Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186

DOI 10.1007/s40688-014-0010-1

The Relationship between Mental Health, Acculturative

Stress, and Academic Performance in a Latino Middle School
Sample
Loren J. Albeg & Sara M. Castro-Olivo

Published online: 27 February 2014

# California Association of School Psychologists 2014

Abstract This study evaluated the relationship between ac- have a negative impact in our entire society (Broidy et al.
culturative stress, symptoms of internalizing mental health 2003; Loeber et al. 1998). The President’s New Freedom
problems, and academic performance in a sample of 94 Latino Commission on Mental Health (2003) reported that children
middle school students. Students reported on symptoms in- with serious emotional disturbances have the highest rates of
dicative of depression and anxiety related problems and ac- school failure; 50 % of these students drop out of high school.
culturative stress. Teachers reported on students’ academic This finding suggests not only a serious failing of the public
behavior and performance. Acculturative stress and symptoms school system in preparing all students for graduation, but also
of internalizing mental health problems were found to have a the important role that children’s mental health plays in their
significant inverse association with students’ academic per- educational achievement.
formance. Implications for the development of culturally res- In a time in which academic accountability is a high prior-
ponsive interventions that address mental health problems and ity, schools should do everything they can, including focusing
acculturative stress are discussed. on the mental health needs of children, to ensure that every
child gets the best chance to succeed academically. Students
Keywords Latino middle school students’ mental health . cannot afford to lose valuable learning opportunities because
Acculturative stress . Acculturative stress and academic of their untreated mental health-related problems. In address-
performance . Cultural issues in academic performance ing these issues, schools have been encouraged by the United
States Department of Human Health Services (USDHHS) and
the National Association of School Psychology (NASP) to
Introduction place an emphasis on addressing the mental health needs of all
students, and in particular of ethnic minority students, as there
It is estimated that 21 % of children in the United States have a is considerable evidence that suggests that mental health is-
diagnosable mental health disorder that is at least mildly sues, and under utilization of services, are more prevalent
disruptive to their daily functioning (U.S. Department of among this population (Gonzales and Kim 1997; Gudiño
Human Health Services [USDHHS] 1999). More alarming et al. 2009; National Association of School Psychologists
are the statistics that suggest that 14 to 40 percent of students [NASP] 2008; USDHHS 2001).
identified as needing mental health support never receive the In the United States, ethnic minority students comprise
appropriate professional help to function well in our society 42 % of the school-age population (National Center for Edu-
(Burns et al. 1995; Gudiño et al. 2009; Kataoka et al. 2002). cation Statistics [NCES] 2008). This estimate is even higher in
Children whose mental health needs go unmet have been states such as California, where ethnic minority students com-
found to experience serious problems as adults; problems that prise almost 70 % of the school-age population (NCES 2008).
Among the fastest growing ethnic minority groups are Lati-
L. J. Albeg : S. M. Castro-Olivo (*) nos, who comprise 21 % of the school-age population in the
University of California, Riverside, CA, USA country and 50 % in states such as California (Aud et al.
e-mail: sara.castroolivo@ucr.edu 2010). By 2050, the number of school-age Latino students is
L. J. Albeg projected to increase by 166 % (Fry and Gonzales 2008).
e-mail: lalbe002@ucr.edu Unfortunately, Latino students have been found to not only
Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186 179

be more likely to drop out of school than Caucasian and being delivered must be derived from the risk and protective
African American students but also more likely to experience factors identified as significant for the target population
anxiety-related and delinquency problem behaviors, depres- (Bernal et al. 1995; Castro et al. 2004). Therefore, this study
sion, and drug use (National Center for Chronic Disease focuses on examining the relationship of internalizing mental
Prevention and Health Promotion 2008; NCES 2008; U.S. health symptoms and acculturative stress on Latino students'
Census Bureau 2000). This suggests that U.S. schools may academic performance. The following section, provides a
not be offering an educational environment that is ready to review of the extant literature on the documented relationships
support the needs of Latino students overall, especially for between mental health and academic performance; accultura-
those with mental health needs. Both the American Psycho- tive stress and mental health; and acculturative stress and
logical Association (APA 2002) and the National Association academic performance. Research on both mainstream and
of School Psychologists (NASP 2008) have issued guidelines ethnic minorities is summarized and an emphasis is placed
that require that mental health care providers offer culturally on how these relationships impact these outcomes for Latino
competent services. However, APA and NASP provide little students in particular.
information on how these services should be carried out in the
schools. Mental Health, Acculturative Stress, and Academic
Although the literature almost exclusively focuses on con- Performance
ventional mental health related symptoms (e.g. depression,
anxiety, aggression, hyperactivity) as contributors to poor Mental health and academic performance The relationship
academic performance, culturally focused researchers argue between mental health problems (e.g. symptoms of depres-
that these symptoms may not fully capture the mental health sion, anxiety, aggression) and academic performance in chil-
problems of ethnic minority groups such as Latinos. Accord- dren and adolescents has been well documented (Matthews
ingly, acculturative stress has been proposed as a culturally et al. 2009; Mistry et al. 2009; Schwartz and Gorman 2003).
specific aspect of the mental health of ethnic minority groups Mental health problems, both internalizing (e.g. depression,
and as a unique contributor to the poor academic performance post-traumatic stress symptoms; Matthews et al. 2009; Mistry
of Latino youth (Alva and de los Reyes 1999; Blanco-Vega et al. 2009; Schwartz and Gorman 2003) and externalizing
et al. 2008; Schwartz et al. 2007). Acculturative stress has (e.g. aggression, hyperactivity; Schwartz and Gorman 2003),
been defined as the psychosocial stressors associated with have been linked to lower grade point averages and decreased
being part of two conflicting cultures and the perceived need school engagement. In regard to the relationship between
to conform to the host culture to avoid discrimination (Mena internalizing mental health problems and academic perfor-
et al. 1987). The literature suggests that acculturative stress mance, Matthews et al. (2009) reported an inverse relationship
may be a critical construct for school professionals and para- between post-traumatic stress and academic performance in
professionals to consider when attempting to engage in cul- African American children who were 11 to 13 years old.
turally responsive/competent practices in the schools (Blanco- Similarly, Mistry et al. (2009) found that Chinese American
Vega et al. 2008; Castro-Olivo and Merrell 2012). However, adolescents ages 13 and 17 who reported higher levels of
the current research on acculturative stress and school-age depressive symptoms were not only more likely to have lower
children is limited. There is a need to test the relationship grade point averages, but also to have lower levels of school
between acculturative stress and academic performance. engagement and less-positive attitudes about school. In regard
Knowing that a student is at risk for acculturative stress can to the relationship between externalizing mental health prob-
help mental health care professionals develop and deliver lems and academic performance, Schwartz and Gorman
culturally sensitive interventions that are more relevant to (2003) found that urban elementary school children who
the needs of the target students. The importance of considering presented with a greater number of disruptive behaviors
acculturative stress in providing culturally responsive inter- (e.g. aggression, hyperactivity) had lower academic
ventions is implicit in the literature, which, although sparse, performance.
notes that acculturative stress is a unique risk factor that puts For the Latino population, the negative relationship be-
ethnic minorities, such as Latinos, at higher risk for negative tween symptoms of mental health problems and academic
social-emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes performance has been hypothesized since the 1970s (Padilla
(Blanco-Vega et al. 2008). and Ruiz 1973). However, little empirical research has been
Although the need for culturally responsive practices in conducted to establish this relationship for this population. In
schools is evident, more research is needed to identify which a recent study, Zychinski and Polo (2012) found that for 133
constructs should be included when engaging in such prac- fifth through seventh grade Latino students, higher reports of
tices. According to Castro et al. (2004), culturally responsive depressive symptoms significantly correlated with lower aca-
practices must be informed by research. For culturally respon- demic achievement. Similarly, Lobato et al. (2011) found that
sive interventions to be considered socially valid, the content Latino youth who had at least one sibling with an intellectual
180 Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186

disability, reported higher levels of internalizing issues and Acculturative stress and academic performance There is very
lower levels of academic functioning. Similar relationships little research on the relationship between acculturative stress
have been documented between externalizing problems and and academic performance of school-age children/
academic functioning among Latino youth (Prelow and adolescents. This is not surprising, given the sparseness of
Loukas 2003). the literature on acculturative stress in general. While there are
studies that have documented the relationship between aca-
Acculturative stress and mental health Acculturative stress is demic performance and related constructs such as perceived
a condition that is relatively understudied, especially in middle discrimination (Alfaro et al. 2009; Bodkin-Andrews et al.
school-age children and adolescents. As defined earlier, ac- 2010; Stone and Han 2005), to our knowledge, only one study
culturative stress refers to the psychosocial stressors associat- specifically examined acculturative stress in relation to aca-
ed with being part of two conflicting cultures and the per- demic performance in school-age children. Schwartz et al.
ceived need to conform to the host culture to avoid discrim- (2007) found evidence supporting the link between accultur-
ination (Mena et al. 1987). Acculturative stress is a potential ative stress and academic achievement. This relationship was
outcome of acculturation, which is the psychosocial process of concurrently examined in 347 Latino adolescents. Participants
adapting to a new culture (Cabassa 2003). Although accultur- were in grades 6 through 8. Most participants were born in the
ation may not be stressful for all acculturating individuals, U.S. Half of participants had at least one parent born in the
navigating language barriers and coping with perceived dis- U.S. Students with very limited English proficiency were
crimination, parent–child acculturative gaps, and the loss of excluded from the study. Measures included the Process-
native cultural values and practices can be a stressful experi- Oriented Stress subscale of the SAFE-C, the Rosenberg
ence. Acculturative stress can lead to depression, anxiety, and Self-Esteem Scale, the U.S. orientation subscale of the Accul-
low self-concept (Blanco-Vega et al. 2008; Ellis et al. 2008; turation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans II (modified to
Gil et al. 1994). Hispanic/Latino), and self-reported grades. Correlational and
Based on our review of the literature, the majority of SEM techniques were used to examine the relationship be-
research on acculturative stress has focused on its relationship tween acculturative stress and academic achievement. Corre-
with internalizing mental health disorders such as post- lations demonstrated an inverse relationship between accul-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. turative stress and self-reported grades (r=−.15, p<.01). In
The relationship between internalizing mental health symp- other words, adolescents who reported higher levels of accul-
toms and acculturative stress has been documented in children turative stress also reported lower grades. In addition, results
and adolescents of a variety of cultural backgrounds. In from their structural equation modeling demonstrated that the
school-age children and adolescents (ranging from 9 to relationship between U.S. orientation and self-reported grades
18 years old), mental health problems, of both an internalizing was mediated by acculturative stress and self-esteem.
and externalizing nature, have been linked to higher levels of In sum, the relationship between mental health and aca-
acculturative stress (Ellis et al. 2008; Suarez-Morales and demic performance has been well documented for mainstream
Lopez 2009; Umaña-Taylor et al. 2011). Ellis et al. (2008), and Latino populations. Although the research in acculturative
in a community-based study, found that English-fluent Somali stress and mental health has established a strong relationship
adolescent refugees (11 to 20 years old) who reported a greater between these two constructs, most of this research has been
number of symptoms related to acculturative stress also re- done with adult populations; highly limiting implications for
ported a greater number of symptoms related to PTSD and school-age children and adolescents. More specifically, re-
depression. Similarly, Suarez-Morales and Lopez (2009) search examining the relationship between acculturative stress
found that Latino preadolescent children (9 to 12 years old) and academic performance is scarce and desperately needed in
who reported higher levels of acculturative stress also reported order to establish the importance of this construct in school-
higher levels of anxiety. Finally, Umaña-Taylor et al. (2011) based culturally responsive/competent practices. The present
found that unmarried Latino adolescent mothers (15 to study presents a preliminary examination of the relationship
18 years old), with various immigration statuses and language between Latino middle school students’ mental health, accul-
preferences, who reported higher levels of acculturative stress turative stress and academic performance.
also reported higher levels of depression and engagement in
risky behaviors. Similar results have been found with non-
Latino culturally and linguistically diverse college-age popu- Purpose
lations in regard to acculturative stress and mental health
(Hwang and Ting 2008). Although the research on accultura- As previously stated, the relationship between mental health
tive stress and mental health is growing, little to no research and acculturative stress, in a Latino middle school population,
has been conducted with adolescent Latino populations be- warrants further examination. The main purpose of this study
tween the ages of 12 and 15 years. is to examine the relationship between mental health
Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186 181

problems, in particular, internalizing symptoms (i.e. depres- primarily composed of low-income Latino students (53 %
sion and anxiety), acculturative stress, and academic perfor- (n=282) of the overall student population). The remainder
mance in Latino middle school students, one of the most of students identified themselves as Asian (27 %; n=146),
prevalent and at-risk ethnic minority groups in U.S. schools African-American (13 %; n=71), and Caucasian (4 %; n=21).
today (Centers for Disease Control 2008; Fry and Gonzales School records indicated that 64 % (n=343) of the student
2008; NCES 2008; U.S. Census Bureau 2000). population were eligible for a free or reduced-price lunch in
This study set out to answer the following research ques- the 2008–2009 school year. Participants were recruited from
tions: 1) Are students’ internalizing symptoms and accultura- 12 different classrooms within these two schools. Students
tive stress levels related to their current academic performance? were only recruited from classrooms with teachers who
2) Does acculturative stress predict students’ academic perfor- responded to a call from the principal to participate in this
mance after controlling for students’ internalizing symptoms? study. Subjects taught in these classrooms were diverse (i.e.
We hypothesized that internalizing symptoms and accul- English Language Development, Science, Math, and regular
turative stress would be inversely correlated with students’ English). A total of 240 students were invited to participate in
academic performance. This hypothesis is consistent with this study but only 154 students returned consent and assent
studies that found an inverse relationship between internaliz- forms. Of those who returned consent and assent forms 55
ing symptoms, acculturative stress (and related constructs were non-Latino; for this study, their data was not included in
such as perceived discrimination), and academic performance the analysis. Further details on data collection procedures are
(Alfaro et al. 2009; Bodkin-Andrews et al. 2010; Matthews described below.
et al. 2009; Mistry et al. 2009; Schwartz and Gorman 2003; The mean age of participants was 12.9 years old, with ages
Schwartz et al. 2007; Stone and Han 2005). We further hy- ranging between 11 and 15. Of the 94 Latino participants, 36
pothesized that, after controlling for internalizing symptoms, were boys and 58 were girls. Eighty-six percent (n=81) re-
acculturative stress would inversely predict current academic ported being born in the U.S., 12 % (n=11) in Mexico, and
performance. This hypothesis is informed by research that 2 % (n=2) in Guatemala. Seventeen percent (n=16) listed
documents the relationship between mental health-related is- their primary language as English, 48 % (n=45) Spanish, and
sues and academic performance (Matthews et al. 2009; Mistry 35 % (n=33) listed two languages. Table 1 presents the
et al. 2009; Schwartz and Gorman 2003), mental health related demographic characteristics of the participating sample.
issues and acculturative stress (Ellis et al. 2008; Suarez-
Morales and Lopez 2009; Umaña-Taylor et al. 2011), and Procedure
acculturative stress (and related constructs such as perceived
discrimination) and academic performance (Alfaro et al. 2009; Once approval from the human subjects institutional review
Bodkin-Andrews et al. 2010; Schwartz et al. 2007; Stone and board from the sponsoring University, and the participating
Han 2005). school districts were obtained, students were recruited during
regular school hours from participating classrooms. Consent
forms and information about the project were sent home with
Method students from the 12 participating classrooms. Only students
who returned signed parental consent and student assent forms
Participants were allowed to participate in this study. Consent forms and
surveys were made available in both English and Spanish.
A total of 94 Latino middle school students participated in this
study, which was conducted during the 2009–2010 school Table 1 Participant Demographics
year. Participants were drawn from sixth (n=8), 7th (n=43),
Variable n %
and eighth (n=43) grade classrooms from two different
schools in Northern and Southern California. The school in Birth Place
Southern California is a public performing arts magnet school United States 81 86
composed primarily of low-income and/or Latino students. Mexico 11 12
For example, 72 % (n=1,172) of their overall student body Guatemala 2 2
identified themselves as Latino, 16 % (n=262) identified Primary Home Language
themselves as African American, 6 % (n=105) identified English 16 17
themselves as Caucasian, and 5 % (n=74) identified them- Spanish 45 48
selves as Asian. In addition, school records indicated that Two Languages 33 35
87 % (n=1,421) of the students were eligible for a free or Ethnicity/Race
reduced-price lunch in the 2008–2009 school year. Likewise, Latino 94 100
the school in Northern California is a public school, also
182 Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186

Trained researchers/research assistants administered the sur- scaled instrument that measures teacher perceptions of stu-
veys in a standardized manner. Survey administration took dents’ academic performance and behaviors in the classroom.
place in a group setting during regular school hours in the Sample items are, “This student comes to class prepared”;
participating students’ classrooms. All instructions and items “This student engages in class discussion”; “This student gets
were read to the students in English (although students were good grades in my class”; and “This student makes the effort
offered the Spanish version, all participants opted to take the to learn.” Previous studies have found this scale to be a
surveys in English). reliable and valid measure (Castro-Olivo 2006), with internal
consistency reliability of α = .95, and inter-rater reliability
Measures ranging from .77 to .95 (Castro-Olivo 2006). The measure
also demonstrated strong internal consistency reliability for
All instruments were administered over the span of one class the current sample at α = .96, and was found to be a valid
period. Participating students filled out surveys on internaliz- measure of academic performance for the current sample, as
ing symptoms and acculturative stress. Participating teachers indicated by its convergence with students’ performance on
were expected to complete the teacher report instrument on the California State Test scores in English Language Arts and
each of the participating students in her or his class while Math from the year prior to this study (r=.39, p<.01; r=.25,
students were completing the battery of surveys. Descriptions p<.05, respectively).
of the instruments are presented below.
The Symptoms Test (by Merrell et al. 2008) was used to Data Analysis
gauge participants’ depressive and anxious symptoms. This
test consists of 10 Likert-scaled items. Some sample items are, Research question # 1: Correlational analyses were used to
“I feel depressed or sad” and “I worry about things.” Previous answer the first research question (Are students’ symptoms of
studies have found the Symptoms Test to be a valid and internalizing mental health problems and acculturative stress
reliable measure (Merrell et al. 2008), with reliability ranging levels related to their current academic performance?)
from α =.70 to .80 and convergence validity with the Chil- Research question # 2: Hierarchical multiple regression
dren’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1992) and the was used to address the second research question (Does ac-
Internalizing Symptoms Scale for Children (ISSC; Merrell culturative stress predict students’ academic performance after
and Walters 1998) ranging from .70 to .88. The Chronbach’s controlling for students’ internalizing symptoms? Adjusted R2
alpha for the current sample was = .82, which suggests that the was used as the primary measure of predictive power, as it is
scale had adequate internal consistency among the current considered to be less biased than population R2 (Agresti and
sample. Finlay 2009). Standardized regression coefficients were used
The Coping with Acculturative Stress in American as the primary measure of change in academic performance
Schools. (CASAS) instrument (by Castro-Olivo et al. 2013) because the predictor variables were not on a comparable
was used to measure participants’ acculturative stress. CASA scale/unit of measurement. This procedure is recommended
S is a 16-item Likert-scaled instrument designed to identify/ by Agresti and Finlay (2009) as a means to achieve more
screen school-age children, from sixth to twelfth grade who meaningful comparisons.
may be experiencing acculturative stress from the cultural Based on the literature, predictors were entered in steps in the
interactions/conflicts between their school and home or social following order: Step 1: internalizyng symptoms, and Step 2:
networks. Sample items are, “I feel bad when my family acculturative stress (Lomax 2007). Internalizing symptoms were
members do not understand the cultural changes that I am entered first because the literature suggests that it is a stronger
experiencing in school” and “It bothers me when kids at predictor of academic performance than is acculturative stress
school make fun of me because of the way I speak English.” (Blanco-Vega et al. 2008; Matthews et al. 2009; Mistry et al.
Castro-Olivo et al. (2013) found the CASAS to be a valid and 2009; Schwartz and Gorman 2003; Schwartz et al. 2007).
reliable measure of acculturative stress, with internal consis-
tency of α = .88, test-retest reliability of r=.84, and concurrent
validity with the Acculturative Stress Inventory for Children Results
(ASIC; Suarez-Morales et al. 2007) to be r=.66, p<.001.
CASAS was found to be reliable for the current sample at Research question # 1: Correlational analyses demonstrated
α = .78. that students’ symptoms of internalizing mental health prob-
To gauge students’ academic performances, participating lems and acculturative stress levels are related to their current
teachers were asked to fill out a brief survey on their obser- academic performance (as reported by teachers’ observations
vations of students’ academic behaviors and performance. of their academic engagement, preparedness and overall per-
The Teacher Report on Students’ Observed Academic En- formance in their class); the correlations presented in Table 2
gagement Behaviors (Teacher Report) is an 11-item Likert- indicate an inverse relationship between internalizing
Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186 183

Table 2 Intercorrelations, Means, and Standard Deviations for the Symp- p=.05). Further, acculturative stress accounted for a 7 %
toms Test, CASAS, and Teacher Report
increase in variance explained in teacher reports of students’
Measure 1 2 3 M SD academic performance (ΔRadj2 =.07, p<.05). While internal-
izing symptoms alone explained 4 % of the variance in teacher
1. Symptoms Test — .11 -.24* 13.09 5.65 reports’ of students’ academic performance (Radj2 =.04), the
2. CASAS — -.32** 16.47 7.34 inclusion of acculturative stress in the model accounted for
3. Academic Performance — 34.20 8.33 12 % of the variance in teacher reports’ of students’ academic
performance (Radj2 =.12).
*p<.05, **p<.01.

symptoms and academic performance (r (90) = −.24, p<.05). Discussion

Those students who reported higher levels of internalizing
symptoms were perceived by their teachers to demonstrate The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship
lower levels of academic performance. Likewise, students between internalizing symptoms of depression and anxiety,
who reported higher levels of acculturative stress were per- acculturative stress, and teacher’s perception of students’ ac-
ceived by their teachers to demonstrate lower levels of aca- ademic performance among Latino middle school students.
demic performance (r (84) = −.32, p<.01). The extent to which acculturative stress predicts teacher’s
Research question # 2: Table 3 summarizes the results of perceptions of students’ academic performance after control-
the hierarchical multiple regression analysis that was conduct- ling for internalizing symptoms was also examined. It was
ed to evaluate the extent to which acculturative stress predicts hypothesized that internalizing symptoms would be signifi-
students' academic performance after controlling for students’ cantly and inversely related to perceived academic perfor-
internalizing symptoms. The results of these analyses indicate mance. In accordance with this hypothesis, the findings of
that acculturative stress is the stronger predictor of teachers’ this study indicate that students who reported experiencing
report of participating students’ academic performance. In higher levels of internalizing symptoms (such as worrying a
Step 1, internalizing symptoms were entered; and, in Step 2, lot and feeling sad or down frequently), exhibited lower levels
the main effect of acculturative stress was entered to assess its of academic performance, as reported by their teachers. These
independent contribution to current teachers’ report of stu- results were similar to those found by Matthews et al. (2009);
dents’ academic performance. In Step 1, internalizing symp- Mistry et al. (2009), and Schwartz and Gorman (2003), which
toms were a significant negative predictor of teachers’ report linked mental health problems to poor academic performance.
of students’ academic performance (βi =−.24, p<.05). In Step Our findings also suggest that students who experience symp-
2, after controlling for the effects of internalizing symptoms, toms of anxiety and depression are more likely to exhibit
acculturative stress was found to be a significant negative academic difficulties, according to their teachers’ report.
predictor of teachers’ report of students’ academic perfor- Similar results were found with the relationship between
mance (βi =−.29, p<.05). For every one unit increase in ac- acculturative stress and academic performance. Students who
culturative stress, there was a .29 decrease in teacher reports of reported experiencing higher levels of acculturative stress
students’ academic performance. were perceived to have lower levels of academic performance
After including acculturative stress in the model, internal- by their teachers. The inverse relationship between
izing symptoms were no longer a significant predictor of accuturative stress and teacher-perceived poor academic per-
teacher reports of students’ academic performance (βi =−.20, formance is not only consistent with the proposed hypothesis

Table 3 Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis

Predictor Current Academic Performance

ΔR2 ΔRadj2 B βi 95 % CI for B

Step 1 .06* .04*

Internalizing symptoms -.35* -.24* [−.66, -.03]
Step 2 .08* .07*
Internalizing symptoms -.30 - .20 [−.60, .01]
Acculturative stress -.33* -.29* [−.57, -.10]

Note. CI=confidence interval; *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001.

184 Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186

but also with the results from previous studies that found an adapted program showed to be effective at teaching SEL
inverse relationship between acculturative stress (and related skills to recent immigrant Latino students, who rated the
constructs such as perceived discrimination) and teachers’ program as highly socially valid. Students who participat-
reports of students’ academic performance (Alfaro et al. ed in that study also reported improved outcomes on
2009; Bodkin-Andrews et al. 2010; Schwartz et al. 2007; acculturative stress.
Stone and Han 2005). Additionally, the results of this study have implications
In regard to the extent to which acculturative stress predicts for teacher training. Teachers should be provided explicit
academic performance, it was hypothesized that acculturative training on the effects of social-emotional issues on stu-
stress would inversely predict teacher reports of students’ dents’ mental health and academic performance. Further,
academic performance, even after controlling for students' teachers need to be more aware of issues related to
reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. In predicting acculturative stress and other culturally specific factors that
perceived academic performance, acculturative stress could pose additional challenges to the ethnic minority stu-
accounted for more variance than did internalizing symptoms. dents they serve.
This may further indicate the relevance of culturally specific
symptoms, such as acculturative stress, to the academic per- Limitations
formance of ethnic minority middle school students (Blanco-
Vega et al. 2008). As with most research, there are several limitations that de-
serve mention. First, the sample was selected based on partic-
Implications ipants’ prompt return of parental consent, which may have
created a self-selection bias. Second, because all participants
The results of this study have important implications for the were Latino middle school students and in schools that were
schooling of Latino students in low socioconomic status primarily low socioeconomic status (as indicated by percent-
schools. First, the current study provides additional evidence age who received a free or reduced-priced lunch), generaliz-
of the relationship between symptoms of depession and anx- ability is limited to Latino middle school students in primarily
iety and perceived academic performance, which suggests the low socioeconomic status schools. Future research should
need for schools to focus more of their attention on the focus on recruiting a sample that is more diverse in terms of
development and implementation of programs that help chil- students’ ethnicity, language abilities, immigration/
dren cope with, or overcome, anxiety and depression. In generational status, and socioeconomic status. Third, because
addition, the results of this study support the inclusion of there is a great deal of variation and diversity in terms of
school-based culturally responsive mental health practices, language and culture within the Latino community, an analy-
as it showed that acculturative stresss is not only related sis of results by country of origin and English language
to but also a predictive factor of students’ low academic development will be important in future research. Blanco-
performance (as perceived by their teachers). Merrell and Vega et al. (2008) and Castro-Olivo (2010) suggest that ex-
Gueldner (2010) suggested that schools that are interested amining these subgroup differences is important because La-
in improving their students' academic and social-emotional tino immigrant adolescents may experience higher levels of
development should strongly consider implementing acculturative stress and mental health problems than do their
school-wide social-emotional programs that focus on ex- U.S.-born counterparts, given their recent/abrupt social adap-
plicitly teaching students skills such as self-awareness, tation and social/language demands.
social awareness, cognitive restructuring, positive thinking, Another major limitation of this study is the means used to
goal setting, and stress relief. In addition to school-wide assess internalizing symptoms. The brief measure used for
SEL instruction, Castro-Olivo (2010) recommended that assessing internalizing symptoms could have contributed to
schools with a large proportion of culturally and linguisti- the non-significant correlation between acculturative stress
cally diverve (CLD) students should make sure that their and mental health. According to Salvia et al. (2007), brief
school-wide social-emotional learning program employs a measures are less reliable and can contribute to low statistical
culturally responsive approach. For these programs to be power. The measure used for this study had only 10 items and
considered culturally responsive, cultural adaptations was used with a population not suspected to have significant
should be used to ensure that the skills taught are cultur- problems. In addition, the sample recruited for this study was
ally accessible and sensitive to the students who are being enrolled in general education classes and were not suspected
served. For an example on how to make SEL programs to be experiencing clinical levels of internalizing issues.
more culturally responsive for Latino students see Castro- Merrell (2010) explained that measuring students’ symptoms
Olivo and Merrell (2012). In that study, Castro-Olivo and of problem behavior in normally developing samples could
Merrell validated a model for making cultural adaptations confound research results. For this reason, Merrell recom-
with an evidence-based SEL program. The culturally mended that researchers interested in examining the
Contemp School Psychol (2014) 18:178–186 185

relationship between mental health and other outcomes also Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=
should take into consideration the students’ social-emotional
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health (i.e., positive). Future research should examine the cultural sensitivity for outcome research: Issues for the cultural
relationship between social-emotional resiliency and academ- adaptation and development of psychological treatments with
Hispanics. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23(1), 67–82.
ic performance of Latino students. In addition, future research
Blanco-Vega, C., Castro-Olivo, S., & Merrell, K. (2008). Social-
should also aim to recruit students with suspected clinical emotional needs of Latino. immigrant adolescents: A sociocultural
levels of depression and anxiety. model for development and implementation of culturally specific
Another area that must be addressed in future research is interventions. Journal of Latinos and Education, 7(1), 43–61. doi:
10.1080/15348430701693390.
the way academic performance was evaluated for this study.
Bodkin-Andrews, G. H., Seaton, M., Nelson, G. F., Craven, R. G., &
Although the measure used has been shown to be reliable and Yeung, A. S. (2010). Questioning the general self-esteem vaccine:
valid (with strong predictive validity for GPA and state tests General self-esteem, racial discrimination, and standardized
(Castro-Olivo 2006), it is not a direct measure of academic achievement across Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.
Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 20(1), 1–21. doi:
performance. The measure used merely assessed teachers’
10.1375/ajgc.20.1.1.
perceptions of students’ academic performance and behaviors Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B.,
in the classroom. Future research should use GPA and/or state Dodge, K. A., et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood
test scores as the outcome variable for a more objective disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross
national study. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 222–245.
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Burns, B. J., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Tweed, D., Stangl, D., Farmer, E.
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Conclusion Cabassa, L. J. (2003). Measuring acculturation: Where we are and where
we need to go. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25, 127–
146. doi:10.1177/0739986303025002001.
The current study makes a valuable contribution to the field of Castro, F. G., Barrera, M., & Martinez, C. R. (2004). The cultural
school psychology as it calls attention to a construct (accul- adaptation of prevention interventions: Resolving tensions between
turative stress) that has not been previously discussed in our fidelity and fit. Society for Prevention Research, 5, 41–45.
field. Acculturative stress has been shown to be related to Castro-Olivo, S. (2010). One size does not fit all: Adapting SEL programs
for use in our multicultural world. In K. W. Merrell & B. A.
symptoms of depression and anxiety and poorer academic Gueldner (Eds.), Social and emotional learning in the classroom:
behaviors in an at-risk population (Latinos). We argue that Promoting mental health and academic success (pp. 83–102). New
addressing culturally related constructs can help school psy- York, NY: Guilford.
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effectively address the diverse needs of CLD students and outcomes of Latino immigrant high school students. University of
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National Association of School Psychologists. (2008). The importance of Dr. Albeg received her PhD in school psychology from the University of
school mental health services (Position Statement). Bethesda, MD: California, Riverside. She is a practicing school psychologist for the Palos
Author. Verdes Peninsula Unified School District. Her research interest focuses
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. on socio-cultural factors that contribute to positive mental health out-
(2008). Healthy youth! Health risks and disparities experienced by comes among youth.
Hispanic youth. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/
disparities/hispanic/Hispanicdisparities.htm. Dr. Castro-Olivo is an assistant professor in the school psychology
National Center for Education Statistics. (2008). Fast facts: Dropout rates program at the University of California, Riverside. Her research focuses
for high school students. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/ on studying socio-cultural factors that contribute to resiliency and aca-
FastFacts/display.asp?id=16. demic success of culturally and linguistically diverse youth. She is also
Padilla, A. M., & Ruiz, R. A. (1973). Latino mental health: A review of interested in the development and validation of culturally responsive
literature. Oxford: England: U.S. Government Printing Office. social-emotional and behavioral interventions.
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