A PROJECT/SEMINAR REPORT ON

INKJET /PRINTABLE SOLAR CELL

Submitted to the Laxminarayan Institute of Technology,

Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
University, Nagpur in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Award of the Degree of

B. Tech. (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING)

BY
Mr. DEVESH JICHKAR

VII Semester B.Tech (Chemical Engineering)

Department of ChemicaEngineering
Laxminarayan Institute OF
Technology,
Opposite to Bharatnagar, Amaravati
Road, Nagpur–440033 June 2021
 ABSTRACT

The undergraduate program of study requires that each student conducts

an engineering project/seminar in their area of engineering and submits a
report on it in consultation with the faculty member(s) supervising the
same. The Bachelor’s Project/seminar is included in the curriculum with
a view to synthesise the education gathered during the various courses
credited by the student during the undergraduate program at LIT
NAGPUR. Creating a report of the project/seminar is part of the training
of skill building of the student on of technical communication. Here the
emphasis is on presenting a technical matter in an objective written form.

This document is a record of the requirements for preparation of the

Report of the Bachelor of Technology Project/seminar submitted at the
end of the undergraduate program of study. It prescribes typical contents
that a Bachelor of Technology Project/seminar Report usually should
contain, and provides the format of its presentation. Some guidelines are
mandatory to follow during the preparation of the report, while the
others help in improving the presentation of the work accomplished in
the project/seminar.

All students pursuing Bachelor of Technology Projects are urged to read

the contents and form of this document carefully, and prepare their
Bachelor of Technology Project Report as prescribed. It is hoped that this
document will lead to a modest beginning in the Institute towards
imparting education in professional written presentations.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This document is prepared by the inspiration received

from Prof. Bharat A. Bhanvase, Associate Professor,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan
Institute of Technology. Many colleagues at Chemical
Engineering Department have carefully read and
improved the document; their contributions are
gratefully acknowledged.
DATE : MR.DEVESH JICHKAR
 LAXMINARAYAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur
Opposite to Bharatnagar, Amaravati Road,
Nagpur – 440033
APRIL 2021
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that the project/seminar work entitled
“INKJET/ PRINTABLE SOLAR CELL”
Submitted by
Mr. DEVESH JICHKAR

is the original work carried out by them under the

supervision of Prof. Dr.R.P Ugwekar and is approved for the
partial fulfilment of the requirement of Rashtrasant Tukadoji
Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur for the award of the B.
Tech. Degree (Chemical Engineering)
This Project/seminar Work has not been earlier submitted to
any other Institute or University for the award of any degree or
diploma.

Dr. R.P Ugwekar Dr. B.A Bhanvas

Guide, Head,

Department of Chemical Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering
S TITLE P
R A
G
N E
O N
O

1 HISTORY

INTRODUCTION

MARKET POTENTIAL

ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Paper by Sang-HoonBae123 HongxiangZhao
123
Yao-TsungHsieh123
LijianZuo123NicholasDe Marco12You SeungR
im12GangLi14 YangYang12

2. Paper by ANDREW STEPLETON .

3 REFERENCES

4 CONCLUSION
5
SEMINAR TITLE : INKJET SOLAR CELL

CHAPTER : 1
HISTORY :
The first case of printed electronics was seen in 1903 when Albert
Hanson filed a patent for "printed" wire. After that the radio drove the
industry of printed electronics forward. Until recently inkjet printers
have not been used in the printed electronics industry. Industry has
decided to move towards inkjet printing because of its low cost and
flexibility of use.[8] One of these used is the inkjet solar cell. The first
instance of constructing a solar cell with an inkjet printer was by
Konarka in 2008.[9] In 2011 Oregon State University was able to
discover a way to create CIGS solar cells using an inkjet printer. In the
same year MIT was able to create a solar cell using an inkjet printer on
paper. The use of an inkjet printer to make solar cells is very new and is
still being researched.[10] In 2014, Olga Malinkiewicz presented her
inkjet printing manufacturing process for perovskite sheets in Boston
(USA) during the MRS fall meeting - for which she
received MIT Technology review's innovators under 35 award .
Inkjet solar cell :
Inkjet solar cells are solar cells manufactured by low-cost, high
tech methods that use an inkjet printer to lay down
the semiconductor material and the electrodes onto a solar cell substrate.
In general inkjet solar cells are made by using an inkjet printer to put
down the semiconductor material and electrodes onto a solar cell
substrate.[12] Both organic and inorganic solar cells can be made using
the inkjet method. Inkjet printed inorganic solar cells are
mainly CIGS solar cells. The organic solar cells are polymer solar cells.
The inkjet printing of hybrid perovskite solar cells is also possible. The
most important component of the ink is the functional material: a metal
salt mixture (CIGS), a polymer fullerene blend (polymer solar cells) or a
precursor of mixed organic and inorganic salts (perovskite solar cells).
These components are dissolved in an appropriate solvent. Additional
components might be added to affect the viscosity and the surface
tension of the ink for improved printability and wetting on the substrate.
The ink is contained in a cartridge from where it is transferred onto a
substrate which can vary. The printing is accomplished usually by a
piezoelectric driver in the nozzles of the printhead, that is programmed
to apply pre-set patterns of pressure to eject droplets. In most cases
several layers of functional materials are deposited on top of each other
to generate a working solar cell. The entire printing process can be done
in ambient conditions, though in most cases further heat treatments are
needed. Important factors for the efficiency of inkjet printed organic
solar cells are the inkjet latency time, the inkjet printing table
temperature, and the effect of the chemical properties of the polymer
donor.
TYPES OF PRINTABLE SOLAR CELL :
- Perovskite solar cell
- CIGS solar cell
- Organic solar cell

1. PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELL

A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell which
includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a
hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the
light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such
as methylammonium lead halides and all-inorganic cesium lead
halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture .

Solar cell efficiencies of laboratory-scale devices using these

materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009[3] to 25.5% in 2020 in
single-junction architectures,[4] and, in silicon-based tandem cells,
to 29.15%,[4] exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in
single-junction silicon solar cells. Perovskite solar cells have
therefore been the fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016.
[1]
 With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very
low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become
commercially attractive. Core problems and research subjects
include their short- and long-term stability.

2. CIGS SOLAR CELL

Copper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) is a I-III-

VI2 semiconductor material composed of copper, indium, gallium,
and selenium. The material is a solid solution of copper indium
selenide (often abbreviated "CIS") and copper gallium selenide.
It has a chemical formula of CuIn(1-x)Ga(x)Se2 where the value of x
can vary from 0 (pure copper indium selenide) to 1 (pure copper
gallium selenide). CIGS is a tetrahedrally bonded semiconductor,
with the chalcopyrite crystal structure, and a bandgap varying
continuously with x from about 1.0 eV (for copper indium
selenide) to about 1.7 eV (for copper gallium selenide).

It is best known as the material for CIGS solar cells a thin-film

technology used in the photovoltaic industry.[2] In this role, CIGS
has the advantage of being able to be deposited on flexible
substrate materials, producing highly flexible, lightweight solar
panels. Improvements in efficiency have made CIGS an
established technology among alternative cell materials.
 3. Organic solar cell :
An organic solar cell (OSC) or plastic solar cell is a type of
photovoltaic that uses organic electronics, a branch of electronics
that deals with conductive organic polymers or small organic
molecules,[2] for light absorption and charge transport to
produce electricity from sunlight by the photovoltaic effect. Most
organic photovoltaic cells are polymer solar cells.
The molecules used in organic solar cells are solution-processable
at high throughput and are cheap, resulting in low production costs
to fabricate a large volume.[3] Combined with the flexibility of
organic molecules, organic solar cells are potentially cost-effective
for photovoltaic applications.[4] Molecular engineering (e.g.
changing the length and functional groupof polymers) can change
the band gap, allowing for electronic tunability. The optical
absorption coefficient of organic molecules is high, so a large
amount of light can be absorbed with a small amount of materials,
usually on the order of hundreds of nanometers. The main
disadvantages associated with organic photovoltaic cells are
low efficiency, low stability and low strength compared to
inorganic photovoltaic cells such as silicon solar cells.
Polymer solar cells inefficiency and stability problems,[6] combined
with their promise of low costs[7] and increased efficiency[8] made
them a popular field in solar cell research. As of 2015, polymer
solar cells were able to achieve over 10% efficiency via a tandem
structure.[9] In 2018, a record breaking efficiency for organic
photovoltaics of 17.3% was reached via tandem structure.
MARKET POTENTIAL AND COMPANIES ALLOWED :
Printable Solar Cells Market: Low Cost Solar Technology
 Printable solar cells technology is on the verge of commercialization.
Printable solar cells are made from specifically developed solar ink
technology.
 A team of scientist from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia, has been extensively
working on the development of printable solar panels for the last few
years.
 Solar ink comprises metal salts and a blend of polymer-fullerene.
The ink consists of a photoactive layer made of p-type polymer and
n-type fullerene. This is combined with the anode employed on the
substrate.
 The solar ink system can be applied on layered coatings with the help
of inkjet printing technology. The major advantage of printable solar
cell is the negligible cost of manufacturing these cells, due to the
continuously falling prices of silicon material across the globe. 
Key Drivers of Printable Solar Cells market
 Increase in demand for electricity across the globe is a primary driver
of the printable solar cell market, and it is likely to expand at a
significant pace in the near future. Printable solar cells have the
capability to provide constant electricity for residential and
commercial buildings. This is projected to fuel the printable solar
cells market during the forecast period.
 Printable solar cells possess the ability to provide electricity from a
number of resources such as walls, roller blinds, shade umbrellas,
curtains, and tents. These applications are expected to provide an
abundance of electric power to residential houses and non-residential
buildings around the globe. These factors are anticipated to boost the
printable solar cells market in the near future.
 Expansion of the global solar industry is estimated to propel the
demand for printable solar cells owing to their low-cost advantage
over conventional silicon PV cells. However, a rise in demand for
 affordable solar power components, including solar panels, is
expected to fuel the printable solar cells market in the near future.
 Photovoltaic cell provide better performance at the good cost but
there are not flexible in nature. Hence these are not user friendly in
terms of installation. However, the low cost for printable solar cells
coupled with their flexible designing is anticipate to fuel the demand
after commercialization of these solar cells.
 Printable solar cells can be directly integrated during the construction
instead of adding solar module and arrays to an existing building or
home. This is turns, reduce the installation costs and make the
printable solar cell cost efficient in nature.
 Further, the printable solar cells can effortlessly change their shape
and design to provide for aesthetically better enhancements to a
building’s façade. 

Better Efficiency from Counterparts to Hamper Market:

 The printable solar cells market is expected to face intense

competition from counterparts such as silicon material photovoltaic
cells. The conventional counterparts including silicon solar PV cells
are 25% efficient. However, the latest development of printable solar
cells technology has been providing up to 10% efficiency as
compared to the solar PV cells. This factor is projected to hinder the
printable solar cells market during the forecast period.
 Newly developed printable solar cells by the group of scientist from
the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia, possess a lifespan of up to six months. However,
conventional silicon solar PV cells possess a longer lifespan, which
is a key factor that is likely to restrain the printable solar cells market
in the near future.
 Improvements to enhance the lifespan of printable solar cells along
with the resistance to extreme environmental conditions require a
strong focus on research and development. These developments are
projected to fuel .
Key Highlights on Printable Solar Cells Manufacturing Technology:
 Victorian Organic Solar Cell Consortium (VICOSC) has proposed
key manufacturing technology such as Bulk Heterojunction Solar
Cells and Dye Sensitised Solar Cells (DSSC).
 Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells is an organic solar cell technology
major that uses flexible solar cells made with polymers. These
polymer solar cells are also called as plastic solar cells. It is a type of
thin film solar cell technology.
 Furthermore, Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) is considered as an
efficient type of thin film photovoltaic cells technology. It utilizes
nanoparticles of titanium dioxide with a layer of light harvesting
dyes. DSSC is easy to manufacture by using conventional roll
printing technology. These factors are projected to fuel the printable
solar cells market in the near future. 
Asia Pacific expected to hold key share in the global printable solar
cells market
 In terms of region, the global printable solar cells can be split into
four regions: North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, and Rest of
World.
 Asia Pacific is projected to lead the global printable solar cells
market during the forecast period. Australia has proven to be a
potential pioneer of printable solar cell technology for the last few
years, owing to the extensive R&D on solar technology. This is a key
factor that is projected to fuel the printable solar cells market in Asia
Pacific during the forecast period.
 Additionally, the U.S, Germany, the U.K., and Japan are projected to
hold major shares of the global printable solar cells market during
the forecast period. These countries have a strong presence of several
major players operating in the solar industry. These major countries
have the potential technology to develop and manufacture printable
solar cells with higher efficiency in the near future. 
Key players operating in the printable solar cells market

Printable solar cells manufacturing companies are operating at the global

level. These companies are investing in R&D and strongly focusing on
enhancing efficiency and life span of printable solar cells. Some of the
Key players operating in the printable solar cells market include

 Nanosolar Corporation
 InfinityPV ApS
 E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company
 Triton Solar LLC 
Global Printable Solar Cells Market: Research Scope 
Global Printable Solar Cells Market, by Tentative Application
 Solar Panel

 Electronic
Global Printable Solar Cells Market, by Tentative Technology
 Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells

 Dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC)

This study by TMR is all-encompassing framework of the dynamics of

the market. It mainly comprises critical assessment of consumers' or
customers' journeys, current and emerging avenues, and strategic
framework to enable CXOs take effective decisions.

Our key underpinning is the 4-Quadrant Framework EIRS that offers

detailed visualization of four elements:

 Customer Experience Maps
 Insights and Tools based on data-driven research
 Actionable Results to meet all the business priorities
 Strategic Frameworks to boost the growth journey

The study strives to evaluate the current and future growth prospects,
untapped avenues, factors shaping their revenue potential, and demand
and consumption patterns in the global market by breaking it into
region-wise assessment.

The following regional segments are covered comprehensively:

 North America
 Asia Pacific
 Europe
 Latin America
 The Middle East and Africa

The EIRS quadrant framework in the report sums up our wide spectrum
of data-driven research and advisory for CXOs to help them make better
decisions for their businesses and stay as leaders.
ADVANTAGES OF PRINTABLE SOLAR CELL :
The main advantage to printing solar cells with an inkjet printer is
the low cost of production. The reason it is cheaper than other
methods is because no vacuum is necessary which makes the
equipment cheaper. Also, the ink is a low cost metal salt blend
reducing the cost of the solar cells. There is very little waste of
material in comparison to other methods like vapor phase
deposition when using inkjet printers to lay down the
semiconductor material. This is because the printer is able to create
precise patterning with little waste. Some inkjet solar cells use the
material CIGS which has more solar efficiency than the traditional
silicon solar panels. Using CIGS makes it very important to have
little waste due to how rare some of the materials in it are. This
method is also environmentally friendly because it does not require
the use of toxic chemicals to prepare the solar cell like other
methods do.

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR CELL ;

1. The efficiency of inkjet solar cells are too low to be
commercially viable. Even if the efficiency gets better the
materials used for the solar cells could be a problem. Indium
is a rare material used in these cells and could be gone within
15 years according to our current usage. Another issue is
creating a weather resistant ink tha
LITERATURE SURVEY :
Printable Solar Cells from Advanced Solution-Processible Materials
Sang-HoonBae123 HongxiangZhao 123 Yao-TsungHsieh123
LijianZuo123NicholasDe Marco12You SeungRim12GangLi14 YangYang12

In this review, we provide a general introduction to solar cells and

representative solution-processible solar cell fields, including organic,
inorganic, and organic-inorganic hybrid solar cells, which are useful in
lowering the production cost of solar cells. The historical developments
and properties of each type of solar cell are introduced, along with
important discoveries. Also, we discuss the key challenges of each field
and the recent progress.
Because we cover only solution-processible single-junction solar cells,
we recommend articles dealing with non-solution-processible solar cells,
such as Si and III-V solar cells, or some approaches beyond single
junctions, such as tandem cells and light management. Combining these
research efforts will further improve solar technology, allowing it to
finally contribute to powering territorial applications.
Considering the terawatt global demand for energy, studies on
renewable energy resources are regarded as one of the most important
issues. Among the available renewable energy resources, solar energy is
a strong candidate because of its abundance and clean nature. Traditional
solar cells are typically not cost effective for large-scale implementation
given the high processing costs. Solution-processible solar cells have
been of great interest among researchers over the past few decades in an
effort to lower the costs of solar technologies because they are more
affordable than conventional solar technologies. In this review, we
provide an overview of the major solution-processible thin-film solar
cell technologies by focusing on three representative fields: polymeric
organic, inorganic chalcogenide, and organic-inorganic
hybrid perovskite solar cells. This review describes the historical
development, material properties, device structures, and highest
performance of each technology under a single-junction configuration.
In addition, the challenges of each technology and the future outlook are
briefly discussed.
A hole-conductor–free, fully printable mesoscopic
perovskite solar cell with high stability
ANYI MEIXIONG LILINFENG LIUZHILIANG KUTONGFA LIUYA
OGUANG RONGMI XUMIN HUJIANGZHAO CHEN[...]HONGWEI 
HAN

We fabricated a perovskite solar cell that uses a double layer of

mesoporous TiO2 and ZrO2 as a scaffold infiltrated with perovskite and
does not require a hole-conducting layer. The perovskite was produced
by drop-casting a solution of PbI2, methylammonium (MA) iodide, and
5-ammoniumvaleric acid (5-AVA) iodide through a porous carbon film.
The 5-AVA templating created mixed-cation perovskite (5-
AVA)x(MA)1-xPbI3 crystals with lower defect concentration and better
pore filling as well as more complete contact with the TiO2 scaffold,
resulting in a longer exciton lifetime and a higher quantum yield for
photoinduced charge separation as compared to MAPbI3. The cell
achieved a certified power conversion efficiency of 12.8% and was
stable for >1000 hours in ambient air under full sunlight .

These Ultra-Stable, Printable Solar Cells Can Last For

More Than 10,000 Hours

BY ANDREW STAPLETON
A team of scientists has created a low cost, fully printable solar cell that
has remained stable in real world conditions for over one year,
moving these record breaking solar cells from the lab to the commercial
world. The solar cells were made from a special class of materials called
perovskites.
Perovskites are a type of mineral which, since being used in solar cells
in 2009, have been championed as the 'next big thing' in renewable
energy. These minerals have some interesting properties such
as superconductivity, magnetoresistance and ionic conductivity which
are really important for microelectronics.
In 2016, perovskites were theorised to be capable of producing solar
cells with a maximum efficiency of 31 percent – higher than even the
best current commercial silicon solar technology.
Although perovskite solar cells are easy to make and have achieved an
efficiency of over 22 percent in the lab, once they are deployed in the
real-world moisture and oxygen quickly destroy their solar harvesting
capabilities.
Similar fates have slowed the production of other printable solar cells
based on conducting polymer technology capable of being printed on the
same technology as polymer bank notes.
Scientists from Switzerland have overcome this limitation by using a
new type of perovskite solar cell structure to create a cell that has an
operational stability of over one year at 11.2 percent efficiency – close to
the typical efficiency of many silicon-based rooftop solar panels.
The team created a hybrid 2D/3D perovskite solar cell. It used two
different types of perovskites to impart two properties that are equality
important for achieving long life efficiency – oxygen and water
resistance, and charge transport.
The 2D perovskite acts as a protective window against moisture,
preserving the 3D perovskite's electricity generating ability.
The two different types of perovskite were created with a simple wet
chemistry method in a test tube and mixed together at various ratios to
optimise the solar cell.
"The important finding in this manuscript is identifying the presence of
multi-dimensional 2D/3D interface," Mohammad Khaja Nazeeruddin,
project leader from Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, told
ScienceAlert.
"We believe [this] will trigger many further studies... widening the
prospects for perovskite photovoltaics."
The hybrid 2D/3D perovskite solar cells were made layer by layer, like a
sandwich, by placing different solar cell 'ingredients' on top of each
other.
To demonstrate the manufacturing potential of the technology, the
scientists made a 10x10 cm solar panel that looked something like this:

Éc
ole Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne
This solar cell that could last more than 10,000 hours under standard
conditions and the maximum efficiency achieved by the 2D/3D
perovskite combination was 14.6 percent.
In the future, they hope that further optimisation of the internal structure
of the device will continue to push perovskite solar cells much closer to
their theoretical efficiency.
"Further interface engineering by functionalised multi-dimensional
2D/3D interfaces, and preferential orientation of perovskite crystals
would be the focus of our laboratory" said Nazeeruddin.
Low cost, printable and long life solar panels are closer than ever and it
looks like it's ready to leave the safety of the laboratory.

Australian University Creates Ultra-Thin Solar Panels That

Can Be Printed Like Newspapers

Written by Mark Newton

An Australian University has claimed a breakthrough in the

development of wafer thin, cheap solar panels. The University of
Newcastle Centre of Organic Electronics in Callaghan, New South
Wales has created printable photovoltaic solar cells which, it has been
claimed, could revolutionise urban power generation.

The panels, which are only 0.075 millimetres thick, were created with
proprietary technology making use of organic polymers which can
capture solar energy and conduct electricity. Traditional photovoltaic
solar panels rely on silicon to carry out these functions and can often
weigh up to 15 kilograms per square metre. What’s more, the liquid
nature of the organic polymer means it can be printed from printers
much like those used to mass produce newspapers and books.

According to University of Newcastle physics professor Paul Dastoor,

printed solar technology could be used to fit into a number of broad
applications, such as power for street lights, water pumps, disaster
shelters, camping equipment, building smart blinds for buildings and
even powering vehicles. Another application, missing from media
reports but present on the project’s website, is the potential military
utility of such technology.

The cost of production is also much cheaper than traditional panels,

coming in at around 10 AUD per square metre. The University’s
Institute for Energy and Resources (NIER) can produce hundreds of
metres of material daily, but it is hoped a full scale commercial plant
could print kilometres of solar panels a day. The printed sheets can also
be stuck, with a special adhesive tape, to a variety of surfaces, meaning
no expensive and intrusive installation methods.

The technology is currently on public display at the 'The Canopy', a

new community precinct built in Lane Cove on Sydney’s north shore.
The panels, which are attached to a covered walkway, generate power
for a series of lights that come on at night and track passersby with
sensors.
REFERENCES :

 Seidman, Bianca. "Inkjet printing solar panels: cheap and almost

green". PBS.
 Rhodes, Chris. "14% Efficiency for Thin-Film Solar Cells, but
Where Will the Indium Come From?".
 Savastano, David. "Inkjet is Making Gains in Printed Electronics".
1.Ma H, Yip H, Huang F, Jen AK. Interface Engineering for Organic
Electronics. Adv. Funct. Mater.. 20(9):1371-
1388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200902236
2.Green MA, Emery K, Hishikawa Y, Warta W, Dunlop ED. 2012. Sola
r cell efficiency tables (version 40). Prog. Photovolt: Res.
Appl.. 20(5):606-614. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.2267
3.Kumar P, Chand S. 2012. Recent progress and future aspects of
organic solar cells. Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl.. 20(4):377-
415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.1141
4.Singh M, Haverinen HM, Dhagat P, Jabbour GE. 2010. Inkjet
Printing-Process and Its Applications. Adv. Mater.. 22(6):673-
685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adma.200901141
5.Hoth CN, Schilinsky P, Choulis SA, Brabec CJ. 2008. Printing Highly
Efficient Organic Solar Cells. Nano Lett.. 8(9):2806-
2813. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/nl801365k
6.Galagan Y, J.M. Rubingh J, Andriessen R, Fan C, W.M. Blom P, C.
Veenstra S, M. Kroon J. 2011. ITO-free flexible organic solar cells with
printed current collecting grids. Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells. 95(5):1339-1343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2010.08.01
1
7.Möller M, Leyland N, Copeland G, Cassidy M. 2010. 
CONCLUSION :

Second-generation Thin-film PV technologies are attractive

because of their low material and manufacturing costs, but this
has to be balanced by lower efficiencies than those obtained
from first-generation technologies. Thin-film technologies are
less mature than first generation PV and still have a modest
market share, except for utility-scale systems. They are
struggling to compete with very low c-Si module prices and
also face issues of durability, materials availability and
materials toxicity (in the case of Cadmium).

Third-generation technologies are yet to be commercialized

at any scale. Concentrating PV has the potential to have the
highest efficiency of any PV module, Other organic or hybrid
organic/conventional (DSSC) PV They offer low efficiency,
but also low cost and weight, and free-form shaping.
Therefore, they could fill niche markets (e.g. mobile
applications) where these features are required .