Volume 5 No.

1
June 2008
ISSN 1675-7009

Scientific
RESEARCH
JOURNAL

Research Management Institute

 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH JOURNAL

Chief Editor
Prof. Dr. Zaiki Awang,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Managing Editor
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Razidah Ismail,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Editorial Advisory and Review Board

Prof. Dr. Ir. Wahyu Kuntjoro, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salmiah Kasolang, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Muhammad Azmi Ayub, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ichsan Setya Putra, Bandung Institue of Technology, Indonesia
Prof. Dr. Mohd. Nasir Taib, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ir. Shah Rizam Mohd. Shah Baki, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Titik Khawa Abd. Rahman, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Luciano Boglione, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
Prof. Dr. K. Ito, Chiba University, Japan
Prof. Dr. Azni Zain Ahmed, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Prof. Ir. Dr. Ideris Zakaria, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Abd. Aziz Dato’ Abd. Samad, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia
Prof. Sr. Ir. Dr. Suhaimi Abd. Talib, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Kartini Kamaruddin, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hamidah Mohd. Saman, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Dr. Robert Michael Savory, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Hanapiah Abidin, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

Copyright © 2008 Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means; electronics, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
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Scientific Research Journal is jointly published by Research Management Institute (RMI) and
University Publication Centre (UPENA), Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia.

The views and opinion expressed therein are those of the individual authors and the publication of
these statements in the Scientific Research Journal do not imply endorsement by the publisher or the
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reproduce any part of this publication.
 Vol. 5 No. 1 June 2008 ISSN 1675-7009

1. Bending Behaviour of Dowelled Mortise and Tenon Joints

in Kempas 1
Rohana Hassan
Azmi Ibrahim
Zakiah Ahmad

2. Properties of Ternary Blended Cement Containing Metakaolin

and Fly Ash 13
Mohd Fadzil Arshad
Megat Azmi Megat Johari
Muhd Nurhasri Mohd Sidek
Mazlee Mohd Noor

3. Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29 27

Wahyu Kuntjoro
Ibrahim Bahari
Abdul Ghani Ujang
Assanah M Mydin

4. Assessment of Soil Dispersibility Behaviour In-Relation to

Soil Internal Erosion Resistance 39
Fauzilah Ismail
Mazidah Mukri
Zainab Mohamed

5. Consensus and Source Properties of Malaysian Aggregates

for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements 53
Juraidah Ahmad
Mohd Yusof Abdul Rahman
Zainab Mohamed
Scientific Research Journal Vol. 5 No. 1, 27-38, 2008

Fatigue Life Monitoring Program

of RMAF MiG-29

Wahyu Kuntjoro1,4, Ibrahim Bahari2, Abdul Ghani Ujang3 &

Assanah M Mydin3

1
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
2
Brigadier General – RMAF
3
CAIDMARK, Malaysia
4
Email: wkuntjoro@salam.uitm.edu.my

ABSTRACT
The Royal Malaysian Airforce (RMAF) operates one squadron of MiG-29 which
were designed on Safe Life principle. RMAF conducts a fatigue life monitoring
program to these airplanes. This activity is conducted based on the experience
of having the fatigue life monitoring program to the RMAF F/A-18D. The
fatigue life of RMAF MiG-29 is based on the wing-fuselage lug joint structure,
and Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) approach is adopted. The stress spectra of this
component, is derived through mapping of g-spectra to the 1-g stress level of
the lug. The g-history is obtained from the accelerator installed in the airplane,
while the 1-g stress level is obtained by finite element modeling of the wing
structure and lug joints. Rainflow cycle counting procedure was then applied.
The fatigue characteristics (strain-life) of the lug material was obtained from
the laboratory test, using the lug material sample, combined with the empirical
formula of strain-life diagram. Notched effect is taken into account using Neuber
theory. Mean stress effect is dealt with using Smith-Watson-Topper formula.
Miner’s rule is used to calculate the fatigue damage accumulation. A fatigue
life prediction software for RMAF MiG-29 which incorporates the above
concepts had been developed. Currently, this software is operational with the
RMAF MiG-29, and is being used as part of its Aircraft Structural Integrity
Program (ASIP). This paper reports on the development of the fatigue life
monitoring strategy and software for the RMAF MiG-29.
Keywords: ASI, Fatigue Life Monitoring, MiG-29

ISSN 1675-7009
© 2008 Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia.

27
Scientific Research Journal

Introduction

The Royal Malaysian Airforce (RMAF) operates one squadron of MiG-

29 which were designed on Safe Life principle. A fatigue life monitoring
program is being conducted by RMAF to these airplanes. RMAF is also
conducting fatigue life monitoring to its HAWK and F/A-18 fleets. The
development of the fatigue life monitoring strategy and software for the
RMAF MiG-29 is reported in this paper.
Fatigue actually is defined by failure of metal or other material under
repeated or otherwise varying load which never reaches a level sufficient
to cause failure in a single application. Component of machinery, vehicles
and structures are frequently subjected to repeated loading that may lead
to their failure due to fatigue. Fatigue behaviors have been studied for
almost 150 years. Over that period many great researchers like Poncelet,
Wohler, and Bauschinger have conducted research in fatigue. Despite
150 years of fatigue research, unintended fatigue failures still occurs and
the research work on that never ended until now.
The traditional total life method makes no differentiation between
crack initiation and crack growth. Since the development of the total life
method, fatigue has been re-defined as a process of initiating a crack
followed by an investigation of how that crack propagates through the
structure (Figure 1). This paper deals only with the crack initiation (Safe-
Life) portion, which is adopted in the fatigue design of MiG-29.

Figure 1: Three Main Fatigue Analysis Methods

28
 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29

Safe Life is a concept with a fundamental objective of having a

structure, which is not going to fail during the life it is designed for [1].
Safe Life concept is closely related to the fatigue of structure. While
static loading is associated with high magnitude type of loading, fatigue
failure is often related with low magnitude cyclic load. However, it is
important to note that fatigue failure is not always due to the low magnitude
of cyclic loading; there are cases of high fatigue loading encountered
during service. The fatigue problem, which is associated with high
magnitude fatigue loading, is called Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF), while the
low magnitude fatigue loading is called High Cycle Fatigue (HCF).
The fatigue life can be represented as the fatigue life expended (FLE).
The value of FLE is between zero and one. FLE value below one means
the component is safe. For example FLE equals to 0.5 can be interpreted
as the component comes to half of its fatigue life. FLE equals to one
means the component has come to the end of its life. In the case of FLE
equal to one, either the aircraft goes to retirement or it can undergo a
Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).
In the RMAF MiG-29 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program, the fatigue
life is based on the wing-fuselage lug joint structure, and Low Cycle
Fatigue (LCF) approach is adopted [2]. The stress spectra of this
component, is derived through mapping of g-spectra to the 1-g stress
level of the lug. The g-history is obtained from the accelerator installed in
the airplane, while the 1-g stress level is obtained by finite element modeling
of the wing structure and lug joints. Rainflow cycle counting procedure is
then applied. The fatigue characteristics (strain-life) of the lug material
was obtained from the laboratory test, using the lug material sample,
combined with the empirical formula of strain-life diagram. Notched effect
is taken into account using Neuber theory. Mean stress effect is dealt
with using Smith-Watson-Topper formula. Miner’s rule is used to calculate
the fatigue damage accumulation. A fatigue life prediction software for
RMAF MiG-29, called MiG-SLA (MiG-Service Life Assessment), which
incorporates the above concepts had been developed. Currently, this
software is operational with the RMAF MiG-29, and is being used as
part of its Aircraft Structural Integrity Program (ASIP).

MiG-29 Safe-life Analysis Procedure

The general procedure of the RMAF MiG-29 Safe-Life Analysis as used

in the fatigue life monitoring program is modeled as in Figure 2.

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Scientific Research Journal

Figure 2: Life Prediction Flow Chart2

The crack initiation approach requires estimation of stress history.

This needs input data of service load, lug maximum stress, and material
properties. After the stress and strain at the critical location on the lug
are estimated, ‘Rainflow’ cycle counting method is then used to reduce
load time history into a number of events and sequence. When the load
history is obtained, it is then multiplied with the stress obtained from the
finite element analysis. This stress factor was a loading based on 1-g
level flight. Then the strain-life methods that incorporate mean-stress

30
 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29

effects are employed for predicting structural fatigue life. Following this,
the linear damage hypothesis proposed by Palmgren and Miner is used to
accumulate the fatigue damage.
In strain-life approach, fatigue resistance of metals can be
characterized by a strain-life curve. The relationship between total strain
amplitude, ∆ε / 2 , and reversal to failure 2Nf, can be expressed through
the following form [3, 4]:

∆ε σ f
'

= (2 N f )b + ε 'f (2 N f )c (1)
2 E
where σ f is the fatigue strength coefficient; b is the fatigue strength
'

exponent; ε f is the fatigue ductility coefficient; c is the fatigue ductility

'

exponent.
For a cyclic loading, stress-strain curve can be expressed through
the following form:
1
σ σ  n'
ε total = + ' (2)
E K 
where K’ is the cyclic strength coefficient and n’ is cyclic strain hardening
exponent (results of b divided by c).
When constructing a strain-time history from stress-time data,
hysterisis loops have to be considered using cyclic stress-strain curve.
Using Masing’s Hypothesis, which assumes that the line describing a
stress-strain hysteresis loop is geometrically similar to the cyclic stress-
strain curve (Eqs. 2) but numerically twice its size [3], it is obtained,
1
∆σ  ∆σ  n'
∆ε = + 2 ' 
(3)
E  2K 
Neuber’s rule [4-6] is used to take into account the notch effect. The
relation between the notch geometry and the stress-strain can be expressed
through the following form:
( K t ∆σ ) 2
= ∆σ∆ε (4)
E
where Kt is the stress concentration factor of the wing lug structure.
Equation (3) and (4) need to be solved sequentially, and as it requires the
repeated try and error calculation to find the root of curve, Newton’s
iteration method is applied [7].

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Scientific Research Journal

The strain-life equation need to be modified to account for mean

stress effects. Smith, Watson and Topper (SWT) [8] have proposed an
equation to represent the mean stress effects.

∆ε (σ f )
' 2

σ max = (2N f )2b + σ 'f ε 'f (2N f )b+c (5)

2 E
∆σ
where σ max = +σ0
2
Palmgren-Miner’s cumulative damage summation rule [9,10] was
proposed as a way to sum damage from different fatigue events or cycles,
first by the Swedish engineer A. Palmgren and resurrected 20 years
later by M. A. Miner:
n n n n
∑ = 1 + 2 + .... + n = 1.0 (6)
N N1 N 2 Nn
where n is the number of cycles of a certain stress amplitude and is N
the number of life of certain stress amplitude. The ratio of n/N representing
the damage of the stress given.

Load History Development

The RMAF MiG-29 Load

In many air forces of advanced countries, there is a practice to fit a

Flight Data Recorder (FDR) in their aircrafts to capture in-flight data
including aircraft parameters and strain reading for the purpose of fatigue
usage monitoring. The digital data captured are used as the loading history.
In the case of the RMAF MiG-29 aircraft, the FDR fitted in the aircraft
captures various data during flight, which include g-force history. At this
stage a reliable method to collect and extract the related structural data
was introduced. The available data for fatigue analysis is in g-history,
Figure 3. What needed is to convert this loading spectrum from g-reading
to strain form, and restructure the cycles event so that it is in the structured
order.
For the purpose of converting the load spectrum form, finite element
analysis was conducted. The main objective of the FEA is to find the lug
stress at the symmetrical level flight of 1-g condition. This stress value is
then multiplied to the loading history for every single peak and valley.

32
 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29

Figure 3: Example of g-history2

Cycle Counting

The rainflow method [11] has been used for cycle counting. Reducing
the measured history into a series of cycles and half cycles consistent
with basic material behavior is critical, and ‘Rainflow’ cycle counting is
established herein as the soundest technique for achieving such reduction
[11]. At this stage, it is also important to note that load truncated procedures
need to be applied. In most of loading history, there is an existence of
small number of ‘passed cycles’- cycles that do not cause any effect to
the fatigue life. These cycles are removed from the load sequence. Fatigue
life then can be predicted by combining the results of the cycle count
with relevant basic data using the linear cumulative damage hypothesis.

Fatigue Material Properties

To determine the material characteristic of the lug, a specimen was

prepared for material testing. Hardness test and chemical composition
test were conducted [12]. It was found that the material was a titanium
based alloy. In the strain-life analysis, the cyclic material data is needed.
Here, approach proposed by Jun-Hyub Park and Ji-Ho Song [13] was
used. Using extensive experimental strain-life curve data on 116 steels,
16 aluminium alloys and six titanium alloys, nearly all methods currently
available for estimation of fatigue properties from simple tensile data are
discussed in detail. They proposed that for the purpose of estimating the
properties of titanium alloy, the uniform material law by Baumel and
Seegar was considered the most accurate, and this approach was used
in this project.

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Scientific Research Journal

∆ε σ
= 1 . 67 B (2 N ) + 0 . 35 (2 N )
− 0 . 095 − 0 . 69
f f (7)
2 E
σ B is the tensile yield strength.

Finite Element Analysis

The purpose of conducting the FEA is to get the maximum stress either
at fuselage joint or wing lug joint based on the symmetrical level flight
condition at 1-g. This stress will become the reference stress of other g-
reading position in load spectrum.
Finite element analysis was performed on the MiG-29 Wing with the
wing-fuselage lug joints regarded as wing supports [14]. The reaction
forces at the support can be found and to be applied as external forces to
the lugs of the wing and fuselage of the aircraft. The maximum value of
stresses occurring at the lugs at 1-g flight condition were obtained. Figure
4 shows the finite element model of the wing [14], while the lug model is
shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4: Model of the MiG-29 Wing

34
 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29

Figure 5: Wing and Fuselage Side Lug

Software Development

The software was developed in C++ language environment with flat file
and binary database. In this way, it facilitates ease of installation in every
RMAF base (it does not need the third party database and tools such as
SQL, Oracle and Crystal Report). The software will read flight data
from TOPAZ and can perform life prediction analysis. The software is
able to find out the mission severity for each mission performed by the
airplane. The fatigue index at any stage of operation can be obtained.
Through its excellent graphical presentation, the software can display
the mission profile for various flight data. Figure 6 below shows the
interface of the software system. Currently the MiG-SLA has been in
operation to conduct fatigue life monitoring to the RMAF MiG-29. The
RMAF F/A-18 reporting format [15] is used as basis to produce the
RMAF MiG-29 Fatigue Usage report. The data can then be used to
assist the fatigue management of the RMAF MiG-29 squadron.

Conclusion

This paper has reported the development of fatigue life monitoring program
of RMAF MiG-29. The fatigue life is based on the wing-fuselage lug
joint structure, and Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) approach is adopted. An

35
Scientific Research Journal

Figure 6: MiG-SLA Software Interface

algorithm for performing the fatigue safe life analysis was proposed. The
fatigue characteristics (strain-life) of the lug material was obtained from
the laboratory test, using the lug material sample, combined with the
empirical formula of strain-life diagram. Notched effect is taken into
account using Neuber theory. Mean stress effect is dealt with using Smith-
Watson-Topper formula. Miner’s rule is used to calculate the fatigue
damage accumulation.
Loading spectrum development also was highlighted. The stress
spectra of this component, is derived through mapping of g-spectra to the
1-g stress level of the lug. The g-history is obtained from the accelerator
installed in the airplane, while the 1-g stress level is obtained by finite
element modeling of the wing structure and lug joints. Rainflow cycle
counting procedure is then applied.
A fatigue life prediction software for RMAF MiG-29, called MiG-
SLA (MiG-Service Life Assessment), which incorporates the above
concepts had been developed. Currently, this software is operational with
the RMAF MiG-29, and is being used as part of its Aircraft Structural
Integrity Program (ASIP).

36
 Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of RMAF MiG-29

References

[1] Razali Abd Ghani and Wahyu Kuntjoro et al. 2003. The Royal
Malaysian Air Force Fatigue Life Monitoring Program of F/A-18
and Hawk. The Proceeding of International Seminar on
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[2] Darwis Idrus and Wahyu Kuntjoro. Fatigue Life Prediction of

The RoyalMalaysian Air Force (RMAF) MiG-29 Fighter
Aircraft. TR/006 /ASI/ CM/2004, CAIDMARK, Malaysia.

[3] Bishop, N. W. M. and Sherratt, F. July 2000. Finite Element Based

Fatigue Calculation. Published by NAFEMS. Farnham, UK.

[4] Bentachfine, S. and Pluvinage, G. et al. 1999. Notch Effect in Low

Cycle Fatigue. International Journal of Fatigue, vol. 21 pp. 421-
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[5] Bannantine, J. A., Comer, J. J. and Handrock, J. L. 1990.

Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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[6] Fuchs, H. O. and Stephens, R. I. 1980. Metal Fatigue in

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[7] Kelley, C. T. 1995. Iterative Methods for Linear and Non-Linear

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[8] Smith, K. N., Watson, P. and Tooper, T. H. 1970. A stress-strain

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[9] Michael, C. Y. Niu. 1988. Aircraft Structural Design, Conmilit

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[10] Schijve, J., March 2001. Fatigue of Structures and Materials.

Kluwer Academic Publishers.

37
Scientific Research Journal

[11] Downing, S. D. and Socie, D. F. 1982. Simplified Rainflow Cycle

Counting Algorithm. International Journal of Fatigue, vol. 4, no.1
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[12] Mohd. Fathi. Hardness and Chemical Composition Testing On

MiG-29 Wing-Lug Material. TR/005 /ASI/ CM/2004,
CAIDMARK, Malaysia.

[13] Jun-Hyub Park and Ji-Ho Song. 1994. Detailed Evaluation of

Methods for Estimation of Fatigue Properties. Department of
Automation and Design Engineering, Korea Advance Institute of
Science and Technology. Korea.

[14] Abdul Malik Hussein. Royal Malaysian Air Force MiG-29

Aircraft Structural Integrity Report: Identification of The
Maximum Stress Value That Occur At The Wing-Fuselage Joints
At 1-G Symmetrical Level Flight Condition of The RMAF MiG-
29. TR/005/ASI/CM/2004. CAIDMARK, Malaysia.

[15] Darwis Idrus, Atan Bakti Abd. Malek. RMAF F/A-18D Fatigue
Usage Report. TR/003/ASI/CM/2004, CAIDMARK, Malaysia.

38