Blockchain and Shared Ledgers
Blockchain and Shared Ledgers
Blockchain and Shared Ledgers
Trends
Digital Healthcare | Mobile Payment | Assistive Technologies | Internet of Things
th
(IoT)
5 Generation Mobile Networks (5G) | Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
Blockchain and Shared Ledgers | 3D Printing
5TH GENERATION
MOBILE NETWORKS (5G)
BLOCKCHAIN
DIGITAL AND
HEALTHC SHARED LED
ARE GERS
MOBILE 3D
PRINTI
PAYMEN ICT T NG
T rend
s
INTERNET ASSISTIVE
OF TECHNOLOG
THINGS (I IES
OT)
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND
MACHINE LEARNING
8. 3D Printing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
Dig 1
ital
He
alt
hc
are
II. M 3
obi
le
Pa
ym
en
ts
III. Assisti 5
ve Tec
hnologi
es
IV. Int 7
ern
et
of
Thi
ng
s
V. 5th Generation 1
Mobile Networ
ks
VI. Artificial Intelligence an 1
d Machine Learning 2
5
VII. Blockchain and 1
Shared Ledger
s
V 1
III
.
3
D
P
ri
nt
in
g
5
VII. Blockchain and Shared
Ledgers
Contents
1 1
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2.T 1
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3.A
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Bloc
kch
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Appl
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List of Figures
Fi 1
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re
1:
A
Bl
oc
kc
hai
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Tr
an
sa
cti
on
F 1
Figure 3: Traditional Centralized 160
stem vs. Blockchain-based Distribut
ed System
Figure 4: 1
Working
of Blockc
hain Tec
hnology
Figure 5: 1
Current L
etter of C
redit Proc
essing
Figure 6: A Proposed Blo 1
ckchain-based Letter of C 6
redit Processing 6
Figure 7: Proposed 1
Blockchain-based
Loyalty Programm
e
Fi 1
gu
re
8:
Bl
oc
kc
hai
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an
d t
he
S
D
Gs
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1. Introduction
1
The concept of blockchain was introduced
by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008, and then i
mplemented
for the first time in 2009 as part of the digita
l bitcoin currency. Blockchain and bitcoin ar
2
e, however,
not the same. Blockchain technology can b
e applied in many different domains such a
s healthcare,
finance and supply chain management, a 3
nd can be used in peer-to-peer payment s
ervices and
supply chain tracking.
A blockchain is a record of transactions, wh
ere a group of transactions is called a block.
When they
are put together, they form a structure/chai
n called a blockchain. These transactions c
ould involve
movement of money, goods, services and d
ata. Examples include online payment throu
gh a banking
application or the assignment of a national
identification number. Figure 1 shows the
record of a
blockchain transaction.
Figure 1: A Blockchain Transaction
Source: Goldman Sachs, “Blockchain: The New Technology
of Trust”. , 24 January 2017. Available from https://www.forbes.
Available from http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-
thinking/pages/
blockchain/.
Blockchain consists of a network of comput
ers having an identical copy of the databas
e distributed
among themselves, which changes its sta
te (records) by a common agreement bas
ed on some
mathematical logic.
This type of database that is shared, replica
ted and synchronized among the members
of a network
is referred to as a distributed ledger. Distrib
uted ledger records transactions, such as e
xchange of
assets or data, among the participants in th
e network. Participants in the network gover
n and agree
by consensus on the updates to the recor
ds in the ledger. No central, third-party me
diator, such
as a financial institution or clearinghouse, i
s involved. Every record in the distributed l
edger has a
Wikipedia, “Satoshi Nakamoto”. Available from http
1 s://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satoshi_Nakamoto.
2
Bernard Marr, “A complete beginner’s guide to blo
ckchain”, Forbes
com/sites/bernardmarr/2017/01/24/a-complete-
beginners-guide-to-blockchain/#9d812166e607.
3
Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in India: Opportun
ities and Challenges”, April 2017. Available from htt
ps://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in
-strategy-innovation-blockchain-technology-india-
opportunities-
challenges-noexp.pdf.
158
timestamp and unique cryptographic signature, thus making the ledger an auditable history of all
transactions in the network. 4
1.1 The Role of Ledgers
In today’s interconnected world, many economic activities take place in networks spanning national
and international jurisdictions. These networks generally come together at marketplaces where the
participants are typically producers, suppliers, consumers and other stakeholders. These participants
own, control, and exercise their rules, rights, privileges and entitlements on objects of value to them,
or assets. Assets are of two kinds: tangible and physical, and intangible and virtual. Cars and homes
are tangible and physical assets whereas patents and stock certificates are examples of intangible
and virtual assets. The ownership and transfer of ownership are transactions that create value in a
network.
Transactions essentially happen in the presence of various participants such as buyers, sellers and
intermediaries (like banks, auditors or notaries) whose business agreements and contracts are
recorded in ledgers. Any organization, be it a business or a bank, typically uses multiple ledgers to
keep track of asset ownership and asset transfers between participants. Ledgers are, therefore, a
system of records related to a business' economic activities and interests. Figure 2 shows a typical
ledger.
Figure 2: A Typical Ledger
Source: Sloane Brakeville and Bhargav Perepa, “Blockchain basics: Introduction to distributed ledger”, IBM, 9 May 2016. Available
from https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/library/cl-blockchain-basics-intro-bluemix-trs/index.html.
4 This section is drawn from: Sloane Brakeville and Bhargav Perepa, “Blockchain basics: Introduction to distributed ledger”,
IBM, 9 May 2016. Available from https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/library/cl-blockchain-basics-intro-bluemix-trs/
index.html.
159
1.2 Problems with Current Ledgers
Current business ledgers are often found to be ineffi
cient, costly, non-transparent, and subject to
fraud and misuse. These problems are seen to stem
from reliance on centralized, trust-based and
third-party systems, such as financial institutions, cle
aring houses and other mediators of existing
institutional arrangements. These centralized, trust-
based ledger systems can lead to slowdowns
of transaction settlements. Whenever there is a la
ck of transparency, as well as susceptibility
to corruption and fraud, disputes may arise. Havin
g to resolve disputes and possibly reverse
transactions or provide insurance for transactions is co
stly.
Furthermore, out-of-sync copies of business ledgers o
n each network participant’s respective system
may lead to faulty business decisions made on tempo
rary and incorrect data. At best, the ability to
make a fully informed decision is delayed while differing
copies of the ledgers are resolved.
On the other hand, blockchain being a shared digit
al ledger, relies on the nodes in the network
to confirm and validate transactions. There are less
chances of tampering with transaction data
because all the transactions are linked from the begi
nning of the chain to the most current block.
The blockchain as a whole acts as a single source of “t
ruth” where only members with a given set of
permissions available to them can make relevant chang
es.
Figure 3: Traditional Centralized System vs.
Blockchain-based Distributed System
Source: Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in
India: Opportunities and Challenges”, April 2017.
Available from https://www2.deloitte.com/
content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in-
strategy-innovation-blockchain-technology-india-
opportunities-challenges-noexp.pdf.
160
2. The Blockchain Technology
The basic principles on which the blockchain technology works are described in
the subsections
5
below.
2.1 The Consensus Model
Instead of relying on a third party, such as a financial institution, to mediate trans
actions, member
nodes in a blockchain network use a consensus protocol to agree on led
ger content, and
cryptographic hashes and digital signatures to ensure the integrity of transacti
ons. Consensus
ensures that shared ledgers are exact copies and lowers the risk of fraudulent tran
sactions because
tampering would have to occur across many places at exactly the same time.
A cryptographic hash function takes an input and returns an output in the for
m of a fixed-size
alphanumeric string. The string produced is called the “hash” value. The hash value
of any given data
can be calculated if the function that has been used is known. Cryptographic ha
shes ensure that
any alteration to transaction input results in a different hash value being compute
d, which indicates
potentially compromised transaction input.
A digital signature is a digital code that is generated and authenticated by publi
c key encryption,
which is attached to a digital document transmitted over a network to verify its
content and the
sender’s identity. The digital signature ensures that the sender is not an imposter.
2.2 Distributed Database
Each party on the blockchain network shares the ledger, providing them with acc
ess to the entire
database and its complete history. Every time a transaction happens, the data is
replicated among
all the peers in the network and the information gets updated. No single party co
ntrols the data or
the information. Every party can verify the records of its transaction partners di
rectly, without an
intermediary.
5 The principles are drawn from: Sloane Brakeville and Bhargav Perepa, “Blockchain basics:
Introduction to distributed
ledger”, IBM, 9 May 2016. Available from https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/library/
cl-blockchain-basics-intro-
bluemix-trs/index.html; and Allison Berke, “How safe are blockchains? It depends”, Harvard
Business Review, 7 March
2017. Available from https://hbr.org/2017/03/how-safe-are-blockchains-it-depends.
161
2.3 Peer-to-Peer Transmission
Instead of a central node, the blockchain net
work ensures that information across the ledg
er is
updated through peer-to-peer replication ever
y time a transaction takes place. This means
each
node acts like a subscriber, which receives the
updated information, as well as a publisher (the
one
updating the information). In other words, each
node stores, updates and forwards information t
o all
other nodes. This way, the data is in-sync across
the network as it is transferred.
2.4. Transparency with Pseudony
mity
The details of every transaction are visible to all p
arties (nodes) associated with the ledger. Each n
ode
on the blockchain has a unique 30-plus-
character alphanumeric address that confirms it
s identity. A
party can choose to remain anonymous or provi
de proof of identity to others.
2.5. Irreversibility of Records
Once the transaction has taken place, it gets wri
tten to the database and all associated account
s of
the parties will be updated. The records then can
not be altered as they are linked to every transac
tion
that happened before them. Hence, the term “ch
ain”, which comprises of a series of blocks with t
wo
blocks initiating the formation of a chain and the
rest becoming a part of it.
Various computational algorithms and approach
es have to be exercised to ensure that the recor
ds in
the database are correct, permanent, chronologi
cally ordered and available to all other nodes on
the
network that have access.
2.6. Computational Logic
Every transaction in the ledger is tied to a co
mputational logic ensuring its validity and sec
urity.
In other words, every transaction is program
med, so parties can set up rules and algorith
ms to
automatically prompt an order to start the trans
action.
162
Based on these principles, a blockchain network is considered economical and efficient as it is seen
to eliminate the need for an (inefficient) intermediary and the duplication of effort by different
intermediaries involved in one transaction. For example, many of us are now familiar with sharing
information through a decentralized online platform—the Internet. But when it comes to transferring
money, many are forced to fall back on centralized financial establishments like banks. Even online
payment methods like PayPal require integration with a bank account or credit card. In such a case,
when an online transaction takes place it has to be recorded by both the bank and PayPal separately. 6
Figure 4 provides an overview of the various stages involved in the working of the blockchain
technology.
Figure 4: Working of Blockchain Technology
Source: Blockgeeks, “What is Blockchain Technology? A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners”. Available from https://blockgeeks.com/
guides/what-is-blockchain-technology/
6 Bernard Marr, “A complete beginner’s guide to blockchain”, Forbes
, 24 January 2017. Available from https://www.forbes.
com/sites/bernardmarr/2017/01/24/a-complete-beginners-guide-to-blockchain/#9d812166e607.
163
3. Applications of Blockchain
Blockchains can be of the following three types: 7
• Public – Public blockchains are fully decentralized and transparent by desig
n. Any node in the
network can read, send transactions and participate in the consensus process.
• Permissioned – Permissioned blockchains are quasi-decentralized, where con
sensus is controlled
by pre-selected set of nodes and read permission is restricted to participants.
• Private – Private blockchains are centralized blockchains, where write permissi
on is centralized to
one entity and read permission may or may not be given to all participants.
3.1 Public Blockchain Applications
Case: Bitcoins
Bitcoin, the most popular use case of blockchain, is a form of digital currency tha
t is created and
traded electronically in a decentralized manner where no central authority ver
ifies or monitors
the transactions between participants. Bitcoin is neither printed nor minted like
8
fiat currencies,
but is instead created digitally by a community of people that anyone can jo
in. Bitcoins are
mined on the Blockchain network using computing power in a distributed nat
ure by solving a
mathematical puzzle. The software is open source, thus, anyone with the requ
isite capabilities
and resources can join the Blockchain network and use it to transact or buy thin
gs electronically,
which is very similar to how fiat currencies are being used digitally.
In India, people have started investing in bitcoin, which has given rise to a nu
mber of bitcoin
exchanges. Bitcoin exchanges facilitate exchanges of currency between people w
ho own bitcoins.
They specify the amount and the price at which they would like to sell the b
itcoin. All those
requests are placed in a common ledger known as the “order book”. When a pers
on wants to buy
a bitcoin, they either look for a good order in the order book or create one of thei
r own for others
to buy, specifying the details of the deal. Whenever they find a deal, they buy an
d sell bitcoins at
price they had mentioned and trade. In bitcoin exchanges, people behind the ord
ers are matched
and put in touch through the exchange software. This removes the presence
of intermediaries
from the entire process. Some players have created mobile wallets for bitcoi
n exchanges to
increase the convenience of trading.
7 Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in India: Opportunities and Challenges”, April 2017. Available
from https://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in-strategy-innovation-blockchain-technology-
india-opportunities-
challenges-noexp.pdf.
8
Ibid.
164
At this stage, the Reserve Bank of India, “has not given any license/authorizations to any entity/
company to operate or deal with bitcoin or any virtual currency, and even cautioned those
9
investing in the instruments”. The central bank has raised concerns over the decentralized
nature of bitcoin and also flagged issues surrounding its valuations. Quite recently however, the
10
Reserve Bank of India is looking at the possibility of a flat cryptocurrency that would become an
alternative to the Indian rupee for digital transactions, called Lakshmi. Some examples of bitcoin
11
exchanges/wallets in India are Zebpay, Unocoin, Coinsecure and Coinmama.
Bitcoin exchanges have also emerged in other countries including, China (Yunbi, Huobi, OKCoin),
Japan (BTCBox) and Singapore (CoinHako, FYB-SG).
3.2 Permissioned Blockchain Applications
Case: Trade Finance Application
Letters of credit are one of the most commonly used trade finance instruments today and rely
on highly manual, paper-based processes (Figure 5). It has been reported that due to extended
processing time in a trade transaction, purchasers and suppliers are not making the most efficient
use of their capital. The authenticity of trade documents is required throughout the process to
prevent fraudulent transactions. A blockchain-based solution can capture the details contained
in a purchase order, bill of lading, invoice and tracking of shipment in a smart contract on the
blockchain (Figure 6). Blockchain can reduce the turn-around-time of letter of credit processing
by a huge margin, thereby reducing the processing cost and efforts. 12
9 Goldman Sachs, “Blockchain: The New Technology of Trust”. Available from http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/
pages/blockchain/.
10
LiveMint, “RBI says it hasn’t authorized use of Bitcoins, flags risks”, 1 February 2017. Available from http://www.livemint.
com/Industry/xma89nytKOwcDu4hBT30RO/RBI-says-it-hasnt-authorised-use-of-Bitcoins-flags-risks.html.
11
The Economic Times, “Another experiment with currency? RBI is looking at its own Bitcoin”, 16 September 2017. Available
from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/another-experiment-with-currency-rbi-is-looking-at-its-
own-bitcoin/articleshow/60710700.cms.
12
Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in India: Opportunities and Challenges”, April 2017. Available from https://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in-strategy-innovation-blockchain-technology-india-opportunities-
challenges-noexp.pdf; and World Economic Forum (August 2016). The Future of Financial Architecture.
165
Figure 5: Current Letter of Credit Processing
Source: World Economic Forum, “The Future of Financial Architecture”, August
2016. Available from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/
WEF_The_future_of_financial_infrastructure.pdf.
Figure 6: A Proposed Blockchain-based Letter of
Credit Processing
Source: World Economic Forum, “The Future of Financial Architecture”, August
2016. Available from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/
WEF_The_future_of_financial_infrastructure.pdf.
166
3.3 Private Blockchain Applications
Loyalty-based programmes are strategic investments
for many types of organizations. Amazon’s
Prime and eBay’s joint loyalty programme (Common
Threads Initiative) are two such examples.
Loyalty reward programmes are generally fragmente
d, costly, inactive and slow. Some of the key
problems include the following:
• High lag between availing of service and credit of loy
alty points;
• Customers cannot use or check points instantly;
• Inherent inefficiencies with the system (and high asso
ciated cost);
• Poor data integrity leading to security threat and data
privacy abuse; and
• Usage of reward points does not live up to the poten
tial due to limited redemption options.
Blockchain, as a distributed ledger can allow particip
ants such as loyalty programme providers,
managers, administrators and customers to interact
in one system without intermediaries and
without any sense of competition. Blockchain has
the potential to streamline regulation and
execution of such programmes. It can also help brin
g real-time transparency in the system and
contribute to cost savings.
Figure 7: Proposed Blockchain-based Loyalt
y Programme
Source: Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in India: Opportunities and Ch
allenges”, April 2017. Available from https://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in-strategy-
innovation-blockchain-technology-india-opportunities-challenges-
noexp.pdf.
167
3.4 Blockchain Applications in Government Agencies
13
Case: Honduras Land Title Registration
To help stem long-standing corruption in Honduras’ land title registry syste
m, the World Bank
announced in 2011 that it would loan the Honduran government USD 328
million to digitize
title files and upgrade tools and processes. While subsequent efforts did hel
p modernize and
standardize the government’s administrative capabilities, they also made it
easier for corrupt
players to hack into central databases and illegally alter digital land records.
In May 2015, Factom, the organization that manages open source software for s
ecurely recording
transactions through a distributed and decentralized protocol, announced
that it would be
working with Epigraph, a land title software vendor, to help the Government of H
onduras recreate
its digital land title registry system in a blockchain. The initiative aims to use bloc
kchain technology
to create a transparent land title registry system in which digitized records are ta
mper proof.
The system being developed addresses existing security vulnerabilities in se
veral ways. First,
individual land records are digitized—“hashed” or encoded with an immut
able fingerprint— 14
and stored permanently on the blockchain. The system then tracks and docume
nts every change
of ownership, every loan made against a single piece of land, and every cont
ract made against
mineral rights. Users can track the entire history of a land title instantly. They
cannot, however,
alter anything currently in the system. They can use a stored version to create
a new document,
but they will not be able to recreate or replace a hash once it is filed.
This initiative is being piloted in a single city at this stage, with a system buil
t and capable of
accepting entries. In the coming years, project leaders plan to roll out the
pilot to additional
municipalities.
Case: Blockchains in the United Arab Emirates
The Department of Economic Development in Dubai is working on shifting it
s entire business
registration and licensing services to blockchain. The system will be made
available to other
Dubai entities to cut down on duplication, and ease and accelerate the proc
ess of setting up
businesses in Dubai.
In February 2017, Emirates NBD, Dubai’s largest bank, started working with IB
M and other Dubai
entities to explore the use of blockchain for trade finance and logistics. Trade
is Dubai’s biggest
business. It has used its ports and free zones to become a major import-
export hub, connecting
markets in Asia with those in Africa, Europe and beyond. Non-oil foreign trade in th
e emirate totalled
13 Deloitte, “Blockchain Technology in India: Opportunities and Challenges”, April 2017. Availabl
e from https://www2.deloitte.
com/content/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/strategy/in-strategy-innovation-blockchain-
technology-india-opportunities-
challenges-noexp.pdf.
14
Smart Dubai, “Dubai Blockchain Strategy”, December 2016. Available from http://
www.smartdubai.ae/dubai_blockchain.
php; and Nikhil Lohade, “Dubai aims to be a city built on blockchain”, The Wall Stre
et Journal, 24 April 2017. Available
from https://www.wsj.com/articles/dubai-aims-to-be-a-city-built-on-blockchain-1493086080.
168
about USD 348 billion in 2016. The aim is to replace paper-based contracts with smart contracts that
will help reduce complex documentation for the tracking, shipping and movement of goods.
3.5 Other Applications of Blockchain
Sharing Economy
Many Silicon Valley companies such as Google, Facebook, Uber and Airbnb are dependent on
contributions by their users to generate value within their own platform. But recently, there has been
a shift from the traditional and centralized model towards a decentralized one where there is no
single player in the market providing service to a particular set of users. Rather, it is moving into the
hands of large operators who now aggregate resources from multiple users to serve a larger group
of consumers. The problem with this system is that the value produced by users is not equally shared
among those who actually contributed, and the larger intermediaries who operate the platforms
appropriate most of it. This has created an imbalance in the sharing economy. In order to bring back
the balance and provide value producers with their share of profit, blockchain may find a potential
use. With blockchain, software applications no longer need to be running on a centralized server.
Instead, they can be deployed on a peer-to-peer network that is not controlled by any single party.
These blockchain-based applications, in ways similar to the aggregators, could be used to coordinate
large number of service providers as well as consumers or users, who can organize themselves
without the help of a third party.
15
Healthcare
A key problem that healthcare systems face across the world today is maintaining the integrity,
security and privacy of patients’ data when it is shared with concerned stakeholders. Blockchain
may provide a solution to this problem by holding the complete medical history of each patient,
and giving patients, doctors, hospitals, insurers and other related stakeholders the control of it. This
would ensure a secure mechanism to manage the record in a decentralized way. 16
Internet of Things (IoT)
IoT processes take place at different levels and among many parties—e.g., manufacturers, shippers,
customer agents and insurers in the case of logistics management. Although interactions occur
between the parties and they are often dependent on each other for the processes to reach an end,
they may have different goals and use different systems to track shipments. In such a scenario, an IoT-
enabled blockchain could be used to record all shipment-related information as they move through
systems and organizations. Smart contracts could be automated and even optimized to keep track of
international trade through blockchain.
17
15 Primavera de Filippi, “What Blockchain Means for the Sharing Economy”, Harvard Business Review
, 15 March 2017.
Available from https://hbr.org/2017/03/what-blockchain-means-for-the-sharing-economy.
16
John D. Halamka, Andrew Lippman and Ariel Ekblaw, “The Potential for Blockchain to Transform Electronic Health
Records”, Harvard Business Review, 3 March 2017. Available from https://hbr.org/2017/03/the-potential-for-blockchain-to-
transform-electronic-health-records.
17
Christian Catalini, “How blockchain applications will move beyond finance”, Harvard Business Review, 2 March 2017.
Available from https://hbr.org/2017/03/how-blockchain-applications-will-move-beyond-finance.
169
4. Policy and Regulatory Issues
4.1 Blockchain Technology and the SDGs
The United Nations and many other international development organizations consi
der blockchain
to be a promising technology, particularly in making financial systems more efficient
and equitable.
As blockchain technology promises to bring in transparency, security, reliability and
cost efficiency
through its distributed ledger system, governments, start-ups, businesses and
international
organizations have shown interest in incorporating it within their policies and prog
rammes. The
United Nations Global Compact’s Project Breakthrough, for example, lists down the f
ollowing areas
of convergence between blockchain technology and the SDGs:
• SDG 1 (No Poverty) – Blockchain can open up opportunities for those without ban
k accounts to
trade and transact.
• SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) – Blockchains can contribute to the:
Creation of an infrastructure that leads to increased level of trust, transparency and
efficiency
across supply chains;
Removal of friction from value chains; and
Improvement of tracking mechanisms.
• SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) – Blockchain can contribute to the:
Provision of opportunities for the unbanked population to participate in trading activiti
es; and
Enablement of new ways to exchange values between all the devices connected throug
h IoT.
• SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) – Blockchain can contribute to the:
Building of transparency and trust;
Provision of a mechanism to establish identity and cast votes; and
Enablement of open and trusted mechanisms for tasks such as property registration a
nd paying
taxes.
170
Figure 8: Blockchain and the SDGs
Source: Project Breakthrough, “Disruptive
Technologies: Blockchain – Building trust in a
complex world”, 11 July 2017. Available from http://
breakthrough.unglobalcompact.org/disruptive-
technologies/blockchain/.
4.2 Regulatory Concerns and Chall
enges
Despite its revolutionary potential, blockchain ma
y be undermined by governance issues as huma
ns
are still very much in charge of setting the rules t
18
hat the blockchain enforces. Moreover, its techni
cal
performance tend to lag behind other technolog
ies. For example, the bitcoin network can proce
ss
about seven transactions per second, whereas 19
the Visa payment network has a peak capacity
of
56,000 transactions per second.
To prevent money laundering, terrorism fina
ncing and illegal use (including trading of ch
ild
sexual abuse material) Australia, China and Jap
an have introduced regulations for digital curren
cy
exchanges because they allow transactions w
ithout the entity at either end disclosing their r , 17 August
eal
identity. Such regulations signify the growing r
ecognition of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencie
s as
influential value transfer protocols by governmen
ts.
18 Vili Lehdonvirta, “The blockchain paradox: Why distri
buted ledger technologies may do little to transform
the economy”,
Oxford Internet Institute, 21 November 2016. Availab
le from https://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/blog/the-blockchain-
paradox-why-
distributed-ledger-technologies-may-do-little-to-
transform-the-economy/.
19
Luke Graham, “Another major country joins China and Ja
pan in cracking down on bitcoin exchanges”, CNBC
2017. Available from https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/17/
bitcoin-faces-regulations-crackdown-by-asia-pacific-
country.html.
171
5. References
Berke, Allison. How safe are blockchain
s? It depends. Harvard Business Review
, 7 March 2017.
Available from https://hbr.org/2017/
03/how-safe-are-blockchains-it-depends.
Brakeville, Sloane, and Bhargav Perepa.
Blockchain basics: Introduction to distribut
ed ledger. IBM, 9
May 2016. Available from https://w
ww.ibm.com/developerworks/cloud/
library/cl-blockchain-
basics-intro-bluemix-trs/index.html.
Catalini, Christian. How blockchain applic
ations will move beyond finance. Harvard
Business Review,
2 March 2017. Available from https
://hbr.org/2017/03/how-blockchain-
applications-will-move-
beyond-finance.
De Filippi, Primavera. What Blockchain Me
ans for the Sharing Economy. Harvard Busi
ness Review, 15
March 2017. Available from https://
hbr.org/2017/03/what-blockchain-
means-for-the-sharing-
economy.
Deloitte. Blockchain Technology in Indi
a: Opportunities and Challenges. April
2017. Available
from https://www2.deloitte.com/c
ontent/dam/Deloitte/in/Documents/str
ategy/in-strategy-
innovation-blockchain-technology-
india-opportunities-challenges-
noexp.pdf.
Goldman Sachs. Blockchain: The new tec
hnology of trust. Available from http://
www.goldmansachs.
com/our-thinking/pages/blockchain/
Graham, Luke. Another major country join
s China and Japan in cracking down on bit
coin exchanges.
CNBC, 17 August 2017. Available
from https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/1
7/bitcoin-faces-
regulations-crackdown-by-asia-
pacific-country.html.
Halamka, John D., Andrew Lippman and
Ariel Ekblaw. The Potential for Blockchai
n to Transform
Electronic Health Records. Harvard
Business Review, 3 March 2017. Availabl
e from https://hbr.
org/2017/03/the-potential-for-
blockchain-to-transform-electronic-
health-records.
Lehdonvirta, Vili. The blockchain parad
ox: Why distributed ledger technologies
may do little to
transform the economy. Oxford Int
ernet Institute, 21 November 2016. Avail
able from https://
www.oii.ox.ac.uk/blog/the-
blockchain-paradox-why-distributed-
ledger-technologies-may-do-
little-to-transform-the-economy/.
LiveMint. RBI says it hasn’t authorized us
e of Bitcoins, flags risks. 1 February 201
7. Available from
http://www.livemint.com/Industry/xma89
nytKOwcDu4hBT30RO/RBI-says-it-
hasnt-authorised-
use-of-Bitcoins-flags-risks.html.
Lohade, Nikhil. Dubai aims to be a cit
y built on blockchain. The Wall Street
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2017. Available from https://w
ww.wsj.com/articles/dubai-aims-to-
be-a-city-built-on-
blockchain-1493086080.
Marr, Bernard. A complete beginner’s gui
de to blockchain. Forbes, 24 January 2017
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https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernard
marr/2017/01/24/a-complete-
beginners-guide-to-
blockchain/#9d812166e607.
172
Project Breakthrough. Disruptive Technologies: Blockchain – Building trust in a complex world. 11
July 2017. Available from http://breakthrough.unglobalcompact.org/disruptive-technologies/
blockchain/.
Smart Dubai. Dubai Blockchain Strategy. December 2016. Available from http://www.smartdubai.ae/
dubai_blockchain.php.
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September 2017. Available from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/
another-experiment-with-currency-rbi-is-looking-at-its-own-bitcoin/articleshow/60710700.
cms.
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World Economic Forum. The Future of Financial Architecture. August 2016. Available from http://
www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_The_future_of_financial_infrastructure.pdf.
173
Glossary
Block : A group of transactions
.
Blockchain : A record of trans
actions i.e., blocks when put to
gether in a structure.
Cryptographic hash function
: A function that takes an input
and returns an output in the fo
rm of a
fixed-size alphanumeric string.
Digital signature : A digital
code that is generated and a
uthenticated by public key e
ncryption,
which is attached to a digital
document transmitted over a
network to verify its content
and the
sender’s identity.
Distributed ledger : Databas
e that is shared, replicated and
synchronized among the mem
bers of a
network.
Acronyms
IoT Internet of Things
SDG Sustainable Developm
ent Goal
174
VIII. 3D Printing
Contents
1 1
2.3 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
s
3.M
1
n
4.A
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
R
5.P
1
1
1
6 1
G 1
A 1
176
List of Figures
Figure 1: V 1
at Photopol
ymerizatio
n Mechani
sm
Figure 1
2: Ster
eolitho
graph
y Mec
hanis
m
Fi 1
g
ur
e
3:
D
ig
it
al
Li
g
ht
P
ro
c
e
s
si
n
g
1
Figur 1
e 4:
Fuse
d De
positi
on M
odelli
ng
Figure 5: 1
Fused Fil
ament Fa
brication
Process
Fi 1
gu
re
6:
S
el
ec
tiv
e
La
se
r
Si
nt
eri
ng
F 1
F 1
F 1
Figur 1
e 10:
Direc
ted E
nergy
Depo
sition
Fig 1
ure
11:
3D
Prin
ting
and
the
SD
Gs
177
1. Introduction
Three-dimensional (3D) printing has bee
n around since the 1980s, but it was not
until recent
advances in the technology that its potenti
al at solving problems in fields such as me
1
dicine and
healthcare, sports, and the automotive indus
try was realized. 3D printing spans a range o
f processes
and technologies that contain the capac
ity to produce a variety of products usin 2
g different
materials. 3
4
In the conventional two-dimensional printi
ng most of us are familiar with, we take a
n electronic
representation of a document on a compute
5
r screen and output a replica of that onto a
paper. In 3D
printing, however, one takes a 3D computer
model, and layer by layer in an additive proc
ess, creates
a 3D version of it in plastic or other comp
atible materials. This is why, 3D printing i
s also called
additive manufacturing. 3D printing is a proc
ess of making 3D solid objects from a digital
file.
Businesses, governments and industries acr
oss the world are realizing the potential of 3
D printing.
However, a recent Bloomberg article classi
fies it as a technology still in its infancy, an
d it may be
, 14 August 2017. Available from
a long way before we can see the actual b
reakthroughs it would bring. According to t
he Wohlers
, 4 October 2017.
Report 2017, the additive manufacturing i
ndustry grew by 17.4 per cent in worldwid
e revenues , 11 April 2017.
in 2016, down from 25.9 per cent the year
before. Although the industry saw a slight s
lowdown in
2016, innovations with 3D-printed products
are visible among a wide range of industries.
3D Printing Industry, "The Free Beginner's Guid
1 e". Available from https://3dprintingindustry.com/
3d-printing-basics-free-
beginners-guide.
2
Tanveer Khorajiya, "3D Printing at India's FabL
ab CEPT", 3D Printing Industry
https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/3d-printing-
indias-fablab-cept-120089/.
3
Ibid.
4
Jeanna Smialek, “How 3-D Printers Could Eras
e a Quarter of Global Trade by 2060”, Bloomb
erg
Available from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/
articles/2017-10-03/how-3-d-printers-could-erase-a-
quarter-of-global-
trade-by-2060.
5
Kenneth Wong, “Wohlers 2017 Report on 3D Printi
ng Industry Points to Softened Growth”, Rapid Rea
dy
Available from http://www.rapidreadytech.com/
2017/04/wohlers-2017-report-on-3d-printing-industry-
points-to-softened-
growth/.
178
2. 3D Printing Technology
The 3D printing process begins with having a 3D model that can be cr
eated using computer-aided
design software or scanned using a 3D scanner. The model is slice
d into thin pieces and made
readable by a 3D printer. The material processed by the 3D printer is then
6
layered as per the design of
the 3D model. Different technologies within 3D printing process differe
nt materials in different ways
in order to create the final 3D object.
The presence of different technologies for different processes bring 7
s challenges to the working
of 3D printing technology as no printer can fit all technologies and he
nce, the basic printer needs
modifications. For instance, one type of 3D printer uses powdered materi
als such as nylon and plastic
to create a 3D object, which requires less use of heat to melt and mould
the material. A few kinds of
polymers, however, need a laser to solidify/melt the material and convert
into a 3D object.
Some details of a few types of 3D printing technologies available in the
market today are provided
below.
8
2.1 Vat Photopolymerization
This method consists of a container filled with liquid resin that is har
dened with ultraviolet light
radiation. This resin is called photopolymer. There are three main co
nfigurations available for the
process namely, vector scan, mask projection and two photon. In v
ector scan, a mirror is used
on which the laser beam is directed to trace a pattern. This results in
formation of a layer. Mask
projection uses an optic system to make the pattern shine on the surface
, which eventually turns into
a layer. Finally, two photon makes use of two lasers, which when pointe
d and meet at a spot on the
liquid surface result in polymerization. Figure 1 shows the basic proc
ess. It further consists of two
separate processes—stereolithography and digital light processing (DLP)
.
6
3D Printing Industry, "The Free Beginner's Guide: 3D Printing Technology". Av
ailable from https://3dprintingindustry.
com/3d-printing-basics-free-beginners-guide#03-technology.
7
Ibid.
8
D’Janky, “Vat Polymerization: Additive Manufacturing & 3D Printing”. Available
from https://medium.com/@djanky/vat-
polymerization-additive-manufacturing-3d-printing-520812cfe7b2/.
179
Figure 1: Vat Photopolymerization Mechanism
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D Printing:
Vat Photopolymerisation”. Available from
https://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-printing/#Vat
Photopolymerisation.
Stereolithography
This 3D printing technology uses a laser-based process to rea
ct with the photopolymer (liquid) resins.
These resins react with the laser, solidifying each successive l
9
ayer, finally forming an object in a very
precise way. It is not an easy process because of its degree 10
of precision. Due to the organization of
the system, the process needs support structures while printi
ng objects with overhangs or overcuts.
Later, these extra structures have to be manually remove
d. This technique is used in medical
modelling of various anatomical regions of a patient from co
mputer scans. The data from computer
scans consists of a series of cross sectional images of the hum
an anatomy. A particular set of tissues
is selected based on the relevant range of grey values and a
11
region of interest is then chosen. This
process is called as segmentation. The segmented data is th
en translated into a format suitable for
stereolithography. This technique can assist with diagnosis and
help surgeons perform surgeries.
The post-processing steps mostly include cleaning and curing
. Curing is the hardening of the object
surface under intense light in an oven-like machine. Stere
olithography is considered the most
accurate of all the processes available today because of its
capability to add extra finished layer to
the object printed.
9
3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D Printing: Stereolithography (SLA)”. Ava
ilable from https://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-
printing/#sla.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid.
180
Figure 2: Stereolithography Mechanism
Source: 3D Printing Industry, "The Free Beginner's
Guide". Available from https://3dprintingindustry.
com/3d-printing-basics-free-beginners-guide.
Digital Light Processing
This method uses light and photosensitive polymers fo
r 3D printing. The working of DLP is similar to
that of stereolithography except for the light source. D
LP uses more traditional light sources such as
an arc lamp with a liquid crystal display panel or a def
12
ormable mirror DLP device, which are applied
to the entire surface of the tank of photopolymer res
in in a single pass, generally making it faster
than stereolithography.
Figure 3: Digital Light Processing
Source: 3D Printing Industry, "The Free Beginner's Guide: 3D
Printing Processes". Available from https://3dprintingindustry.
com/3d-printing-basics-free-beginners-guide#04-processes.
2.2 Material Extrusion
Fused Deposition Modelling
This method works using a metal wire or a plastic filam
ent that is unwound from a coil. The material is
then supplied to an extrusion nozzle that is responsib
le for turning on and off the flow. The material
melts as the nozzle heats up. The nozzle can be mo
ved in horizontal and vertical directions based
on a numerically-controlled mechanism of the comp
uter-aided manufacturing software package.
12
3D Printing Industry, "The Free Beginner's Guide: 3D Printing P
rocesses". Available from https://3dprintingindustry.com/3d-
printing-basics-free-beginners-guide#04-processes.
181
After the extrusion of molten material, the object is produced. As the material hardens, the layers
are formed. This technique is used mostly with two plastic filament material types—acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene and polylactic acid. 13
Figure 4: Fused Deposition Modelling
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D Printing: Fused Filament
Fabrication (FFF)”. Available from https://3dprinting.com/what-
is-3d-printing/#fff.
Fused Filament Fabrication
This is a process by which a machine deposits a filament of a certain material on top of the same
material so as to form a joint by the help of heat. Common inks include acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene and polylactic acid polymers and thermoplastics, which become semi-liquid above a specific
14
temperature and come back to a solid state when cooled down. This technique is beneficial in easily
customizing the infills of the objects being printed. It means this method is very useful for printing
prototype models even if they are hollow as it helps save a lot on material and printing costs.
Figure 5: Fused Filament Fabrication Process
Source: David Feeney, "FFF vs. SLA vs. SLS: 3D Printing", SD3D
Printing, 29 August 2013. Available from https://www.sd3d.com/
fff-vs-sla-vs-sls/.
13 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D Printing: Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)”. Available from https://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-
printing/#fff.
14
Ibid.
182
2.3 Powder Bed Fusion
This is another commonly used techn
ology in the 3D printing process. It co
nsists of selective laser
sintering and direct metal laser sinterin
g.
Selective Laser Sintering
This technique uses powdered materia
ls (such as nylon, titanium, aluminium,
polystyrene and glass).
Powder is jetted from many nozzles o
nto the print surface, much like an inkj
15
et printer. It uses laser
to fuse particles in powder form layer
by layer. As the printing continues, th
e powder bed keeps
lowering itself for each new layer tha
t is being added. This technique is e
xciting because of the
flexibility it provides in terms of material
s that could be used. Both plastics and
metals could be fused
leading to creation of much stronger a
nd more durable prototypes. However
, due to low fabrication
speed and resolution, this method is m
ostly suitable for low volume productio
n of small and precise
parts.
Figure 6: Selective Laser Sinteri
ng
16
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: Sel
ective Laser Sintering (SLS)”. Available from https
://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-
printing/#sls.
Direct Metal Laser Sintering
Direct metal laser sintering is similar t
o selective laser sintering but instead
of using materials like
plastic, ceramic or glass, it uses metal.
The untouched powder works as the s
upport structure for the
object, which is its advantage over sele
ctive laser sintering.
15 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: Sele
ctive Laser Sintering (SLS)”. Available fro
m https://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-
printing/#sls.
16
3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: Direct
Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)”. Available fro
m https://3dprinting.com/what-is-
3d-printing/#dmls.
183
2.4 Material Jetting
In this process, material is appli
ed in droplets through a small di
ameter nozzle, similar to the wa 17
y a
common inkjet paper printer wor
ks, but it is applied layer-by-
layer to a build platform making
a 3D
object and then hardened by ultr
aviolet light.
Figure 7: Material Jetting
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printin
g: Material
Jetting”. Available from https://3dprinting.co
m/what-is-
3d-printing/#Material Jetting.
2.5 Binder Jetting 18
With binder jetting two materia
ls are used—powder base ma
terial and a liquid binder. In th
e
build chamber, powder is sprea
d in equal layers and a binder i
s applied through jet nozzles th
at
“glue” the powder particles in th
e shape of a programmed 3D o
bject. The finished object that is
“glued together” by binder rem
ains in the container with the
powder base material. After th
e
print is finished, the remaining
powder is cleaned off and use
d for 3D printing the next objec
t.
This technology was first devel
oped at the Massachusetts Insti
tute of Technology in 1993, and
Z
Corporation obtained an exclusiv
e license in 1995.
3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing:
Material Jetting”. Available from https:/
/3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-printing/
17#Material
Jetting.
18
3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printin
g: Binder Jetting”. Available from ht
tps://3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-
printing/#Binder
Jetting.
184
Figure 8: Binder Jetting
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: B
inder
Jetting”. Available from https://3dprinting.com/
what-is-
3d-printing/#Binder Jetting.
2.6 Sheet Lamination
Sheet lamination processes inv
olve ultrasonic additive manufac
turing and laminated object
manufacturing. Ultrasonic additiv 19
e manufacturing binds materials i
n the form of sheets with the
help of an external force. The mat
20
erial of the sheet could be metal,
paper or any form of polymer.
Ultrasonic welding is used to bind
the metal sheets together and the
n milled into a proper shape
using computer numerical controll
ed technology. With paper sheets,
adhesive glue is used to hold
them together while they are cut i
nto the required shape by precis
e blades. Laminated object
manufacturing uses the cross-
hatching method during printing as
it allows for easy removal of extra
metal after build. Laminated objec
t manufacturing are often used for
aesthetic and visual models
and are not suitable for structural us
e.
Figure 9: Sheet Lamination
Source: 3DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: S
heet
Lamination”. Available from https://3dprinting.
com/
what-is-3d-printing/#Sheet Lamination.
193DPrinting.com, “What is 3D printing: Sh
eet Lamination”. Available from https://
3dprinting.com/what-is-3d-printing/
#Sheet
Lamination.
20
Loughborough University Additive Man
ufacturing Research Group, "About Ad
ditive Manufacturing: Sheet Lamination
".
Available from http://www.lboro.ac.uk/res
earch/amrg/about/the7categoriesofadditi
vemanufacturing/sheetlamination/.
185
2.7 Directed Energy Deposition
Directed energy deposition is comparativel
y a complex printing process. It covers a ra
nge of
terminology used in the domain of 3D printi
ng such as laser engineered net shaping, d
irected
light fabrication, direct metal deposition and 3
D laser cladding. In this process, the directed
energy 21
deposition machine consists of a nozzle that is
mounted on a multi-axis arm. The molten mat
erial is
deposited on the surface where it solidifies wi
th time. In principle, this process is similar to
material
extrusion mentioned above except that the noz
zle here can move in multiple directions. The la
ser or
electron beam is used to deposit the material
after melting it. The materials used in this proc
ess are
ceramics, polymers and metals in the form of
either powder or wire. It mostly finds its applic
ations in
the repair and maintenance of structural parts.
Figure 10: Directed Energy Deposition
Source: Loughborough University Additive
Manufacturing Research Group, "About Additive
Manufacturing: Directed Energy Deposition".
Available from http://www.lboro.ac.uk/research/
amrg/about/the7categoriesofadditivemanufacturing/
directedenergydeposition/.
21
Loughborough University Additive Manufacturing Re
search Group, "About Additive Manufacturing: Dire
cted Energy
Deposition". Available from http://www.lboro.ac.uk/re
search/amrg/about/
the7categoriesofadditivemanufacturing/
directedenergydeposition/.
186
3. Materials Used in 3D Printin 22
g
The mater
ials used
and availa
ble for 3D
printing ha
ve increas
ed substa
ntially sinc
e its initial
days.
Now, ther
e are a wi
de variety
of materia
ls availabl
e in differ
for cost ent forms
such as p
owder, re
sin and
granules.
With growi
ng deman
ds in the 3
D printing
industry, s
pecial mat
erials are
being dev
eloped
for specifi
c platform
s dedicat
ed to print
ing variou
s kinds of
objects. S
ome of th
e widely u
sed
materials a
re plastics,
metals, bio
materials,
paper and
ceramics.
Plastics
Nylon or p
olyamide i
s common
ly used in
powder for
m with the
sintering p
rocess, or
in filament
form
with the fu
sed depos
ition mode
lling proce
ss. It is a s
trong, flexi
ble and du
rable plast
ic material
that
has prove
d reliable f
or 3D print
ing. It is n
aturally wh
ite in colou
r, but it ca
n be colou
red, pre- o
r post-
printing. T
his materi
al can be
combined
(in powde
r format)
with powd
ered alum
inium to p
roduce
another co
mmon 3D
printing m
aterial for
sintering
—
alumide.
Acrylonitril
e butadien
e styrene i
s a petrole
um-based
polymer. It
is very resi
stant to hi
gh temper
ature,
which mak
es this ma
terial perfe
ct for real
world com
ponents. It
is a relativ
ely cheap
material al
lowing
effective
prototypin
g. Acrylon
itrile buta
diene styr
ene is the
go-to mat
erial for m
ost 3D
printers. Al
ong with p
olylactic a
cid, it is th
e most co
mmon mat
erial used
for deskto
p 3D printi
ng.
Made fro
m renewa
ble resour
ces, polyl
actic acid
is a green
3D printin
g material
. It is mod
erately
priced, an
d has vari
ous desira
ble propert
ies and tec
hnical spe
cifications
that make
s it the per
fect 3D
printer fila
ment for h
obbyists.
Polypropyl
ene is a pl
astic used
for many d
ifferent pur
poses suc
h as textile
s, ropes a
nd station
ery. It
is also resi
stant to m
ultiple che
micals an
d solvents
. Polyprop
ylene is o
ne of the
most cost-
efficient
materials.
The most
common s
haping tec
hnique for
producing
polypropyl
ene is inje
ction moul
ding.
It ranks as
one of the
most covet
ed materia
ls in the w
orld.
Metals
A growing
number of
metals an
d metal co
mposites
are used f
or industri
al grade 3
D printing.
Two of
the most c
ommon ar
e aluminiu
m and cob
alt derivati
ves. One
of the stro
ngest and,
therefore,
most
commonly
used met
al for 3D
printing is
stainless
steel in po
wder form
for the sin
tering/
melting/
electron b
eam melti
ng proces
ses. It is n
aturally sil
ver, but ca
n be plate
d with oth
er material
s to give
a gold or b
ronze effe
ct.
This section
is drawn fro
22m: 3DPrinti
ng.com, “3
D Printer M
aterials Gui
de”. Availab
le from http
s://
3dprinting.c
om/
materials/;
and
erials". Ava
Dilable from
ting
https://
dustry,
3dprintingin
"The
dustry.
ree
com/3d-
ginner'
printing-
s basics-free-
e:beginners-
guide#05-
Printin
g materials.
187
In the last few years, gold and silver have been added to the range of metal materials that can be 3D
printed directly, with obvious applications across the jewellery sector. These are both very strong
materials and are processed in powder form.
Titanium is one of the strongest metal materials and has been used for 3D printing industrial
applications for some time. Supplied in powder form, it can be used for the sintering/melting/
electron beam melting processes.
Biomaterials
There is a lot of research being conducted in the potential of 3D printing biomaterials for a host of
medical and other applications. Living tissue is being investigated at a number of leading institutions
with a view to developing applications that include printing human organs for transplant, as well
as external tissues for replacement body parts. Other research in this area is focused on developing
food stuffs—meat being the prime example.
Paper
Standard A4 copier paper is a 3D printing material employed by the proprietary selective deposition
lamination process supplied by Mcor Technologies. The company operates a notably different
business model to other 3D printing vendors, whereby the capital outlay for the machine is in the
mid-range, but the emphasis is very much on an easily obtainable, cost-effective material supply that
can be bought locally. 3D-printed models made with paper are safe, environmentally friendly, easily
recyclable and require no post-processing.
Ceramics
Ceramics are a relatively new group of materials that can be used for 3D printing with various
levels of success. The particular thing to note with these materials is that, post printing, the ceramic
parts need to undergo the same processes as any ceramic part made using traditional methods of
production, namely, firing and glazing.
188
4. Applications of 3D Printing
4.1 Healthcare and Medicine
Healthcare is the first industry to have adopted the 3D printing technology. M
edical technologies
are often expensive in the initial phases when they become available in the m
arket, and become
cheaper only over time. Many of the new 3D-printed solutions can be introdu
ced at a reasonable
price. This shift has the potential to disrupt the trajectory of rising healthcare cost
s.
For example, experts have developed 3D-printed skin for burn victims, and airw
ay splints for babies
with tracheobronchomalacia, which makes the tiny airways around the lungs
prone to collapsing.
Other examples include bespoke patient-specific products such as hearing aids,
orthotic insoles for
shoes, personalized prosthetics, and one-off implants for patients suffering fro
23
m diseases such as
osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and cancer, along with accident and trauma victims.
There are plenty of other advances in the field of 3D bioprinting, 24
3D-printed surgical
guides for specific operations are also an emerging application that is aiding sur
geons in their work
and patients in their recovery.
25
26
In the research phase, scientists at Princeton University, USA, have used 3D-
printing tools to create
a bionic ear that can hear radio frequencies far beyond the range of normal hu
man capability, in a
project to explore the feasibility of combining electronics with tissue.
and many
of them have been a
, 8 May 2013. Available fro
part of successful surgeries and treatments. In cancer treatment alone, 3D prinm
ting is making huge
leaps forward. In 2014, researchers developed a fast and inexpensive way to ma
ke facial prostheses
for patients who had undergone surgery for eye cancer using facial scannin
g software and 3D
printing. In 2015, another team of researchers found that it is possible to pr
int patient-specific,
biodegradable implants to more effectively cure bone infections and bone cance
r.
23
John Sullivan, “Printable ‘bionic’ ear melds electronics and biology”, Princeton Universit
y
https://www.princeton.edu/news/2013/05/08/printable-bionic-ear-melds-electronics-and-biology.
24
T. J. McCue, “$4.1 Billion Industry Forecast in Crazy 3D Printing Stock Market”, Forbes, 30 Jul
y 2015. Available from http://
www.forbes.com/sites/tjmccue/2015/07/30/4-1-billion-industry-forecast-in-crazy-3d-printing-stock-
market/.
25
American Academy of Ophthalmology, “3-D Printed Facial Prosthesis Offers New Hope for Eye
Cancer Patients Following
Surgery”, 20 October 2014. Available from http://www.aao.org/newsroom/news-releases/
detail/3d-printed-facial-prosthesis-
offers-new-hope-eye-c.
26
David Sher, “Ordinary Replicator 2X Used to 3D Print Bone Cancer Treatments”, 3D Printing I
ndustry, 3 February 2015.
Available from http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/03/amazing-3d-printing-app-uses-
replicator-2x-cure-bone-infections-
cancer/.
189
3D-printed ankle replacements, 3D-printed casts and 3D-printed pills
27 28 29
have all been developed
in the past few years, with encouraging success rates. The 3D-printed cast, for example, heals bones
40-80 per cent faster than traditional casts. 3D-printed pills allow for interesting new pill shapes that
completely alter the drugs’ release rates.
4.2 Automotive and Industrial Manufacturing
Another early adopter of 3D printing is the automotive sector, particularly motor sp
ort and F1 racing
companies, for rapid prototyping of automotive parts. These prototypes are use
d to develop and
adapt their manufacturing processes.
At the beginning of 2017, the Government of the Republic of Korea announced its pl
30
an to invest KRW
41.2 billion (USD 37 million) towards the development and expansion of 3D printin
g technology and
the additive manufacturing industry.
4.3 Aerospace
The aerospace sector is also an early adopter of 3D printing for product d
evelopment and
prototyping. Companies including GE / Morris Technologies, Airbus / EADS, Rolls-
Royce, BAE Systems
and Boeing, in partnership with academic and research institutes, have been pushin 31
g the boundaries
of the technology for manufacturing applications.
Wipro, an Indian information technology services corporation has successfully
collaborated with
German additive manufacturing giant EOS to produce a 3D-printed function
al metal satellite
component. The “North West Feed Cluster” was printed in aluminium for the Indian , 1 July 2014. Available
Space Research
, 29 May 2014. Available from http://
Organisation’s GSAT-19 communications and research satellite launched on 5 June
2017.
, 14 August 2017. Available from
, 4 October 2017.
27 Heidi Milkert, “3D Printed Ankle Replacement Surgery a Success for Texas Woman”, 3DPrint.co
m
from http://3dprint.com/7783/3d-printed-ankle-replacement/.
28
Sarahted cast that can heal your bones 40-80% faster”, TechCrunch
, “A 3D
techcrunch.com/2014/05/29/a-3d-printed-cast-that-can-heal-your-bones-40-80-faster/.
29
Brian Krassenstein, “Researchers 3D Print Odd Shaped Pills on a MakerBot, Completely Changin
g Drug Release Rates”,
3DPrint.com, 10 May 2015. Available from http://3dprint.com/64223/3d-printed-drugs/.
30
Tanveer Khorajiya, "3D Printing at India's FabLab CEPT", 3D Printing Industry
https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/3d-printing-indias-fablab-cept-120089/.
31
Jeanna Smialek, “How 3-D Printers Could Erase a Quarter of Global Trade by 2060”, Bl
oomberg
Available from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-03/how-3-d-printers-could-erase-a-
quarter-of-global-
trade-by-2060.
190
4.4 Education
Educators and students
have long been using 3
D printers in the classro 32
om. 3D printing enables
students to materialize th
eir ideas in a fast and aff
ordable way. Mattel has
recently unveiled a 3D
33
printer for children calle
d the ThingMaker, allo
wing kids to build their o
wn toys. 3D printing at
FabLab CEPT University
, Ahmedabad and many
other locations in India pr
ovide students with an
opportunity to make their
own toys and games usi
ng 3D printing technique
s that are taught in a
learn-by-play manner.
Projects such as Create
Education (funded by
Ultimaker) enable schoo
ls to integrate additive
manufacturing technolo
gies into their curriculum
for essentially no cost. T
he project lends a 3D
printer to schools in exch
ange for either a blog pos
t about the teacher’s exp
erience of using it or a
sample of their lesson pla
n for class. This allows th
e company to show what
3D printers can do in an
educational environment.
4.5 Architecture
Architectural models hav
e long been a staple app
lication of 3D printing pr
ocesses for producing
accurate demonstration m
odels of an architect’s visi
on. 3D printing offers a rel
atively fast, easy and
economically viable meth
od of producing detailed
models directly from 3D c
omputer-aided design,
building information mode
lling or other digital data t
hat architects use. Many
successful architectural
firms now commonly use
3D printing as a critical pa
rt of their workflow for incr
eased innovation and
improved communicatio
n.
4.6 Food
Although a late-comer to
3D printing, food is an e
merging application (and/
or 3D printing material)
that is getting people ve
ry excited and has the
potential to truly take th
e technology into the
mainstream. 3D printing i
s emerging as a new wa
y of preparing and prese
nting food. Initial forays
into 3D printing food were
with chocolate and sugar,
and these developments
have continued apace
with specific 3D printers
hitting the market. Some
other early experiments
with food include the 3D
printing of “meat” at the ce
llular protein level. More r
ecently, pasta is another f
ood group that is being
researched for 3D printing
food. Looking to the future
, 3D printing is being cons
idered as a complete
food preparation method
and a way of balancing n
utrients in a comprehensi
ve and healthy way.
RT US News, “Move over San
ta: 3D printer lets kids make t
32
heir own toys”, 16 Feb 2016.
Available from https://
www.rt.com/
usa/332688-mattel-3d-toy-
printer/.
33
CREATE Education Project.
Available from https://
www.createeducation.com/.
191
4.7 Fashion
3D-printed accessorie
s including shoes, hea
d pieces, hats and bag
s have all made their
way on to
global catwalks. Some
more visionary fashion
designers have demon
strated the capabilities
of the
technology for haute c
outure by producing dr
esses, capes, full-
length gowns and eve
n underwear.
Iris van Herpen is a p
ioneer in applying 3D
printing to fashion de
sign and production.
She has
produced a number of
collections that has be
en modelled on the cat
walks of Paris and Mila
n. Many
have followed in her fo
otsteps and are produc
ing wholly original resu
lts.
192
5. Policy and Regulatory Challenges
5.1 3D Printing and the SDGs
The United Nations Global Compact’s Project Breakthrough lists down the following areas
of
convergence between 3D printing and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
• SDG 1 (No Poverty) – 3D printing can contribute to:
Reduction in cost of manufacturing or purchase of advanced products; and
Availability of cheaper and easier repair options by making spare parts even when they are no
longer available in the market.
• SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) – 3D printing can contribute to:
Decrease in the quantity of food that gets wasted during the production cycle; and
Lowering of cost and increase in food availability.
• SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) – 3D printing can contribute to:
Improvement in quality of healthcare services and comfort for users at lower costs;
Access to customized medical devices and prosthetics; and
Production of body parts instead of depending on donors.
• SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) –3D printing can contribute to:
Improvement in efficient consumption and production of global resources; and
Increase in support for economic productivity – With access to required materials at a particular
place, a whole range of products could be manufactured resulting in reduced logistics and
shipping costs. This would also enable availability of products at places where they would not
generally be produced.
• SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) – 3D printing can contribute to:
Improvement in the share of gross domestic product coming from industry;
Access to tools and capabilities for producing complex yet needed products;
Lowering of capital costs in manufacturing for small-scale producers because of increased access;
Flexibility in manufacturing, and less or no requirement for expensive tools; and
More room for innovation with access to precise ingredients.
193
Figure 11: 3D Printing and the SDGs
Source: Project Breakthrough, “Disruptive Technologies: Additive
Manufacturing – The Rise of the Makers”, 11 July 2017. Available
from http://breakthrough.unglobalcompact.org/disruptive-
technologies/additive-manufacturing/.
5.2 Regulatory Concerns and Challe
nges
Although the effects of 3D printing may seem co
mpelling, it is still an evolving technology, current
ly
stuck in its growth by issues of cost, speed, differ
ent needs of materials and hardware architecture
.
Moreover, 3D printing still has not reached a p
oint where it could match the quality of product
s 34
developed otherwise with smoother finishing. B
ut, like other technologies, with time and higher
production, its price can come down and its usage
capability can improve.
Certain challenges at policy and regulatory lev
els are mostly related to safety. This wave of 3
D
printing across the world has led to the birth of 3
D printing labs in large numbers. But what poses
a huge concern is how the printed products will
, 24 March 2014. Available from http://usblogs.
behave over time because essentially every par
t
manufactured has to go through a quality check.
These products need to be consistent over time in
terms of quality and should not be harmful to the
surroundings.
Apart from concerns of long-term behaviour a
nd quality of 3D-printed products, there is the
challenge of regulating harmful and illegal use ca
ses. 3D-printed weapons, for example, could be a
serious law and order concern and would need s
uitable regulatory guidelines involving production
and use.
34 Robert McCutcheon, “Limitations of 3D printing”, Pricewat
erhouseCoopers
pwc.com/industrialinsights/2014/03/24/limitations-of-3d-
printing/; and Robert Wright, “Regulatory concerns hold b
ack 3D
printing on safety”, Financial Times, 23 November 2014.
Available from https://www.ft.com/content/bfab071c-6abc-
11e4-
a038-00144feabdc0?mhq5j=e5.
194
6. References
3D Printing Industry. The Free Beginner'
s Guide. Available from https://
3dprintingindustry.com/3d-
printing-basics-free-beginners-
guide.
3DPrinting.com. What is 3D Printing. Ava
ilable from https://3dprinting.com/what-is-
3d-printing/.
American Academy of Ophthalmology. 3-D
Printed Facial Prosthesis Offers New Hope
for Eye Cancer
Patients Following Surgery. 20 Oct
ober 2014. Available from http://
www.aao.org/newsroom/
news-releases/detail/3d-printed-
facial-prosthesis-offers-new-hope-eye-c.
Buhr, Sarah. A 3D printed cast that can h
eal your bones 40-80% faster. TechCrunc
h, 29 May 2014.
Available from http://techcrunch.co
m/2014/05/29/a-3d-printed-cast-that-
can-heal-your-bones-
40-80-faster/.
CREATE Education Project. Available fro
m https://www.createeducation.com/.
Feeney, David. FFF vs. SLA vs. SLS: 3D Prin
ting. SD3D Printing, 29 August 2013. Avail
able from https://
www.sd3d.com/fff-vs-sla-vs-sls/.
Khorajiya, Tanveer. 3D Printing at India's Fa
bLab CEPT. 3D Printing Industry, 14 Augu
st 2017. Available
from https://3dprintingindustry.com
/news/3d-printing-indias-fablab-cept-
120089/.
Krassenstein, Brian. Researchers 3D Pri
nt Odd Shaped Pills on a MakerBot, Com
pletely Changing
Drug Release Rates. 3DPrint.com, 1
0 May 2015. Available from http://
3dprint.com/64223/3d-
printed-drugs/.
Loughborough University Additive Manuf
acturing Research Group. About Additiv
e Manufacturing.
Available from http://www.lboro.ac.
uk/research/amrg/about/.
McCue, T. J. $4.1 Billion Industry Forecas
t in Crazy 3D Printing Stock Market. Forbe
s, 30 July 2015.
Available from http://www.forbes.c
om/sites/tjmccue/2015/07/30/4-1-billion-
industry-forecast-
in-crazy-3d-printing-stock-market/.
McCutcheon, Robert. Limitations of 3D p
rinting. PricewaterhouseCoopers, 24 Marc
h 2014. Available
from http://usblogs.pwc.com/indust
rialinsights/2014/03/24/limitations-of-3d-
printing/.
RT US News. Move over Santa: 3D printer
lets kids make their own toys. 16 Feb 2016
. Available from
https://www.rt.com/usa/332688-
mattel-3d-toy-printer/.
Smialek, Jeanna. How 3-D Printers Coul
d Erase a Quarter of Global Trade by 20
60. Bloomberg, 4
October 2017. Available from https
://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/
2017-10-03/how-3-
d-printers-could-erase-a-quarter-of-
global-trade-by-2060.
Sullivan, John. Printable ‘bionic’ ear meld
s electronics and biology. Princeton Unive
rsity, 8 May 2013.
Available from https://www.princ
eton.edu/news/2013/05/08/printable-
bionic-ear-melds-
electronics-and-biology.
United Nations Global Compact. Proj
ect Breakthrough. Available from http:
//breakthrough.
unglobalcompact.org/.
Wong, Kenneth. Wohlers 2017 Report o
n 3D Printing Industry Points to Softene
d Growth. Rapid
Ready, 11 April 2017. Available fro
m http://www.rapidreadytech.com/
2017/04/wohlers-2017-
195
report-on-3d-printing-industry-points-to-softened-growth/.
Wright, Robert. Regulatory concerns hold back 3D printing o
n safety. Financial Times, 23
November 2014. Available from https://www.ft.com/conte
nt/bfab071c-6abc-11e4-a038-
00144feabdc0?mhq5j=e5..
196
Glossary
3D printing : Takes a 3D co
mputer model, and layer by la
yer in an additive process, cre
ates a 3D
version of it in plastic or other
materials.
Digital light processing : Thi
s method uses light and photo
sensitive polymers for 3D printi
ng.
Direct metal laser sintering :
This technique uses metal, an
d the untouched powder work
s as the
support structure for the objec
t.
Fused deposition modelling
: This method uses a metal wi
re or a plastic filament that is
unwound
from a coil. The material is the
n supplied to an extrusion noz
zle that is responsible for turni
ng on and
off the flow.
Fused filament fabrication :
This is a process by which a
machine deposits a filament o
f a certain
material on top of the same m
aterial to form a joint by the he
lp of heat.
Material jetting : In this proc
ess, material is applied in dro
plets through a small diamete
r nozzle,
similar to the way a common
inkjet paper printer works, bu
t it is applied layer-by-layer t
o a build
platform making a 3D object a
nd then hardened by ultraviol
et light.
Selective laser sintering :
This technique uses powder
ed materials (such as nylon,
titanium,
aluminium, polystyrene and gl
ass) instead of the liquid poly
mers used in fused filament f
abrication.
Powder is jetted from many n
ozzles onto the print surface li
ke an inkjet printer. It uses las
er to fuse
particles in powder form layer
by layer.
Stereolithography : This tec
hnique uses a laser-based pr
ocess to react with the photo
polymer
(liquid) resins that react with th
e laser, solidifying each succe
ssive layer, finally forming an o
bject in a
very precise way.
Vat photopolymerization : T
his method consists of a conta
iner filled with photpolymer res
in that is
hardened with an ultraviolet lig
ht source.
Acronyms
3D Three Dimensional
DLP Digital Light Processi
ng
SDG Sustainable Developm
ent Goal
197
198