3110018 PHYSICS

UNIT 2
SEMICONDUCTORS
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Introduction

Your computer or smartphone on which is actually powered by silicon

covered with billions of transistors thinner than a strand of hair,
composed of a solid substance called a semiconductor.
Today, most semiconductor chips and transistors are created
with silicon. You may have heard expressions like ”Silicon Valley” and
the ”silicon economy,” and that’s why – silicon is the heart of any
electronic device.
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Introduction

What are Semiconductors?

Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such
ceramics)
Unlike metals, the conductivity increases with increasing temperature
At room temperature resistivity of semiconductor is in between
insulators and conductors
Semiconductors show negative temperature coefficient of resistivity
that means its resistance decreases with increase in temperature
The unique and interesting feature of semiconductors are that they
are bipolar, two charge carriers namely electrons and holes transport
current in these materials
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Introduction - Semiconductors

Thus in semiconductors two types of charge carriers are involved in

electrical conduction process i.e. holes ( electrons which has broken
the bond) and electrons ( which are free to move inside the crystal)
At 0K temperature, they behave as insulator
Let us take the example of Silicon
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Crystal Structure of Semiconductors

Each atom in the silicon contributes four valence electrons to make

the covalent bond with four adjacent silicon atoms in the crystal
The inert ionic core of the silicon acts as a positive charge of +4
electronic charges
The valance electrons in silicon crystal serve to bind one atom to the
next
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

click on image to play the animation

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Crystal Structure of Semiconductor

Hence, it can be said that the valance electrons are tightly bounded
with the atoms in the crystal
Because of that, although a silicon/germanium atom has four valence
electrons in it, silicon/germanium crystal as a whole is not an
excellent conductor of electricity
At absolute zero temperatures, a semiconductor crystal behaves just
like an insulator as there are no free carriers of electricity available
However at room temperature (300◦ K), some of the covalent bonds
in the crystal are broken due to available energy and this phenomenon
makes the availability of free electrons in the crystal and hence
conduction of semiconductor may be some extent possible at room
temperature
Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

click on image to play the animation

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Crystal Structure of Semiconductor

The energy required to break the covalent bond is about 0.72 eV in

germanium, and that is 1.1 eV in silicon at room temperature
When one covalent bond breaks, the either of electrons that
previously involved in the bond formation comes out, keeping a
vacant place behind it on the bond
This vacancy is referred as a hole
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors may be broadly divided into two distinct groups,

namely elemental or compound semiconductors
Elemental Semiconductors : Elemental semiconductors are formed
from single chemical elements, and important members of this family
include Si and Ge
Compound semiconductors : It represent the largest group and are
formed as a result of the chemical reaction between two or more
different elements
Examples of these are GaAs, GaP, InAs, InSb, GaN, SiC to name just
a few
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Types of Semiconductors

Alloy Semiconductors
There is a third class of semiconductors, alloy semiconductors
Alloy semiconductors replace some fraction of one of the constituents
in elemental or compound semiconductors with another element of
the same valence
These include an even larger class than the compound semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Types of Semiconductors

One more advantage of using Semiconductors over conductors is that

its conductivity can be varied
Contradictory to conductors when appropriate impurities are added to
semiconductors, their resistivity decreases.
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as
doping
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Classification of Semiconductors

Elemental semiconductors are further categorized into two types :

Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors
Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Intrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors are

composed of only one kind of
material : silicon and
germanium are two examples
These are also called “undoped
semiconductors” or “i-type
semiconductors”
Semiconductors that are
chemically pure, in other words,
free from impurities are termed
as intrinsic semiconductors
Pure semiconductor means there
is less than one impurity atom in
a billion host atoms
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Intrinsic Semiconductor

How conduction in an Intrinsic semiconductor takes place?

When electron from valance band jumps to the conduction band, an
empty state (quantum vacancy) arises in the valance band
The empty state in atom is referred as hole
Hence, both valance band and conduction bands are partially filled
The electrons in conduction band and valance band can be excited to
upper vacant levels within the respective bands
If electric field is applied, these electrons can move into higher vacant
levels and current flows in crystal at ordinary temperature
The motion of valance electrons in the valance band is described in
terms of a fictious particle (hole)
An intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor crystal in which
electrical conduction arises due to thermally excited electrons and
holes
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Intrinsic Semiconductor

The number of holes and

electrons is therefore determined
by the properties of the material
itself instead of the impurities
In intrinsic semiconductors, the
number of excited electrons is
equal to the number of holes
n=p
They are also termed as
undoped semiconductors or
i-type semiconductors
Silicon and germanium are
examples of i-type
semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Intrinsic Semiconductor

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on the

surrounding temperature
At room temperature, it exhibits a low conductivity
Due to its low conductivity, it is deemed unsuitable for the use in
electronic devices
In order to deal with this problem, the concept of doping arose, and
as a result of which extrinsic semiconductors were manufactured
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with

specific impurities
The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor is
called doping
Extrinsic semiconductors are also called impure semiconductors or
doped semiconductors

Why doping?

While adding impurities, a small amount of the suitable impurity is

added to pure material, increasing its conductivity by many times
The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor
and makes it more suitable for electronic devices.
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Electron Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Electron Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Electron Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Electron Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Hole Density

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 1: The forbidden gap in pure silicon is 1.1 ev. Compare the
number of conduction eletrons at temperature 37◦ C and 27◦ C

Solution : Let n1 be the number of conduction electrons at 27◦ and n2 at

37◦

n1 = 1021.7 (300 K )3/2 10−2500 × 1.1eV/300 K

n2 = 1021.7 (310 K )3/2 10−2500 × 1.1eV/310 K

n2 (310 K )3/2 × 10−8.87

=
n1 (300 K )3/2 × 10−9.2
= 2.96
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 2: Compute the concentration of intrinsic charge carriers i na

germanium crystal at 300 K. Given that Eg = 0.72 eV and assume
m∗e = me

Solution : Intrinsic charge carrier concentration,

2πm∗e kT 3/2 Eg
   
ni = 2 exp −
h2 2kT
∗ 3/2 3/2
2 × 3.143 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23
 
2πme k
2 =2
h2 6.626 × 10−34
= 4.83 × 1021
T 3/2 = 3003/2 = 5196
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 2: Compute the concentration of intrinsic charge carriers i na

germanium crystal at 300 K. Given that Eg = 0.72 eV and assume
m∗e = me

Solution : Intrinsic charge carrier concentration,

2πm∗e kT 3/2 Eg
   
ni = 2 exp −
h2 2kT
Eg
   
0.72 eV
exp − = exp
2kT 2 × 8.61 × 10−5 eV/K × 300 K
= exp(−13.846) = 9.7 × 10−7
ni = 4.83 × 1021 × 5196 × 9.7 × 10−7
= 3.4 × 1019 /m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

The Fraction of Electrons in the Conduction Band

The Fermi-Dirac probability function gives the fractinoal occupancy of

the energy states
f ( E) = 1+exp[(E1−E )/kT ] gives the probability than an electron
F
occupies the energy state E
The probability that an electron occupies the energy state EC can be
given as
1
f ( EC ) =
1 + exp [( E − EF ) /kT ]
But according to the defination of probability,
n
f ( EC ) =
N
where n is the number of electrons excited to conduction band levels
and N is the total number of electrons available in the valance band
initially
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

The Fraction of Electrons in the Conduction Band

n 1
=
N 1 + exp [( E − EF ) /kT ]

As ( EC − EF ) = Eg /2

n 1
=  
N 1 + exp Eg /kT

Since Eg > 2kT, the factor unity may be neglected in comparision to

the exponential term
n 1
=   = e−Eg /2kT
N exp Eg /2kT

The above equation gives the fraction of electrons in the conduction

band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 3: Estimate the fraction of electrons in the conduction band at

300◦ K of (i) Germanium ( Eg = 0.72 eV ) (ii) Silicon ( Eg = 1.1 eV ) (iii)
Diamond ( Eg = 5.6 eV ). Comment on the results
Solution :
(i) Germanium :
0.72eV
f ( EC ) = e−Eg /2kT = e 2×0.026eV = e−13.85 = 9.66 × 10−7

(ii) Silicon :
1.1eV
f ( EC ) = e−Eg /2kT = e 2×0.026eV = e−21.15 = 6.5 × 10−10

(iii) Diamond :
5.6eV
f ( EC ) = e−Eg /2kT = e 5×0.026eV = e−43.08 = 1.7 × 10−47
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 3: Estimate the fraction of electrons in the conduction band at

300◦ K of (i) Germanium ( Eg = 0.72 eV ) (ii) Silicon ( Eg = 1.1 eV ) (iii)
Diamond ( Eg = 5.6 eV ). Comment on the results
Solution :

(i) Germanium : f ( EC ) = 9.66 × 10−7

(ii) Silicon : f ( EC ) = 6.5 × 10−10
(iii) Diamond : f ( EC ) = 1.7 × 10−47

Results suggest that larger the band gap, the smaller the electrons that
can go into the conduction band at a given temperature
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 4: Assuming that the number of electrons near the top of the
valance band available for thermal excitation is 5 × 1025 /m3 and the
intrinsic carrier density is 2.5 × 1019 /m3 , calculate the energy gap of
germanium at room temperature

Solution :
Fraction of electrons in conduction band
Eg
 
n
= exp −
N 2kT
n
Eg = −2kT ln
N
2.5 × 1019 /m3
 
−5


= −2 8.61 × 10 eV/K (300 K ) ln
5 × 1025 /m3
= 0.052 × 14.509 eV
= 0.75 eV
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

In pure semiconductor, we assume that the electrons are located at

the bottom edge of the conduction band and holes are at the top
edge of the valence band

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

The electron concentration in the conduction band is

n = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT

The hole concentration in the valence band is

p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations

are equal i.e. n = p

NC e−(EC −EF )/kT = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

Taking logarithm on both sides

( Ec − EF ) N ( E − EV )
− = ln V − F
kT NC kT
N
− EC + EF = kT ln V − EF + EV
NC
NV
2EF = ( EC + EV ) + kT ln
NC
EC + EF 1 NV
EF = + kT ln
2 2 NC
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

3/2
2πm∗e kT 3/2 2πm∗h kT
 
But NC = 2 and NV = 2
h2 h2
 ∗ 3/2
NV mh
=
NC m∗e
   ∗
NV 3 mh
ln = ln
NC 2 m∗e
 ∗
EC + EV 3 mh
EF = + kT ln
2 4 m∗e

Above equation can also be written as

m∗e
 
EC + EV 3
EF = − kT ln
2 4 m∗h
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

If the effective mass of a free electron is assumed to be equal to the

effective mass of a hole

m∗h = m∗e
m∗h
 
ln =0
m∗e
EC + EV
EF =
2
2EF = EC + EV
2EF = EC + 2EV − EV adding and sutracting EV
EC − EV
EF = + EV
2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

EC − EV
EF = + EV
2

As EC − EF = Eg

Eg
EF = = EV
2
If we consider top of valance band EV as zero level, EV = 0
Eg
EF =
2
The above result suggests that in an intrinsic semiconductor, the
Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Intristic Semiconductor

Eg
EF =
2

Assumptions made in obtaining above relation

1 It was assumed that electrons undergo transitions from the top edge,
EV of valance band to the bottom edge EC of conduction band. In
reality, transitions are possible between the other levels also. However,
the above result does not affect due to the fact
2 It was assumed that the effective mass of electrons in the conduction
band m∗e is exactly equal to the effective mass of holes m∗h . In practice,
the effective masses differ from each other. However, the difference
does not alter the above result significantly
It should be noted that Fermi level is not an allowed energy level in
semiconductor and it serves as a reference to which we specify the
energies of electrons and holes in semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in an Intrinsic

Semiconductor

With an increase in temperature,

the Fermi level gets displaced
upward to the bottom edge of the
conduction band if m∗h > m∗e or
downwards to the top edge of the
valance band if m∗h < m∗e
In most of the materials, the shift
of Fermi level on account of
m∗h 6= m∗e is insignificant
The Fermi level in an intrinsic
semiconductor may be considered
as independent of temperature and
staying in the middle of the band Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an
gap intrinsic semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example
Example 5: Determine the position of Fermi level in silicon semiconductor
at 300 K. Given that the band gap is 1.12 eV, and m∗e = 0.12 m, and
m∗h = 0.28 m
Solution :
 ∗
Eg 3kT mh
EF = + ln
2 4 m∗e
1.12 eV 3 × 8.61 × 10−5 eV/K × 300 K
 
0.28m
= + ln
2 4 0.12m
= 0.56 eV + (0.0194) ln 2.333 eV
= 0.56 eV + (0.0194) (0.8473) eV
= 0.56 eV + 0.016 eV
= 0.576 eV

The Fermi level is 0.016 eV above the centre of the forbidden gap. In
other words, it is at 0.576 eV from the top of the valence band.
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Intrinsic Conductivity With Temperature

Intrinsic conductivity is given by

σ = eni (µe + µh )

where ni is the intrinsic charge concentration

As n = p = ni can be given as
Eg
n2i = ( NC NV ) e− kT

Hence intrinsic conductivity can be given as

Eg
NC NV e (µe + µh ) e− 2kT
p
σ=
Eg
or σ = σ0 e− 2kT

where σ0 is a constant
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Intrinsic Conductivity With Temperature

Intrinsic conductivity can be

given as
Eg
σ = σ0 e− 2kT

The above relation gives the

temperature dependence of
conductivity of an intrinsic
semiconductor which is
dominated by the exponential
Eg
term e− 2kT Variation of intrinsic conductivity with
Taking logarithm on both sides, temperature
we get
Eg
ln σi = ln σ0 −
2kT
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 6: Find the resistivity of instrinsic germanium at 300 K. Given

that the intrinsic density carriers is 2.5 × 1019 /m3

Solution :

σi = eni (µe + µh )
= 1.602 × 10−19 C × 2.5 × 1029 × (0.39 + 0.19) m2 V −1 s−1
= 2.32 mho/m
1
ρi =
σi
1
=
2.32
= 0.43 Ω − m
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Determination of Band Gap

Intrinsic conductivity can be given as

Eg
σ = σ0 e− 2kT

Hence the resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor can be given as

ρi = ρ0 e Eg /2kT
Ri A
= ρ0 e Eg /2kT
L
Ri = Ce Eg /2kT

Taking logarithm on both sides,

Eg
ln Ri = ln C +
2kT
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Determination of Band Gap

Eg
ln Ri = ln C +
2kT

A plot of ln Ri versus 1/T gives

a straight line as shown in figure
The slope of the straight line
gives the value of Eg /2kT
Hence
 
dy
Eg = m(2k ) = 2k
dx
 
dy Variation of resistance with temperature
where m = dx is the slope of
the straight line
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 7: The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 Ω − m at

20◦ C and 2 Ω − m at 32◦ C. Find the energy gap
Solution :
 
dy
Eg = 2k
dx
!
ln 4.5 − ln 2
= 2 × 8.61 × 10−5 eV/K 1

1

K
293 − 305
1.504 − 0.6931
 
−5
= 2 × 8.61 × 10 eV
0.003413 − 0.003278
 
−5 0.8109
= 2 × 8.61 × 10 eV
0.134 × 10−3
= 2 × 8.61 × 10−5 eV × 6.05 × 103
= 1.04 eV
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Limitation of Intrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors are not useful for device manufacture

because of low conductivity and strong dependence of conductivity on
temperature
The current in intrinsic semiconductor increases proportionally with
voltage obeying Ohm’s law, while increasing the temperature
increases the current at an exponential rate
Hence, the temperature over which we have no control exerts more
influence upon the current than the voltage
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Limitation of Intrinsic Semiconductor

The limitation of intrinsic semiconductor can be summarize as :

Conductivity is low. Germanium has a conductivity of 1.67 S/m,

which is nearly 107 times smaller than that of copper

Conductivity is a function of temperature and increases exponentially

as the temperature increases

Conductivity cannot be controlled from outside

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor
n-type extrinsic semiconductor
p-type extrinsic semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that are doped with

specific impurities
A judious introduction of impurity atom in an otherwise perfect
semiconductor crystal produces useful modifications in its electrical
conductivity
A small amount of the suitable impurity is added to pure material,
increasing its conductivity by many times
It makes the current more voltage dependent than temperature
dependent and makes it more suitable for electronic devices
The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor is
called doping
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is called extrinsic

semiconductors or impure semiconductors or doped
semiconductors
One of the important methods of doping is to add precisely
determined quantities of impurity to the melt from which
semiconductor crystal is grown
Typical doping levels range from 1020 to 1027 impurity atoms/m3
The dopant (impure atom) added to the material is chosen such that
the original lattice of the pure semiconductor is not distorted
Also, the dopants occupy only a few of the sites in the crystal of the
original semiconductor and it is necessary that the size of the dopant
is nearly equal to the size of the semiconductor atoms
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Semiconductor

While doping tetravalent atoms such as Si or Ge, two types of

dopants are used, and they are:
For N type
Pentavalent atoms : Atoms with valency 5 such as
- Phosphorous (Pi)
- Arsenic (As)
- Antimony (Sb)
For P type
Trivalent atoms: Atoms with valency 3 such as
- Aluminium (Al)
- Boron (B)
- Indium (In)
The reason behind using these dopants is to have similar sized atoms
as the pure semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Both Silicon and Germanium atoms belong to the fourth group in the
periodic table
Hence, the choice of dopants from the third and fifth group is more
viable
This ensures that the size of the atoms is not very different from the
fourth group
Therefore, the trivalent and pentavalent choices
These dopants give rise to two types of semiconductors as follows:
- n-type semiconductors
- p-type semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor
n-type extrinsic semiconductor
p-type extrinsic semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

n-type Semiconductor

n−type semiconductor material is formed by addition of pentavalent

impurity such as phosphorous to a pure semiconductor
A phosphorous atom has five valence electrons of which four electrons
form covalent bonds with host silicon atom
The fifth electron remains loosely bound and ionization energy of
0.045 eV can liberate the fifth electron from the nucleus
Hence the energy levels corresponding to phosphorous atoms are
nearer to the bottom edge of the conduction band (of pure
semiconductor)
At normal temperatures, the fifth electron jumps into the conduction
band leaving behind positive phosphorous ion that is fixed in crystal
lattice
As phosphorous atom is donating an electron for the purpose of
electrical conduction, it is called a donor atom
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

n-type extrinsic semiconductor

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

n-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

At 0 K, the donor atoms are not ionized which means that all the
donor electrons are bound to the donor atoms
The conduction band is empty, while the valence band is full, The
materı́al behaves essentially as an insulator
At slightly elevated temperatures, the donor atoms are ionized and
the donor electrons go into the conduction band by getting energy
from lattice vibrations
In this process holes are not produced in the valence band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

Variation of electron concetration in an n-type semiconductor as a function of the inverse of

temperature
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

At about 100 K, the donor levels are all ionized

Once all the donor atoms are ionized, further increase in temperature
does not produce electrons and the curve levels off
This region is called the depletion region
In the depletion region, the electron concentration in the conduction
band is nearly identical to the concentration of the dopant atoms
If ND is the concentration of donor atoms, then

nn ∼
= ND

where nn is the electron concentration in the conduction band of

n−type material
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

As temperature increases further, some electrons from the valence

band are also excited into the conduction band
Therefore the conduction band electrons have two different processes
namely (i) donor atom ionization and (ii) intrinsic process
The intrinsic process produces holes in the valence band
At high enough temperatures the intrinsic behaviour takes over since
large number of electrons in the valence band gets thermally excited
to conduction band and their number far exceeds the number of
donor electrons
Therefore in intrinsic region

n n = ni
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

In an n-type semiconductor at moderate temperatures, there are some

1010 electrons and 1010 holes which have been generated due to
heat-ruptured bonds
In addition there are 1016 free electrons received from the donors
Donor electrons are in the majority and their number is essentially
constant at all usual temperatures this is because they are not part of
covalent bonds and only 0.05 eV is required to free them
Thus, by doping we produce a less temperature-sensitive
semiconductor with an abundance of electrons
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Temperature Variation of Carrier Concentration

In n-type material the electrons out number the holes and constitute
the majority carriers
Holes are minority carriers
The number of carriers is independent of temperature in the depletion
region
The current in this type of crystal is mainly due to the negatively
charged electrons and hence the material is called n-type
semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
Dependence of Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration

Let ND be the concentration of donors in the material

At 0 K, the donor atoms are not ionized and are at the level ED
which is very near to EC
When the temperature is raised above 0◦ K, the donor atoms get
ionized and free electrons appear in the conduction band
With increase in termperature more and more donor atoms get ionized
and the electron concentration in the conduction band increases
Electrons require an energy ED for their transition to the conduction
band from the donor levels
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
Dependence of Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration

Therefore, we may assume that the electron concentration, n, in the

conduction band is
+
n = ND
0
n = ND − ND
+ 0 is
where ND is the number of donor atoms that are ionized and ND
the number of atoms left unionized at the energy level ED
The concentration of ionized donors
+
= ND − ND0 = ND [1 − f ( ED )]


ND
ND
=
1 + e ED −EF )/kT
−(
ND
n=
1 + e ED −EF )/kT
−(
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
Dependence of Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration

From the operational definition of Fermi level it is expected that the

Fermi level in n-type semiconductor lies a few kT above ED
Therefore, the above equation may be simplified as

n = ND e(ED −EF )/kT

But the electron concentration, n, in the conduction band is given by

n = Nc e−(Ec −EF )/kT

ND e(ED −EF )/kT = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
Dependence of Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration

Taking logarithm and rearranging the terms we get

ED − E F EC − EF
   
N
+ = ln C
kT kT ND
N
( ED + EC ) − 2EF = (kT ) ln C
ND
 
ED + EC kT NC
EF = − ln
2 2 ND
 
ED + EC kT ND
EF = + ln
2 2 NC
 
ED + EC kT ND
EF = + ln 3/2
2 2 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
Dependence of Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration

 
ED + EC kT ND
EF = + ln 3/2
2 2 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )

It is seen from above equation that at T = 0 K

ED + EC
EF =
2

That means the equilibrium Fermi level lies midway between the
bottom of the conduction band and donor levels
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

" #
EF − EC
   
ED + EC 1 ND EC
exp = exp + ln 3/2
−
kT 2kT 2 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 ) kT
" #
E − EC
 
1 ND
= exp D + ln 3/2
2kT 2 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
" s #
ED − EC ND
= exp + ln 3/2
2kT 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
√
 
1
∵ ln x = ln x
2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

As exp( a + b) = exp( a) + exp(b)

" s #
ED − EC
 
ND
= exp · exp ln 3/2
2kT 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
 s " #
ED − EC

ND
= exp · 3/2
[exp(ln x ) = x ]
2kT 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in n-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

E p − EC
 
∴ n = NC exp
kT
 " #
2πm∗e kT 3/2 ED − EC
  
ND
=2 exp ·
h2 2kT 2 (2πm∗e kT/h2 )
3/2

3/4
2πm∗e kT ED − EC
  
1
n = (2ND ) 2 exp
h2 2kT

Thus the electron (majority) concentration in the conduction band of

n-type semiconductor is proportional to the square root of the donor
concentration at moderately low temperatures
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor
n-type extrinsic semiconductor
p-type extrinsic semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

p−type semiconductor is produced when a pure semiconductor is

doped with a trivalent impurity such as Boron, Aluminium
Boron atom has three valence electrons and falls short of one electron
for completing the four covalent bonds with its neighbours
When an electron from neighbouring atom acquires energy and jumps
into the vacancy to form the forth bond, it leaves behind a hole
The boron atom having acquired an additional electron becomes a
negative ion
The hole can move freely in the valence band whereas the impurity
ion is fixed in position by the covalent bonds
As the boron atom accepted an electron from the valence band, it is
called an acceptor atom
The acceptor impurity atoms produce holes without the simultaneous
generation of the electrons in the conduction band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram

If the acceptor atom density is low, the acceptor atoms are distantly
spaced from one another
Hence the acceptor atoms cannot interact with each other and their
energy levels are discrete levels called acceptor levels E A and
represents ground state of hole
Small amount of thermal energy can make an electron in the valence
band jump into the acceptor level
The acceptor levels are expected to be located very near to the top
edge of the valence band
They are about 0.01 eV above the valence band
A hole may be said to moved from the acceptor atom to the valence
band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram

At 0 K the acceptor levels are vacant and the valence band is full and
the conduction band is also vacant and material acts as an insulator
At slightly elevated temperature, electrons from the valence band
jump into the acceptor levels and holes are generated in the valence
band
In this process holes are generated without simultaneous generation of
electrons
At normal temperatures the acceptor levels are saturated and a few
electrons are excited to the conduction band also
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram

At about 100 K, the acceptor atoms are all ionized

Once all the acceptor atoms are ionized, further increase in
temperature does not produce holes and acceptor levels are saturated
The region is called saturation region
In saturation region, the hole concentration in the valence band is
nearly identical to the concentration of the acceptor
If NA is the concentration of acceptor atoms,

p∼
= NA

where p p is the hole concentration in the valence band of p−type

material
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram

As temperature is increased further, some electrons from the valence

band are excited into the conduction band
The valence band now contains holes that have been generated by
two different processes
- acceptor atom ionization
- intrinsic process
The intrinsic process causes electrons to appear in the conduction
band
At high temperatures, a large number of electron-hole pairs are
generated and the number of holes generated thermally far exceeds
the number of holes due to acceptor impurity
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

p-type extrinsic semiconductor

Energy Band Diagram

The material behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor and in the

intrinsic region

p p = ni

In p-type material the holes outnumber the electrons and constitute

the majority carriers
The number of majority carriers is independent of temperature
charged holes and hence the material is called p-type semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

Let NA be the concentration of acceptors in the material

At 0 K, the acceptor atoms are not ionized and are at the lovel E A
which is very near to EV
When the temperature is raised above 0◦ K, the acceptor atoms get
ionized and holes appear in the valence band
With increase in temperature more and more acceptor atoms get
ionized and the hole concentration in the valence band increases
Since transition of electrons to the acceptor levels from the valence
band requires an energy E A , they can go to acceptor levels and ionize
acceptor atoms
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

We may assume that the hole concentration p, in the valence band is

p = NA−

where NA− is the number of acceptor atoms that are ionized

The concentration of ionized acceptors

NA− = NA f ( E A )
EF − E A
 
= NA exp
kT
EF − E A
 
∴ p = NA exp
kT
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

But the hole concentration p, in the valence band is given by

p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

EV − EF
 
= NV e kT

EF − E A EV − EF
   
∴ NA e kT
= NV e kT

Taking logarithm and rearranging the terms we get

EF − E A EV − EF
   
N
− = ln V
kT kT NA
NV
− ( EV + E A ) + 2EF = (kT ) ln
NA
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures
 
EV + E A kT NV
EF = + ln
2 2 NA
 
EV + E A kT NA
EF = − ln
2 2 NV
 
EV + E A kT NA
EF = − ln
3/2
2 2 ∗
2 2πmh kT/h2

It is seen from above equation that at T = 0 K

EV + E A
EF =
2
The equilibrium Fermi level lies midway between the bottom of the
valence band and acceptor levels
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

" #
EV − EF
   
EV EV + E A 1 NA
exp = exp − + ln
3/2
kT kT 2kT 2 2 2πm∗h kT/h2
" #
EV − E A
 
1 NA
= exp + ln
3/2
2kT 2 2 2πm∗ kT/h2 h
1 √
ln x = ln x
2 " #
s
E − EA NA
= exp V + ln
3/2
2kT 2 2πm∗h KT/h2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

" s #
E − EA NA
= exp V + ln
3/2
2kT 2 2πm∗h KT/h2
exp( a + b) = exp( a) · exp(b)
" s #
EV − E A
 
NA
= exp · exp ln
3/2
2kT 2 2πm∗h kT/h2
exp(ln x ) = x
 "s #
EV − E A

NA
= exp ·
3/2
2kT 2 2πm∗h kT/h2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

EV − E A
 
p = NV exp
kT
 "s #
2πm∗h KT 3/2 EV − E A
  
NA
=2 exp ·
h2

3/2
2kT 2 2πm∗h kT/h2
2πm∗h KT
Taking x=
h2
√ p 3/2  √ "r #
EV − E A

NA 1
p = 2 6 2x exp · √
2kT 62 x3/2
p 
EV − E A
 √
= 2NA exp x3/2 × x −3/2
2kT
EV − E A
p  
= 2NA exp x3/2 × x (−3/2)×(1/2)
2kT
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor at Low

Temperatures

EV − E A


x3/2−3/4
p
p= 2NA exp
2kT
EV − E A
p  
3/4
= 2NA · x · exp
2kT

3/4
2πm∗h KT EV − E A
p   
p= 2NA exp
h2 2kT

Thus the holes (majority) concentration in the valence band of p-type

semiconductor is proportional to the square root of the acceptor
concentration at moderately low temperatures
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Band Diagram of Extrinsic Semiconductors at 0K and

300K

Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor (a) at 0K (b) 300K

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Band Diagram of Extrinsic Semiconductors at 0K and

300K

Energy band diagram of p-type semiconductor (a) at 0K (b) 300K

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Conductivity
The temperature range in which a doped semiconductor used is the extrinsic
region where all the impurity atoms are ionized
This region is of practical interest since the carrier concentration is
essentially independent of temperature in this region and any desired
conductivity can be achieved by controlling the amount of impurities added
from outside

Variation of electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor as a function of inverse of

temperature
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Conductivity

The conductivity of n-type semiconductor is given as

σn = nn eµe + pn eµh

As pn  nn , the second term is negligible and it is the electrons that

contribute to the conductivity

σn = nn eµe

As nn = ND , we can write the above relation as

σn = ND eµe
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Extrinsic Conductivity

Similarly, the conductivity of p-type semiconductor is given as

σp = p p eµh
σp = NA eµh
A general dependence of conductivity on temperature in extrinsic
semiconductors is as shown in the figure
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 8 : In a doped semiconductor, there are 4.52 × 1024 holes and

1.25 × 1014 electrons per cubic meter. What will be the carrier density in
undoped specimen? Electon and hole mobilities are 0.38 m2 /V.s and
0.18 m2 /V.s respectively. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic and the
doped semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 8 : In a doped semiconductor, there are 4.52 × 1024 holes and

1.25 × 1014 electrons per cubic meter. What will be the carrier density in
undoped specimen? Electon and hole mobilities are 0.38 m2 /V.s and
0.18 m2 /V.s respectively. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic and the
doped semiconductors

Answer : Intrinsic carrier density

√
ni = ppnp
q
ni = (4.52 × 1024 /m3 ) (1.25 × 1014 /m3 )

1/2
= 5.65 × 1038 /m6
= 2.38 × 1019 /m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 8 : In a doped semiconductor, there are 4.52 × 1024 holes and

1.25 × 1014 electrons per cubic meter. What will be the carrier density in
undoped specimen? Electon and hole mobilities are 0.38 m2 /V.s and
0.18 m2 /V.s respectively. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic and the
doped semiconductors

Answer : Conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor

σi = eni (µe + µh )
   m3
= 1.602 × 10−19 C 2.38 × 1019 /m3 (0.38 + 0.18)
V.s
C
= 2.14
m.V.s
= 2.14 S/m
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 8 : In a doped semiconductor, there are 4.52 × 1024 holes and

1.25 × 1014 electrons per cubic meter. What will be the carrier density in
undoped specimen? Electon and hole mobilities are 0.38 m2 /V.s and
0.18 m2 /V.s respectively. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic and the
doped semiconductors

Answer : Conducitivity of the doped semiconductor

σp = p p eµh = ep p µh
   m2
= 1.602 × 10−19 C 4.52 × 1024 /m3 (0.18)
V.s
C
= 1.3 × 105
m.V.s
= 130 kS/m
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 9 : Silicon has a conductivity of only 5 × 10−4 Ω−1 m−1 in its

pure form. If silicon is doped with aluminium to increase its conductivity
to 200 Ω−1 m−1 . Determine the impurity concentration required. Assume
µh = 0.05 m2 /V.s
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 9 : Silicon has a conductivity of only 5 × 10−4 Ω−1 m−1 in its

pure form. If silicon is doped with aluminium to its conductivity to
200 Ω−1 m−1 . Determine the impurity concentration required. Assume
µh = 0.05 m2 /V.s

Answer :

σ = peµh = NA eµh
σ
NA =
eµh
200 Ω−1 m−1
=
1.602 × 10−19 C × 0.05 m2 /V.s
= 2.5 × 1022 atoms/m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Law of Mass Action

In case of intrinsic semiconductors the product of n and p is a

constant for a certain semiconductor at a certain temperature and is
given by

np = n2i = NC NV e−Eg /kT

There is no condition in the expression that restricts it to intrinsic

semiconductors because Eg does not change with impurity
concentration and NC and NV are constants
This product is therefore a constant equally valid for intrinsic as well
as for extrinsic semiconductors
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Law of Mass Action

The electron and hole concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors may

be given as

n = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT

p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

Denoting the electron concentration in n-type semiconductor by nn

and the hole concentration by pn , we can write

nn = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT

pn = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT
nn pn = NC NV e−Eg /kT
nn pn = n2i
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Law of Mass Action

Similarly, if we denote the hole concentration in electron

concentration by n p

p p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

n p = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT
p p n p = NC NV e−Eg /kT
p p n p = n2i

The product of nn pn and p p n p shows that the product of majority

and minority com concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor at a
particular temperature equal to the square of intrinsic carrier
concentration at that temperature
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Law of Mass Action

The law of mass action is very important relation because it in

conjunction with charge neutrality condition enables us calculate
minority carrier concentration
The law suggests that the addition of impurities to an intrinsic
semiconductor increases the concentration of one type of carrier,
which consequently becomes majority carrier and simultaneously
decreases the concentration of the other carrier, which as a result
becomes minority carrier
The minority carriers decrease in number below the intrinsic value
because the majority carriers increase the rate of recombinations
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Law of Mass Action

The law of mass action states that the product of majority and
minority carriers remains constant in an extrinsic semiconductor and it
is independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity
concentrations
Note that when the doping is heavy, the minority carrier
concentration will be low and if doping is lighter, the minority carrier
concentration will be larger
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Minority Carrier Concentration

In the case of an n-type semiconductor, the majority carrier

concentration nn is given by

nn = ND

where ND is the donor impurity concentration and all the donor

atoms are assumed to have got ionized
The above relation indicates that the majority carrier
concentration nn in an n-type semiconductor is equal to the donor
impurity concentration, ND
The minority carrier concentration pn is given as
n2i
pn =
nn
n2
pn = i
ND
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Calculation of Minority Carrier Concentration

Similarly, in case of a p-type semiconductor, the minority carrier

concentration, n p is given by

n2i
np =
pp
n2i
np =
NA
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 10 : A sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature has

a carrier concentration of 2.4 × 1019 /m3 . It is doped with antimony at a
rate of one antimony atom per million atoms of germanium. If the
concentration of the germanium atoms is 4 × 1028 /m3 , determine the hole
concentration
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 10 : A sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperature has

a carrier concentration of 2.4 × 1019 /m3 . It is doped with antimony at a
rate of one antimony atom per million atoms of germanium. If the
concentration of the germanium atoms is 4 × 1028 /m3 , determine the hole
concentration.

Answer :
4 × 1028 atoms /m3
ND =
106 atoms /m3
= 4 × 1022 donors /m3
nn = ND = 4 × 1022 electrons /m3

2
n2i 2.4 × 1019 carriers /m3
pn = =
nn (4 × 1022 electrons /m3 )
3
pn = 1.4 × 1016 holes/m
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 11 : A sample of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has a

carrier concentration of 1.5 × 1016 /m3 . A donor impurity is added to the
extent of 1 donor atom per 108 atoms of silicon. If the concentration of
silicon atoms is 5 × 1028 atoms /m3 , determine the resistivity of the
material. (Given µe = 0.135 m2 /Vs and µh = 0.048 m2 /Vs )
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 11 : A sample of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has a

carrier concentration of 1.5 × 1016 /m3 . A donor impurity is added to the
extent of 1 donor atom per 108 atoms of silicon. If the concentration of
silicon atoms is 5 × 1028 atoms /m3 , determine the resistivity of the
material. (Given µe = 0.135 m2 /Vs and µh = 0.048 m2 /Vs )

Answer :
Donor atom density is given as

N 5 × 1028 /m3
ND = = = 5 × 1020 /m3
108 108
Free electron concentration is given by

nn = ND = 5 × 1020 /m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 11 : A sample of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has a

carrier concentration of 1.5 × 1016 /m3 . A donor impurity is added to the
extent of 1 donor atom per 108 atoms of silicon. If the concentration of
silicon atoms is 5 × 1028 atoms /m3 , determine the resistivity of the
material. (Given µe = 0.135 m2 /Vs and µh = 0.048 m2 /Vs )

Answer :
Hole concentration is given by

n2i
pn =
nn

2
1.5 × 1016 /m3
=
5 × 1020 /m3
= 4.5 × 1011 /m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 11 : A sample of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has a

carrier concentration of 1.5 × 1016 /m3 . A donor impurity is added to the
extent of 1 donor atom per 108 atoms of silicon. If the concentration of
silicon atoms is 5 × 1028 atoms /m3 , determine the resistivity of the
material. (Given µe = 0.135 m2 /Vs and µh = 0.048 m2 /Vs )

Answer :
Resistivity of the material
1 1
ρ= =
σ e (nn µe + pn µh )
1
=
(1.602 × 10−19 ) (5 × 1020 × 0.135 + 4.5 × 1011 × 0.048)
= 0.092 Ωm
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

In intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level, E lies in the middle of the band
gap
However, the situation is different with extrinsic semiconductors
In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the upper half of the gap,
as the majority carriers reside in the conduction band and their average
energy is more than EFn
In a p-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the lower half of the gap,
as the majority carriers reside in the valence band and their average energy
is less than EFp
The carrier concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors vary with temperature
and impurity concentration
It means that the probability of occupancy of respective bands varies and
consequently the position of Fermi level changes with temperature and
impurity concentration
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an n-type semiconductor

In the n-type semiconductor at low temperatures, some donor atoms

are ionized and provide electrons to the conduction band while others
remain neutral
As electrons in the conduction band are only due to the transitions
from the donor levels, the Fermi level must lie between the impurity
donor levels and the bottom of the conduction band
EC + ED
EFn = at T=0K
2
As the temperature increases the donor levels gradually get depleted
and the Fermi level moves downward
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an n-type semiconductor

At the temperature of complete depletion of donor levels Td , the

Fermi level coincides with the donor level ED
EFn = ED at T = Td
As the temperature grows further above TD , the Fermi level shifts
downward in an approximately linear fashion
At a temperature Ti , the intrinsic process contributes to electron
concentration significantly
At higher temperatures, the n-type semiconductor loses its extrinsic
character and behaves as an instrinsic semiconductor
In the intrinsic region, the electron concentration in conduction band
increases exponentially and the Fermi level approaches the intrinsic
value
Eg
EFn = EFi = at T ≥ Ti
2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an n-type semiconductor

The variation of Fermi level EFn in an n-type semiconductor with

temperature as shown in the figure
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in a p-type Semiconductor

In case of p-type semiconductor, in the low temperature region,holes

in the valence band are only due to the transitions of electrons from
the valence band to the acceptor levels
As the valence band is the source of electrons and the acceptor levels
are the recipients for them, the Fermi level must lie between the top
of the valence band and the impurity acceptor levels
When T = 0, Fermi level lies midway between the acceptor levels and
the top of the valence band
EV + E A
EFP =
2
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in a p-type Semiconductor

As the temperature increases the acceptor levels gradually get filled

and the Fermi level moves upward
At the temperature of saturation Ts , the Fermi level coincides with
the acceptor level E A

EFP = E A at T = Ts

As the temperature grows above Ts , the Fermi level shifts upward in

an approximately linear manner
At a temperature Ti intrinsic behaviour begins
At higher temperatures, the p-type semiconductor works as an
intrinsic semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in a p-type Semiconductor

In the intrinsic region, the hole

concentration in the valence
band increases exponentially and
the Fermi level approaches the
intrinsic value
Eg
EFP = Ei =
2
at T = Ti
Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in a
p-type Semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration

n-type Semiconductor

The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to

the formation of discrete donor levels below the bottom edge of the
conduction band
At low impurity concentrations, the impurity atoms are distantly
spaced from one another, approximately, by 100 atom spacings
Therefore, they do not interact with each other
With an increase in the impurity concentration, the separation
between impurity atoms decreases and they tend to interact
As a result, the donor levels undergo splitting and form an energy
band below the conduction band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration

n-type Semiconductor

Energy band diagrams of an n-type semiconductor at three different levels of doping (a) low
level doping (b) medium doping (c) heavy doping
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration

n-type Semiconductor

The larger the doping concentration, the broader is the impurity band
and at one stage the impurity band overlaps on the conduction band
Then the upper vacant levels in conduction band are accessible to the
donor electrons
The broadening of donor levels into band is a accompanied by a
decrease in the width of the forbidden gap and also by the upward
displacement of Fermi level
The Fermi level shifts closer and closer to the conduction band with
increasing impurity concentration and finally moves into the
conduction band when the donor band overlaps on the conduction
band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Variation of Fermi Level with Impurity Concentration

p-type Semiconductor

In p-type semiconductor, the acceptor levels broaden and form into a

band with increasing impurity concentration
The acceptor band ultimately overlaps on the valence band
The Fermi level moves down closer to the valence band and finally at
very high impurity concentration it will shift into the valence band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

If a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a

magnetic field B, a potential difference VH is produced in a direction
normal to both the magnetic field and current directions
This is known as Hall effect
This effect was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879 and showed that it is
negatively charged particles that carry current in metals
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

Importance of Hall Effect

The type of semiconductor

The sign of majority charge carriers

The majority charge carrier concentration

The mobility of majority charge carriers

The mean drift velocity of majority charge carriers

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect
Experimental Arrangement

A thin rectangular semiconductor wafer is mounted on an insulating strip and

two pairs of electrical contacts are provided on opposite sides of the wafer
One pair of contacts is connected to a constant current source and the other
pair is connected to a sensitive voltmeter
This arrangement is mounted in between two pole pieces of an
electromagnet such that the magnetic field acts perpendicular to the lateral
faces of the semiconductor wafer
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

Assume a potential difference V applied to a p-type semiconductor

material
A current I flows through it in x −direction
Holes are the majority charge carriers in the p−type semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

The current through the semiconductor is given as

I = peAvd

where p is the hole concentration, A is the cross-section area, e is the

electrical charge associated with a hole and vd is the average drift
velocity of holes
The current density
I
Jx = = pevd
A
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

If a magnetic field B is applied normal to the wafer surface and

current flow in it, the potential difference perpendicular to both
magnetic field and to the direction current is produced and it is
known as Hall Voltage VH

Top view of the wafer - The direction of magnetic force and Hall field in p-type semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

Before the application of magnetic field, holes move parallel to faces

F and F 0
On application of magnetic field B, the holes experience a sideways
deflection due to the magnetic force FL which is given by
FL = eBvd
Holes are deflected towards the front face F and corresponding
equivalent negative charge is left on the rear face F 0

Top view of the wafer - The direction of magnetic force and Hall field in p-type semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

These opposite charges produce a transverse electric field EH , whose

direction is from the front to the rear face
Due to EH , holes experience an electric force in addition to the
Lorentz force
When the force FE due to this transverse electric field balances the
magnetic force FL , equilibrium condition is attained and the holes
once again flow along x −direction parallel to the faces F and F 0

Top view of the wafer - The direction of magnetic force and Hall field in p-type semiconductor
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

In the equilibrium condition

FE = FL
eEH = evd B

If w is the width of the semiconductor wafer,

VH
EH =
  w
VH
∴ = Bvd
w

From current density equation

Jx
vd =
pe
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect

VH BJx
=
w pe
wBJx wBI
VH = =
pe peA

If ’t’ is the thickness of the semiconductor plate, A = wt, Hall voltage

BI
VH =
pet
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect
Hall Coefficient

Hall coefficient, Rn is defined as Hall field per unit current density per
unit magnetic induction

EH V /w
RH = = H
Jx B Jx B
BJx
RH =
peJx B
1
RH =
pe

Hall voltage, VH can now be written as

BI
VH = R H
t
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Hall Effect
Hall Coefficient

VH t
RH =
BI

The above equation is derived assuming that the p-semiconductor

contains only holes
When the two types of charge carriers are taken into account, it is
shown that the Hall coefficient is given by

pµ2h − nµ2e


RH =
e ( pµh + nµe )2

From above equation, the Hall coefficient and Hall voltage are smaller
for intrinsic materials than for extrinsic materials
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 12: An n-type germanium sample has a donor density of

1021 /m3 . It is arranged in a Hall experiment having magnetic field of
0.5 T and the current density is 500 A/m3 . Find the Hall voltage if the
sample is 3 mm wide
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 12: An n-type germanium sample has a donor density of

1021 /m3 . It is arranged in a Hall experiment having magnetic field of
0.5 T and the current density is 500 A/m3 . Find the Hall voltage if the
sample is 3 mm wide
Solution :
BI BJ A BJwt
VH = = =
net net net
as n = ND
BJw
VH =
ND e
(0.5 T ) 500 A/m2 3 × 10−3 m



=
(1021 /m3 ) (1.602 × 10−19 C )
= 4.7 × 10−3 V
= 4.7 mV
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 13 : In a Hall coefficient experiment, a current of 0.2 A is sent

through a metal strip having thickness 0.2 mm and width 5 mm. The Hall
voltage is found to be 0.15 mV when a megnetic field of 2000 gauss is
used.
(a) What is the carrier concentration?
(b) What is the drift velocity of the carriers?
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 13 : In a Hall coefficient experiment, a current of 0.2 A is sent

through a metal strip having thickness 0.2 mm and width 5 mm. The Hall
voltage is found to be 0.15 mV when a megnetic field of 2000 gauss is
used.
(a) What is the carrier concentration?
(b) What is the drift velocity of the carriers?
Solution : (a) The carrier concentration,

IB
n=
VH et
0.25 × 0.2
=
0.15 × 10−3 × 1.602 × 10−19 × 0.2 × 10−3
= 1.04 × 1025 carriers/m3
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Example

Example 13 : In a Hall coefficient experiment, a current of 0.2 A is sent

through a metal strip having thickness 0.2 mm and width 5 mm. The Hall
voltage is found to be 0.15 mV when a megnetic field of 2000 gauss is
used.
(a) What is the carrier concentration?
(b) What is the drift velocity of the carriers?
Solution : (b) Drift velocity of the carriers,

VH
vd =
wB
0.15 × 10−3
=
5 × 10−3 × 0.2
= 0.15 V/m.T
= 0.15 m/s
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
Generation and Recombination
Carrier Transport
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
Generation and Recombination
Carrier Transport
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Generation and Recombination

In semiconductor a single event of covalent bond breaking leads to

the generation of two charge carriers, an electron in the conduction
band and a hole in the valence band
The electron and hole are simultaneously as a pair and the process is
called electron-hole pair generation
Rupture
Covalent bond + Thermal energy −−−−→ (Electron + Hole) pair

In the process of generation, a covelant bond is broken and bound

electron is transformed into a free electron
The bond breaking occurs due to thermal energy or optical
illumination
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Generation and Recombination

At any temperature T, the number of electrons (n) generated would

be equal to the number of holes ( p) produced

n=p

The electrons move in the conduction band and the holes move in the
valence band
Their motion is at random in the respective bands in absence of an
external electric field
The electron in conduction band may lose its energy due to collision
with other particles in the lattice and fall into the valence band
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Generation and Recombination

When a free electron falls into valence band, it merges with a hole
This process is called recombination
When a recombination event occurs, the free electron again makes
covalent bond with the another electron from neighbouring atom and
energy is released in the form of thermal energy

Electron + Hole → Covalent bond + Energy ↑

At a steady temperature a dynamic equilibrium exists which balances

the electron-hole pair generation and electron-hole pair recombination
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Generation and Recombination

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

1 Introduction

2 Intrinsic Semiconductor

3 Extrinsic Semiconductor

4 Dependence of Fermi Level on Carrier-Concentration and Temperature

5 Hall Effect

6 p-n Junction
Generation and Recombination
Carrier Transport
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Under the condition of thermal equilibrium,the electrons and holes are

uniformly distributed in the crystal and in the absence of an external
force their average velocity is zero and no current flows through the
crystal
This is equally true for an intrinsic or an extrinsic semiconductor
The thermal equilibrium may be disturbed by electric field and
concentration gradients and motion of charge carriers in one direction
leads to a flow of current in the material
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Drift Current

When an electric field E is applied across a semiconductor, the charge

carriers acquire a directional motion over and above their thermal
motion and produce drift current
The electrons drifting in the conduction band produce a current
component Je

Je (drift) = neµe E

The holes drifting in the valence band cause a current component Jh

given by

Jh (drift) = peµh E

Total drift current density is

Jdr = Je (drift) + Jh (drift)

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Drift Current

Drift current occurs only when external electric field is present across
the solid
Although electrons and holes move in opposite directions, the
direction of conventional current flow due to both the carriers is in
the same direction

Jdr = e (nµe + pµh ) E

 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Diffusion Current

In case of semiconductors, current can also flow without the

application of an external electric field
If a spatial variation of carrier density is created spatial in in the
semiconductor, current flows in it
If we consider an arbitrary surface in the volume of the solid and if
there are more charge carriers on its one side than on the other side,
we say there is a concentration gradient
This concentration gradient causes a directional movement of charge
carriers, which continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed
throughout the material
Any movement of charge carriers constitutes an electric current, and
this type of movement produces a current component known as
diffusion current
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Diffusion Current

Concentration gradient may be

produced in an extrinsic
semiconductor by applying heat
or light locally at one region
Suppose an external agent such
as light or heat acts
momentarily at one end of a
p-type semiconductor, as shown
in the figure
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Diffusion Current

The extermal agent generates additional electron-hole pairs leading to

a sudden increase in the concentration of charge carriers at that end
In the rest of the volume, the concentration of carriers is at
equilibrium value
The difference in the concentration of charge carriers initiates the
cariers to diffuse from the region of higher concentration to the region
of lower concentration in order to restore the equilibrium condition
As the carriers are charged particles, their migration produces a
current flow, which is the diffusion current
The diffusion current strength is proportional to the concentration
gradient i.e. the rate of change of carrier concentration per unit
length
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Diffusion Current

In case of electrons moving left to right, current flows from right to

left in the negative x-direction
The current component due to electron diffusion is given by

dn
Je (diff) = eDe
dx
The current component due to hole diffusion is given as

dp
Jh (diff) = −eDh
dx
De and Dh are diffusion coefficients for electrons and holes
respectively
 Introduction Initrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Fermi Level Hall Effect p-n Junction

Drift and Diffusion Currents

Diffusion Current

Drift and diffusion currents coexist in semiconductors

The total current density due to drift and diffusion electrons may be
written as
 
dn
Je = e nµe E + De
dx

Similarly for holes

 
dp
Jh = e pµh E − Dh
dx