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Introduction To Aerospace Engineering.

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INTRODUCTION TO AEROSPACE

ENGINEERING
EARLY FLIGHT TO WORLD WAR 1
Overview
• Early Uses of Lighter-than-Air Flying Machines
• Heavier-than-Air Flying Machines
-The US Army’s Reaction to the Wright
Brother’s Invention
-The Army’s Requirements for the First Military
Aircraft
• Early Uses of Airpower

EARLY YEARS OF FLIGHT


INTRODUCTION
• Man first flew aloft in a balloon in 1783
• Airpower did not have an immediate impact
• Flying machines were not readily accepted by land
oriented officers
• Airpower’s first major impact was not until World
War 1

Balloons
• Mongoliers Brothers flew first hot-air balloon in
1783
• Ben Franklin saw first balloon flight and
immediately saw the military potential
• First used for military purposes by the French in
1794 at Maubege
• Union and confederate forces employed balloons
during the American Civil War

Balloons (Cont)
• Adolphus V.Greely, the grandfather of military
aviation in US, revived interest in military
capability of balloons in 1891
-1892 – Greely balloon used to direct artillery
fire during the battle of San Jaun Hill
• Interest in balloons dropped quickly with the
development of heavier-than-air vehicles

Dirigibles
• Steerable balloons -- often called “Airships”
• 1884 – first successful flight in a dirigible
• Ferdinand Von Zeppelin – person most readily
identified with dirigibles
- Zeppelins first flown in 1900
- Germans used to bomb England in WW 1
- Germans used to fly observation cover for
their surface fleet in WW 1
• Vulnerable to winds and ground fire
The Early Years of Flight
• Uses of Balloons and Dirigibles
- Reconnaissance
- Artillery spotting
- Bombing (extremely limited prior to WW 1)
- Morale Booster/Mail/Escape Means
- Air transport of supplies

Early Pioneers of Flight


• Otto Lilienthal – studied gliders and first to explain
the superiority of curved surfaces
• Percy Pilcher – built airplane chassis
• Octave Chanute – Developed a double winged –
glider/wrote history of flight to 1900
• Samuel P.Langley – First to secure government
support to develop an airplane
- Failed twice to fly from houseboat in 1903
- Congress withdrew monetary support

Orville and Wilbur Wright


• First to fly a heavier-than-air, power-driven
machine – 17 December 1903
- Flight travelled 120 feet and lasted 12 seconds
• Approached flying scientifically and systematically
• Used experience of Lilienthal, Pilcher and Chanute
• Built a glider in Dayton in 1899
- Moved to Kitty Hawk, N. Carolina in 1900

Reactions to the Wright’s Invention


• US government was very skeptical at first
- Not interested because of the Langley’s
failures
• Britain and France were very enthusiastic
• President Roosevelt directed the Secretary of War,
W. H. Taft, to investigate the wright Brothers’
invention in 1906
• Dec.1907 – Chief Signal Officer, BG james Allen,
issued Specification # 486 calling for bids to build
the first military aircraft

Signal Corps Specification


• Established the requirements for the first military
aircraft. Aircraft must be able to:
- Carry 2 persons
- Reach speed of 40 mph
- Carry sufficient fuel for 125 mile nonstop
flight
- Be controllable in flight in any direction
- Fly at least one hour
- Land at take-off point, without damage
- Be taken apart and reassembled in one hour
- No Military Operational Requirements
Specified

Specification # 486 (cont)


• 41 proposals were received , only 3 complied with
specifications
• US Army signed contract with Wright Brothers on
10 Feb 1908
• Wright Brothers delivered the first military aircraft
on 20 Aug 1908
• US Army accepted the first operational aircraft on
2 Aug 1909

The Early Years of Flight Closing Remarks

• Until WW 1 balloons, dirigibles and aircraft were


primarily reconnaissance vehicles
• Early on, the flying machines were not seen as
weapons of war
• Few believed the flying service was ready to be a
separate air force
• The potential uses of the airplane would evolve
considerably during WW 1

Summary
• Early Uses of Lighter-than-Air Flying Machines
• Heavier-than-Air Flying Machines
- The US Army’s Reaction to the Wright
Brothers’ Invention
• Early Uses of Airpower

History of Flight
Aviation Through the Ages
1000B.C to 1250A.D
• Man’s observations of the earth around him
aroused his curiosity and often inspired him to
attempt the impossible. How did man’s lack of
knowledge of the physical laws of nature
sometimes bring him tragedy?
• The Greek myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus
was written around 1000B.C. The myth states
that after Daedalus built the labyrinth the king
of Crete threw him in it to test it. He and his son
Icarus escaped by building wings of wax and
flying away. However Icarus flew too high and
the wax in his wings began to melt. His wings
collapsed and he plunged to his death in the sea.
• Kites flown around the year 400 B.C. in china
were ancestors of modern aviation and the
airplane. In the year 1020 A.D. Oliver of
Malmesbury put on a pair of wings and leapt
from the top of an abbey. He landed very hard
and broke his legs. Luckily he survived the
crash. Many others attempted to fly with
“wings” but all failed, sometimes fatally.

Aviation Through the Ages


1250 to 1750
• I was one of the first to experiment with the science
of flying. Unfortunately my writings and sketches
weren’t discovered until three hundred years after
my death.
• Leonardo da Vinci spent most of his life
exploring flight and left the world about 160
documents of sketches and observations about
flight. He made important discoveries about the
center of gravity, the center of pressure, and
streamlining. But like so many people of his time
he was obsessed with learning to fly like a bird.
What is the difference between simply gliding
and really flying like a bird?

Aviation Through the Ages


1750 to 1850
• What forces cause smoke to rise in a fireplace?
This was what sparked Montgolfier’s curiosity.
• Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier designed the
first successful flying craft. Their observations
led them to believe that burning created a gas,
which they called “Montgolfier’s gas,” causing a
craft to rise. They constructed a balloon made of
cloth and paper. The first aviators were a duck,
rooster, and a sheep. Then in 1783 a crowd in
paris watched as a Montgolfier balloon carried
two French men. The way the balloons worked
is hot air and gases filled the balloon causing it
to lift. Once it was in the air it simply went
wherever the wind took it. To counter this
problem Henri Giffard designed a round oval
shaped balloon called a blimp and combined it
with a steam engine to make it steerable. When
gasoline engines were invented they became a
major source of transportation across the
Atlantic Ocean. The Hidenburg zeppelin
disaster in 1937 caused the end for these large
airships.

Aviation Through the Ages


1850 to 1900
• Sir George Cayley set in motion the future study of
aerodynamics in a single sentence. “The whole
problem is confined within these limits, namely to
make a surface support a given weight by the
application of power to the resistance of air.”
• Sir George Cayley experimented with gliders at
his home in Yorkshire. He was the first to
discover how wings work. Cayley discovered
that wings are lifted on the air. He also
constructed the first aircraft that was heavier
than air. He is now recognized as the father of
aviation. He came up with many principles of
heavier-than-air-flight.

Aviation Through the Ages


1850 to 1900
• In 1896, the German engineer, Otto Lilienthal,
tested several monoplane and biplane gliders.
He built and flew the first glider capable of
carrying a person, but died when he crashed in
a sudden gust of wind before he could finish his
powered plane.
• The structure of an airplane as we know it today
was in its formative years. What are the parts of
a plane and how does each function?

AIRPLANE
• An airplane is a vehicle heavier than air, powered
by an engine, which travels through the air by the
reaction of air passing over its wings.
• FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the central body portion of an
airplane which accommodates the crew and
passengers or cargo.
• COCKPIT
In general aviation airplanes, the cockpit is usually
the space in the fuselage for the pilot and the
passengers: in some aircrafts it is just the pilot’s
compartment.
• LANDING GEAR
The landing gear, located underneath the airplane,
supports it while on the ground.
• WINGS
Wings are the parts of airplanes which provide lift
and support the entire weight of the aircraft and its
contents while in flight.

EXPERIMENT 2
Equipment:
• 2 sheets of notebook paper
• Hold two sheets of notebook paper about four
inches apart. Blow between them. Instead of flying
apart they come together. The air moving rapidly
between the two pieces of paper has less pressure
than the air pressing on the outer sides of the paper.

Equipment:
Ping-pong ball
• Tank-type vacuum cleaner
• Connect the hose to the blower rather than to the
suction end of the vacuum cleaner. Turn the switch
on. Hold the hose vertically so the stream of air
goes straight up. Release the ping-pong ball into
the stream of air about a foot from the nozzle.
Slowly tip the nose so that air shoots at an angle.
The ball will stay suspended in the airstream. The
force of gravity upon the ball tends to make it drop
out of the airstream. However, the fast moving
airstream lessens the sir pressure on the portion of
the ball remaining in the airstream, overcoming the
force of gravity, which results in the ball remaining
suspended.

Aviation Through the Ages


1900 to 1935
• “Only those who are acquainted with practical
aeronautics can appreciate the difficulties of
attempting the first trials of a flying machine in a
25-mile gale…but…we were determined…to know
whether the machine possessed sufficient power to
fly.”
• That was Wilbur Wright’s statement to The
Associated Press, January 5, 1904.
• At 10:35 a.m. on December 17, 1903 the world’s
first successful airplane known as the Flyer I
accelerated along its launching rail and flew
through the air. Twelve seconds later it landed
100 yards away on the soft sand at Kill Devil
Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The
pilot Orville and his brother Wilbur had
experimented for four years with kites and
engines to make the first successful flight ever.
• The brothers had made their own engine that
weighed 200 pounds and had pour cylinders. It
could make 12 horse power, a sixth of the engine
power of a small car. It had no seat and the pilot
had to lay in a cradle in the bottom wing.

Aviation Through the Ages


1900 A.D to 1935 A.D
• The Wright brothers continued to perfect their
plane and it was in a Wright biplane that the
first transcontinental flight was made by
Calbraith P. Rodgers, in 1911
The key to their success was to learn how to
control the plane. How were they able to
accomplish this task?
• In 1914 World War I broke out. At first planes
were used mostly for reconnaissance, but later
planes developed into biplane and triplane
fighters and bombers. Experiments were done
with even more sets of wings, but most failed.
The main fighters of the war were the British
Sopwith “Camel,” its cousin, “The Snipe,” and
the famous German Fokker Df.I which was
flown by the infamous Red Baron. Aerial tactics
and strategies were developed during the middle
of the war. Germany developed many fighter
tactics that are still in modified use today. The
compass was an important instrument to these
early fighters. How do they work? How has the
technology changed over the decades?

Aviation Through the Ages


1900 to 1935
• After the war General Billy Mitchell became an
advocate for military aviation. He and his pilots
achieved many firsts in the field of aviation
during these golden years But the Europeans
were leading the race in commercial flight. It
wasn’t until Ralph Pulitzer offered a trophy to
promote high-speed flight and began a national
craze for air races that the American public
began to take notice.
• In 1918, the Post Office Department started
airmail service in the United States. The first
Mailwing was built by Pitcairn Aviation, Inc. In
1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act.
This established an Aeronautics Branch within
the Departmentt of Commerce. They were
authorized to license planes and pilots and
provide standards for commercial flight. And in
1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the first
transatlantic flight. He instantly became a world
hero.
• Amelia Earhart was the first woman to fly solo
across the Atlantic in 1928.

Aviation Through the Ages


1935 A.D to 1950 A.D
• New technologies developed throughout the course
pf World War II. The motto was if you commanded
the skies you could win the war.
• World War II implanted almost exclusively
monoplanes. Both sides of the war
manufactured literally thousands of fighters and
bombers. The main Allied planes included the
British Supermarine Spitfire Mk.IV, the
American P-51 Mustang, the American C-4U
Corsair, the American B-17, and the American
B-29 Superfortress. The Grumann F6F Hellcat
was first used in 1943 and became the premier
carrier fighter plane. The main Axis planes were
the Bf109, the junkers ju-22, and the stuka dive-
bomber. The mainstay of the Japanese forces
was the feared Mitsubishi Zero-sen. Our hangar
also includes the North American TT28 B and
the AT-6 Texan, other planes from this period.

Aviation Through the Ages


1935 A.D to 1950 A.D
• The major air battle of WW II was the Battle of
Britain. For days the much larger German
Luftwaffe attacked the British Isles, but the
small number of British Spitfires always seemed
to know exactly where and when the German
bombers would be attacking and how large of a
force.
The reason for this was a relatively new
technology called radar allowed the British
ground stations to detect and identify the size,
speed, distance, and trajectory of the German
bombers and send their Spitfires on perfect
intercept missions.

Aviation Through the Ages


1935 A.D to 1950 A.D
• Instrumentation was crude in comparison to
today’s technology. In the early days pilots
relied on landmarks and sometimes even pre-set
bonfires to guide them along their way. What
were the early instruments like and what were
their functions? How has instrumentation
evolved through the ages?
• In the late 1940’s, the military had developed
the jet engine and began changing over to jet
fighters. This resulted in faster and better
performing craft. New aviation record were set.
In 1947, Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier.

Aviation Through the Ages


1950 A.D to 1975 A.D
• After Chuck Yeager’s supersonic flight in 1947,
aviation entered a new era dominated by jets.
• The years following the war saw the aviation
industry grow in leaps and bounds. The military
airforce developed more effective planes to
address the arms race with Russia. The B-47
and B-52 bombers were built to be used to
deliver nuclear bombs. They were the world’s
heaviest bombers and could hold up to 99,206
pounds of bombs. Early bombers flew so high
that the crew had to wear pressure suits but
later they were used to low altitude because they
were harder to locate with radar.

Aviation Through the Ages


1950 A.D to 1975 A.D
• In September, 1955, a contract was awarded to
North American Aviation for the X-15 plane
which could fly at 4,500 miles per hour at an
altitude of at atleast 70,000 feet. 54 percent of its
total weight was its fuel (18,000 pounds). The
total weight of the X-15 was 33,000 pounds.
Though only three of this type of plane were
built they flew a total of over 200 times. The
highest speed ever reached was about 4,525
miles per hour or Mach 6.72.

Aviation Through the Ages


1950 A.D to 1975 A.D
• In 1958, the first American commercial jet, the
707, was put into service by the Boeing
Company. The commercial liners were an
instant hit with passengers who appreciated the
faster flying time. Again new records were set.
By 1966 both Lockheed and Douglas Aircraft
Corporations had entered the commercial
industry giving rise to competition and the
development of new technologies.
• During the Vietnam War the use of military air
power was somewhat limited by policy in
Wahington. President Nixon launched the only
strategic bombing campaign of the war. Many
fliers were shot down over Southeast Asia. They
were recently honored in a ceremony dedicating
the Missing Man Monument at Randolph Air
Force Base, in Texas.

Aviation Through the Ages


1975 A.D to 2000A.D
• Aviation has changed much since the beginning of
time.
• The world’s first supersonic commercial
passenger aircraft operating regular scheduled
flights was the Concorde. It was developed
jointly by Great Britain and France during the
1960s and 1970s when the Comet 4, the DC-3,
and the Constellation were in regular service.
No other supersonic aircraft can fly as fast and
as far as the Concorde without needing mid-
flight refueling. Some military aircraft can fly
faster, but need in-flight refueling. The
Concorde flies literally on the edge of space,
high through the atmosphere. Passengers are
even capable of seeing the earth’s surface.
• The Nighthawk (F-117A) first flew in 1981 and
began combat in 1989. This jet was designed to
avoid detection and mount precision attacks. It
is the first stealth combat aircraft in the world.
It has a top speed of 593 mph (955 kph) and is
loaded with 5,000 lbs. of weapons. The choice of
weaponry varies from laser-guided bombs, air-
to-air missiles, or air-to-surface missiles. Two
types of weapons can be carried at one time. The
outside of the Nighthawk is coated with a special
material that absorbs some of the radar signals
that strike it. It is protected by 24 hour security
with armed guards all around it. Authorized
personnel must pass a palm print test to get near
the aircraft.

Aviation Through the Ages


1975A.D to 2000A.D
The CL-415, or “Firebird,” is a very important
aircraft. This aircraft is amphibious, which
means it can be operated from land or water. It
was developed by Canadair to stop raging forest
fires. However, it is also useful for search and
rescue missions, especially on the sea. It can
search for survivors for up to seven hours
before refueling. It can scoop water into its
tanks. Through doors in the bottom of the
aircraft it drops water on the fire.
The age of computers continues to impact the
aviation field. Today’s technology is exciting and
it seems as if “the sky’s the limit” as we look into
the future.
Aviation today and tomorrow
• Boeing 787 designed completely on the computer
• Will carry 250-290 passengers on routes of 8,000
to 8,500 nautical miles
• The airplane will use 20 percent less fuel for
comparable missions than today’s similarly sized
airplane. It will also travel at speeds similar to
today’s fastest wide bodies, Mach 0.85. Airlines
will enjoy more cargo revenue capacity.

Martin Aircraft – Maryland

• 1937 Mini-Mariner, the flying prototype of the


WW II flying boat bomber.

Basic Properties of the Atmosphere


Essential Points
1. Heat, Temperature and Temperature Scales
2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3. Composition of the Atmosphere
4. Layers in the atmosphere are defined by
temperature profiles
5. How pressure varies in the atmosphere
6. Principal weather instruments
7. Earth’s radiation budget
Heat and Temperature
• Temperature: Average energy of molecules or
atoms in a material
• Heat: Total energy of molecules or atoms in a
material
• Can have large amount of heat but low
temperatures
• Can have high temperature but little heat
• The earth’s outermost atmosphere is extremely
“hot” but its heat content is negligible
• The surface of the moon can reach 250 F in
sunlight and -200 F in shadow, but the vacuum
around the Apollo astronauts contained no heat
• It takes time for things to warm up and cool off.

Temperature Scales
• Fahrenheit
- Water Freezes at 32 F
- Water Boils at 212 F
• Centigrade or Celsius
- Water Freezes at 0 C
- Water Boils at 100 C
• Two scales exactly equal at -40

Absolute Temperature
• Once atoms stop moving, that’s as cold as it can get
• Absolute Zero = -273 C = -459 F
• Kelvin scale uses Celsius degrees and starts at
absolute zero
• Most formulas involving temperature use the
Kelvin Scale

Electromagnetic Radiation
• Radio: cm to km wavelength
• Microwaves: 0.1 mm to cm
• Infrared: 0.001 to 0.1 mm
• Visible light: 0.0004 – 0.0007 mm
• Ultraviolet: 10-9 – 4 x 10-7 m
• X-rays: 10-13 – 10-9 m
• Gamma Rays: 10-15 –10-11 m

Composition of the Atmosphere


• Nitrogen: 78.08%
• Oxygen: 20.95%
• Argon: 0.93% (9300 ppm)
• Carbon Dioxide: 0.035% (350 ppm)
• Neon: 18 ppm
• Helium: 5.2 ppm
• Methane: 1.4 ppm
• Ozone: 0.07 ppm
Other Components of the Atmosphere
• Water Droplets
• Ice Crystals
• Sulfuric Acid Aerosols
• Volcanic Ash
• Windblown Dust
• Sea Salt
• Human Pollutants

Structure of the Atmosphere

• Defined by Temperature Profiles


• Troposphere
- Where Weather Happens
• Stratosphere
- Ozone Layer
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
- Ionosphere

Troposphere

• Heating of the Surface creates warm air at


surface
• Warm air rises, but air expands as it rises and
cools as it expands (Adiabatic cooling)
• Heating + Adiabatic Cooling = Warm air at
surface, cooler air above
• Buoyancy = Cool air at surface, warmer air
above
• Two opposing tendencies = constant turnover

Stratosphere

• Altitude 11-50 km
• Temperature increases with altitude
• -60 C at base to 0 C at top
• Reason: absorption of solar energy to make
ozone at upper levels (ozone layer)
• Ozone (O3) is effective at absorbing solar
ultraviolet radiation

Mesosphere
• 50-80 km altitude
• Temperature decreases with altitude
• 0 C at base, -95 at top
• Top is coldest region of atmosphere

Thermosphere
• 80 km and above
• Temperature increases with altitude as atoms
accelerated by solar radiation
• -95 C at base to 100 C at 120 km
• Heat content negligible
• Traces of atmosphere to 1000 km
• Formerly called Ionosphere

Why is the Mesosphere so Cold?


• Stratosphere warmed because of ozone
layer
• Thermosphere warmed by atoms being
accelerated by sunlight
• Mesosphere is sandwiched between two
warmer layers

How Heat Moves

• Radiation

• Conduction

• Convection

Effects of Spacecraft / Plasma Interactions


• plasma wave generation
• arcing and sputtering at significantly high
negative potential relative to the plasma
• spacecraft charging at high inclination
orbits
• current balance between the space vehicle
and the ambient plasma
• geomagnetic field effects

Solar Wind

• The solar wind is a stream of energized,


charged particles, primarily electrons and
protons, flowing outward from the Sun
• Composition similar to the Sun’s corona
-Protons (~ 70%), electrons, ionized helium,
less than 0.5% minor ions
- Genesis mission
• Approximately 109 kg/s of material is lost by
the sun as ejected solar wind
• Speed: 200 – 900 km/s
• Solar sail
• Solar wind is also a plasma environment
– Not just gas
– Electrically conductive
Ionizing Radiation

• Radiation has a major impact on on-board digital


circuitry
- Long-term degradation and failure (ranges
from months to years)
- Short-term, single event effects (SEE)
• Minor (bit flips)
• Major (catastrophic burnout)

Radiation belts

• Two belts (donut shaped)


• Magnetic field traps the particles
• Discovered by Explorer III in 1958
• Composed of
- Electrons
- Protons
- Some heavy ions
• Effects
- Electrons: total dose
- Protons: total dose and SEE
- Ions: SEE

South Atlantic Anomaly


• Magnetic field weaker in south Atlantic
• Result is particle penetration
• Note polar effect as well
• SEU effect on UoSat-2

Galactic Cosmic Rays

• High energy particles from interstellar space


• Flux inversely related to solar max periods
• Primary effect
- Single event upsets

Radiation Effects on Spacecraft Solar


Cells
• High energy protons and electrons collide with the
crystal lattice structure
• Collisions displace atoms from their sites
• Eventually, the displaced atoms form stable defects
• Defects change the propagation of photoelectrons
in the lattice structure

Radiation effects on Spacecraft: Solid State


Devices
• Nominal MOS or CMOS technology
• Charged Particles
- Voltage output of a “GATE” switches
abruptly from a “0” to a “1” at a specified
voltage
• Radiation:
- Switching threshold changes
- Drain current and output voltage also change
• Effects caused by cumulative effect of high energy
protons and electrons (Cumulative Dosage
measured in rads)

Summary of Radiation Types

Radiation Source Particle Type Primary effects


Trapped radiation belts Electrons, Ionization
Protons damage;
ionization, SEE
Galactic Cosmic Rays High-energy. Heavy, SEE
charged particles

Solar Flares Electrons Ionization


Protons Ionization, SEE
Lower-energy, SEE
charged particles

Meteoroid/Orbital Debris

• Meteoroid population consists the remnants of


comets, spent rocket stages, fragments of rockets
and satellites, other hardware, as well as
operational satellites.
Micrometeoroids/Orbital Debris

• Example collisions
- Russia/US satellites collision
- Cerres/Ariane 3rd Stage Debris
• VERY HIGH kinetic energies
• NASA predicted results
- Fatal spacesuit damage from 0.3 to 0.5 mm
particle
- Catastrophic shuttle damage from 4 mm
particle

Micrometeoroids/Orbital Debris:
Defense
• Double Wall Bumper
- 1st wall fragments impacting particle into
smaller, slower pieces
- 2nd wall stops those pieces

Environments and Effects


Debris: Magnitude of Problem

• NORAD tracks ~7000 objects larger than 10 cm


• Only 5% are operational S/C
• Stastical analysis suggests ~40,000 larger than 1
cm
• Collisions generate more debris
- i.e 1985 hypervelocity ASAT test estimated
to have created 106 fragments between 1 mm
and 1 cm diameter

Gravitational Field

• Free Fall Environment (not Zero-G or


Microgravity)
- At Sea Level: ag = 9.8 m/s2 = 1.0 g
- At 200 km: ag = 9.2 m/s2 = 0.94 g
- At 1000 km: ag = 7.3 m/s2 = 0.75 g
- At GEO: ag = 0.2 m/s2 = 0.023 g
• Effects:
- Structures/Mechanisms: Minimum size
structural components
- Propulsion: Fuel flow (ullage burns, etc)
- TCS: Fluid flow considerations (heat pipes
wicking)
- Etc

Spacecraft Environment Related Anomalies

• Flare/Geomagnetic Storm
- GOES-7: lost imagery and communications,
solar arrays degraded 2-3 years worth
- DSP: star sensor contamination, memory
upsets, lost data, power panel degradation
- Memory Upsets: DMSP, GPS, INTELSAT,
TDRSS
• Spacecraft Charging
- Milstar: power supply failure
- Anik: momentum wheel failure
- GOES: phantom commands
• Galactic Cosmic Ray
- Pioneer: memory anomalies

Conclusions
• Definition of the flight environment is the first
critical step.
• Not all space environments will have a critical
impact on a particular mission.
• After definition of the space environment is
established including results from trade studies, the
next important step is to establish a coordinated set
of natural space environment requirements for use
in design and development.
• The space environment definition and requirements
are documented in a separate program document or
are incorporated into design and performance
specifications.
• The environments specialist then helps insure that
the environment specifications are understood and
correctly interpreted throughout the design,
development, and operational phases of the
program.

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