activity and found
Aerobic Exercise no difference between groups after 4 or 12 weeks. Monticone
Sitthipornvorakul et al149 performed a systematic et al114 compared a group-based general exercise program to
I review and meta-analysis of aerobic exercise using
a walking intervention for chronic LBP. Nine
a group-based general exercise program combined with cog-
nitive behavioral therapy principles in 150 patients with
RCTs were included; 4 compared walking intervention chronic LBP. The group receiving general exercise with cog-
alone to other interventions. Five studies compared walking nitive behavioral principles had greater improvements in
as an intervention alone to walking in addition to other in- pain and disability after 5 weeks and 1 and 2 years (NPRS
terventions. For walking alone versus other interventions [0-10] between-group mean differences: –3.1 postinterven-
(general exercise, education), the review found moder- tion, –1.8 at 12-month follow-up, and –1.9 at 24-month fol-
ate-quality evidence of no significant difference between low-up; ODI score [0-100] between-group mean differences:
groups for pain in the short term (pooled standardized –9.8 postintervention, –15.8 at 12-month follow-up, and
mean difference [SMD], 0.07) or long term (pooled SMD, –15.0 at 24-month follow-up).
Two RCTs compared general exercise to control con- ercise program and specific trunk muscle activation exercise.
II ditions. An RCT by Masharawi and Nadaf109 com-
pared group-based, non–weight-bearing general
There were no differences in pain and disability between
groups at 6-week, 3-month, and 6-month follow-ups.
exercise to a control group in 40 female nurses with chronic
LBP. Assessments at 4 and 8 weeks found greater improve- Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
ment in pain (mean difference, –2.2 on the NPRS) and disabil- There are a large number of RCTs examining exercise inter-
ity (mean difference, –5 on the RMDQ) in the group receiving ventions for patients with chronic LBP. However, most are
general exercise. Jensen et al83 compared general exercise to level II studies with high heterogeneity in patient popula-
advice to rest and use of a back brace for 100 patients with tions, small sample sizes, and short-term follow-up, includ-
chronic LBP and Modic changes on imaging. There were no ing several trials that reported null findings. The available
differences between groups after 10 weeks or 1 year. level I RCTs support using multimodal programs and trunk
muscle strengthening and endurance exercise interventions
Trunk Mobility for chronic LBP generally and with older adults specifical-
Segal-Snir et al143 compared trunk mobility using ly. No studies reported harm from exercise training inter-
II
rotational exercises to a wait-list control in 50 ventions. Therefore, exercise training interventions can be
women (aged 40 to 70 years) with chronic LBP. broadly recommended for chronic LBP. More level I RCTs
Both groups received education and advice. There were no are needed to directly compare different types of exercise,
differences between groups for either pain or disability as there is no clear evidence of the superiority of one form
postintervention or at 8-week follow-up. of exercise training intervention over another. The duration,
dosing, and intensity of exercise interventions were highly
Shah and Kage145 compared trunk mobility exercise variable across studies, and controlling this variability should
II consisting of repeated prone extension to manual
therapy in 40 patients with LBP lasting less than 3
be a focus in future RCTs.
months. Results after 7 treatment sessions showed greater 2021 Recommendations

improvement in pain (mean differences, –1.1 and –2.5 on the Physical therapists should use exercise training in-
NPRS) and disability (mean differences, –9.3 and –15.9 on
the ODI) in the group receiving manual therapy.
A terventions, including trunk muscle strengthening
and endurance, multimodal exercise interventions,
specific trunk muscle activation exercise, aerobic exercise,
Multimodal aquatic exercise, and general exercise, for patients with
Bronfort et al27 conducted an RCT (n = 301) com- chronic LBP.

I paring a multimodal exercise training intervention,
including specific trunk muscle activation and mus- Physical therapists may provide movement control
cle strength and endurance training, to spinal manipulation
and a group receiving instruction in a home-based general
B exercise or trunk mobility exercise for patients with
chronic LBP.
exercise program. There were no differences among the 3
treatment groups at the 3-month or 1-year follow-up. Gaps in Knowledge
There is a need for additional level I RCTs evaluating exercise
Nazzal et al119 compared a general exercise program training interventions for patients with chronic LBP. In partic-
II to a multimodal exercise program, including gen-
eral exercise, muscle endurance, and strengthening,
ular, RCTs are needed that directly compare different types of
exercise, examine the optimal way to deliver exercise training
along with manual therapy in 100 patients and found greater interventions with respect to dosage and intensity, and target
improvements in the multimodal group in pain and disability exercise interventions to particular subgroups of patients with
after 6, 12, and 24 weeks. Two additional RCTs found no ben- chronic LBP. In addition, the effects of contextual, medical,
efit to adding general exercise (deep-water running or aero- and/or social factors (eg, expectations for treatment, fear of
bic exercise training) to a multimodal treatment that included movement, comorbid conditions, socioeconomic status) that
education, manual therapy, specific trunk muscle activation, modulate the effects of exercise should also be explored.
and passive modalities.31,35
Magalhães et al106,107 compared 2 different multi- EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LBP WITH LEG PAIN
II modal exercise programs in 66 patients with chron-
ic LBP. One program used aerobic exercise and
Specific Trunk Muscle Activation
One RCT by França et al55 compared specific trunk
muscle strengthening and endurance provided with cognitive
behavioral principles. The other program used a general ex-
II muscle activation exercise to transcutaneous electri-
cal nerve stimulation in 40 patients with chronic
LBP with leg pain and found greater improvements in pain EXERCISE FOR CHRONIC LBP WITH MOVEMENT
(adjusted mean difference, –2.6 on the NPRS) and disability CONTROL IMPAIRMENT
(adjusted mean difference, –5.7 on the ODI) posttreatment (8 Four RCTs14,88,124,129 compared specific trunk muscle
weeks) for the specific trunk muscle activation exercise group. II activation exercise to other exercise interventions
in patients with chronic LBP who also had signs
Multimodal associated with the ICF category of movement control im-
Two RCTs examined multimodal exercise training pairment. Khodadad et al88 compared specific trunk muscle
I interventions versus minimal treatment for patients
with chronic LBP with leg pain. Hahne et al67 com-
activation exercise to cognitive functional training and a con-
trol group in 52 patients and found no differences among the
pared a multimodal exercise training intervention including groups after 8 weeks. Three RCTs14,124,129 compared specific
trunk mobility exercise and specific trunk muscle activation trunk muscle activation exercises to stretching exercises in
exercise and advice to advice only in 54 patients. Greater im- studies with small sample sizes ranging from 20 to 42 pa-
provements in back pain (adjusted mean difference, –1.4 points tients. These RCTs each found better outcomes for the group
on the NPRS) and disability (adjusted mean difference, –7.7 on receiving specific trunk muscle activation exercise in the
the ODI) favoring the multimodal exercise training interven- short term (6-10 weeks), with 1 RCT129 showing continued
tion were observed after 10 weeks, and in disability (adjusted benefit for disability in the specific trunk muscle activation
mean difference, –8.2 on the ODI) after 1 year. Albert and Man- group after 6 months.
niche3 compared a multimodal exercise training intervention
including general exercise, trunk strengthening and endurance, Macedo et al105 conducted a preplanned secondary
and specific trunk exercises to a sham exercise program in 181 II analysis of an RCT not included in the systematic
patients. All patients received education and advice. There were review by Luomajoki et al.103 The RCT compared
no differences between groups in disability at follow-ups of 8 specific trunk muscle activation and a general exercise pro-
weeks and 1 year. There was a trend toward small differences gram provided with cognitive behavioral principles in 172
in leg pain favoring the multimodal exercise training group. patients with chronic LBP. Patients with clinical signs of
movement control impairment via a questionnaire had great-
Moustafa and Diab116 compared a multimodal exer- er improvement in function after 12 months than patients
I cise training intervention that included general
exercise and specific trunk muscle activation exer-
with fewer signs of movement control impairment on the
questionnaire.
cise to that intervention plus exercise intended to correct
forward head posture in 154 patients with LBP with leg pain Movement Control
who were randomly assigned to either intervention. There One systematic review and meta-analysis included
were no differences between groups at 8 weeks after treat-
ment. Differences favoring the group including the postural
I 11 RCTs that examined movement control exercise
training intervention programs for patients with
exercise were reported for disability (mean difference, –11.8 chronic LBP and movement control impairment.103 The sys-
points on the ODI), back pain, and leg pain (mean difference, tematic review found that movement control exercise had a
–1.6 on the NPRS) after 2 years. small effect on pain postintervention (SMD, –0.39; 95% con-
fidence interval [CI]: –0.73, –0.04), with no effect after 1
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale year. For disability, movement control exercise had a small
A total of 3 RCTs comparing exercise training interventions effect postintervention in 4 of 11studies (SMD, –0.38; 95%
to minimal treatment generally support the use of exercise CI: –0.68, –0.09), with a small effect maintained after 1 year
training interventions for patients with chronic LBP with leg (n = 212; SMD, –0.37; 95% CI: –0.69, –0.04).
pain. One study examined a specific trunk muscle activation
exercise program, while the remaining studies used multi- Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
modal exercise approaches. The studies do not clearly sup- For patients with clinical findings consistent with movement
port one type of exercise training intervention. One RCT with control impairment, there is consistent evidence supporting
a larger sample size supported the inclusion of postural exer- specific trunk activation exercise and movement control ex-
cise along with a multimodal exercise training intervention. ercise interventions.
2021 Recommendation 2021 Recommendation

Physical therapists may use exercise training inter- Physical therapists should use specific trunk muscle
B ventions, including specific trunk muscle activation
and movement control, for patients with chronic
A activation and movement control exercise for pa-
tients with chronic LBP and movement control
LBP with leg pain. impairment.
Gaps in Knowledge eral exercise program provided using video game technology
Additional level I RCTs are needed to clarify which move- to usual care. The group receiving general exercise had great-
ment control exercise approaches are the most effective and/ er improvements in pain (mean difference, less than 1 point
or which patient characteristics are indicative of positive on the NPRS) and disability (mean difference, –1.5 points on
treatment outcomes. the RMDQ) after 8 weeks. There were no differences between
groups after 6 months. No adverse events were reported. Ho-
mayouni et al78 compared an aquatic general exercise pro-
EXERCISE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR gram to a trunk mobility exercise program using flexion and
CHRONIC LBP IN OLDER ADULTS extension, along with passive modalities, in 50 patients with
Two RCTs examined multimodal exercise pro- chronic LBP diagnosed with lumbar spinal stenosis. The
I grams for older adults. Ammendolia et al8 com-
pared a multimodal general exercise and aerobic
study found that the aquatic exercise program provided a
slight benefit for pain and disability outcomes after 8 weeks,
exercise program to a self-directed exercise program in 104 with no differences between groups after 3 months (mean
adults with lumbar spinal stenosis (mean age, 71 years). The difference, 2.5 on the pain VAS).
group receiving multimodal exercise had greater improve-

ments in pain and disability after 6 months (adjusted mean Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
difference, –1.4 on the NPRS). Schneider et al142 compared There is strong evidence to support the use of general exer-
a group-based general exercise program to an individually cise training (including aquatic exercise) for the management
delivered general exercise program with manual therapy of chronic LBP in the older adult population. However, ben-
and to usual medical care from a physiatrist in 259 adults efits within these studies appear to be more related to exer-
over the age of 60 with lumbar spinal stenosis. The group cise prescription (ie, the need to have appropriate volume/
receiving individualized general exercise with manual ther- intensity and incorporate principles of exercise progression
apy had greater improvement in disability after 2 months intensity) than to a given exercise type.
than either the usual medical care or group-based general
exercise group (adjusted mean differences: medical care,
–2.0; 95% CI: –3.6, –0.4; group exercise, –2.4; 95% CI: 2021 Recommendation
–4.1, –0.8). There were no differences between groups after Physical therapists should use general exercise
6 months. A training to reduce pain and disability in older
adults with chronic LBP.
Hicks et al75 compared a muscle strengthening and

II endurance exercise intervention augmented with
neuromuscular electrical stimulation to passive EXERCISE FOR POSTOPERATIVE LBP
modalities in 64 older adults (age, 60-85 years). The muscle General Exercise
strengthening and endurance exercise group had greater im- Aalto et al1 performed an RCT examining 102 pa-
provements in pain and function 12 weeks and 6 months post
intervention (adjusted mean difference at immediate fol-
I tients receiving open or microscopic decompres-
sion surgery for lumbar spinal stenosis (19 of the
low-up, –4.8; at 6 months, –5.1 on the ODI). enrolled patients had additional fusion surgery). A general
exercise program was compared to standard postoperative
Three RCTs with small sample sizes and short-term treatment. No differences between groups were observed at
II follow-ups examined general exercise programs in
older adults with chronic LBP. Vincent et al166 ex-
3 and 6 months, and at 1- and 2-year follow-ups.
amined 49 older adults with abdominal obesity (age, 60-85 Hebert et al73 performed an RCT examining a gen-
years), comparing 3 groups: (1) a general exercise program
consisting of total body progressive resistance exercises, (2)
I eral exercise program with and without the addition
of specific trunk muscle activation exercises started
an isolated trunk extensor muscle strengthening exercise 2 weeks post surgery in 61 patients after lumbar disc surgery.
program, and (3) a control group. The general exercise group Both groups demonstrated a 50% reduction in disability, but
had greater improvement in disability after treatment (4 no additional benefit was gained from adding the specific
months) than the muscle strengthening group (mean differ- trunk muscle activation when assessed at 10 and 26 weeks.
ence, –2.6 on the ODI and –3.2 on the RMDQ). Both the
general exercise and muscle strengthening groups had great- An RCT by Ogutluler Ozkara et al122 examined 30
er reduction in pain during movement than the control group
(mean difference, –0.6 on the NPRS). Zadro et al174 examined
II patients following microdiscectomy and compared a
general exercise program beginning immediately af-
60 older adults (age, older than 55 years), comparing a gen- ter surgery to a control group. The general exercise group had
greater improvements in disability at 6 and 12 weeks (mean er, given the available evidence, it is not possible to recom-
difference, –10.4 and –12.6 on the ODI, respectively) and in mend any one type of exercise.
pain at 12 weeks (mean difference, –0.8 on the VAS). • Muscle strength and endurance and specific trunk mus-
cle activation exercise interventions have demonstrated
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale some benefit for individuals with acute LBP and related
There are few studies examining exercise training interven- leg pain.
tions for patients following spine surgery. The results provide
inconsistent evidence regarding general exercise interven- Chronic LBP
tions. None of the RCTs reported harm to patients with ex- • Exercise training interventions can be broadly recom-
ercise training interventions following spine surgery. mended to reduce pain and disability for individuals with
chronic LBP.
2021 Recommendation • There is no clear evidence of superiority of one exercise
Physical therapists can use general exercise training type or approach over another when exercise protocols are
C for patients with LBP following lumbar spine directly compared.
surgery.
Older Adults With Chronic LBP
Gaps in Knowledge • Progressive exercise training can be recommended to re-
To better inform postoperative care, there is a need for level duce pain and disability in older adults with chronic LBP.
I RCTs evaluating the effects of different exercise training
interventions in patients following surgery for LBP. Postoperative LBP
• Exercise training interventions may be recommended to

reduce pain and disability for individuals with LBP follow-
KEY POINTS FOR EXERCISE INTERVENTIONS ing lumbar spine surgery.
Acute LBP • Surgeries in the literature search included lumbar discec-
• Many exercise training interventions potentially reduce tomy, spinal fusion, and decompressive surgery (eg, lami-
pain and disability for individuals with acute LBP; howev- notomy, hemilaminectomy, or laminectomy).
Intervention: Manual and

Other Directed Therapies
EVIDENCE STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS tent lumbar traction in the prone position. There is mod-
2012 Recommendations erate evidence that physical therapists should not utilize
The 2012 recommendations were not divided by patient sub- intermittent or static lumbar traction for reducing symp-
group (eg, they did not include separate recommendations toms in patients with acute or subacute, nonradicular LBP
for acute and chronic LBP). or in patients with chronic LBP.
Manual Therapy
Physical therapists should consider utilizing thrust 2021 UPDATE
A joint mobilization procedures to reduce pain and
disability in patients with mobility deficits and
Manual and other directed therapies were categorized using
the operational definitions displayed in TABLE 5.
acute low back and back-related buttock or thigh pain.
Thrust and nonthrust joint mobilization procedures can also
be used to improve spine and hip mobility and reduce pain EVIDENCE UPDATE
and disability in patients with subacute and chronic low back Based on the results of our literature search, the 2021 update
and back-related lower extremity pain. will include some of the same treatment categories included
in the 2012 CPG and also some different ones.
Lower-Quarter Nerve Mobilization Procedures
Physical therapists should consider utilizing low-
C er-quarter nerve mobilization procedures to reduce
pain and disability in patients with subacute and
MANUAL AND OTHER DIRECTED
THERAPIES FOR ACUTE LBP
chronic LBP and radiating pain. Thrust or Nonthrust Joint Mobilization
Fritz et al57 conducted a high-quality RCT of 220

Traction
There is conflicting evidence for the efficacy of
I patients with acute LBP and compared treatment
with thrust mobilization combined with exercise
D intermittent lumbar traction for patients with
LBP. There is preliminary evidence that a sub-
and education to usual care. The group receiving mobiliza-
tion with exercise and education had greater improvement in
group of patients with signs of nerve root compression, disability after 4 weeks and 3 months, although effect sizes
along with peripheralization of symptoms or a positive were small. There were no between-group differences in pain
crossed straight leg raise test, will benefit from intermit- or disability at 1 year, or in pain at 4 weeks or 3 months.
TABLE 5 Operational Definitions for Manual and Other Directed Therapies

Thrust or nonthrust joint mobilization A continuum of skilled passive movement applied at varying speeds and amplitudes within or at the end range of motion of
a joint. Thrust procedures are those provided with low amplitude and high velocity
Soft tissue mobilization Skilled passive movement of soft tissue, including fascia, muscles, and ligaments, to reduce pain or improve range of
motion. Techniques include myofascial release, trigger point therapy, strain/counterstrain, etc
Neural tissue mobilization Manual therapy techniques intended to enhance the dynamic balance between the relative movement of neural tissues and
surrounding mechanical interfaces
Massage A general term referring to techniques using the hands to promote relaxation of underlying muscles
Dry needling An intervention that uses a thin filiform needle to penetrate the skin and stimulate underlying myofascial trigger points and
muscular and connective tissues for the management of pain and movement impairments
Traction An intervention that uses manually or mechanically applied forces with the intention of stretching and distracting the spine
Shah and Kage145 compared nonthrust posteri- Gaps in Knowledge

II or-to-anterior (PA) mobilizations (grades I-IV) to
prone press-up exercise in 40 patients with acute
There is a need for additional level I RCTs evaluating man-
ual and other directed therapy interventions for acute LBP.
LBP. Only 1 treatment session was provided. Between-group Specifically, more RCTs comparing manual therapy and other
comparisons showed significantly greater improvement in directed interventions against usual care are needed to clarify
pain and disability in the group receiving PA mobilizations. whether these therapies provide additional benefit beyond
No long-term follow-up was conducted. the natural course of acute LBP. Additionally, level I RCTs
that directly compare different types of manual therapy and
Soft Tissue Mobilization other directed interventions are needed for patients with
Takamoto et al154 conducted a 3-arm RCT with 63 acute LBP.
II patients with acute LBP. Patients were randomized
into 1 of 3 groups: (1) manual compression at trig-
ger points, (2) compression at nontrigger points, or (3) effleu- MANUAL AND OTHER DIRECTED THERAPIES
rage massage. Subjects received the assigned treatments 3 FOR CHRONIC LBP
times per week over a 2-week period. There was a significant Thrust or Nonthrust Joint Mobilization
difference at 1 week and 1 month post treatment for pain, but We identified 20 RCTs examining thrust or non-
not for disability, in favor of the group that received manual
compression at trigger points.
I thrust mobilization, 8 of which used a control or
sham comparator.25,44,49,53,76,93,163,165 Dosing and fol-
low-up periods varied across these RCTs. Seven of these RCTs
Massage found short-term improvement in pain and disability out-
We identified 1 systematic review58 that included 1 comes for the group receiving mobilization.44,49,53,76,93,163,165
II RCT with 51 participants examining massage for
acute LBP. This RCT found that 8 sessions of mas-
Sample sizes for these 7 RCTs ranged from 25 to 75, with
none including long-term follow-up outcome measures.
sage over a 3-week period were superior to inactive controls Some RCTs provided mobilization combined with other in-
for pain at the 1-week follow-up, but no difference between terventions, including neural mobilization49 or other physical
inactive controls and massage for disability was found. No therapy interventions.93 One small pilot RCT found no differ-
long-term follow-up was conducted.171 ence in pain or function between mobilization and sham
treatment.25
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
There are several RCTs examining manual therapy or other Seven RCTs compared thrust or nonthrust mobilization
directed interventions for patients with acute LBP. Of the with active treatment comparators in patients with chronic
studies included, evidence supports short-term benefits for LBP.4,36,113,140,153,155,160 Two RCTs compared thrust or nonthrust
joint mobilizations (2 RCTs), massage (1 RCT), and soft mobilization with electrotherapy.4,160 Both RCTs favored the
tissue mobilization (1 RCT). The duration of treatment in group receiving mobilization. Five RCTs36,113,140,153,155 com-
these RCTs was short, including no longer than a 3-week pared thrust or nonthrust mobilization with different types
period. This is an important consideration when applying of exercise. Two of these RCTs found that nonthrust mobi-
these treatments, as there is no evidence investigating the lization did not provide greater short-term improvement in
prolonged use of manual therapy or other directed inter- pain or disability than did exercise interventions,36,113 with 1
ventions for acute LBP. Furthermore, most of the included of these RCTs finding greater improvement for a group re-
studies had a large degree of heterogeneity in intervention ceiving specific trunk activation exercise.113 Another RCT155
delivery parameters. The evidence in support of thrust or comparing thrust mobilization with an exercise program of
nonthrust joint mobilization was stronger than for other stretching and general exercise found that the mobilization
directed interventions. group had greater improvement in short-term (5 weeks) pain
and disability. Two RCTs investigated mobilization combined
2021 Recommendations with ergonomic advice140 or muscle strengthening and en-
Physical therapists should use thrust or nonthrust durance exercise,153 with the groups receiving mobilization
A joint mobilization to reduce pain and disability in
patients with acute LBP.
experiencing greater short-term improvement in pain and
quality of life than groups receiving other types of exercise
without mobilization.
Physical therapists may use massage or soft tissue
B mobilization for short-term pain relief in patients
with acute LBP.
Five RCTs examined the addition of mobilization to an ac-
tive treatment that was received by all patients.51,65,118,141,175 Two
RCTs that added mobilization to exercise and education51 or
to cognitive behavioral treatment and exercise65 found no mobilization and soft tissue mobilization, another receiving
additional benefit of adding the mobilization intervention. elastic taping, and another receiving reflexology. There were
Three RCTs found greater short-term improvements in pain no differences between groups in pain or disability at 4-week
and disability when mobilization was added to standard follow-up.
physical therapy,175 laser therapy plus exercise,118 or exercise
plus electrotherapy.141 Massage
We identified 1 systematic review58 that included 24
Five RCTs compared different delivery methods of I RCTs examining massage for chronic LBP. The sys-
I mobilization for patients with chronic LBP. Two
RCTs30,33 compared thrust and nonthrust mobiliza-
tematic review found that massage was superior to
inactive controls for pain and disability in the short term, but
tion techniques to each other. One RCT30 found greater im- not in the long term. When compared to active controls, mas-
provement in short-term disability for the group receiving sage was superior for the outcome of pain, in both the short
thrust mobilization. The other RCT33 had a larger sample size and long term, but no differences were found for function in
(n = 149) and reported no significant between-group differ- either the short or long term. There were no reports of seri-
ences. Two RCTs41,46 compared mobilization techniques that ous adverse events. The evidence was judged to be of low to
were targeted to specific spinal segments or regions to mobi- very low quality.
lization techniques that were nonspecific. These RCTs found
no differences in outcomes for specific versus nonspecific We identified 6 RCTs examining massage for pa-
techniques. The larger RCT41 (n = 148) found that both
groups improved in terms of an immediate decrease in pain,
I tients with chronic LBP that were not included in
the systematic review. Two RCTs19,84 compared an
but no significant between-group differences were observed. exercise intervention provided with or without massage. Both
One RCT86 of 32 women with chronic LBP compared thrust RCTs found that the addition of massage provided superior
mobilization directed at 2 regions (the sacroiliac joint and outcomes compared to those provided by exercise alone. Two
lumbar spine) to thrust mobilization directed at a single re- RCTs compared specific types of massage (Thai and Ayurve-
gion (the sacroiliac joint). The authors found a single session dic massage) with other active comparator interventions.
of thrust mobilization directed at 2 regions to be more effec- One of these RCTs94 compared Ayurvedic massage with stan-
tive for improving short-term (48 hours and 1 month) dis- dard massage and found that the Ayurvedic method led to
ability than sacroiliac joint mobilization alone. greater short-term (2 and 4 weeks) improvement in pain, but
not in disability. The other, larger RCT85 (n = 120) compared
Soft Tissue Mobilization traditional Thai massage with joint mobilization and found
We identified 6 RCTs that examined soft tissue mo- that both interventions were equally effective for short-term
II bilization for patients with chronic LBP. None of
these studies conducted a long-term follow-up. Two
(4 weeks) reductions in pain and disability. One RCT98 com-
pared the effect of interferential current electromassage to
of these RCTs16,17 compared myofascial release to sham myo- superficial massage in patients with chronic LBP and found
fascial release and found that the group receiving soft tissue the electromassage intervention to be superior for short-term
mobilization with myofascial release had greater improve- improvements in pain and disability. Finally, 1 RCT177 inves-
ment in short-term pain and disability. Another RCT24 com- tigated massage with and without a preparatory phase (pa-
pared the combination of myofascial release and thrust tients were provided active feedback during the massage, and
mobilization to thrust mobilization alone and found no sig- the preparatory phase included pleasant touch before initi-
nificant between-group differences. An RCT by Dayanir et ating the massage) and language as therapy for LBP and
al37 compared 3 separate soft tissue mobilization techniques found that massage improved pain and disability at short-
(manual pressure release, strain/counterstrain, and integrat- term follow-up, with the experimental group having a more
ed neuromuscular inhibition), each combined with a home immediate response.
exercise program, to a group receiving only the home exercise
program. The group receiving strain/counterstrain had Neural Mobilization
slightly greater improvement in pain and disability compared We identified 1 systematic review151 that included 7
to the other groups. Kotteeswaran et al92 compared dynamic
soft tissue mobilization of the hamstring with a stretching
I RCTs examining neural mobilization in patients
with chronic LBP with leg pain and 2 RCTs exam-
program in young adults (age, 20-35 years) with chronic LBP ining patients with chronic LBP without leg pain. The review
and found the soft tissue mobilization to be more effective for concluded that neural mobilization was superior to minimal
short-term reduction of pain. Finally, 1 RCT144 compared 4 interventions for pain and disability in patients with chronic
groups that each received specific trunk activation exercises, LBP with leg pain, but neural mobilization was not superior
with one group also receiving a combination of nonthrust to comparator interventions.
We identified 4 additional RCTs not included in the to another treatment in patients with chronic LBP with leg
II systematic review that examined neural mobiliza-
tion in patients with chronic LBP with leg pain.
pain. Bilgilisoy Filiz et al22 conducted a study of 125 patients
who were randomized to mechanical lumbar traction in ei-
One RCT49 evaluated advice to stay active, with and without ther the prone or supine position, along with physical thera-
the addition of neural mobilization. The group receiving sci- py, or to physical therapy alone (without traction). The
atic nerve mobilization had greater improvement in pain and combination of prone traction and physical therapy showed
disability at 4 weeks compared to the advice-only group. Two greater improvement in pain and function at the end of treat-
RCTs examined the addition of neural mobilization for the ment (15 sessions) compared to the physical therapy–only
sciatic nerve to an exercise program. Bhatia et al21 examined group. Moustafa and Diab117 conducted an RCT comparing
the addition of neural mobilization to a physical therapy ex- hot packs and interferential therapy, with and without the
ercise program and found greater short-term (4 weeks) im- addition of lumbar extension traction. The traction group
provements in pain and disability in the group also receiving showed significant improvements in pain and disability at the
neural mobilization. Plaza-Manzano et al127 examined the end of treatment and 6-month follow-up. Diab and Mousta-
addition of neural mobilization to a specific trunk muscle fa43 compared stretching and heat with and without the ad-
activation exercise program and found no significant differ- dition of lumbar extension traction, with the traction group
ence between groups at short-term follow-up (4 weeks). Sat- showing significant improvements in pain and disability at
pute et al141 added neural mobilization combined with the end of treatment and at 6 months.
nonthrust mobilization to a program of exercise and electro-
therapy, and found that the neural mobilization group had Other studies examining the addition of traction to mobi-
significant improvements in pain and disability compared to lizing exercise,156 to specific trunk muscle activation exercise
the group receiving only exercise and electrotherapy imme- with massage and electrotherapy,40 and to a standard phys-
diately postintervention, as well as at 3- and 6-month ical therapy program using an inversion device128 found no
follow-ups. differences between groups in pain or disability outcomes.
Thackeray et al156 conducted an RCT of 120 patients with
Dry Needling LBP with leg pain randomized to receive an extension-ori-
We identified 3 RCTs examining dry needling inter- ented physical therapy approach, with or without the ad-
II ventions provided by physical therapists to patients
with chronic LBP, each with only short-term out-
dition of lumbar traction. No significant differences were
found in pain or disability at the end of treatment and at
comes. Griswold et al66 compared dry needling and nonthrust 6-month or 1-year follow-up. Demirel et al40 performed a
mobilization and found no significant differences in pain and pilot RCT of 20 patients, comparing a combination of deep
disability after 3 weeks. Tüzün et al158 conducted a small RCT friction massage, electrotherapy, and stabilization exercises
(n = 34) that compared dry needling to a comparison group with and without the addition of lumbar traction. There
receiving passive modalities and a home exercise program. were no significant between-group differences in pain or
The group receiving dry needling had greater improvement function observed at the end of treatment. An RCT con-
in pain immediately following the last treatment session. ducted by Prasad et al128 compared physical therapy with or
There was no long-term follow-up. Mahmoudzadeh et al108 without the addition of gravity-inversion traction in 24 pa-
examined 58 patients with chronic LBP with leg pain. All tients. There were no significant between-group differences
participants received physical therapy, with or without dry in pain or disability at the end of treatment. Last, another
needling. The group receiving dry needling along with phys- RCT81 compared high- and low-force mechanical traction in
ical therapy experienced significantly greater improvements patients with chronic LBP and radiating pain, and found no
in pain and disability at the end of treatment and at 2-month difference between groups based on the amount of traction
follow-up. force.
An RCT by Wang-Price et al167 compared 2 dry nee- Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
II dling techniques (with and without needle manip-
ulation) for a single treatment session. There were
There are numerous studies examining manual therapy and
other directed interventions for chronic LBP. There is good
no significant differences between groups immediately evidence in support of thrust or nonthrust joint mobiliza-
posttreatment. tion for short-term benefit for pain and disability associat-
ed with chronic LBP. There was no evidence of differences
Traction based on mobilization technique. Other directed interven-
We identified 7 RCTs examining traction for pa- tions had less consistent findings. Some RCTs found evi-
I tients with chronic LBP. Six of these
RCTs22,40,43,117,128,156 examined the addition of traction
dence of benefit of either soft tissue mobilization or massage
when added to other interventions ( joint mobilization,
exercise), particularly for short-term outcomes, although Physical therapists may use neural mobilization in
some studies failed to find benefit. There is little evidence
investigating dry needling for patients with chronic LBP.
B conjunction with other treatments for short-term
improvements in pain and disability in patients
Some evidence supports dry needling to improve short-term with chronic LBP with leg pain.
pain and disability when paired with joint mobilization or
exercise programs. Physical therapists should not use mechanical trac-
For patients with chronic LBP with leg pain, including pa-
D tion for patients with chronic LBP with leg pain,
based on the lack of benefit when added to other
tients who would fit the ICF category of radiating pain, evi- interventions.
dence supports the addition of neural mobilization to other
interventions (exercise, physical therapy). One level II RCT Gaps in Knowledge
supported adding dry needling to a physical therapy program There is a need for more level I RCTs to examine manual
for patients with chronic LBP with leg pain. Multiple RCTs therapy and other directed interventions for patients with
examined traction for chronic LBP with leg pain, but there chronic LBP, with or without leg pain. Because of the pref-
was conflicting evidence for the efficacy of lumbar traction. erence for active interventions, study designs examining the
A few studies showed small improvements in short-term effects of adding manual and other directed therapies to
pain and disability when mechanical traction was combined exercise can inform the potential value of these treatments
with heat, stretching, and/or standard physical therapy, or when multimodal approaches are used for patient care. In
in comparison to directed modalities. However, the majority addition, future RCTs examining manual and other directed
of studies showed no additional benefit in pain or disability therapies should incorporate longer follow-up times, as ex-
when traction was added to a program of exercise and joint isting trials often only include immediate posttreatment or
mobilization. short follow-up for primary end points.
2021 Recommendations
Physical therapists should use thrust or nonthrust KEY POINTS FOR MANUAL AND OTHER
A joint mobilization to reduce pain and disability in
patients with chronic LBP.
DIRECTED THERAPIES
Acute LBP
• Thrust or nonthrust joint mobilization, massage, and soft
Physical therapists may use thrust or nonthrust tissue mobilization have some evidence of reducing pain
B joint mobilization to reduce pain and disability in

patients with chronic LBP with leg pain.
and disability for individuals with acute LBP.
• There is no evidence to support the use of other directed
therapies for individuals with acute LBP.
Physical therapists may use soft tissue mobilization
B or massage in conjunction with other treatments to
reduce pain and disability in the short term in pa-
Chronic LBP
• Most studies support only short-term effectiveness for any
tients with chronic LBP. of the therapies included in this CPG update (ie, group dif-
ferences favoring the therapy were not observed at long-
Physical therapists can consider the use of dry nee- term follow-up).
C dling in conjunction with other treatments to re-
duce pain and disability in the short term in
• Traction is not supported by the current evidence as benefi-
cial when added to other interventions for individuals with
patients with chronic LBP. chronic LBP with leg pain.
Intervention: Classification Systems

EVIDENCE STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Because the 2012 CPG did not make recommendations about
2012 Recommendations specific classification systems, the authors considered evi-
The 2012 recommendations were not divided by patient sub- dence from RCTs cited in the previous CPG in these updated
group (ie, they did not include separate recommendations for recommendations when there were no RCTs published since
acute and chronic LBP). the previous CPG literature search.
Classification systems represent decision-making strategies 2021 Update

that are designed to help physical therapists identify import- Classification systems were categorized using the operation-
ant subgroups of patients with LBP and match the subgroups al definitions presented in TABLE 6. Based on the results of
to the interventions most likely to be beneficial to them.87 The our literature search, the 2021 update will include some of
2012 CPG noted that a few RCTs were available that exam- the same, but also different, treatment categories as did the
ined specific classification systems, but the CPG did not pro- 2012 CPG.
vide recommendations about these systems.38 The following
endorsements were made regarding classification in general
in the 2012 CPG. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR ACUTE LBP

1. Emphasis in the development of subgrouping methods Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy
has been placed on patterns of signs and symptoms from Lam et al96 performed a systematic review of 4
the clinical examination.
2. The development of classification systems has been iden-
I RCTs that found that Mechanical Diagnosis and
Therapy (MDT) is not superior to other rehabilita-
tified as a priority among researchers in the primary care tion interventions such as manual therapy plus exercise,
management of patients with LBP. exercise, or education for addressing pain or disability
3. The best available evidence supports a classification ap- outcomes in patients with acute LBP. There were no RCTs
proach that de-emphasizes identifying specific anatomical comparing MDT with control conditions.
lesions after red flag screening is completed.
TABLE 6 Operational Definitions for Classification Systems

Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy Classification method based on changes in low back pain (and/or lower extremity) symptoms in response to direction-specific, repeated
lumbar spine movements or sustained postures. Findings are used to classify patients into different syndromes (ie, derangement,
dysfunction, or postural) that guide the treatment approach
Treatment-based classification Classification method to guide initial treatment approach (manipulation, stabilization, specific exercise, or traction) based on specific
initial assessment findings, including but not limited to patient history, clinical presentation, and physical examination
Movement system impairment Classification method based on impaired trunk movements and postures associated with low back pain symptoms observed during a
standardized examination. Test results are used to classify patients based on observed lumbar movement or alignment impairments
(rotation, extension, flexion, rotation with extension, or rotation with flexion), with subgroup assignment guiding the initial treatment
approach to match specific signs and symptoms
Cognitive functional therapy Classification method that uses an integrated behavioral approach for individualizing the management of low back pain Pathoanatomical,
physical, psychological, social, lifestyle, and health-related risk factors are assessed, with nonmodifiable barriers and a modifiable
target for change identified to guide treatment based on 3 components (“making sense of pain,” “exposure with control,” and “lifestyle
change”). Formerly called O’Sullivan’s classification system
Prognostic risk stratification Classification method that identifies patients at different levels of risk for persistent pain (low, medium, high) using a multidimensional
screening tool, with each risk category associated with different treatment pathways. Examples include the STarT Back Tool
Pathoanatomic-based classification Classification method based on pathoanatomic-based findings from examination that could cause low back pain Subgroups are defined
by symptom location and response to examination procedures and used to guide the treatment approach
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy

We identified 1 systematic review published since the last We identified 3 systematic reviews examining
CPG comparing the effectiveness of MDT to other interven-
tions for patients with acute LBP. There was no evidence that
I MDT. A review by Halliday et al68 of 23 RCTs com-
pared MDT to other interventions. Delivery of
MDT was superior to other common interventions for acute MDT was categorized as “adherent” to the principles of
LBP. Our search failed to identify any additional RCTs com- MDT or “nonadherent.” Studies investigating adherent
paring the effectiveness of MDT to other classification sys- MDT found greater reductions in pain (15.0 points on a
tems or examining the effectiveness of classification systems 100-point scale) and disability (11.7 points) after 3 months
other than MDT for patients with acute LBP. compared to RCTs with “nonadherent” MDT. Another sys-
tematic review identified 7 RCTs that compared the effec-
2021 Recommendations tiveness of MDT to other interventions in patients with
Physical therapists may use TBC to reduce pain and chronic LBP. Lam et al96 found moderate- to high-quality
B disability in patients with acute LBP. This recom-
mendation is unchanged from the 2012 CPG.
evidence that MDT is superior to other interventions for
reducing pain (–0.33 points) and disability (–0.28 points)
following treatment. Another systematic review identified

Physical therapists can use MDT to reduce pain and 10 RCTs, 2 of which directly compared MDT to specific
C disability in patients with acute LBP. trunk muscle activation exercise in patients with chronic
LBP.5 There was no difference between MDT and specific
trunk muscle activation exercises for pain and disability fol-
Gaps in Knowledge lowing treatment.
The MDT classification system has been the most studied

for acute LBP. Accordingly, there is a need for level I RCTs One RCT59 (n = 148) compared MDT with a back
investigating other classification systems for patients with
acute LBP.
I school intervention and found short-term benefit
for MDT for disability (RMDQ mean difference,
2.37), but not for pain, at 4-week follow-up. There were no
differences between groups at 6-month follow-up. A sec-
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR CHRONIC LBP ondary analysis of this RCT found that older patients had
We identified 1 systematic review including 12 RCTs more benefit from MDT at the 4-week follow-up than
I that found some evidence to support using a classi- younger patients (RMDQ mean difference, 1.27).60 Another
fication system for patients with chronic LBP.176 RCT126 (n = 350) compared MDT to manual therapy as an
Another systematic review examining different classification adjunct to information and advice in patients with chronic
systems for patients with chronic LBP included 6 RCTs of LBP who demonstrated centralization or peripheralization.
moderate-to-high methodological quality and found that Results favored MDT for disability after 2 and 12 months
only 1 RCT supported the use of a classification-based (RMDQ mean difference, 1.5 at both time points). No dif-
approach.135 ferences were found for pain. A third RCT61 (n = 148) com-
pared MDT to placebo interventions in patients with
One RCT74 (n = 101) compared the effectiveness of chronic LBP and found short-term benefit of MDT for pain
I providing matched versus unmatched treatment
using the TBC and movement system impairment
(NPRS mean difference, –1.0), but not for disability, at
5-week follow-up. No differences were found at the 6- or
(MSI) classification systems and found no differences based 12-month follow-up.61
on the classification approach used.
A small RCT70 compared MDT to motor control
Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
Our search identified 2 systematic reviews and 1 RCT pub-
II exercise in patients with chronic LBP who had a
directional preference on clinical examination. A
lished since the 2012 CPG comparing the effectiveness of small difference in perceived benefit was found at 8-week
classification systems (in general) for patients with chronic follow-up. No differences between groups for perceived ben-
LBP. The results failed to find consistent, high-quality ev- efit, pain, or disability were found at 12-month follow-up.69
idence of benefit when a classification approach was com-
pared to not using a classification approach or to another Treatment-Based Classification
classification approach. No recommendations were made A large RCT138 (n = 320) of predominantly low-in-
based on these studies. They were included in the CPG up-
date to provide a general overview of the evidence base for
I come adults with chronic LBP compared educa-
tion, yoga, and physical therapy provided using a
classification systems. TBC approach. There were no differences between groups for
disability at 12-week follow-up. Physical therapy provided risk stratification at 4-month follow-up (mean difference,
using TBC was superior to education for pain at 12-week fol- 0.55), with no difference at 12-month follow-up. Patients re-
low-up (mean difference, 0.84). There were no differences ceiving stratified care were also more likely to be satisfied
between groups at 12-month follow-up. Another large RCT10 with treatment at 4-month follow-up and took fewer days off
(n = 156) compared a TBC approach with usual physical ther- work due to LBP at the 12-month follow-up.
apy in patients with chronic LBP. There were no differences
between groups for any of the outcomes at the 2-, 6-, or Pathoanatomic-Based Classification
12-month follow-up. Our search identified 1 RCT52 published since the
Movement System Impairment

I 2012 CPG that compared pathoanatomic-based
classification with guideline-based advice or advice
Our search identified 3 high-quality RCTs pub- alone. This large (n = 300) RCT found benefit for pathoana-
I lished since the last CPG comparing the MSI clas-
sification system to other interventions for patients
tomic-based classification for pain at 10-week (mean differ-
ence, 1.3) and 6-month (mean difference, 0.90) follow-ups.
with chronic LBP. A large (n = 101) RCT162 compared the MSI There was no difference between groups for pain at the
classification treatment to nonclassification treatment in pa- 12-month follow-up. The pathoanatomic-based classification
tients with chronic LBP. No differences were found between showed benefit for disability at 10-week (ODI mean differ-
groups after treatment (8-week follow-up) or at 12-month ence, 4.7), 6-month (ODI mean difference, 5.4), and
follow-up for pain or disability. A large (n = 148) RCT18 com- 12-month (ODI mean difference, 4.3) follow-ups.
pared MSI classification treatment to treatment with symp-
tom-guided stretching and strengthening exercises in people Evidence Synthesis and Rationale
with chronic LBP. There were no differences between groups The largest number of studies published since the 2012 CPG
for pain or disability at 2-month follow-up. have examined MDT for patients with chronic LBP. Two of
the 3 published systematic reviews supported the use of MDT
A small (n = 39) RCT90 compared MSI classification to reduce pain and disability for chronic LBP, and several of
II treatment to a single education session in patients
with chronic LBP, with clinical examination find-
the RCTs found a reduction in pain or disability in the short
term, with small or moderate effect sizes, but did not report
ings associated with a lumbar extension-rotation pattern. differences at longer-term follow-ups. There is some evidence
There was a benefit for the MSI classification treatment for to suggest that MDT may be more effective when applied in
pain (VAS mean difference, 17.71) and disability (ODI mean an adherent fashion or matched to specific examination find-
difference, 5.47) at 6-week follow-up. ings related to directional preference. Two RCTs compared
the effectiveness of TBC to other interventions. These RCTs
Cognitive Functional Therapy suggested that TBC may be superior to minimal interven-
A small (n = 49) RCT147 compared CFT treatment tion (education) but is comparable to other active treatment
II with a generalized postural intervention in patients
with chronic LBP and clinical findings of a flexion
approaches (yoga and usual physical therapy). Three RCTs
investigated the effectiveness of MSI. The high-quality RCTs
or extension pattern. There was benefit for the CFT group for suggested that MSI is similar to other active comparator
disability (RMDQ mean difference, 3.8) and pain (mean dif- treatments, while evidence from a low-quality RCT suggested
ference, 2.2) at 4-week follow-up. Another small (n = 70) that MSI may have short-term benefits when matched to spe-
RCT99 compared CFT and general exercise in patients with cific clinical examination findings. Two RCTs supported the
chronic LBP and clinical findings of a movement control im- use of CFT for chronic LBP to reduce pain and disability at
pairment. Results favored the CFT group for disability at 3 short- and long-term follow-ups. A single level I RCT (each)
months (RMDQ mean difference, 2.4) and 12 months supports the use of prognostic risk stratification and patho-
(RMDQ mean difference, 1.7).99 anatomic-based classification to reduce pain and disability.
The magnitude of the differences supporting these classi-
Prognostic Risk Stratification fication systems ranged from small to moderate, and some
Our search identified 1 high-quality RCT published systems were associated with differences noted at short- and
I since the literature search for the 2012 CPG that
compared prognostic risk stratification to nonstrat-
long-term follow-ups.
ified current best practice.77 This large (n = 851) RCT found 2021 Recommendations
benefits for treatment based on prognostic risk stratification Physical therapists may use MDT, prognostic risk
using the STarT Back Tool for disability at 4-month (RMDQ
mean difference, 1.8) and 12-month (RMDQ mean differ-
B stratification, or pathoanatomic-based classifica-
tion to reduce pain and disability in patients with
ence, 1.1) follow-ups. The pain outcome favored prognostic chronic LBP.
Physical therapists can use TBC, CFT, or MSI to KEY POINTS FOR CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
C reduce pain and disability in patients with chronic
LBP.
Acute LBP
• There is no evidence directly comparing the effectiveness of
different classification systems for patients with acute LBP.
Gaps in Knowledge
Additional level I RCTs examining classification systems in- Chronic LBP
volving patients with chronic LBP are needed. There is also • Some evidence supports the notion that treatments in-
a need for RCTs directly comparing different classification formed by MDT, CFT, prognostic risk stratification, and
systems. Some classification systems have only been tested pathoanatomic-based classification lead to reduced pain
in specific countries or used specially trained physical thera- and disability in patients with chronic LBP.
pists. The generalizability of the findings from these studies • No evidence exists to support the notion that treatment in-
should be investigated. formed by any single classification system is more effective
than another for reducing pain and disability in patients
with chronic LBP.
Intervention: Patient Education

EVIDENCE STATEMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS size (Hedges’ g = 1.1). No additional benefit of health coach-
2012 Recommendation ing was seen at any time on the ODI.
The 2012 recommendations were not divided by patient sub-
group (ie, they did not include separate recommendations for An RCT123 (n = 109) of adults with acute severe LBP
acute and chronic LBP). II found no difference in 1-week pain intensity trajec-
tory following treatment advice to “stay active in
Physical therapists should not utilize patient educa- spite of pain” versus advice to “adjust activity to the pain.”
B tion and counseling strategies that either directly or
indirectly increase the perceived threat or fear asso- Evidence Update

ciated with LBP, such as education and counseling strategies There were 3 RCTs that evaluated the use of different types of
that (1) promote extended bed rest or (2) provide in-depth, education strategies among patients with acute LBP. Two of
pathoanatomical explanations for the specific cause of the pa- these evaluated the addition of intensive education to phys-
tient’s LBP. Patient education and counseling strategies for ical therapy, and they supported the short-term benefits of
patients with LBP should emphasize (1) the promotion of the education for disability and functional end points, but not
understanding of the anatomical/structural strength inherent for pain intensity. In particular, the level I RCT reported a
in the human spine, (2) the neuroscience that explains pain small benefit for disability at short-term follow-up, but not
perception, (3) the overall favorable prognosis of LBP, (4) the at long-term follow-up, and no additional benefit of intensive
use of active pain coping strategies that decrease fear and catas patient education for pain intensity.
trophizing, (5) the early resumption of normal or vocational
activities, even when still experiencing pain, and (6) the impor- 2021 Recommendation
tance of improvement in activity levels, not just pain relief. Physical therapists may use active education strat-
2021 Evidence Update

B egies rather than passive strategies (ie, providing
access to educational materials only). Active edu-
Based on the results of our literature search, the 2021 update cation strategies include one-on-one education on the bio-
will include some of the same, but also different, treatment psychosocial contributors to pain and self-management
categories as did the 2012 CPG. techniques, such as remaining active, pacing strategies, and
back-protection techniques. Physical therapists may also in-
corporate counseling on the favorable natural history of
EDUCATION FOR PATIENTS WITH ACUTE LBP acute LBP as part of the education strategy.
Education and Advice
Traeger et al157 performed a large (n = 202) place-
I bo-controlled RCT of adults with acute LBP. The
investigators compared intensive patient education
EDUCATION FOR PATIENTS WITH CHRONIC LBP
Education and Advice
over two 1-hour sessions that included information on pain One clinical trial (n = 90) by Akca et al2 showed
and biopsychosocial contributors, plus self-management tech-
niques, to placebo patient education (active listening without
II moderate benefit for pain intensity of postrehabili-
tation group education sessions that included anat-
information or advice). This study found a small benefit of omy and function of the spine, how back pain develops,
patient education for disability at 1 week and 3 months, but proper body movements, the most commonly made mistakes
not at 6 or 12 months. There was no additional benefit of in- in everyday life, correct postures at work and rest, and
tensive patient education for pain intensity at any time point. back-protection techniques, compared to no treatment.
Mean pain scores for patients in the education group de-
An RCT80 (n = 30) in adults with acute LBP found creased at 3-month follow-up and showed significant im-
II a moderate-to-large benefit of adding health coach-
ing by telephone to usual physical therapy for mea-
provement over the control group, favoring education.
sures of patient-specific functioning (Patient-Specific Du Bois and Donceel48 performed a large RCT (n =
Functional Scale) after 12 weeks (mean difference, 3.0 points;
95% CI: 0.7, 5.4), with a corresponding standardized effect
II 509) that found no difference in the average num-
ber of days on sick leave for the index episode of
LBP across participants managed with rehabilitation-orient- Pain Neuroscience Education

ed information and advice or with usual care. The proportion An RCT91 (n = 104) studying adults with chronic
of claimants with 1 or more recurrences of sick leave for LBP
was significantly higher in the control group. During the total
I pain found small or moderate short-term benefits
of pain psychology and neuroscience education
follow-up period, the mean number of days on full benefits compared to a health behavior education program for pain
because of back pain was higher in the control group com- severity and pain interference at 1-month follow-up.
pared to the intervention group.
A systematic review and meta-analysis168 reported
Another RCT (n = 126) found no additional ben-
132
I that the use of pain neuroscience education (PNE)
II efit of education using “The Back Book” pamphlet
over a natural history control group for outcomes
resulted in small additional benefits over no PNE for
short-term pain (weighted mean difference, 0.73) and that
related to physical impairment, pain intensity, health-related benefits were slightly higher (weighted mean difference, 1.32)
quality of life, and accumulated sickness absence days in an when used alongside physical therapy interventions. Likewise,
occupational cohort with nonacute LBP. meta-analysis for short‐term disability demonstrated a weight-
ed mean difference of 0.42, favoring PNE compared to no

An RCT150 (n = 62) found no additional benefit for PNE, whereas the addition of PNE to physical therapy inter-
II pain intensity or disability with administration of
“The Back Book” versus no intervention at a fol-
ventions demonstrated larger benefits (weighted mean differ-
ence, 3.94). Study heterogeneity precluded definitive
low-up time of approximately 3 weeks. assessments of long-term (12-month) outcomes. Another sys-
tematic review,102 which included some of the same studies as
One RCT134 (n = 181) found no additional benefit the aforementioned meta-analysis, reported similar findings.
II of a face-to-face review of “The Back Book” com-
pared to a control group that only received “The
Notably, none of the included studies that used PNE alone
found improvements in pain, whereas 5 of the 6 studies that
Back Book” (without a face-to-face review) for pain intensi- combined PNE with another intervention like exercise or
ty or disability at any time point during the 24-month manual therapy found significant reductions in pain.
follow-up.
An RCT23 (n = 56) in patients with chronic LBP
An RCT (n = 219) of female health care workers
152
II found a moderate or large short-term benefit of
II with recurrent LBP found a moderate benefit of PNE combined with multimodal therapeutic exer-
combined neuromuscular exercise and back care cise compared to therapeutic exercise alone for pain intensity
counseling compared to either intervention alone and to a and disability at 3 months.
nontreatment control group for measures of pain intensity
(effect size = 0.7). The counseling-only intervention showed An RCT139 (n = 36) compared 4-week outcomes of
no additional benefit over the control group. II PNE plus manual therapy to traditional patient ed-
ucation plus manual therapy. Pain neuroscience
Evidence Update education plus manual therapy demonstrated moderate or
In the updated search, 6 RCTs evaluated the use of general large short-term benefits for changes in pain severity and the
education or advice as a stand-alone treatment for patients physical functioning subscale of the Medical Outcomes Study
with chronic LBP. Four RCTs compared education to no 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey.
treatment or usual care, while the other 2 RCTs compared the
use of an education booklet (“The Back Book”) to no treat- Evidence Update
ment. The majority of the RCTs that used general education There were 2 systematic reviews (1 with a meta-analysis)
or advice as a stand-alone treatment found no additional and 3 RCTs that met the criteria for inclusion. The included
benefit for pain and disability. Studies that included exercise evidence supports the use of PNE as an education strategy
showed improvements in pain and disability when combined for chronic LBP. However, pain and disability improvements
with education. were mostly associated with small effect sizes and greatest
when PNE was combined with exercise or manual therapy
2021 Recommendation interventions.
Physical therapists may use standard education
B strategies for patients with chronic LBP, but not as
a stand-alone treatment. Standard education strat-
2021 Recommendation
Physical therapists should deliver PNE alongside oth-
egies include advice related to exercise and advice about stay-
ing active.
A er physical therapy interventions, such as exercise
or manual therapy, to patients with chronic LBP.
Education Compared to Other Active Treatments yoga and strength training over the educational approach
An RCT (n = 701) by Lamb et al97 found small ben- alone.
I efits of a group cognitive behavioral intervention
compared to a brief session of best-practice advice An RCT62 (n = 75) of adults with chronic LBP re-
to remain active supplemented by “The Back Book” for mea-
sures of disability at 3, 6, and 12 months. There was no ben-
II ported moderate-to-large benefits of a patient-led
goal-setting intervention compared to advice to
efit of the cognitive behavioral intervention over education exercise for improving outcomes in disability and pain inten-
for pain intensity. sity. Group differences in improvement were greater in the
intervention group at posttreatment and 4 and 12 months,
An RCT112 (n = 86) of adults with chronic LBP with moderate-to-high effect sizes.
I found small to moderate benefits of Pilates com-
pared to an educational booklet containing infor- Evidence Update
mation about the anatomy of the spine and LBP and Many RCTs evaluated patient education as a control inter-
recommendations regarding posture and movements in- vention, often by using “The Back Book.” There were 7 RCTs
volved in activities of daily living. Improvements in pain in- that compared patient education to physically active inter-
tensity and disability favored the Pilates group following a ventions, including yoga, stretching, Pilates, and strength
6-week intervention, but benefits were no longer signiﬁcantly training.26,62,97,112,138,148,161 Results largely supported small or
different by 6-month follow-up. moderate benefits of the active treatment over educational
interventions, with the size of the effect depending on the
An RCT138 (n = 320) of predominantly low-income, study end point.
I racially diverse adults with chronic LBP found no

additional benefit of yoga or physical therapy com- 2021 Recommendation
pared to education using “The Back Pain Helpbook” for dis- Physical therapists should use active treatments
ability at 12 weeks. Yoga was not better than education for
pain intensity, but physical therapy demonstrated a small
A (eg, yoga, stretching, Pilates, and strength training)
instead of stand-alone educational interventions
benefit over education alone. for patients with chronic LBP.
Sherman et al148 performed an RCT (n = 229)

I comparing yoga, stretching, and the use of “The EDUCATION FOR POSTOPERATIVE LBP
Back Pain Helpbook” among adults with chronic General Education

LBP. Yoga demonstrated small benefits over the education An RCT11 (n = 86) of patients undergoing laminec-
self-care group for function and symptoms. At 26 weeks,
function for the yoga group remained superior. Signifi-
I tomy found moderate to large benefits of a targeted
cognitive behavioral therapy–based rehabilitation
cantly more participants in the yoga and stretching groups approach compared to a general postoperative education
had clinically meaningful improvements in symptoms and program for back and leg pain intensity, disability, and pain
disability compared with the education self-care group at interference at 3 months after surgery, but not immediately
12 weeks. posttreatment.
An RCT161 (n = 54) found moderate benefits of Pi- An RCT136 (n = 96) of patients undergoing lumbar
I lates training compared to education using a pam-
phlet that had information on posture, physical
II fusion found no additional benefit of a preoperative
cognitive behavioral intervention compared to
activity, and exercise. Between-group mean differences in standard preoperative education for pain or disability 1 year
disability score changes were 3.2 ± 4.1 on the RMDQ and 12.3 following surgery. However, the reduction in disability was
± 18.5 on the ODI, and the current pain VAS score change achieved much faster in the cognitive behavioral intervention
was 1.4 ± 2.3. group.
An RCT26 (n = 159) of adults with chronic LBP com- An RCT (n = 129) by Claus et al32 of adults under-
II paring the combination of Kundalini yoga and
strength training to self-care advice using “The
II going first-time discectomy found no additional
benefit of education using a biopsychosocial evi-
Back Book” alone found moderate benefit of exercise com- dence-based booklet compared to a biomedical-based book-
pared to use of “The Back Book” alone for change in back let for pain intensity or disability outcomes 2 months
pain intensity (using the Chronic Pain Grade Scale) at following surgery.
6-month follow-up. No benefits were found for disability for
One RCT (n = 338)110 found no significant differ- lumbar spine surgery. This recommendation applies to those
II ences in pain or disability outcomes over 12 months
among patients receiving education using the “Your
undergoing discectomy or decompression surgery. No specif-
ic recommendation is provided for education for patients
Back Operation” booklet, education plus rehabilitation, reha- undergoing other surgical procedures (eg, spinal fusion) due
bilitation alone, or usual care following discectomy or lateral to lack of evidence.
nerve root decompression surgery. The educational content
of the booklet aimed to reduce uncertainty around surgery,
promote positive beliefs, encourage early reactivation, and KEY POINTS FOR PATIENT EDUCATION
provide practical advice on self-management. Acute LBP
• Active patient education strategies, including information
Evidence Update on biopsychosocial contributors to pain and self-manage-
Collectively, these findings suggest that education may con- ment techniques, have evidence that they reduce pain and
fer similar benefits to those of cognitive behavioral therapy– disability in patients with acute LBP.
focused treatment when delivered in the preoperative time
frame, but not when delivered in the postoperative period. Chronic LBP
Given the difference in treatment parameters, content, and • Patient education should not be used as a stand-alone
surgical populations among these studies, no formal rec- treatment to reduce pain and disability in patients with
ommendations related to education are made regarding the chronic LBP, but can be combined with other interventions
comparative benefits of active treatment versus patient edu- such as exercise and manual therapy.
cation in the preoperative or postoperative period.
Postoperative LBP
2021 Recommendation • Patient education has primarily been studied post lumbar
Physical therapists may use general education (eg, decompression or discectomy surgery.
B postsurgical precautions, exercise, and resuming
physical activity) for patients with LBP following
• No evidence supports education for patients undergoing
other surgical procedures (eg, spinal fusion).
Evidence Maps
Acute Low Back Pain
Exercise Manual and Other Classification Patient

Directed Therapies Systems Education
Should Use (Level I and/or Level II RCTs)

• Thrust or nonthrust joint
mobilization
May Use (Single Level I RCT or Small-Sample Level II RCTs With Short Follow-up Times)
With Leg Pain: • Soft tissue mobilization • Treatment-based • Active education and
• Muscle strengthening and • Massage classification advice
endurance • Biopsychosocial
• Specific trunk activation contributors to pain
• Self-management
techniques
• Favorable natural history
Can Use (Single Level II RCT)

• General exercise training • Mechanical Diagnosis and
Therapy
Knowledge Gaps (Level I RCTs Needed)

Movement Control: • Neural tissue mobilization • Cognitive functional therapy • Pain neuroscience
• Trunk mobility • Dry needling • Prognostic risk education
• Aerobic exercises • Traction stratification
• Multimodal exercises • Pathoanatomic-based
classification
• Movement system
impairment
FIGURE 2. Evidence map for acute low back pain interventions depicting the overall evidence landscape for the 2021 update to the low back pain clinical practice
guideline. Grade A–level evidence corresponds with “should use” and is in blue, grade B–level evidence corresponds with “may use” and is in green, and grade C–level
evidence corresponds with “can use” and is in orange. Knowledge gaps are summarized in purple. Abbreviation: RCT, randomized clinical trial.
Chronic Low Back Pain
Exercise Manual and Other Classification Patient

Directed Therapies Systems Education
Should Use (Level I and/or Level II RCTs)
• General exercise training • Thrust or nonthrust joint • Pain neuroscience
• Muscle strengthening and mobilization education not as a

endurance stand-alone treatment
• Specific trunk activation • Active treatment (yoga,
• Aerobic stretching, Pilates, and
• Aquatic strength training)
• Multimodal
--------------------------
With Movement Control

Impairment:
• Specific trunk activation
• Movement control
--------------------------
For Older Adults:
• General exercise training
May Use (Single Level I RCT or Small-Sample Level II RCTs With Short Follow-up Times)
• Movement control • Soft tissue mobilization • Mechanical Diagnosis and • Active education not as a
• Trunk mobility • Massage Therapy stand-alone treatment
-------------------------- -------------------------- • Prognostic risk --------------------------
With Leg Pain: With Leg Pain: stratification Postoperative:
• Specific trunk activation • Thrust or nonthrust joint • Pathoanatomic-based • General education
• Movement control mobilization classification (following discectomy or
• Neural tissue mobilization decompression)
Can Use (Single Level II RCT)

Postoperative: • Dry needling • Treatment-based
• General exercise training classification
• Movement system
impairment
• Cognitive functional therapy
Knowledge Gaps (Level I RCTs Needed)

• Comparisons of different • Comparisons of manual therapy • Direct comparisons of
approaches and active treatments different classification
• Optimal dosing • Value of manual therapy in systems
parameters multimodal approaches
• Targeted delivery
FIGURE 3. Evidence map for chronic low back pain interventions depicting the overall evidence landscape for the 2021 update to the low back pain clinical practice
guideline. Grade A–level evidence corresponds with “should use” and is in blue, grade B–level evidence corresponds with “may use” and is in green, and grade C–level
evidence corresponds with “can use” and is in orange. Knowledge gaps are summarized in purple. Abbreviation: RCT, randomized clinical trial.
AFFILIATIONS AND CONTACTS

AUTHORS Mark D. Bishop, PT, PhD, FAPTA Classification Thomas R. Denninger, PT, DPT
Steven Z. George, PT, PhD, FAPTA Department of Physical Therapy Katherine E. Buzzanca, BA, BS ATI Physical Therapy
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Florida Brooks Rehabilitation Clinical Research Greenville, SC
and Duke Clinical Research Institute Gainesville, FL Center thomas.denninger@atipt.com
Duke University bish@phhp.ufl.edu Jacksonville, FL
Eric Folkins, PT, DPT
Durham, NC Katherine.Buzzanca@brooksrehab.org
Christine Goertz, DC, PhD Department of Physical Therapy
steven.george@duke.edu Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Sara Cristello, PT, DPT, FAAOMPT University of the Sciences
and Duke Clinical Research Institute Brooks Rehabilitation Philadelphia, PA
Julie M. Fritz, PT, PhD, FAPTA
Duke University Jacksonville, FL e.folkins@Usciences.edu
Department of Physical Therapy and
Athletic Training Durham, NC Sara.Cristello@brooksrehab.org
Travis R. Pollen, PhD
University of Utah christine.goertz@duke.edu Department of Physical Therapy and
Anita L. Davis, PT, DPT, CNPT
Salt Lake City, UT Stephen Hunter, PT, DPT, OCS, FAPTA Brooks Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Sciences
julie.fritz@utah.edu Rehabilitation Services Jacksonville, FL Drexel University
Intermountain Healthcare Anita.Davis@brokksrehab.org Philadelphia, PA
Sheri P. Silfies, PT, PhD
Salt Lake City, UT trp59@drexel.edu
Program in Physical Therapy David A. Eldridge, PT, DPT, OCS,

Department of Exercise Science stephen.hunter@imail.org FAAOMPT Michael Roberto, PT, DPT
University of South Carolina Kenneth A. Olson, PT, DHSc, OCS, St Augustine, FL Department of Physical Therapy
Columbia, SC FAAOMPT DrDavidEldridgeDPT@gmail.com Good Shepherd Penn Partners
SILFIES@mailbox.sc.edu Northern Rehab Physical Therapy Philadelphia, PA
David W. Shirey, DPT, OCS, FAAOMPT Michael.Roberto@pennmedicine.
Michael J. Schneider, DC, PhD Specialists Brooks Rehabilitation upenn.edu
Department of Physical Therapy Sycamore, IL Jacksonville, FL
kolsonpt@northernrehabpt.com Michael Steimling, PT, DPT
University of Pittsburgh David.Shirey@brooksrehab.org

Pittsburgh, PA Department of Rehabilitation Sciences
Sean D. Rundell, PT, DPT, PhD Antonio R. Nogueras, DPT
mjs5@pitt.edu Moravian University
Departments of Rehabilitation Medicine Department of Rehabilitation Services Bethlehem, PA
Jason M. Beneciuk, DPT, PhD, MPH and Health Services University of Florida Health Jacksonville steimlingm@moravian.edu
Department of Physical Therapy and University of Washington Jacksonville, FL
Brooks Rehabilitation Seattle, WA Antonio.Nogueras@jax.ufl.edu Won Sung, PT, PhD
University of Florida srundell@uw.edu Good Shepherd Penn Partners
Noelle Nolan, PT, DPT, OCS
Philadelphia, PA
Gainesville, FL Michael Schmidt, PT, DPT, FAAOMPT, Sentara Therapy Center at Wesleyan
won.sung@pennmedicine.upenn.edu
beneciuk@phhp.ufl.edu GCS, OCS Virginia Beach, VA
Trevor A. Lentz, PT, PhD, MPH Duke Physical and Occupational ncnolan@sentara.com Manual and Other
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Therapy and Duke Center for
Tyler Nolan, PT, DPT, OCS Directed Therapies
and Duke Clinical Research Institute Metabolic and Weight Loss Muhammad Alrwaily, PT, PhD, FAAOMPT
Sentara Therapy Center at Wesleyan
Duke University Durham, NC Division of Physical Therapy
Virginia Beach, VA
Durham, NC michael.schmidt@duke.edu tanolan2@sentara.com West Virginia University
trevor.lentz@duke.edu Morgantown, WV
Mark Shepard, PT, DPT Justin A. Zych, PT, DPT, FAOMPT and
John R. Gilliam, PT, DPT Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapy Department of Rehabilitation Medicine Department of Physical Therapy
Program in Physical Therapy Fellowship Program Emory University King Fahad Specialist Hospital
Department of Exercise Science Bellin College Atlanta, GA Dammam, Saudi Arabia
University of South Carolina Green Bay, WI Justin.Zych@emoryhealthcare.org muhammad.alrwaily@hsc.wvu.edu
Columbia, SC mark.shepherd@bellincollege.edu
JRG15@email.sc.edu Robert Vining, DC, DHSc
Education Zachary A. Cupler, DC, MS
Katie A. Butera, PT, DPT, PhD Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
Palmer Center for Chiropractic Services
Stephanie Hendren, MLIS Department of Physical Medicine and
Research Butler Veterans Affairs Health Care
Medical Center Library and Archives Rehabilitation
Palmer College of Chiropractic System
Duke University University of Colorado
Davenport, IA Butler, PA
Durham, NC Aurora, CO
robert.vining@palmer.edu Zachary.cupler@va.gov
stephanie.hendren@duke.edu katie.butera@cuanschutz.edu
Katherine S. Norman, DPT, MS Elaheh Sajjadi, PT, PhD K. Sean Mathers, DC, DPT
Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery
CONTRIBUTORS Department of Physical Therapy Department of Pain Medicine
The authors would like to acknowledge Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare
and Population Health Sciences University of Florida
the contributions of The University of Gainesville, FL System
Duke University
Pittsburgh librarian Rose Turner, and esajjadi@ufl.edu and
Durham, NC
the APTA librarian Megan Smith, for Department of Physical Therapy
Katherine.norman@duke.edu
their guidance and assistance in the Exercise University of Pittsburgh
design and implementation of the 2016 Courtney M. Butowicz, PhD Pittsburgh, PA
REVIEWERS literature search and documentation, Department of Defense-Department of sean2001dc@hotmail.com
Paul F. Beattie, PT, PhD, OCS, FAPTA, and for assistance during the 2020 Veterans Affairs Extremity Trauma
NREMT updated search. and Amputation Center of Excellence Meenakshi Sundaram, PT, MS
Department of Exercise Science The following individuals conducted Walter Reed National Military Medical Department of Physical Therapy
University of South Carolina title and abstract screening, full-text Center University of Pittsburgh
Columbia, SC review, critical appraisal, and/or data Bethesda, MD Pittsburgh, PA
PBEATTIE@mailbox.sc.edu extraction. courtney.m.butowicz.civ@mail.mil mes395@pitt.edu
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APPENDIX A
MASTER SEARCH TABLES
Searches Conducted on June 25, 2020 in PubMed

Classification
Search Query Total, n
1 (“back pain/classification”[MeSH] OR “Back Injuries/classification”[Mesh:NoExp] OR “spinal diseases/classification”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral 1295
disc degeneration/classification”[MeSH] OR “intervertebral disc displacement/classification”[MeSH] OR “spondylarthritis/classification”[MeSH:no-
exp] OR “spondylarthropathies/classification”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spondylosis/classification”[MeSH] OR “spinal stenosis/classification”[MeSH] OR
“sciatic neuropathy/classification”[MeSH] OR start back[tiab])
2 ((“back pain”[MESH] OR “back injuries”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spinal diseases”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral disc degeneration”[MESH] OR “interverte- 179453
bral disc displacement”[MESH] OR “spondylarthritis”[MeSH:noexp] OR “osteoarthritis, spine”[MESH] OR “spondylarthropathies”[MESH:noexp] OR
“spondylosis”[MESH] OR “spinal stenosis”[MESH] OR “sciatic neuropathy”[MESH] OR “lumbar vertebrae”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc”[MESH]
OR “zygapophyseal joint”[MESH]) OR ((“musculoskeletal pain”[MeSH:noexp] OR musculoskeletal pain[TIAB]) AND (back[TIAB] OR spine[TIAB] OR
spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB]
OR back ache*[TIAB] OR back strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[-
TIAB] OR lumbo sacral*[TIAB] OR lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR
radiculopathy[TIAB] OR instability[TIAB] OR instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR
discs[TIAB] OR disk[TIAB] OR disks[TIAB]) AND (herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degenera-
tion[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR
facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
3 (((accuracy*[tiab] OR “algorithms”[MeSH:noexp] OR algorithm*[tiab] OR classif*[tiab] OR clinical exam*[tiab] OR physical exam*[tiab] OR screening[- 1348047
tiab] OR cluster*[tiab] OR cohort*[tiab] OR “cohort studies”[MeSH:noexp] OR subgroup*[tiab] OR subtype*[tiab] OR diagnose[tiab] OR diagnosing[-
tiab] OR “models, statistical”[Mesh] OR predict*[tiab] OR prognos*[tw] OR reliab*[tiab] OR sensitivity analys*[tiab] OR “sensitivity and specifici-
ty”[MeSH] OR specificity[tiab] OR “severity of illness index”[Mesh] OR valid*[tiab] OR validation studies[pt] OR “treatment failure”[MeSH]) AND
(chiropract*[tw] OR physical therap*[TW] OR physiotherap*[TW] OR “physical therapy modalities”[MeSH] OR primary care[tw] OR primary health
care[tw] OR primary healthcare[tw])) OR back screen*[tiab] OR categorize[tiab] OR categorization[tiab] OR “classification”[MeSH] OR classification
based[tiab] OR classification scheme*[tiab] OR classification system*[tiab] OR clinical decision*[tiab] OR clinical pathway*[tiab] OR clinical predic-
tion*[tiab] OR “cluster analysis”[MeSH] OR cluster analys*[tiab] OR “decision making”[MeSH] OR decision rule*[tiab] OR decision support[tiab] OR
“decision Support Techniques”[MeSH] OR diagnostic classification[tiab] OR “diagnostic self evaluation”[MeSH] OR disability evaluation*[tiab] OR “ex-
ercise test”[MeSH] OR exercise test*[tiab] OR movement test*[tiab] OR ICF[tiab] OR mechanical diagnosis[tiab] OR “medical history taking”[MeSH:-
noexp] OR history taking[tiab] OR Mckenzie[tiab] OR “movement/classification”[Mesh] OR movement system*[tiab] OR “palpation”[MeSH:noexp]

OR “physical examination”[MeSH:noexp] OR predictive model*[tiab] OR stratif*[tiab] OR sub classification*[tiab] OR subclassification*[tiab] OR sub
group*[tiab] OR subgrouping*[tiab] OR targeted treatment*[tiab] OR (classif*[TIAB] AND (“disability evaluation”[MeSH] OR evidence based[tiab] OR
functioning[tiab] OR gait[tiab] OR impairment*[tiab] OR mechanism*[tiab] OR motor control*[tiab] OR “movement”[MeSH] OR movement*[tiab] OR
walking[tiab] OR pathoanatom*[tiab] OR psychological[tiab] OR psychosocial[tiab] OR rehabilitation[tiab] OR treatment based[tiab] OR cognitive[-
tiab] OR multidimensional[tiab] OR clinical[tiab])) OR (subgroup*[tiab] AND (“disability evaluation”[MeSH] OR exercise*[tiab] OR manipulation*[tiab]
OR impairment*[tiab] OR “movement”[MeSH] OR movement*[tiab] OR prognos*[tiab] OR predictor*[tiab] OR rehabilitation[tiab] OR treatment
based[tiab] OR cognitive[tiab] OR multidimensional[tiab] OR clinical[tiab])))
4 1 OR (2 AND 3) 15476
5 “Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic”[Mesh] OR “Meta-analysis as topic”[Mesh] OR “Randomized Controlled Trial”[pt] OR “Placebos”[Mesh] OR “Me- 2236737
ta-Analysis”[pt] OR “Systematic Review”[pt] OR “Controlled Clinical Trial”[pt] OR “Practice Guideline” [Publication Type] OR systematic[subset] OR
randomized[tiab] OR randomised[tiab] OR randomization[tiab] OR randomisation[tiab] OR placebo[tiab] OR randomly[tiab] OR “single blind”[tiab]
OR “single blinded”[tiab] OR “double blind”[tiab] OR “double blinded”[tiab] OR systematic[tiab] OR systematically[tiab] OR meta-analysis[tiab] OR
meta-synthesis[tiab] OR meta-analyses[tiab] OR meta-syntheses[tiab] OR “meta analysis”[tiab] OR “meta synthesis”[tiab] OR “meta analyses”[tiab]
OR “meta syntheses”[tiab] OR metaanalysis[tiab] OR metaanalyses[tiab] OR meta-analytic[tiab] OR “meta analytic”[tiab] OR metaanalytic[tiab] OR
“umbrella review”[tiab] OR “umbrella reviews”[tiab] OR “scoping review”[tiab] OR “scoping reviews”[tiab] OR “rapid review”[tiab] OR “rapid reviews”[-
tiab] OR “practice guideline”[tiab] OR “clinical guideline”[tiab] OR ((review[tiab] OR reviews[tiab] OR reviewed[tiab] OR search[tiab] OR searches[tiab]
OR searched[tiab] OR searching[tiab] OR handsearch[tiab] OR handsearched[tiab]) AND (“inclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR “exclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR
references[tiab] OR papers[tiab] OR articles[tiab] OR publications[tiab] OR studies[tiab] OR trials[tiab] OR datasets[tiab] OR databases[tiab]))
6 4 AND 5 3924
APPENDIX A
Manual and Other Directed Therapies

spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB] OR
back ache*[TIAB] OR back strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[TIAB]
OR lumbo sacral*[TIAB] OR lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR radiculopa-
thy[TIAB] OR instability[TIAB] OR instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR discs[TIAB]
OR disk[TIAB] OR disks[TIAB]) AND (herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR
prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB]
OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 “Physical Therapy Modalities”[Mesh:NoExp] OR “Musculoskeletal Manipulations”[Mesh] OR “Chiropractic”[Mesh] OR “Acupuncture Therapy”[Mesh:NoExp] OR 328221

manipulat*[tiab] OR manual therap*[tiab] OR mobilisation*[tiab] OR mobilization*[tiab] OR bodywork*[tiab] OR chiropract*[tiab] OR craniosacral therap*[tiab]
OR massag*[tiab] OR meridian therap*[tiab] OR omt[tiab] OR reflexology*[tiab] OR dry needling[tiab] OR acupressure[tiab] OR acupuncture[tiab]
3 “Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic”[Mesh] OR “Meta-analysis as topic”[Mesh] OR “Randomized Controlled Trial”[pt] OR “Placebos”[Mesh] OR 2236738
“Meta-Analysis”[pt] OR “Systematic Review”[pt] OR “Controlled Clinical Trial”[pt] OR “Practice Guideline” [Publication Type] OR systematic[subset]
OR randomized[tiab] OR randomised[tiab] OR randomization[tiab] OR randomisation[tiab] OR placebo[tiab] OR randomly[tiab] OR “single blind”[tiab]

“umbrella review”[tiab] OR “umbrella reviews”[tiab] OR “scoping review”[tiab] OR “scoping reviews”[tiab] OR “rapid review”[tiab] OR “rapid reviews”[tiab]
OR “practice guideline”[tiab] OR “clinical guideline”[tiab] OR ((review[tiab] OR reviews[tiab] OR reviewed[tiab] OR search[tiab] OR searches[tiab] OR
searched[tiab] OR searching[tiab] OR handsearch[tiab] OR handsearched[tiab]) AND (“inclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR “exclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR referenc-
es[tiab] OR papers[tiab] OR articles[tiab] OR publications[tiab] OR studies[tiab] OR trials[tiab] OR datasets[tiab] OR databases[tiab]))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 3024
Trunk Coordination
1 ((“back pain”[MESH] OR “back injuries”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spinal diseases”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral disc degeneration”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc 179453
displacement”[MESH] OR “spondylarthritis”[MeSH:noexp] OR “osteoarthritis, spine”[MESH] OR “spondylarthropathies”[MESH:noexp] OR “spondylo-
sis”[MESH] OR “spinal stenosis”[MESH] OR “sciatic neuropathy”[MESH] OR “lumbar vertebrae”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc”[MESH] OR “zygapophyse-
al joint”[MESH]) OR ((“musculoskeletal pain”[MeSH:noexp] OR musculoskeletal pain[TIAB]) AND (back[TIAB] OR spine[TIAB] OR spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal
pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB] OR back ache*[TIAB] OR back
strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[TIAB] OR lumbo sacral*[TIAB] OR
lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR radiculopathy[TIAB] OR instability[TIAB] OR
instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR discs[TIAB] OR disk[TIAB] OR disks[TIAB]) AND
(herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB]
OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 (“physical therapy modalities”[Mesh Terms:noexp] OR “exercise therapy”[MeSH] OR “exercise movement techniques”[MeSH:noexp] OR ((exercise*[tiab] OR 427257
exercising[tiab] OR program*[tiab] OR train*[tiab]) AND (“abdominal muscles”[MeSH:noexp] OR back muscle*[tiab] OR “paraspinal muscles”[MeSH] OR
paraspinal[tiab] OR multifidus[tiab] OR transversus[tiab] OR trunk[tiab] OR coordination[tiab] OR dynamic[tiab] OR endurance[tiab] OR extension[tiab] OR
isometric*[tiab] OR motor control[tiab] OR “muscle contraction”[MeSH] OR resistance[tiab] OR stabili*[tiab] OR strengthen*[tiab] OR targeted[tiab])) OR
active exercise*[tiab] OR back exercise*[tiab] OR exercise intervention*[tiab] OR exercise therapy[tiab] OR therapeutic exercise*[tiab] OR Alexander[tiab]
OR dynamic sit*[tiab] OR functional restoration[tiab] OR functional technique*[tiab] OR lateral slid*[tiab] OR motor training[tiab] OR multidisciplinary
rehabilitation[tiab] OR (neuromuscular[tiab] AND facilitation[tiab]) OR Swiss ball*[tiab] OR biofeedback[tiab] OR feedback[tiab] OR reeducation[tiab])
“umbrella review”[tiab] OR “umbrella reviews”[tiab] OR “scoping review”[tiab] OR “scoping reviews”[tiab] OR “rapid review”[tiab] OR “rapid reviews”[tiab]
OR “practice guideline”[tiab] OR “clinical guideline”[tiab] OR ((review[tiab] OR reviews[tiab] OR reviewed[tiab] OR search[tiab] OR searches[tiab] OR
searched[tiab] OR searching[tiab] OR handsearch[tiab] OR handsearched[tiab]) AND (“inclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR “exclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR referenc-
es[tiab] OR papers[tiab] OR articles[tiab] OR publications[tiab] OR studies[tiab] OR trials[tiab] OR datasets[tiab] OR databases[tiab]))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 2913
APPENDIX A
Centralization
1 ((“back pain”[MESH] OR “back injuries”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spinal diseases”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral disc degeneration”[MESH] OR “intervertebral
disc displacement”[MESH] OR “spondylarthritis”[MeSH:noexp] OR “osteoarthritis, spine”[MESH] OR “spondylarthropathies”[MESH:noexp] OR “spondylo-
sis”[MESH] OR “spinal stenosis”[MESH] OR “sciatic neuropathy”[MESH] OR “lumbar vertebrae”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc”[MESH] OR “zygapophyse-
al joint”[MESH]) OR ((“musculoskeletal pain”[MeSH:noexp] OR musculoskeletal pain[TIAB]) AND (back[TIAB] OR spine[TIAB] OR spinal[TIAB])) OR spi-
nal pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB] OR back ache*[TIAB] OR
179451
back strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[TIAB] OR lumbo sacral*[TIAB]
OR lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR radiculopathy[TIAB] OR instability[TIAB]
OR instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR discs[TIAB] OR disk[TIAB] OR disks[TIAB])
AND (herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[-
TIAB] OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 (“Exercise Movement Techniques”[Mesh:NoExp] OR “Exercise Therapy”[Mesh] OR “Physical Therapy Modalities”[Mesh:NoExp] OR ((flexion[tiab] OR exten-
sion[tiab] OR therapeut*[tiab]) AND exercis*[tiab]) OR active therap*[tiab] OR centralisation*[tiab] OR centralization*[tiab] OR directional preference*[-
tiab] OR exercise movement techni*[tiab] OR exercise treatment*[tiab] OR lateral shift*[tiab] OR lateral translation*[tiab] OR mckenzie*[tiab] OR MDT[tiab] 114974
OR mechanical diagnosis[tiab] OR muscle energy technique*[tiab] OR neuromuscular facilitat*[tiab] OR postural correct*[tiab] OR repeated exercis*[tiab]
OR repeated procedure*[tiab] OR resistance training[tiab])
3 “Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic”[Mesh] OR “Meta-analysis as topic”[Mesh] OR “Randomized Controlled Trial”[pt] OR “Placebos”[Mesh] OR

meta-synthesis[tiab] OR meta-analyses[tiab] OR meta-syntheses[tiab] OR “meta analysis”[tiab] OR “meta synthesis”[tiab] OR “meta analyses”[tiab] OR
2237084
“meta syntheses”[tiab] OR metaanalysis[tiab] OR metaanalyses[tiab] OR meta-analytic[tiab] OR “meta analytic”[tiab] OR metaanalytic[tiab] OR “umbrella
review”[tiab] OR “umbrella reviews”[tiab] OR “scoping review”[tiab] OR “scoping reviews”[tiab] OR “rapid review”[tiab] OR “rapid reviews”[tiab] OR “prac-
tice guideline”[tiab] OR “clinical guideline”[tiab] OR ((review[tiab] OR reviews[tiab] OR reviewed[tiab] OR search[tiab] OR searches[tiab] OR searched[tiab]
OR searching[tiab] OR handsearch[tiab] OR handsearched[tiab]) AND (“inclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR “exclusion criteri*”[tiab] OR references[tiab] OR
papers[tiab] OR articles[tiab] OR publications[tiab] OR studies[tiab] OR trials[tiab] OR datasets[tiab] OR databases[tiab]))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 2339
Mobilization

spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB] OR
back ache*[TIAB] OR back strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[TIAB] OR
lumbo sacral*[TIAB] OR lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR radiculopathy[TIAB]
OR instability[TIAB] OR instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR discs[TIAB] OR disk[TIAB]
OR disks[TIAB]) AND (herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB]))
OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal
joint*[TIAB])
2 (“Physical Therapy Modalities”[Mesh:NoExp] OR ((nerve[tiab] OR neural[tiab]) AND (mobilization[tiab] OR mobilisation[tiab])) OR nerve glid*[tiab] OR nerve 40550
stretch*[tiab] OR nerve tension[tiab] OR nerve therapy[tiab] OR nerve treatment[tiab] OR neural gliding[tiab] OR neural tension[tiab] OR neural therap*[-
tiab] OR neural treatment[tiab] OR slump stretch[tiab] OR neurodynamic*[tiab] OR straight leg raise*[tiab])
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 1006
APPENDIX A
Traction
1 ((“back pain”[MESH] OR “back injuries”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spinal diseases”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral disc degeneration”[MESH] OR “intervertebral 179451
sis”[MESH] OR “spinal stenosis”[MESH] OR “sciatic neuropathy”[MESH] OR “lumbar vertebrae”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc”[MESH] OR “zygapophyseal
joint”[MESH]) OR ((“musculoskeletal pain”[MeSH:noexp] OR musculoskeletal pain[TIAB]) AND (back[TIAB] OR spine[TIAB] OR spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal
(herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR
spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 “Traction”[Mesh] OR decompression therap*[tiab] OR traction*[tiab] 23442
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 239
Patient Education

spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal pain*[TIAB] OR back disorder*[TIAB] OR back injur*[TIAB] OR back pain[TIAB] OR back pains[TIAB] OR backache*[TIAB]
OR back ache*[TIAB] OR back strain*[TIAB] OR back sprain*[TIAB] OR failed back[TIAB] OR lumbago[TIAB] OR ((lumbar[TIAB] OR lumbosacral*[-
TIAB] OR lumbo sacral*[TIAB] OR lower back[TIAB]) AND (pain[tiab] OR pains[tiab] OR painful[tiab] OR stenosis[TIAB] OR stenoses[TIAB] OR
radiculopathy[TIAB] OR instability[TIAB] OR instabilities[TIAB] OR strain[TIAB] OR strains[tiab])) OR lumbar dysfunction[TIAB] OR ((disc[TIAB] OR
discs[TIAB] OR disk[TIAB] OR disks[TIAB]) AND (herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degenera-
tion[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR
facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 (“patient education as topic”[MeSH:noexp] OR education[tiab] OR educational[tiab] OR advice[tiab] OR counsel*[tiab] OR coach*[tiab] OR “behavior 1204496
therapy”[MeSH:noexp] OR behavioural therap*[tiab] OR “cognitive therapy”[MeSH:noexp] OR (cognitive[tiab] AND therapy[tiab]) OR cognitive
behavio*[tiab] OR “conditioning, operant”[MeSH] OR operant[tiab] OR behavior chang*[tiab] OR behaviour chang*[tiab] OR behavioral chang*[tiab]
OR behavioural chang*[tiab] OR group therap*[tiab] OR ((interdisciplinary[tiab] OR multidisciplinary[tiab] or multi disciplinary[tiab]) AND rehabilita-
tion[tiab]) OR psychologically informed[tiab] OR neuroscience[tiab] OR goal setting[tiab] OR motivation*[tiab] OR reassurance[tiab] OR coping[tiab]
OR problem solving[tiab] OR “self care”[MeSH:noexp] OR self care[tiab] OR self management[tiab] OR stay active[tiab] OR staying active[tiab] OR
(home[tiab] AND exercise*[tiab]) OR back school*[tiab] OR information provision*[tiab] OR book*[tiab] OR brochure*[tiab] OR leaflet*[tiab] OR
pamphlet*[tiab] OR therapeutic alliance[tiab] OR “professional-patient relations”[Mesh:noexp] OR “physician-patient relations”[Mesh Terms] OR
(psychological*[TW] AND (physical therap*[TW] OR physiotherap*[TW])) OR start back[tiab])
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 2608
APPENDIX A
Progressive Endurance
1 ((“back pain”[MESH] OR “back injuries”[MeSH:noexp] OR “spinal diseases”[MeSH:noexp] OR “intervertebral disc degeneration”[MESH] OR “intervertebral 179453
sis”[MESH] OR “spinal stenosis”[MESH] OR “sciatic neuropathy”[MESH] OR “lumbar vertebrae”[MESH] OR “intervertebral disc”[MESH] OR “zygapophyseal
joint”[MESH]) OR ((“musculoskeletal pain”[MeSH:noexp] OR musculoskeletal pain[TIAB]) AND (back[TIAB] OR spine[TIAB] OR spinal[TIAB])) OR spinal
(herniated[TIAB] OR herniation[TIAB] OR herniations[TIAB] OR degenerative[TIAB] OR degeneration[TIAB] OR prolapse*[TIAB])) OR coccydynia[TIAB] OR
spondylarth*[TIAB] OR spondylisthesis[TIAB] OR spondylo*[TIAB] OR sciatica[TIAB] OR facet joint*[TIAB] OR zygapophyseal joint*[TIAB])
2 (“physical therapy modalities”[MeSH:noexp] OR “exercise therapy”[Mesh Terms] OR “exercise”[MeSH:noexp] OR “exercise movement techniques”[MeSH:no- 715702
exp] OR “physical conditioning, human”[Mesh Terms] OR “physical fitness”[MeSH] OR “walking”[MeSH:noexp] OR “tai ji”[Mesh Terms] OR “yoga”[Mesh
Terms] OR physical activity[tiab] OR exercise[tiab] OR exercises[tiab] OR exercising[tiab] OR graded activit*[tiab] OR physical conditioning[tiab] OR (phys-
ical[tiab] AND training[tiab]) OR active rehab*[tiab] OR activity based[tiab] OR fitness[tiab] OR aerobic[tiab] OR walking[tiab] OR strength train*[tiab] OR
resistance train*[tiab] OR tai chi[tiab] OR pilates[tiab] OR stretching[tiab] OR aquatic[tiab])

4 1 AND 2 AND 3 3850
Searches Conducted on June 25, 2020 in Embase

Classification
1 (‘backache’/de OR ‘failed back surgery syndrome’/de OR ‘discogenic pain’/de OR ‘diskitis’/de OR ‘intervertebral disk degeneration’/de OR ‘lumbar disk hernia’/ 248715
exp OR ‘low back pain’/de OR ‘musculoskeletal pain’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘spine disease’/de OR ‘vertebral canal stenosis’/de OR ‘lumbar spinal
stenosis’/de OR ‘spondylolysis’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘sciatic neuropathy’/de OR ‘back disorder*’ OR ‘back injur*’ OR ‘back sprain*’ OR ‘failed back’
OR ((‘disc’ OR ‘discs’ OR ‘disk’ OR ‘disks’) NEAR/4 (‘herniated’ OR ‘herniation’ OR ‘herniations’ OR ‘degenerative’ OR ‘degeneration’ OR ‘prolapse*’ OR
‘protrusion*’)) OR ((‘lumbar’ OR ‘lumbosacral*’ OR ‘lumbo sacral*’ OR ‘lower back’ OR ‘low back’) NEAR/4 (‘pain’ OR ‘pains’ OR ‘painful’ OR ‘stenosis’ OR
‘stenoses’ OR ‘radiculopath*’ OR ‘instability’ OR ‘instabilities’ OR ‘strain*’ OR ‘strains*’)) OR ‘spondylo*’ OR ‘sciatica’ OR ‘Coccydynia’ OR ‘intervertebral
disk’/de OR ‘lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘fifth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘first lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘forth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘second lumbar vertebra’/de
OR ‘third lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘spondylarthritis’/de OR ‘spondyloarthropathy’/de OR ‘spondylolisthesis’/de OR ‘zygapophyseal joint’/de OR ‘back pain*’
OR ‘backache*’ OR ‘back ache*’ OR ‘spinal pain’ OR ‘Zygapophyseal Joint*’ OR ‘Facet joint*’)
2 (accuracy*:ab,ti OR ‘algorithm’/de OR ‘classification algorithm’/de OR algorithm*:ab,ti OR classif*:ab,ti OR ‘clinical exam*’:ab,ti OR ‘physical exam*’:ab,ti OR 2179445
screening:ab,ti OR cluster*:ab,ti OR cohort*:ab,ti OR ‘cohort analysis’/de OR subgroup*:ab,ti OR diagnose:ab,ti OR diagnosing:ab,ti OR ‘statistical model’/
de OR predict*:ab,ti OR prognos* OR reliability:ab,ti OR ‘sensitivity analys*’:ab,ti OR ‘sensitivity and specificity’/de OR specificity:ab,ti OR ‘severity of illness
index’/de OR validat*:ab,ti OR validity*:ab,ti OR ‘treatment failure’/de AND (chiropract* OR ‘physical therap*’ OR physiotherap* OR ‘physiotherapy’/exp OR
‘primary care’ OR ‘primary health care’ OR ‘primary healthcare’) OR ‘classification’/de OR ‘clinical classification’/de OR ‘international classification of im-
pairments, disabilities and handicaps’/de OR ‘nursing classification’/exp OR ‘back screen*’:ab,ti OR categorize:ab,ti OR categorization:ab,ti OR (classif*:ab,ti
AND (‘disability’/exp OR ‘evidence based’:ab,ti OR functioning:ab,ti OR gait OR impairment*:ab,ti OR mechanism*:ab,ti OR ‘motor activity’/de OR ‘motor con-
trol*’:ab,ti OR movement* OR walking OR pathoanatom*:ab,ti OR psychological:ab,ti OR psychosocial:ab,ti OR rehabilitation:ab,ti OR ‘treatment based’:ab,ti
OR cognitive:ab,ti OR multidimensional:ab,ti OR clinical:ab,ti)) OR ‘classification based’:ab,ti OR ‘classification scheme*’:ab,ti OR ‘classification system*’:ab,ti
OR ‘clinical decision*’:ab,ti OR ‘clinical pathway*’:ab,ti OR ‘clinical prediction*’:ab,ti OR ‘cluster analysis’/de OR ‘cluster analys*’:ab,ti OR ‘decision making’/
exp OR ‘decision rule*’:ab,ti OR ‘decision support’:ab,ti OR ‘decision support system’/de OR ‘diagnostic classification’:ab,ti OR ‘self evaluation’/de OR ‘dis-
ability evaluation*’:ab,ti OR ‘exercise test’/de OR ‘exercise test*’:ab,ti OR ‘movement test*’:ab,ti OR icf:ab,ti OR ‘mechanical diagnosis’:ab,ti OR ‘anamnesis’/
de OR ‘history taking’:ab,ti OR mckenzie:ab,ti OR ‘movement system*’:ab,ti OR ‘palpation’/de OR ‘physical examination’/de OR ‘predictive model*’:ab,ti
OR stratif*:ab,ti OR ‘sub classification*’:ab,ti OR subclassification*:ab,ti OR (subgroup*:ab,ti AND (‘disability’/exp OR ‘exercise’/exp OR exercise*:ab,ti OR
manipulation*:ab,ti OR impairment*:ab,ti OR ‘movement (physiology)’/exp OR movement*:ab,ti OR prognos*:ab,ti OR predictor*:ab,ti OR rehabilitation:ab,ti
OR cognitive:ab,ti OR multidimensional:ab,ti OR clinical:ab,ti)) OR ‘sub group*’:ab,ti OR subgrouping*:ab,ti OR ‘targeted treatment*’:ab,ti)
Table continues on page CPGcpg44.
APPENDIX A

3 ‘randomized controlled trial’/exp OR ‘randomized controlled trial topic’/exp OR ‘meta analysis’/exp OR ‘meta analysis topic’/exp OR ‘systematic review topic’/ 3430175
exp OR ‘practice guideline’/exp OR ‘controlled clinical trial’/exp OR randomized:ab,ti OR randomised:ab,ti OR randomization:ab,ti OR randomisation:ab,ti
OR placebo:ab,ti OR randomly:ab,ti OR ‘single blind’:ab,ti OR ‘single blinded’:ab,ti OR ‘double blind’:ab,ti OR ‘double blinded’:ab,ti OR systematic:ab,ti OR
systematically:ab,ti OR meta-analysis:ab,ti OR meta-synthesis:ab,ti OR meta-analyses:ab,ti OR meta-syntheses:ab,ti OR ‘meta analysis’:ab,ti OR ‘meta syn-
thesis’:ab,ti OR ‘meta analyses’:ab,ti OR ‘meta syntheses’:ab,ti OR metaanalysis:ab,ti OR metaanalyses:ab,ti OR meta-analytic:ab,ti OR ‘meta analytic’:ab,ti
OR metaanalytic:ab,ti OR ‘umbrella review’:ab,ti OR ‘umbrella reviews’:ab,ti OR ‘scoping review’:ab,ti OR ‘scoping reviews’:ab,ti OR ‘rapid review’:ab,ti
OR ‘rapid reviews’:ab,ti OR ‘practice guideline’:ab,ti OR ‘clinical guideline’:ab,ti OR ((review:ab,ti OR reviews:ab,ti OR reviewed:ab,ti OR search:ab,ti OR
searches:ab,ti OR searched:ab,ti OR searching:ab,ti OR handsearch:ab,ti OR handsearched:ab,ti) AND (‘inclusion criteri*’:ab,ti OR ‘exclusion criteri*’:ab,ti
OR references:ab,ti OR papers:ab,ti OR articles:ab,ti OR publications:ab,ti OR studies:ab,ti OR trials:ab,ti OR datasets:ab,ti OR databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 8059


1 ‘backache’/de OR ‘failed back surgery syndrome’/de OR ‘discogenic pain’/de OR ‘diskitis’/de OR ‘intervertebral disk degeneration’/de OR ‘lumbar disk her- 248715
nia’/exp OR ‘low back pain’/de OR ‘musculoskeletal pain’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘spine disease’/de OR ‘vertebral canal stenosis’/de OR ‘lumbar spinal
stenosis’/de OR ‘spondylolysis’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘sciatic neuropathy’/de OR ‘back disorder*’ OR ‘back injur*’ OR ‘back sprain*’ OR ‘failed back’
OR ((‘disc’ OR ‘discs’ OR ‘disk’ OR ‘disks’) NEAR/4 (‘herniated’ OR ‘herniation’ OR ‘herniations’ OR ‘degenerative’ OR ‘degeneration’ OR ‘prolapse*’ OR
‘protrusion*’)) OR ((‘lumbar’ OR ‘lumbosacral*’ OR ‘lumbo sacral*’ OR ‘lower back’ OR ‘low back’) NEAR/4 (‘pain’ OR ‘pains’ OR ‘painful’ OR ‘stenosis’ OR
‘stenoses’ OR ‘radiculopath*’ OR ‘instability’ OR ‘instabilities’ OR ‘strain*’ OR ‘strains*’)) OR ‘spondylo*’ OR ‘sciatica’ OR ‘Coccydynia’ OR ‘intervertebral
disk’/de OR ‘lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘fifth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘first lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘forth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘second lumbar vertebra’/
de OR ‘third lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘spondylarthritis’/de OR ‘spondyloarthropathy’/de OR ‘spondylolisthesis’/de OR ‘zygapophyseal joint’/de OR ‘back
pain*’ OR ‘backache*’ OR ‘back ache*’ OR ‘spinal pain’ OR ‘Zygapophyseal Joint*’ OR ‘Facet joint*’
2 ‘manipulative medicine’/exp OR mobilization*:ab,ti OR mobilisation*:ab,ti OR manipulat*:ab,ti OR acupressure:ab,ti OR acupuncture:ab,ti OR ‘applied 372540
kinesiology’:ab,ti OR ‘manual therap*’ OR bodywork*:ab,ti OR chiropract* OR massag*:ab,ti OR ‘dry needling’:ab,ti OR reflexolog*:ab,ti
3 ‘randomized controlled trial’/exp OR ‘randomized controlled trial topic’/exp OR ‘meta analysis’/exp OR ‘meta analysis topic’/exp OR ‘systematic review topic’/ 3430175
exp OR ‘practice guideline’/exp OR ‘controlled clinical trial’/exp OR randomized:ab,ti OR randomised:ab,ti OR randomization:ab,ti OR randomisation:ab,ti
OR placebo:ab,ti OR randomly:ab,ti OR ‘single blind’:ab,ti OR ‘single blinded’:ab,ti OR ‘double blind’:ab,ti OR ‘double blinded’:ab,ti OR systematic:ab,ti
OR systematically:ab,ti OR meta-analysis:ab,ti OR meta-synthesis:ab,ti OR meta-analyses:ab,ti OR meta-syntheses:ab,ti OR ‘meta analysis’:ab,ti OR
‘meta synthesis’:ab,ti OR ‘meta analyses’:ab,ti OR ‘meta syntheses’:ab,ti OR metaanalysis:ab,ti OR metaanalyses:ab,ti OR meta-analytic:ab,ti OR

‘meta analytic’:ab,ti OR metaanalytic:ab,ti OR ‘umbrella review’:ab,ti OR ‘umbrella reviews’:ab,ti OR ‘scoping review’:ab,ti OR ‘scoping reviews’:ab,ti OR
‘rapid review’:ab,ti OR ‘rapid reviews’:ab,ti OR ‘practice guideline’:ab,ti OR ‘clinical guideline’:ab,ti OR ((review:ab,ti OR reviews:ab,ti OR reviewed:ab,ti
OR search:ab,ti OR searches:ab,ti OR searched:ab,ti OR searching:ab,ti OR handsearch:ab,ti OR handsearched:ab,ti) AND (‘inclusion criteri*’:ab,ti OR
‘exclusion criteri*’:ab,ti OR references:ab,ti OR papers:ab,ti OR articles:ab,ti OR publications:ab,ti OR studies:ab,ti OR trials:ab,ti OR datasets:ab,ti OR
databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 4147
Trunk Coordination
1 ‘backache’/de OR ‘failed back surgery syndrome’/de OR ‘discogenic pain’/de OR ‘diskitis’/de OR ‘intervertebral disk degeneration’/de OR ‘lumbar disk 248715
hernia’/exp OR ‘low back pain’/de OR ‘musculoskeletal pain’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘spine disease’/de OR ‘vertebral canal stenosis’/de OR ‘lumbar
spinal stenosis’/de OR ‘spondylolysis’/de OR ‘spondylosis’/de OR ‘sciatic neuropathy’/de OR ‘back disorder*’ OR ‘back injur*’ OR ‘back sprain*’ OR
‘failed back’ OR ((‘disc’ OR ‘discs’ OR ‘disk’ OR ‘disks’) NEAR/4 (‘herniated’ OR ‘herniation’ OR ‘herniations’ OR ‘degenerative’ OR ‘degeneration’ OR
‘prolapse*’ OR ‘protrusion*’)) OR ((‘lumbar’ OR ‘lumbosacral*’ OR ‘lumbo sacral*’ OR ‘lower back’ OR ‘low back’) NEAR/4 (‘pain’ OR ‘pains’ OR ‘painful’
OR ‘stenosis’ OR ‘stenoses’ OR ‘radiculopath*’ OR ‘instability’ OR ‘instabilities’ OR ‘strain*’ OR ‘strains*’)) OR ‘spondylo*’ OR ‘sciatica’ OR ‘Coccydynia’
OR ‘intervertebral disk’/de OR ‘lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘fifth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘first lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘forth lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘second
lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘third lumbar vertebra’/de OR ‘spondylarthritis’/de OR ‘spondyloarthropathy’/de OR ‘spondylolisthesis’/de OR ‘zygapophyseal
joint’/de OR ‘back pain*’ OR ‘backache*’ OR ‘back ache*’ OR ‘spinal pain’ OR ‘Zygapophyseal Joint*’ OR ‘Facet joint*’
2 ‘physiotherapy’/de OR ‘kinesiotherapy’/exp OR ‘exercise* intervention’:ab,ti OR ‘exercise* therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘alexander*’:ab,ti OR ‘dynamic sit’:ab,ti OR 1089799
‘functional restoration*’:ab,ti OR ‘functional technique*’:ab,ti OR ‘lateral slid*’:ab,ti OR ‘motor train*’:ab,ti OR ‘multidisciplinary rehabilitation*’:ab,ti
OR (neuromuscular NEAR/5 facilitation):ab,ti OR ‘feedback’:ab,ti OR ‘reeducation’:ab,ti OR (exercise*:ab,ti OR exercising:ab,ti OR program*:ab,ti OR
train*:ab,ti AND (‘abdominal wall musculature’/exp OR ‘paraspinal muscle’/exp OR ‘muscle contraction’/exp OR ‘back muscle*’:ab,ti OR paraspinal:ab,ti
OR multifidus:ab,ti OR transversus:ab,ti OR trunk:ab,ti OR coordination:ab,ti OR dynamic:ab,ti OR endurance:ab,ti OR extension:ab,ti OR isometric*:ab,ti
OR ‘motor control’:ab,ti OR resistance:ab,ti OR stabili*:ab,ti OR strengthen*:ab,ti OR targeted:ab,ti)) OR ‘abdominal wall musculature’/exp OR ‘exercise’/
de OR ‘resistance training’/exp OR ‘coordination’:ab,ti OR ‘core strength*’:ab,ti OR ‘dynamic sitting*’:ab,ti OR ‘exercise*’:ab,ti OR ‘multifidus muscle*’:ab,-
ti OR ‘strengthening’:ab,ti OR ‘transversus abdominis’:ab,ti OR ‘trunk stabilization*’:ab,ti
APPENDIX A

3 ‘randomized controlled trial’/exp OR ‘randomized controlled trial topic’/exp OR ‘meta analysis’/exp OR ‘meta analysis topic’/exp OR ‘systematic review 3430175
topic’/exp OR ‘practice guideline’/exp OR ‘controlled clinical trial’/exp OR randomized:ab,ti OR randomised:ab,ti OR randomization:ab,ti OR randomisa-
tion:ab,ti OR placebo:ab,ti OR randomly:ab,ti OR ‘single blind’:ab,ti OR ‘single blinded’:ab,ti OR ‘double blind’:ab,ti OR ‘double blinded’:ab,ti OR systemat-
ic:ab,ti OR systematically:ab,ti OR meta-analysis:ab,ti OR meta-synthesis:ab,ti OR meta-analyses:ab,ti OR meta-syntheses:ab,ti OR ‘meta analysis’:ab,ti
OR ‘meta synthesis’:ab,ti OR ‘meta analyses’:ab,ti OR ‘meta syntheses’:ab,ti OR metaanalysis:ab,ti OR metaanalyses:ab,ti OR meta-analytic:ab,ti OR
databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 7113
Centralization
2 ‘physiotherapy’/de OR ‘kinesiotherapy’/de OR ‘movement therapy’/de OR ‘dynamic exercise’/de OR ‘isokinetic exercise’/de OR ‘isometric exercise’/de 17420
OR ‘muscle training’/de OR ‘neuromuscular facilitation’/de OR ‘open kinetic chain exercise’/de OR ‘static exercise’/de OR ‘stretching exercise’/de OR
centralization*:ab,ti OR mckenzie*:ab,ti OR centralisation*:ab,ti OR ‘therapeut* exercis*’:ab,ti OR ‘flexion exercis*’:ab,ti OR ‘extension exercis*’:ab,ti
OR ‘postural correct*’:ab,ti OR ‘active therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘directional preference*’:ab,ti OR ‘stabilization exercis*’ OR ‘stabilisation exercis*’ OR ‘lateral
shift*’:ab,ti OR ‘lateral translation*’:ab,ti OR ‘mechanical diagnosis’:ab,ti OR ‘muscle energy technique*’:ab,ti OR ‘neuromuscular facilitat*’:ab,ti OR
‘repeated exercis*’:ab,ti OR ‘resistance train*’
databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 4429
Mobilization
2 ‘physiotherapy’/de OR ((nerve OR neural) NEAR/5 (mobilization OR mobilisation)):ab,ti OR ((nerve OR neural) NEAR/1 (glid* OR stretch* OR tension OR 106930
therap* OR treatment)):ab,ti OR ‘lower limb traction’:ab,ti OR ‘limb mobilization’:ab,ti OR neurodynamic*:ab,ti OR ‘straight leg rais*’:ab,ti OR neurostimu-
lat*:ab,ti OR ‘spinal cord stimulat*’:ab,ti
APPENDIX A

databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 3676
Traction
2 traction* OR ‘decompression therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘distraction manipulation*’:ab,ti OR drx9000:ab,ti OR ‘inversion therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘gravity inversion*’:ab,ti OR 35680
‘pneumatic vest*’:ab,ti OR ‘vertebral axial decompression*’:ab,ti

databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 453
Patient Education
APPENDIX A

2 ‘patient education’/exp OR ‘doctor patient relation’/exp OR ‘behavior therapy’/de OR ‘cognitive therapy’/exp OR ‘instrumental conditioning’/exp OR ‘self 1657543
care’/de OR (cognitive:ab,ti AND therap*:ab,ti) OR (psychological* AND (‘physical therap*’ OR physiotherap*)) OR (interdisciplinary NEAR/5 rehabil-
itation):ab,ti OR (multidisciplinary NEAR/5 rehabilitation):ab,ti OR (‘multi disciplinary’ NEAR/5 rehabilitation):ab,ti OR (home NEAR/5 exercise):ab,ti
OR education*:ab,ti OR advice:ab,ti OR counsel*:ab,ti OR coach:ab,ti OR ‘behavioural therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavioral therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘cognitive
behavio*’:ab,ti OR operant:ab,ti OR ‘behavior chang*’:ab,ti OR ‘behaviour chang*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavioral chang*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavioural chang*’:ab,ti OR
‘group therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘neuroplasticity’:ab,ti OR ‘goal setting’:ab,ti OR motivation*:ab,ti OR reassurance:ab,ti OR coping:ab,ti OR ‘problem solving’:ab,ti
OR ‘self care’:ab,ti OR ‘self management’:ab,ti OR ‘stay active’:ab,ti OR ‘staying active’:ab,ti OR ‘back school*’:ab,ti OR ‘information provision*’:ab,ti OR
book*:ab,ti OR brochure*:ab,ti OR leaflet*:ab,ti OR pamphlet*:ab,ti OR ‘therapeutic alliance’:ab,ti OR ‘start back’:ab,ti OR ‘consumer health information’/
de OR ‘health education’/de OR ‘health literacy’/de OR ‘active manage*’:ab,ti OR ‘behaviour modification*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavior modification*’:ab,ti OR ‘be-
haviour* approach*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavior* approach*’:ab,ti OR ‘behaviour* treatment*’:ab,ti OR ‘behavior* treatment*’:ab,ti OR ‘cognitive treatment*’:ab,ti
OR (‘fear avoidance’:ab,ti AND training:ab,ti) OR ‘health information’:ab,ti OR ‘neuroscience approach’:ab,ti OR ‘patient instruction*’:ab,ti OR ‘patient
train*’:ab,ti OR ‘provision of information’:ab,ti OR ‘psychological treatment*’:ab,ti

databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 5104
2 ‘physiotherapy’/de OR ‘kinesiotherapy’/exp OR ‘exercise’/de OR ‘walking’/de OR ‘active rehab*’:ab,ti OR ‘activity based’:ab,ti OR ‘aerobic exercis*’:ab,ti OR 900759
‘exercis* therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘fitness train*’:ab,ti OR ‘graded activit*’:ab,ti OR ‘physical conditioning’:ab,ti OR pilates:ab,ti OR ‘resistance training’:ab,ti OR
‘strength training’:ab,ti OR stretching:ab,ti OR yoga:ab,ti OR ‘endurance’/exp OR accelerometer:ab,ti OR ‘active physical therap*’:ab,ti OR ‘aggressive
rehabilitation’:ab,ti OR aquatic:ab,ti OR ‘exercise adherence’:ab,ti OR exercis*:ab,ti OR hydrotherap*:ab,ti OR ‘physical activit*’:ab,ti OR ‘physical
fitness’:ab,ti OR strengthening:ab,ti
databases:ab,ti))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 7193
APPENDIX A
Searches Conducted on June 25, 2020 in CINAHL

Classification
1 ((MM “Back Pain+/CL” OR MM “Back Injuries/CL” OR MM “Spinal Diseases/CL” OR MM “Intervertebral Disk Displacement/CL” OR MM “Spondylarthritis/CL” 700
OR MM “Osteoarthritis, Spine/CL” OR MM “Spondylarthropathies/CL” OR MM “Spondylosis+/CL” OR MM “Spinal Stenosis/CL” OR MM “Neuralgia+/CL” OR
MM “Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction/CL” OR “start back”)
2 (MH “Back Pain+” OR MH “Back Injuries” OR MH “Spinal Diseases” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk Displacement” OR MH “Spondylarthritis” OR MH “Osteoar- 77425
thritis, Spine” OR MH “Spondylarthropathies” OR MH “Spondylosis+” OR MH “Spinal Stenosis” OR MH “Neuralgia+” OR MH “Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction”
OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR “spine” OR “spinal”))
OR “spinal pain*” OR “back disorder*” OR “back pain” OR “back pains” OR “back injur*” OR “backache*” OR “back ache*” OR “back strain*” OR “back
sprain*” OR “failed back” OR “lumbago” OR ((“lumbar” OR “lumbosacral*” OR “lumbo sacral*” OR “lower back”) N5 (“pain” OR “pains” OR “painful” OR
“stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar dysfunction” OR ((“disc” OR “discs”
OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR “prolapse*”)) OR “coccydynia” OR
“spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)

3 (((“accuracy*” OR MH “Algorithms” OR “algorithm*” OR “classif*” OR MH “Clinical Assessment Tools” OR “clinical exam*” OR “physical exam*” OR MH 662949
“Functional Assessment+” OR “screening” OR “cluster*” OR “cohort*” OR MH “Prospective Studies” OR “subgroup*” OR “subtype*” OR “diagnose” OR
“diagnosing” OR MH “Diagnosis, Musculoskeletal” OR MH “Models, Statistical” OR MH “Cox Proportional Hazards Model” OR MH “Linear Regression+”
OR MH “Logistic Regression+” OR “predict*” OR MH “Predictive Value of Tests” OR TX “prognos*” OR “reliab*” OR MH “Reliability and Validity+” OR
“sensitivity analys*” OR MH “Sensitivity and Specificity” OR MH “ROC Curve” OR “specificity” OR MH “Severity of Illness” OR “valid*” OR MH “Validation
Studies” OR MH “Treatment Failure”) AND (MH “Chiropractic+” OR TX “chiropract*” OR TX “physical therap*” OR TX “physiotherap*” OR MH “Physical
Therapy+” OR MH “Physicians, Family” OR MH “Primary Health Care” OR TX “primary care” OR TX “primary health care” OR TX “primary healthcare”))
OR “back screen*” OR “categorize” OR “categorization” OR MH “Classification+” OR “classification based” OR “classification scheme*” OR “classification
system*” OR “clinical decision*” OR MH “Critical Path” OR “clinical pathway*” OR “clinical prediction*” OR MH “Cluster Analysis” OR “cluster analys*”
OR MH “Cluster Sample+” OR MH “Decision Making” OR MH “Decision Making, Clinical” OR “decision rule*” OR “decision support” OR MH “Decision
Support Techniques” OR “diagnostic classification” OR MH “Self Assessment” OR “disability evaluation*” OR MH “Exercise Test+” OR “exercise test*” OR
MH “Movement/EV” OR “movement test*” OR “ICF” OR “mechanical diagnosis” OR MH “Patient History Taking+” OR “history taking” OR “Mckenzie” OR
“movement system*” OR MH “Palpation” OR MH “Physical Examination” OR MH “Chiropractic Assessment” OR MH “Geriatric Assessment+” OR MH
“Physical Therapy Assessment” OR “predictive model*” OR “stratif*” OR “sub classification*” OR “subclassification*” OR “sub group*” OR “subgroup-
ing*” OR “targeted treatment*” OR (“classif*” AND (MH “disability evaluation+” OR “evidence based” OR “functioning” OR “gait” OR “impairment*” OR
“mechanism*” OR “motor control*” OR MH “Movement+” OR “movement*” OR “walking” OR “pathoanatom*” OR “psychological” OR “psychosocial” OR
“rehabilitation” OR “treatment based” OR “cognitive” OR “multidimensional” OR “clinical”)) OR (“subgroup*” AND (MH “Disability Evaluation+” OR MH
“exercise+” OR “exercise*” OR “manipulation*” OR “impairment*” OR MH “Movement+” OR “movement*” OR “prognos*” OR “predictor*” OR “rehabilita-

tion” OR “cognitive” OR “multidimensional” OR “clinical”)))))
4 (MH “Randomized Controlled Trials+”) OR (MH “Systematic Review”) OR (MH “Meta Analysis”) OR (MH “Meta Synthesis”) OR (MH “Systematic Review”) OR 969590
(MH “Placebos”) OR (ZT “randomized controlled trial”) OR (ZT “Systematic Review”) OR (ZT “Meta Analaysis”) OR (ZT “Practice Guideline”) OR
(MH “Placebos”) OR randomized OR randomised OR randomization OR randomisation OR placebo OR randomly OR “single blind” OR “single blinded”
OR “double blind” OR “double blinded” OR systematic OR systematically OR meta-analysis OR meta-synthesis OR meta-analyses OR meta-syntheses
OR “meta analysis” OR “meta synthesis” OR “meta analyses” OR “meta syntheses” OR metaanalysis OR metaanalyses OR meta-analytic OR “meta
analytic” OR metaanalytic OR “umbrella review” OR “umbrella reviews” OR “scoping review” OR “scoping reviews” OR “rapid review” OR “rapid reviews”
OR “practice guideline” OR “clinical guideline” OR ((review OR reviews OR reviewed OR search OR searches OR searched OR searching OR handsearch OR
handsearched) AND (“inclusion criteri*” OR “exclusion criteri*” OR references OR papers OR articles OR publications OR studies OR trials OR datasets OR
databases))
5 1 OR (2 AND 3) 18303
6 4 AND 5 5616
APPENDIX A

OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR “spine” OR “spinal”))
OR “spinal pain*” OR “back disorder*” OR “back pain” OR “back pains” OR “back injur*” OR “backache*” OR “back ache*” OR “back strain*” OR “back
sprain*” OR “failed back” OR “lumbago” OR ((“lumbar” OR “lumbosacral*” OR “lumbo sacral*” OR “lower back”) N5 (“pain” OR “pains” OR “painful” OR
“stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar dysfunction” OR ((“disc” OR “discs”
OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR “prolapse*”)) OR “coccydynia” OR
“spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)
2 (MH “Physical Therapy” OR MH “Manual Therapy+” OR MH “Joint Mobilization” OR MH “Motion Therapy, Continuous Passive” OR MH “Chiropractic+” OR 149976
MH “Acupuncture+” OR “manipulat*” OR “manual therap*” OR “mobilisation*” OR “mobilization*” OR “bodywork*” OR “chiropract*” OR “craniosacral
therap*” OR “massag*” OR “meridian therap*” OR “omt” OR “reflexology*” OR “dry needling” OR “acupressure” OR “acupuncture”)
databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 3160
Trunk Coordination
1 (MH “Back Pain+” OR MH “Back Injuries” OR MH “Spinal Diseases” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk Displacement” OR MH “Spondylarthritis” OR MH “Os- 77277
teoarthritis, Spine” OR MH “Spondylarthropathies” OR MH “Spondylosis+” OR MH “Spinal Stenosis” OR MH “Neuralgia+” OR MH “Sacroiliac Joint
Dysfunction” OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR
“spine” OR “spinal”)) OR “spinal pain*” OR “back disorder*” OR “back pain” OR “back pains” OR “back injur*” OR “backache*” OR “back ache*” OR
“back strain*” OR “back sprain*” OR “failed back” OR “lumbago” OR ((“lumbar” OR “lumbosacral*” OR “lumbo sacral*” OR “lower back”) N5 (“pain”
OR “pains” OR “painful” OR “stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar
dysfunction” OR ((“disc” OR “discs” OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR
“prolapse*”)) OR “coccydynia” OR “spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)
2 (((MH “Physical Therapy” OR “physical therap*” OR “physiotherap*”) AND “exercis*”) OR MH “Therapeutic Exercise+” OR ((“exercise*” OR “exercising” 195780
OR “program*” OR “train*”) AND (MH “Abdominal Muscles+” OR “abdominal muscle*” OR “back muscle*” OR “core” OR MH “Multifidus Muscles”
OR “multifidus” OR “paraspinal” OR “transversus” OR “trunk” OR “coordination” OR “dynamic” OR “endurance” OR “extension” OR “isometric*”
OR “motor control” OR MH “Muscle Contraction” OR “resistance” OR “stabili*” OR “strengthen*” OR “targeted”)) OR “abdominal exercise*” “active
exercise*” OR “back exercise*” OR “exercise intervention*” OR “exercise therap*” OR “therapeutic exercise*” OR “Alexander” OR “core stabili*” OR
“dynamic sit*” OR “functional restoration” OR “functional technique*” OR MH “Functional Training” OR “lateral slid*” OR “motor training” OR “multi-
disciplinary rehabilitation” OR (“neuromuscular” AND “facilitation”) OR “Swiss ball*” OR “biofeedback” OR “feedback” OR “reeducation”)
3 (MH “Randomized Controlled Trials+”) OR (MH “Systematic Review”) OR (MH “Meta Analysis”) OR (MH “Meta Synthesis”) OR (MH “Systematic 970179
Review”) OR (MH “Placebos”) OR (ZT “randomized controlled trial”) OR (ZT “Systematic Review”) OR (ZT “Meta Analaysis”) OR (ZT “Practice
Guideline”) OR (MH “Placebos”) OR randomized OR randomised OR randomization OR randomisation OR placebo OR randomly OR “single blind”
OR “single blinded” OR “double blind” OR “double blinded” OR systematic OR systematically OR meta-analysis OR meta-synthesis OR meta-anal-
yses OR meta-syntheses OR “meta analysis” OR “meta synthesis” OR “meta analyses” OR “meta syntheses” OR metaanalysis OR metaanalyses
OR meta-analytic OR “meta analytic” OR metaanalytic OR “umbrella review” OR “umbrella reviews” OR “scoping review” OR “scoping reviews” OR
“rapid review” OR “rapid reviews” OR “practice guideline” OR “clinical guideline” OR ((review OR reviews OR reviewed OR search OR searches OR
searched OR searching OR handsearch OR handsearched) AND (“inclusion criteri*” OR “exclusion criteri*” OR references OR papers OR articles OR
publications OR studies OR trials OR datasets OR databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 2217
APPENDIX A
Centralization
thritis, Spine” OR MH “Spondylarthropathies” OR MH “Spondylosis+” OR MH “Spinal Stenosis” OR MH “Neuralgia+” OR MH “Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunc-
tion” OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR “spine” OR
“spinal”)) OR “spinal pain*” OR “back disorder*” OR “back pain” OR “back pains” OR “back injur*” OR “backache*” OR “back ache*” OR “back strain*”
OR “back sprain*” OR “failed back” OR “lumbago” OR ((“lumbar” OR “lumbosacral*” OR “lumbo sacral*” OR “lower back”) N5 (“pain” OR “pains” OR
“painful” OR “stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar dysfunction” OR ((“disc”
OR “discs” OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR “prolapse*”)) OR “coccydyn-
ia” OR “spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)
2 (MH “Therapeutic Exercise+” OR ((“flexion” OR “extension” OR “therapeut*”) AND “exercis*”) OR ((MH “Physical Therapy” OR “physical therap*” OR “phys- 84272
iotherap*”) AND (“exercis*” OR MH “Posture+” OR “posture”)) OR “active therap*” OR “centralisation*” OR “centralization*” OR “directional preference*”
OR “exercise movement techni*” OR “exercise treatment*” OR (“extension” N3 “intervention*”) OR “lateral shift*” OR “lateral translation*” OR “mcken-
zie*” OR “MDT” OR “mechanical diagnosis” OR “muscle energy technique*” OR “neuromuscular facilitat*” OR “postural correct*” OR “repeated exercis*”
OR “repeated procedure*” OR “resistance training”)
databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 1902
Mobilization
OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR “spine” OR
2 (((“nerve” OR “neural”) AND (“mobilization” OR “mobilization”)) OR (“mobili*” N5 “sciatic”) OR “nerve flossing” OR “nerve glid*” OR “nerve stretch*” OR 2051
“nerve tension” OR “nerve therapy” OR “nerve treatment” OR “neural glid*” OR “neural tension” OR “neural therap*” OR “neural treatment” OR “slump
stretch*” OR “neurodynamic*” OR “passive movement*” OR “leg raise*”)
3 (MH “Randomized Controlled Trials+”) OR (MH “Systematic Review”) OR (MH “Meta Analysis”) OR (MH “Meta Synthesis”) OR (MH “Systematic Review”) 970179
OR (MH “Placebos”) OR (ZT “randomized controlled trial”) OR (ZT “Systematic Review”) OR (ZT “Meta Analaysis”) OR (ZT “Practice Guideline”) OR
databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 157
APPENDIX A
Traction
2 (MH “Traction” OR “decompression therap*” OR “traction*”) 4939
databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 162
Patient Education
1 (MH “Back Pain+” OR MH “Back Injuries” OR MH “Spinal Diseases” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk Displacement” OR MH “Spondylarthritis” OR MH 77277
“Osteoarthritis, Spine” OR MH “Spondylarthropathies” OR MH “Spondylosis+” OR MH “Spinal Stenosis” OR MH “Neuralgia+” OR MH “Sacroiliac Joint
Dysfunction” OR MH “Lumbar Vertebrae” OR MH “Intervertebral Disk” OR MH “Zygapophyseal Joint” OR (“musculoskeletal pain*” AND (“back” OR
“spine” OR “spinal”)) OR “spinal pain*” OR “back disorder*” OR “back pain” OR “back pains” OR “back injur*” OR “backache*” OR “back ache*” OR
“back strain*” OR “back sprain*” OR “failed back” OR “lumbago” OR ((“lumbar” OR “lumbosacral*” OR “lumbo sacral*” OR “lower back”) N5 (“pain” OR
“pains” OR “painful” OR “stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar dysfunction”
OR ((“disc” OR “discs” OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR “prolapse*”))
OR “coccydynia” OR “spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)
2 MH “Patient Education” OR “education” OR “educational” OR “advice” OR “counsel*” OR “coach*” OR “activating therap*” OR MH “Behavior Therapy+” 1250888
OR “behavioural therap*” OR (“cognitive” AND “therapy”) OR “cognitive behavio*” OR “operant” OR “behavior chang*” OR “behaviour chang*” OR “be-
havioral chang*” OR “behavioural chang*” OR “behavioural Intervention*” OR “behavior modification*” OR “group therap*” OR ((“interdisciplinary” OR
“multidisciplinary” or “multi disciplinary”) AND “rehabilitation”) OR “psychologically informed” OR “neuroscience” OR “goal setting” OR “motivation*” OR
“reassurance” OR “coping” OR “problem solving” OR MH “Self Care” OR “self care” OR “self management” OR “stay active” OR “staying active” OR “active
management” OR (“home” N5 “exercise*”) OR “back school*” OR “information provision*” OR “book*” OR “brochure*” OR “leaflet*” OR “pamphlet*” OR
“therapeutic alliance” OR MH “Professional-Patient Relations” OR MH “Physician-Patient Relations” OR (TX “psychological*” AND (TX “physical therap*”
OR TX “physiotherap*”)) OR “start back”
handsearched) AND (“inclusion criteri*” OR “exclusion criteri*” OR references OR papers OR articles OR publications OR studies OR trials OR datasets
OR databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 2850
APPENDIX A
“painful” OR “stenosis” OR “stenosis” OR “radiculopathy” OR “instability” OR “instabilities” OR “strain” OR “strains”)) OR “lumbar dysfunction” OR
((“disc” OR “discs” OR “disk” OR “disks”) N5 (“herniated” OR “herniation” OR “herniations” OR “degenerative” OR “degeneration” OR “prolapse*”)) OR
“coccydynia” OR “spondylarth*” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo*” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint*” OR “zygapophyseal joint*”)
2 (MH “Physical Therapy” OR MH “Therapeutic Exercise+” OR MH “Exercise+” OR MH “Physical Endurance+” OR MH “Physical Fitness+” OR MH 384385
“Recreation+” OR MH “Tai Chi” OR MH “Yoga+” OR “exercise” OR “exercises” OR “exercising” OR “graded activit*” OR “physical activity” OR “physical
conditioning” OR (“physical” N5 “training”) OR “active physical therapy” OR “active rehab*” OR “activity based” OR “fitness” OR “aerobic” OR “walking”
OR “pedometer*” OR “endurance train*” OR “strength train*” OR “resistance train*” OR “tai chi” OR “pilates” OR “stretching” OR “aquatic”)
OR “practice guideline” OR “clinical guideline” OR ((review OR reviews OR reviewed OR search OR searches OR searched OR searching OR handsearch
OR handsearched) AND (“inclusion criteri*” OR “exclusion criteri*” OR references OR papers OR articles OR publications OR studies OR trials OR
datasets OR databases))
4 1 AND 2 AND 3 3445
APPENDIX B
TABLE OF RESULTS
Exercise Manual and Other Directed Therapiesa Classification Systems Patient Education
Database (Platform) 2016 Search, n 2020 Search, n 2016 Search, n 2020 Search, n 2016 Search, n 2020 Search, n 2016 Search, n 2020 Search, n
PubMed (National Library 5582 9102 2741 4269 2961 3924 1138 2608
of Medicine)
Embase (Elsevier) 16584 18735 7527 8276 8415 8059 4221 5104
CINAHL (EBSCO) 4709 7564 2753 3479 4651 5616 1944 2850
Cochrane Library (Wiley) 2300 11078 2056 7403 646 3291 634 6039
a
Manual and Other Directed Therapies includes the searches for mobilization and traction.
APPENDIX C
PRISMA FLOW DIAGRAMS
Exercise
Identification
Records identified through 2016 Records identified through updated

database search, n = 29175 2020 database search, n = 46479
Records after duplicates

removed, n = 21230
Screening
Titles and abstracts screened,

n = 21230
Records excluded, n = 20170

Eligibility
Full-text articles assessed for

eligibility, n = 1060 Full-text articles excluded, n = 1004

• Outside the scope of the clinical practice guideline, n = 372
• Not a randomized controlled trial or systematic review, n = 323
• Abstract only, n = 145
• Outside the date range, n = 61
• Not in English, n = 31
• Duplicate, n = 22
• Methodology, n = 14
• Intervention not delivered by a physical therapist, n = 13
• Not exercise specific, n = 13
• Equipment specific, n = 9
• Not peer reviewed, n = 1

Included
Studies included in extraction,

n = 56
APPENDIX C

Identification
Records identified through 2016 Records identified through 2020

search, n = 15077 search, n = 23427

removed, n = 18684
Screening

n = 18684

Eligibility

eligibility, n = 1072
Full-text articles excluded, n = 1016
• Not a randomized clinical trial or systematic review, n = 555

• Not performed by a physical therapist, n = 116
Included

n = 56
APPENDIX C
Classification Systems
Identification
Records identified through 2016 Additional records identified through

search, n = 16673 2020 search, n = 20890

removed, n = 22970
Screening

n = 22970
Records excluded, n =22457

Eligibility

eligibility, n = 513
Full-text articles excluded, n = 492

• Not relevant, n = 75
• Classification reliability study, n = 20
• Wrong intervention, comparator, outcome, or setting, n = 20
• Not peer reviewed, n = 4
Included

n = 21
APPENDIX C
Patient Education
Identification
Records identified in 2016 search, Records identified in 2020 search,

n = 7937 n = 16601

removed, n = 16225
Screening

n = 16225

Eligibility

eligibility, n = 179 Full-text articles excluded, n = 154
• Wrong outcome, intervention, comparator, patient population,
or setting, n = 49
• Other clinical practice guideline, n = 9
• Not delivered by a physical therapist, n = 3
Included
n = 25
APPENDIX D
ARTICLE INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA FOR ARTICLE SCREENING/FULL-TEXT REVIEW
Patient/Subject Characteristics
Include:
• Studies using data from humans
• Subjects over 18 years of age
• Subjects with low back pain, defined with search terms as “nonspecific low back pain,” “mechanical low back pain,” “lumbosacral
segmental/spinal instability” (including spondylolisthesis), “lumbosacral somatic dysfunction,” “lumbosacral sprain,” “lumbosacral
strain flatback syndrome,” “intervertebral disc degeneration” and/or “herniation,” “lumbar radiculopathy,” or “sciatica”
Exclude:
• Studies of patients with a condition outside the diagnosis of musculoskeletal low back pain (eg, tumor, fracture, kidney dysfunction,
ankylosing spondylitis)
Article Characteristics
Include:
• English
• Published from December 1, 2010 to present
• Articles reporting analysis of data: systematic reviews, meta-analyses, randomized clinical trials
• Articles reporting patient-centered outcomes, including disability, pain, physical function, ability to work or participate in social activi-
ties, etc
Exclude:
• Study protocols
• Observational, experimental, and quasi-experimental cohort studies
• Cross-sectional studies
• Case reports
• Case series
• Conference abstracts, press releases, newsletters, editorial letters, commentaries, opinions
• Articles published in non–peer-reviewed publications (eg, theses)
Topics Included
Intervention: Diagnosis/Classification
Include:
Articles that analyze data on classification of people with low back pain to inform physical therapy treatment. This may include treat-
ment-based classification systems, acuity-based systems, prognostic risk stratification approaches, and the current CPG’s ICF-based
classification system (low back pain with mobility deficits, low back pain with movement coordination impairments, low back pain with
related lower extremity pain, low back pain with radiating pain, low back pain with related generalized pain, and low back pain with re-
lated cognitive or affective tendencies).
Intervention: Manual Therapy

Include:
Skilled hand movements and skilled passive movements of joints and soft tissue (thrust and nonthrust) within the scope of physical
therapy practice. Manual therapy techniques may include the following:
• Traction: an intervention that uses manually or mechanically applied forces with the intention of stretching and distracting the spine
• Massage
- Connective tissue massage
- Therapeutic massage
• Mobilization/manipulation
- Soft tissue
- Spinal and peripheral joints
• Dry needling: an intervention that uses a thin filiform needle to penetrate the skin and stimulate underlying myofascial trigger points
and muscular and connective tissues for the management of neuromusculoskeletal pain and movement impairments. Dry needling
is a technique used to treat dysfunctions in skeletal muscle, fascia, and connective tissue, and to diminish persistent peripheral noci-
ceptive input and reduce or restore impairments of body structure and function, leading to improved activity and participation
APPENDIX D
• Neural tissue mobilization: manual therapy techniques intended to enhance the dynamic balance between the relative movement of
neural tissues and surrounding mechanical interfaces, thereby allowing reduced intrinsic pressures on the neural tissue and thus pro-
moting optimum physiologic function
Exclude:
• Articles using “acupuncture”
• Articles on direct traction using pins or wires inserted through bone
• Articles that report on soft tissue mobilization and stretching without targeting nerve mobility
Intervention: Exercise
Include:
Therapeutic exercise may include the following within the scope of physical therapy practice:
• Aerobic capacity/endurance conditioning or reconditioning
- Aquatic programs
- Increased workload over time

- Movement efficiency and energy conservation training
- Walking and wheelchair propulsion programs
• Flexibility exercises
- Muscle lengthening
- Range of motion
- Stretching
• Strength, power, and endurance training for head, neck, limb, pelvic floor, trunk, and ventilatory muscles
- Active assistive, active, and resistive exercises (including concentric, dynamic/isotonic, eccentric, isokinetic, isometric, and
plyometric)
- Aquatic programs
- Standardized, programmatic, or complementary exercise approaches (eg, yoga, Pilates, etc)
- Task-specific performance training
Centralization and Directional Preference Exercises

Include:
• Repeated movements
- Centralization
- Directional preference
- McKenzie therapy
- Flexion-based exercise
- Extension-based exercise
Exclude:
• Articles on complementary movement therapy approaches such as yoga, Pilates, or tai chi if these interventions are delivered by oth-
er health care providers
Intervention: Patient Education and Counseling

Include:
Education and counseling interventions specifically directed toward the management of low back pain that include counseling or patient
education as the sole intervention studied. Examples of accepted education or counseling approaches are:
• Pathology or health condition
• Performance enhancement
• Psychosocial influences on treatment (eg, fear-avoidance beliefs, behavior change techniques)
• Risk factors for pathology or health condition, impairments in body function and structure, activity limitations, and participation
restrictions
• Delivery of psychologically informed physical therapy
Exclude:
• Education or counseling outside the scope of physical therapy practice and/or delivered by other health care providers
• Education or counseling that was not specific to management of low back pain and instead was directed toward general health
practices (eg, nutrition, weight loss)
Abbreviations: CPG, clinical practice guideline; ICF, International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health.
APPENDIX E
LEVEL-OF-EVIDENCE TABLEa
Pathoanatomic/Risk/Clinical Course/ Diagnosis/Diagnostic Prevalence of Condition/

Level Intervention/Prevention Prognosis/Differential Diagnosis Accuracy Disorder Exam/Outcomes
I Systematic review of Systematic review of prospective cohort Systematic review of Systematic review, Systematic review of pro-
high-quality RCTs studies high-quality diagnostic high-quality cross- spective cohort studies
High-quality RCTb High-quality prospective cohort studyc studies sectional studies High-quality prospective
High-quality diagnostic High-quality cross-sectional cohort study
studyd with validation studye
II Systematic review of Systematic review of retrospective Systematic review of Systematic review of studies Systematic review of
high-quality cohort cohort study exploratory diagnostic that allows relevant lower-quality prospective
studies Lower-quality prospective cohort study studies or consecutive estimate cohort studies
High-quality cohort studyc High-quality retrospective cohort study cohort studies Lower-quality cross-section- Lower-quality prospective
Outcomes study or ecologi- Consecutive cohort High-quality exploratory al study cohort study
cal study Outcomes study or ecological study diagnostic studies
Lower-quality RCTf Consecutive retrospective
cohort
III Systematic reviews of Lower-quality retrospective cohort study Lower-quality exploratory Local nonrandom study High-quality cross-sectional
case-control studies High-quality cross-sectional study diagnostic studies study
High-quality case-control Case-control study Nonconsecutive retrospec-
study tive cohort

Lower-quality cohort study
IV Case series Case series Case-control study Lower-quality cross-
sectional study
V Expert opinion Expert opinion Expert opinion Expert opinion Expert opinion
Abbreviation: RCT, randomized clinical trial.
a
Adapted from Phillips B, Ball C, Sackett D, et al. Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine: levels of evidence (March 2009). Available at: https://www.cebm.
ox.ac.uk/resources/levels-of-evidence/oxford-centre-for-evidence-based-medicine-levels-of-evidence-march-2009. Accessed June 30, 2020.
b
High quality includes RCTs with greater than 80% follow-up, blinding, and appropriate randomization procedures.
c
High-quality cohort study includes greater than 80% follow-up.
d
High-quality diagnostic study includes consistently applied reference standard and blinding.
e
High-quality prevalence study is a cross-sectional study that uses a local and current random sample or censuses.
f
Weaker diagnostic criteria and reference standards, improper randomization, no blinding, and less than 80% follow-up may add bias and threats to validity.
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Clinical Practice Guidelines

Interventions for the Management

Clinical Practice Guidelines Linked to the International Classification

J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2021;51(11):CPG1-CPG60. doi:10.2519/jospt.2021.0304

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS................................. CPG2

Intervention: Exercise........................................................... CPG9

B Physical therapists may use thrust or nonthrust joint mo-

ICF: International Classification of Functioning, Disability RMDQ: Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire

Exclude + Exclude with same reason

STRENGTH OF EVIDENCE AND RECOMMENDATIONS • Acute or chronic LBP

TABLE 2 Grades of Recommendation - Studies that intentionally recruited patients having

or a preponderance of only level II studies

TREATMENT DESCRIPTION There is an annual review of the AOPT CPG performed by

Planned Strategies and Tools to Support the

CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES

Progressive Endurance Exercise and Fitness Activities

Trunk Coordination, Strengthening, and Endurance Exercises EVIDENCE UPDATE

Exercises and Procedures Aluko et al7 compared 6 weeks of specific trunk

TABLE 4 Operational Definitions for Exercise

Intervention Operational Definition

Evidence Synthesis and Rationale 2021 Recommendation

LBP. There is also a need for direct comparisons of different

cises, to advice to reduce activity and loading of the spine in

II interventions in 63 young male participants (age,

Movement Control deep water–running aerobic exercise program along with

Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire [RMDQ]). Three

months. Results after 7 treatment sessions showed greater 2021 Recommendations

Bronfort et al27 conducted an RCT (n = 301) com- chronic LBP.

2021 Recommendation 2021 Recommendation

group receiving multimodal exercise had greater improve-

Hicks et al75 compared a muscle strengthening and

• Exercise training interventions may be recommended to

CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES

Intervention: Manual and

Fritz et al57 conducted a high-quality RCT of 220

TABLE 5 Operational Definitions for Manual and Other Directed Therapies

Intervention Operational Definition

Shah and Kage145 compared nonthrust posteri- Gaps in Knowledge

B joint mobilization to reduce pain and disability in

CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES

Intervention: Classification Systems

Classification systems represent decision-making strategies 2021 Update

in the 2012 CPG. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR ACUTE LBP

lesions after red flag screening is completed.

TABLE 6 Operational Definitions for Classification Systems

Intervention Operational Definition

Evidence Synthesis and Rationale Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy

following treatment. Another systematic review identified

The MDT classification system has been the most studied

Movement System Impairment

CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES

Intervention: Patient Education

indirectly increase the perceived threat or fear asso- Evidence Update

2021 Evidence Update

LBP across participants managed with rehabilitation-orient- Pain Neuroscience Education

ed mean difference of 0.42, favoring PNE compared to no

I racially diverse adults with chronic LBP found no

Sherman et al148 performed an RCT (n = 229)

Back Pain Helpbook” among adults with chronic General Education

“spondylarth” OR “spondylisthesis” OR “spondylo” OR “sciatica” OR “facet joint” OR “zygapophyseal joint”)

“exercise+” OR “exercise” OR “manipulation” OR “impairment” OR MH “Movement+” OR “movement” OR “prognos” OR “predictor” OR “rehabilita-