SPRINTING SHOES

FINAL PROJECT
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of BDes. FDP
Session- 2017-2021

Submitted by:
ASTHA NEGI
SONAKSHI SINHA
SOUMYA BHATT
Roll No.: 1711014, 1711065, 1711066; Batch: M&M

Under the guidance of

Academic mentor: ANITRA DAS

Date of Submission: 13th May 2021

Footwear Design and Development Institute (an INI under FDDI Act 2017)
Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India
A-10/A, Sector-24, Noida- 201303, Uttar Pradesh
 DECLARATION

The work presented in this dissertation is the result of my own endeavors unless otherwise stated. No part of
this dissertation is the outcome of any collaborative investigation. Furthermore, no part of the dissertation has
already been or is being currently submitted for any other degree, diploma or other qualification at this or any
other university.

FDDI, NOIDA

MAY 2021
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION

About Sprinting Shoe

It is also known as Track spikes, or just spikes, are racing shoes used by athletes when racing

on the track. Some spikes are designed for longer-term training on tracks, but generally the

shoes are used for racing. The term "spikes" can also refer to track shoes featuring such

protrusions, though these are technically called pins. Spikes are similar to studs, which are used

for team sports, although generally smaller and with a sharp point.
Background

While most footwear protects and supports the foot, the running shoe goes beyond what one

would expect of the ordinary shoe. Its advantages have been the subject of intense scrutiny in

recent years, a focus that results from an increasingly health- and leisure-conscious population

in general, and from the popularity of running in particular. As more people have become

involved in the sport, more and more varied equipment has become available to runners.

Consequently, the running shoe has evolved quite dramatically over the past 15 years.

Running as a sport can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who advocated a culture based on

sound bodies and sound minds. During Greek athletic contests, runners competed barefoot and

often naked. Later, the Romans mandated that their messengers wear thin-soled sandals. As

shoemaking evolved through the centuries, leather became and remained the favored material

because of its durability. However, the first references to shoes designed specifically for

running don't appear until 1852, when historians noted a race in which runners wore shoes with

spiked soles. In 1900, the first sneaker, or all-purpose athletic shoe, was designed. Made

primarily of canvas, this sneaker featured a rubber rim made possible by Charles Goodyear's

1839 discovery of vulcanized rubber. Known about for 1,000 years, rubber was finally rendered

commercially useful when Goodyear heated and combined it with sulphur, thereby preventing

it from hardening and losing its elasticity. In athletic shoes, rubber helped to cushion the impact

of running on hard surfaces. However, it did not last as a shoemaking material: it was not

durable, and leather returned as the preferred material for running shoes. Yet leather wasn't the

ideal fabric, either. In addition to being expensive, leather shoes caused chating, and runners

had to purchase chamois liners to protect their feet. A Scotsman known as "Old Man" Richings

provided some relief when he invented a customized shoe designed with a seamless toe box (a

piece of material inserted between the toe cap and the shoe lining and treated with a hardening

agent, the toe box protects the toes against rubbing).

In 1925, Adolph Dassler, a German shoemaker, decided to concentrate on athletic shoes, and

founded a business with his brother, Rudolph, to do so. The Dasslers' running shoes provided

both arch support and speed lacing, and their high-quality products attracted prominent athletes

including some Olympians: Jesse Owens is reported to have worn Dassler shoes during the

1936 games in Munich. The brothers later formed separate companies—Adolph, the Adidas

company and Rudolph, the Puma company. Another manufacturer of running shoes during the

mid-twentieth century was Hyde Athletic of New England, although the company specialized

in football shoes. A 1949 description of Hyde's running shoe said that it featured kangaroo

leather, a welt construction (a welt is a strip used to connect the upper to the sole—see "Design"

section below), an elastic gore closure (a triangular piece of leather on the upper part of the

shoe), and a leather sole covered in crepe rubber, a crinkly form of the material used especially

for shoe soles. One of the most unusual running shoes of the mid-twentieth century was worn

by the Japanese runner who won the 1951 Boston Marathon. Called the Tiger, his shoe was

modeled after a traditional Japanese shoe that enclosed the big toe separately from the other

toes.

During the 1960s, a company called New Balance began to examine how running impacts the

foot. As a result of this research, New Balance developed an orthopedic running shoe with a

rippled sole and wedge heel to absorb shock. As running became more popular and joggers

more knowledgeable, the demand for footwear that would help prevent injuries increased.

Many runners also began to request shoes that provided support in a lightweight construction,

and nylon, invented during World War II, consequently began to replace the heavier leather

and canvas materials previously used to make running shoes. Today, however, the comfort of

the running shoe isn't known only to the jogger. Running shoes can be spotted on just about

anyone who wants comfort in a shoe. In fact, running shoes have ceased to surprise when they

appear on the feet of otherwise formally-attired office workers en route to work. In 1990,
consumers spent $645 million for 15 million pairs of running shoes, and experts note that the

majority bought were used for comfort rather than running.

History

Running as a sport can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who advocated a culture based on

sound bodies and sound minds. During Greek athletic contests, runners competed barefoot and

often naked. Later, the Romans mandated that their messengers wear thin-soled sandals. As

shoemaking evolved through the centuries, leather became and remained the favored material

because of its durability. However, the first references to shoes designed specifically for

running don't appear until 1852, when historians noted a race in which runners wore shoes with

spiked soles. In 1900, the first sneaker, or all-purpose athletic shoe, was designed. Made

primarily of canvas, this sneaker featured a rubber rim made possible by Charles Goodyear's

1839 discovery of vulcanized rubber. Known about for 1,000 years, rubber was finally rendered

commercially useful when Goodyear heated and combined it with sulphur, thereby preventing

it from hardening and losing its elasticity. In athletic shoes, rubber helped to cushion the impact

of running on hard surfaces. However, it did not last as a shoemaking material: it was not

durable, and leather returned as the preferred material for running shoes. Yet leather wasn't the

ideal fabric, either. In addition to being expensive, leather shoes caused chating, and runners

had to purchase chamois liners to protect their feet. A Scotsman known as "Old Man" Richings

provided some relief when he invented a customized shoe designed with a seamless toe box (a

piece of material inserted between the toe cap and the shoe lining and treated with a hardening

agent, the toe box protects the toes against rubbing).

In 1925, Adolph Dassler, a German shoemaker, decided to concentrate on athletic shoes, and

founded a business with his brother, Rudolph, to do so. The Dasslers' running shoes provided
both arch support and speed lacing, and their high-quality products attracted prominent athletes

including some Olympians: Jesse Owens is reported to have worn Dassler shoes during the

1936 games in Munich. The brothers later formed separate companies—Adolph, the Adidas

company and Rudolph, the Puma company. Another manufacturer of running shoes during the

mid-twentieth century was Hyde Athletic of New England, although the company specialized

in football shoes. A 1949 description of Hyde's running shoe said that it featured kangaroo

leather, a welt construction (a welt is a strip used to connect the upper to the sole—see "Design"

section below), an elastic gore closure (a triangular piece of leather on the upper part of the

shoe), and a leather sole covered in crepe rubber, a crinkly form of the material used especially

for shoe soles. One of the most unusual running shoes of the mid-twentieth century was worn

by the Japanese runner who won the 1951 Boston Marathon. Called the Tiger, his shoe was

modeled after a traditional Japanese shoe that enclosed the big toe separately from the other

toes.

During the 1960s, a company called New Balance began to examine how running impacts the

foot. As a result of this research, New Balance developed an orthopedic running shoe with a

rippled sole and wedge heel to absorb shock. As running became more popular and joggers

more knowledgeable, the demand for footwear that would help prevent injuries increased.

Many runners also began to request shoes that provided support in a lightweight construction,

and nylon, invented during World War II, consequently began to replace the heavier leather

and canvas materials previously used to make running shoes. Today, however, the comfort of

the running shoe isn't known only to the jogger. Running shoes can be spotted on just about

anyone who wants comfort in a shoe. In fact, running shoes have ceased to surprise when they

appear on the feet of otherwise formally-attired office workers en route to work. In 1990,

consumers spent $645 million for 15 million pairs of running shoes, and experts note that the

majority bought were used for comfort rather than running.

Track spikes had become popular in England by the 1860s, but the concept of spikes in shoes

to give running traction has been around much longer. As written in the 1852 publication

of Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible regarding military arms at the time of Paul the

Apostle (c. 5 – c. 67):

"Having the feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace;" not iron, not steel; but

patient investigation, calm inquiry; assiduous, laborious, lasting; if not, rather, with firm

footing in the gospel of peace. Whether the apostle here means stout, well-tanned leather,

leather well prepared, by his "preparation of the gospel of peace" or shoes which had spikes in

them, which, running into the ground, gave a steadfastness to the soldier who wore them, may

come under remark hereafter. We shall only add, that Moses seems, at least according to our

rendering, to have some allusion to shoes, either plated, or spiked, on the sole, when he says,

(Deut. xxxiii. 25.) "Thy shoes shall be iron and brass; and as thy days shall thy strength be."

For pioneering the use of spikes, J.W. Foster and Sons's revolutionary running pumps appear

in the book, Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport. The company began distributing

shoes across the United Kingdom and were worn by British athletes. They were made famous

by 100m Olympic champion Harold Abrahams (who would be immortalized in the Oscar

winning film Chariots of Fire) in the 1924 Summer Olympics held in Paris.

In 1934, American football player and coach Pop Warner recommended them for running

events in his widely distributed book, "Pop" Warner's book for boys.

Additionally, Adolf Dassler, the founder of Adidas, assisted in the development of track spikes

for multiple events. In an effort to enhance the quality of spiked athletic footwear, he

transitioned from a previous model of heavy metal spikes to attempting to utilize canvas and

rubber. He carved them by hand and were eventually worn during the 1936 Olympics by Jesse

Owens. People began to take notice, and Owens inherently helped popularize Dassler's design.
Track spikes continued to gain notable recognition when Emil Zatopek, a distance runner from

Czech Republic, wore them during the 1952 Olympics in Helesinki.

Design

The front of the sole features a rigid or semi-rigid spike plate containing between 3 and 9

threaded holes called spike wells. Spikes can be screwed into each well using a spike wrench.

Recently, some individuals have attempted to add a "through hole" at the bottom of the spike

to make them easier to tighten, remove, and install. Some shoes have permanent or "fixed"

spikes which are not meant to be removed. Spikes may break during competition. Track shoes

are exceptionally light, some shoes weighing less than five ounces (142 grams) each, half the

weight of many standard running shoes.In most track shoes, the toe region bends up to allow

space for protruding spikes and to encourage athletes to run on their toes. This upward angle,

known as "taper," varies widely depending on the intended use of the shoe, and the taper angle

can be rigid or flexible. Shoes with a large taper are said to be "aggressive."
This shoe design may cause harm to the athlete if worn for extended periods of time outside of

competition. Injury may occur when walking in a leisurely fashion, as the athlete is not on his

or her toes, which is the manner in which the shoes were meant to be worn.

Types of shoes

There is considerable variation among track shoes depending on their intended use within the

sport of track and field.

• Sprint spikes generally have a very stiff spike plate with the greatest number of spike

wells. The taper is highest and most rigid in sprint spikes, maximizing the efficiency of

energy transfer with each stride. Very little heel support is needed because sprinters

spend most or all of their time on their toes. Sprint spikes may have a zip-up cover
 instead of or in addition to laces to improve aerodynamics. Sprint spikes should fit

tightly but they should not be too tight to the point that the runners toes are cramping

and they should not be too loose that will result in the runner losing power and speed.

They should fit tighter than regular athletic shoes yet still comfortable enough to

perform in.

• Distance shoes have a more flexible spike plate with less taper and fewer spikes.

Because of the longer race distances, support through the mid-foot and heel is as

important as efficiency with distance spikes. This means that distance spikes generally

have a softer, more durable sole, particularly through the heel region. Although still

"glove-like," the fit for distance spikes is generally slightly looser than for sprint spikes,

given the longer race duration.

• Middle distance spikes are a hybrid of a sprint shoe and a distance shoe, featuring an

intermediate level of taper, spike plate rigidity, cushioning and support. Certain middle-

distance spikes are also popular among hurdlers because they have a relatively steep

taper for sprinting and a cushioned heel for landings.

• Cross country spikes usually have no more than six spike points and are similar to

distance spikes in many respects. However, given the wide range of terrain encountered

off-track, cross country spikes have a more durable rubber sole and supportive mid-foot

to provide a level of cushioning and stabilization not required on a track. Depending on

race length, surface types and personal preference, cross country spikes may be

abandoned in favour of racing flats.

• Shoes for field events and specialty events vary widely depending upon the specific

requirements of each event. For example, long jump shoes are most similar to sprint

spikes to provide good top speed, high jump shoes have flat bottoms and heel spikes to
 allow energy transfer through the entire foot, and steeplechase shoes are predominantly

a water-resistant mesh for exceptional ventilation. While shoes for shot

put, discus and hammer throw have flat rubber soles with no spikes, they may still

occasionally be referred to as "track spikes."

Notable spike manufacturers include Adidas, Asics, Brooks, Mizuno, New

Balance, Nike, Puma AG, Reebok and Saucony.

Types of spikes

While most spikes are between 3/16 inch (5 mm) and 1/2 inch (12 mm) long, the most common

is 1/4 inch (6 mm). Additionally, there are various specialty lengths, as well as minimal "blank"

spikes (also called studs) used to cover a spike well. Spikes are generally metal or ceramic and

come in three main types: the pyramid, the needle (pin), and the compression tier (Christmas

tree). Pyramids are conical spikes that taper to a sharp point. They normally have a maximum

diameter nearly equal to the diameter of the threads of the spike. Needles also have a sharp

point, but a thinner cone diameter. Track spikes create traction by penetrating the track surface.

Some tracks do not allow pin spikes and limit the length of pyramid spikes to minimize damage

to the track. A variation for synthetic tracks is the Christmas Tree spike. It uses a terraced cone

shape with a flat end designed to compress rather than penetrate the track below it. However,

the notion that the compression spikes have less track penetration is not supported by scientific

studies.[10] Since it does not penetrate the track surface as much as a pyramid spike, it may

reduce wear on the track. Since the end is flat rather than pointed, it is less harmful to other

runners in the event of being "spiked." Lastly, there are Tartan spikes that are dull that are most

commonly used for rubber tracks.

Raw Materials

Running shoes are made from a combination of materials. The sole has three layers: insole,

midsole, and outsole. The insole is a thin layer of man-made ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). The

components of the midsole, which provides the bulk of the cushioning, will vary among

manufacturers. Generally, it consists of polyurethane surrounding another material such as gel

or liquid silicone, or polyurethane foam given a special brand name by the manufacturer. In

some cases, the polyurethane may surround capsules of compressed air. Outsoles are usually

made of carbon rubber, which is hard, or blown rubber, a softer type, although manufacturers

use an assortment of materials to produce different textures on the outsole.

The rest of the covering is usually a synthetic material such as artificial suede or a nylon weave

with plastic slabs or boards supporting the shape. There may be a leather overlay or nylon

overlay with leather attachments. Cloth is usually limited to the laces fitted through plastic
eyelets, and nails have given way to an adhesive known as cement lasting that bonds the

various components together.

A sole obsession

Spikes were introduced in 1852 and by 1894 the Spalding Company was manufacturing low-

cut running shoes made from pliable kangaroo leather with six-spike soles. Joseph William

Foster founded the first sports shoe company in Bolton, UK in the 1890s. His grandson later

took over in 1958 and renamed the firm Reebok. Reebok had an early association with the

Olympic Games when it made a pair of bespoke thin leather running shoes for Lord Burghley

in the 1924 Olympics. Soon running shoes were being made with stitched leather straps around

the top of the shoe.

In 1920, Adolf Dassler and his brother began making dedicated running shoes for athletes with

metal spikes for improved traction. By the time of the Berlin Olympics in 1936, his shoes had

gained an international reputation and were being worn by world-class athletes such as Jesse

Owens.

After WWII, Dassler started making training shoes from surplus tent canvas and rubber from

fuel tanks. In 1948, he founded Adidas, but the company was soon to split into Addas, later

again known as Adidas, and Puma, after a bitter dispute with his brother Rudolf. In 1949,

Dassler added three coloured side strips to the shoe to give extra support. It was the origin of

what we would recognise as the modern trainer.

In 1962, New Balance introduced the first ‘scientifically tested’ ultra-lightweight running shoe

that weighed just 96g. In 1968, brush spikes – a layer of hundreds of spikes attached to the sole

of the shoe – were introduced, replacing the traditional spiked running shoe. This so improved

performance that they were later banned from competition.

Today’s synthetic shoes are made of lightweight mesh fabric uppers with synthetic soles and a

middle layer of considerable mechanical and chemical complexity. They are designed for

comfort but also performance.

Sole science

At the top of the sport where performance is paramount, a quiet revolution is occurring in the

design of running shoes.

The main functions of running shoes are ‘protection; improvement of performance; and to

provide comfort’, according to Benno Nigg, founder and co-director of the Human

Performance Laboratory at the University of Calgary, Canada, and author of The biomechanics

of sports shoes. However, advances in nanotechnology are now making their mark on the

running shoe in three areas: the trade-off between support and impact resistance; the design of

the footplate; and improved water repellency.

Tony Ryan, ICI Professor of Materials Science at the University of Sheffield, UK, explains:

‘Running shoes are designed to absorb energy, to be comfortable and to protect your feet. To

do this they have to be soft and squishy, but if you walked on a soft material [all day] it would

eventually flatten out.’

To stop this, Ryan explains that manufacturers need to to add harder substances to the

formulation to prevent the shape squishing too far and allow it to rebound after each step. As a

result, the running shoe stays in shape. ‘The nanotechnology comes in because the soft and the

hard bits we use are polymer molecules,’ he says.

A running shoe sole has three layers: the insole, the mid-sole, and the out-sole. The insole is a

thin layer of man-made ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA). Out-soles are usually made of hard

carbon rubber or softer blown rubber, though manufacturers then use an assortment of materials

to produce different textures.

The core of the shoe is the mid-sole, which provides the bulk of the cushioning and is where

the nanotechnology is used, although the precise design varies among manufacturers. Some

manufacturers use a polyurethane sheath surrounding a gel or liquid silicone, for example,

while others use polyurethane foam.

The exact formulation is a closely guarded secret. In both cases, however, the mix of polymers

dictates the properties of the shoe. Thus polymer chemistry is crucial in the design of the mid-

sole where combining polymers in the correct – usually proprietary – ratio gives the sole the

desired balance between energy absorption and shape recovery.

Meanwhile, nanotechnology is also playing an increasingly important role in the design of the

footplate. Adidas designed the Lone Star spike running shoe, for example, for the 400m Texan

runner Jeremy Wariner. The Lone Star features the first full-length carbon nanotube reinforced

plate and an innovative compression spike.

In the same way that NasCar racing cars have right and left tyre compounds and different

suspension set-ups on either side of the car to help it take corners, Wariner’s running shoes

have differently designed treads for the right and left foot to assist his cornering.

Adidas claims that the new shoe is ‘one of the most technologically advanced and lightest

running shoes to ever hit the track’. After studying Wariner’s running pattern by high-speed

video and pressure mapping, Adidas’ engineers and designers were able to see how Wariner
uses each foot as he runs, which in turn enabled them to custom- design a shoe for his running

style.

Mechanical and chemical bonds within the nanotubes inside the spike plate increase its

structural integrity and durability, allowing it to be made in a single piece rather than the more

common three. The plate is about one-third the thickness of Wariner’s previous spike plates

and weighs 50% less.

‘We spent more than two years working with Jeremy Wariner … to design the Adidas Lone

Star,’ says Mic Lussier, innovation team leader of Adidas America. ‘We know long-sprint

races are won and lost in the curves so we looked at what he already does best and from there

created the finest curve running shoes in the world. The Lone Star allows Jeremy to push even

better in the turn [providing] him with … more stability and [mechanical] efficiency.’

The spike of the shoe is also innovative. It is a progressive-compression peg that acts like a

piston on the track. It is formed from the same nanotubes as the sole plate but its length, taper,

thickness and groove topology are mathematically designed to provide the optimum

penetration/compression ratio to exploit the elastic properties of the track surface. Because the

spike does not cut into the track Wariner does not have to expend effort pulling the spike free

of the track surface. The shoe therefore quite literally puts a spring into Wariner’s step.

High rainfall levels this summer have also given an edge to another often overlooked feature

of running shoes: water repellency. And here again, nanotechnology is lending a helping hand.

British company P2i recently announced, for example, that it is applying its patented water-

repelling nanotechnology to sports shoes, including running shoes.

Nick Rimmer, the company’s head of marketing, explains that the technology was originally

developed, with funding from the MoD, in the 1990s, as a fluid-repellent covering on protective
clothing used for biological and chemical warfare. It involves coating the material with a

hydrophobic, nanoscopic (40–80nm) polymer layer based on perfluorinated carbon

compounds, using a pulsed, ionised gas plasma.

Once applied, the ability of the treated fabric to repel water makes it ideal for sports

applications since it keeps the weight of the product down. And in the exalted circles of the

world’s top athletes even a few grams of water can make all the difference.

But how much of a difference has the revolution in sports shoes actually made to success on

the track? Steve Haake, professor of sport science at Sheffield Hallam University, UK,

estimates ‘1 or 2%... if we are talking about the top 25 athletes’. Nigg agrees: ‘I think that the

performance aspect of shoes is rather substantial...The improvement is in the percentage

[range].’

And the future looks poised to deliver yet more innovation to running shoes. Nike, for example,

is developing shoes that actively feed back data while in use. The shoes have a fibre-optic force

sensor connected to a communication port from which data on an athlete’s performance can be

downloaded.

As the sole is compressed, the wavelength of the light passing through changes and this is

picked up by the sensor, which can then be translated into a value for the force. Nike says that

the shoe’s sensor system will have a host of applications beyond sports, including gaming and

as control inputs for computers and other devices.

Components of Sprinting Shoes

1. Lining – The soft fabric on the inside of the shoe that helps to increase overall

comfort and absorb sweat

2. Eyelets – Holes in the upper helps to keep the laces in place

3. Lacing – Track spikes use traditional lacing for minute adjustments in tension

4. Toe – The end of a shoe, often reinforced for improved durability

5. Taper – The rise or upward curve toward the front of the spike that helps the foot roll

forward. Encourages “running on the toes”

6. Forefoot – The area of the shoe that sits right below the toes. It must be flexible to

allow full range of motion

7. Upper – An extremely lightweight and thin upper is achieved through mesh, canvas,

or other thin materials

8. Heel panel – The fabric that covers the heel portion of the shoe

9. Tongue – A thin and breathable tongue helps to improve comfort without adding

superfluous weight

10. Insole – The footbed of the track spike that provides comfort and support. Some can

be removable for you to add your own

11. Last – Sits beneath the insole. The last is what a track spike is built around and affects

the overall shape

12. Midsole – Located between the insole and outsole, provides cushioning via a foam-

based material. Minimal midsole material is used to cut down on weight

13. Heel counter – A rigid plastic insert in the back of the shoe that helps to provide

structural integrity and support for the heel

14. Collar – A thinly padded collar helps to add some comfort

15. Arch – The middle area of the track spike that supports the arches
16. Spikes – The strategically placed pointed tips that provide traction on the track field.

Can be made of metal, ceramic, or plastic

17. Spike plate – The part of the sole that houses the spikes. Can either come in half, 3/4,

or full-length
The Manufacturing Process

Shoemaking is a labour-intensive process, and the cost of producing the many components of

the running shoe reflect the skilled labour necessary. Each phase of production requires
precision and skills, and taking shortcuts to reduce costs can result in an inferior shoe. Some

running shoes (known as slip lasted shoes) have no insole board. Instead, the single-layer upper

is wrapped around both the top and the bottom portions of the foot. Most running shoes,

however, consist of an insole board that is cemented to the upper with cement. This section

will focus on cement-lasted shoes.

Shipping and stamping the fabric

• 1 First, prepared rolls of synthetic material and rolls of dyed, split, and suede leather

(used as part of the foxing) are sent to the factory.

• 2 Next, die machines stamp the shoe shapes, which are then cut out in cookie cutter

fashion with various markings to guide the rest of the assembly. After being bundled

and labeled, these pieces are sent to another part of the factory where they'll be stitched.

Completed running shoes are quality tested using procedures developed by the Shoe and Allied

Trades Research Association. Defects that are checked for include poor lasting, incomplete

cement bonding, and stitching errors.

Assembling the upper and the insole

• 3 The pieces that will form the upper part of the shoe are stitched or cemented together

and the lace holes punched out. These pieces include the featherline, the vamp, the

mudguard, the throat (with eyestay and lacing section), the tongue, reinforcements such

as the saddle or arch bandage, the collar (with Achilles tendon protector), the foxing,

and the logo. At this point, the upper looks not like a shoe but like a round hat, because
 there is extra material—called the lasting margin —that will be folded underneath the

shoe when it gets cemented to the sole.

• 4 Next, the insole is stitched to the sides of the upper. Stiffening agents are then added

to the heel region and toe box, and an insole board is inserted.

Attaching the upper and bottom

parts

• 5 The completed upper is heated and fitted around a last, a plastic mold that forms the

final shape of the shoe. An automatic lasting machine then pulls the upper down over

the last. Finally, a cement nozzle applies cement between the upper and insole board,

and the machine presses the two pieces together to bond them. The upper now has the

exact shape of the finished shoe.

• 6 Pre-stamped and cutout forms of the midsole and outsole or wedge are layered and

cemented to the upper. First, the outsole and midsole are aligned and bonded together.

Next, the outsole and midsole are aligned with the upper and placed over a heater to

reactivate the cement. As the cement cools, the upper and bottom are joined.

• 7 The shoe is removed from the last and inspected. Any excess cement is scraped off.

SPRINTING SHOES SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

1. The Design Team –

Contemporary shoe designers focus on the anatomy and the movement of the foot. Using

video cameras and computers, they analyze such factors as limb movement, the effect of

different terrains on impact, and foot position on impact. Runners are labeled pronators if

their feet roll inward or supinator if their feet roll to the outside. Along with pressure points,
friction patterns, and force of impact, this information is fed into computers which calculate

how best to accommodate these conditions. Designers next test and develop prototypes

based on their studies of joggers and professional runners, readying a final design for mass

production

2. Next, prepared rolls of synthetic material are sent to the factory. Most running shoes

are constructed with breathable knit Polyester or Nylon mesh. Knit fabric allow the

material to smoothly follow the last curves

3. Next, die machines stamp the shoe shapes, which are then cut out with various markings

to guide the rest of the assembly. The pattern parts for the shoe are made into

steel cutting dies. A cutting die is required for every part and every size. Each shoe

part is cut from rolls of fabric or from leather hides. Fabric parts may be layered so

many can be cut at the same time.

4. After being bundled and labelled, these pieces are sent to another part of the factory

where they'll be stitched.

5. The factories cutting department cuts all the parts for each running shoe, then gathers

the parts into kits. One kit for each pair of shoes. After several hundred or even 1000

kits are complete they are passed to the stitching department for assembly.

6. The stitching department builds the parts of the running shoe sewing then

together, finally closing the shoe and adding the tongue.

7. Mulling - Due to the edges present on the spike plate and the thin midsole, a strobel

construction was deemed suitable for the shoe. The strobel, a thin sheet between the

footbed and the midsole, may be omitted from light sport shoes, instead having the

upper fold in under the foot and being glued directly to the midsole. The strobel

construction, where the upper is stitched to the strobel before the whole package is

attached to the midsole, makes the platform for the footbed and the foot more rigid,

creating a stable platform for the ground contact phase of the stride. This feature suits

the requirements of track spike well, motivating the addition of this component.

8. The running shoe upper is steamed to soften the materials and the last is inserted and

pulled tight. Once the last is tight inside the upper a second lasting machine pulls the
 heel edge. Once the last is secured inside the upper, temporary shoes laces are pulled

tight, and the upper is cooled which allows the upper to shrink and fit tight to the last.

9. While the upper is being lasted, the sole unit is being prepared. In this case, a rubber

sheet sole is combined with the EVA foam cushioning component cemented inside.

This is done in a separate process that’s called stock fitting.

10. Running shoe midsoles will be made from weight EVA foam. A thin layer of rubber

will allow the EVA to flex, but protect the midsole from wear.

11. Now that the upper is lasted tightly and the outside unit is compete, the two pieces come

together. The rubber sole unit will receive coatings of primer and cement. The outsole

will get its own special primer designed for EVA and rubber. The shoe upper is also

prepared with its own special primer and cement.

12. After the contact cement and primer have been completely dried in the heating tunnels,

the two pieces are joined together by hand. A skilled worker aligns the upper and

outsole together then places the shoe in a hydraulic press.

13. The running shoe will have 3 pressing operations, usually all done with one machine:

a vertical press, toe and heel press, and side pressing. This insures full contact between

the upper and outsole. Once the shoe is pressed together it’s often put in the cooling

tunnel to set the glue.

14. After the cooling tunnel, a shoe de-lasting machine is used to push the last out of the

shoe without wrinkling the running shoe upper.

15. The bottom surface of the outsole, in addition, has spike receiving sockets where

plastic spikes fit in and attach a detachable spike plate. The spike plate has seven

apertures to allow for the insertion of seven plastic spikes which hold the spike plate to

the outsole.
 Sprinting Soles used presently

The Midsole

Located between the upper and the outsole, the midsole is the part of the shoe where the

cushioning and pronation control technologies are located. A shoe's midsole is typically made

of plastic materials that feel and behave like foam or rubber. Midsole composition dictates the

durability or longevity of the shoe, as well as the quality of the ride.

• Compression-Molded EVA – The most common insole material. EVA stands for "ethylene

vinyl acetate," a combination of two types of plastics.

• Polyurethane – Another type of material that behaves like plastic or rubber and is used in

midsoles. Polyurethane is not as commonly used as EVA because it tends to be heavier and

firmer.
• Thermal Plastic Unit (TPU) – Thermal plastic is used in the bottom of the midsole at mid-

foot to replace or support the midsole material. Thermal plastic units can also be used in the

midsole to reduce overpronation.

• Durometer – Midsole resistance to indentation is indicated in durometers. The higher the

durometer, the stiffer and more resilient the midsole.

• Cushioning Devices – Cushioning devices are placed in the heel and forefoot to absorb shock

and resist compression. Each shoe manufacturer produces its own unique types of cushioning

devices, but the function of these devices is similar across brands.

• Dual-Density or Multi-Density Midsole – A midsole that features two different densities of

material is dual-density, and a midsole with more than two densities is multi-density. Shoes

that are designed to prevent overpronation usually have dual- or multi-density midsoles.

• Medial Post – This is a device located on the medial, or inside, part of the shoe. A medial post

is placed in a shoe to reduce overpronation. Medial posts are usually made out of plastic.

The Outsole

Typically made of rubber, the outsole is the bottom of the shoe. The outsole provides traction

and contributes to how soft or firm the shoe "rides" as well as its torsional rigidity and

flexibility.

• Carbon Rubber – This durable rubber compound makes up the majority of running and

sprinting shoe outsoles.

• Blown Rubber – Air-injected rubber that is lighter, softer, and more flexible than traditional

rubber. Blown rubber is most commonly found in the forefoot. It provides a great feel but is

less durable than carbon rubber.

• Outsole-Grade EVA – EVA foam that is designed for ground contact. It is lighter and more

flexible than rubber, but it may be less durable over time.

• Shape – Outsoles range in shape from curved to straight. Curved shoes tend to be less stable,

and are best for neutral runners and supinator, while more rigid, straight shoes are best for

overpronators.

Track Spike Plate

The present invention involves athletic footwear but specifically track shoes that have a spike

plate made of a resilient material. The present invention's purpose is aimed at reducing the

weight of track shoes by using a detachable spike plate and plastic track spikes. This invention

is of the most economical design since it uses both replaceable plastic spikes and spike plates.

The track shoe can also be used without the attachment of a spike plate. This is accomplished

by the direct insertion of the spikes to the outsole, thereby greatly decreasing the track shoe's

weight. The former situation may not be suitable for training purposes, but rather for

competition purposes. Finally, the shoe has flexibility in changing the color arrangement of the

spikes and spike plate. Since they are of a synthetic material, they can be manufactured in any

color.

In general, track shoes using plastic spikes cannot rely on the same successful means

accomplished by steel spikes which utilize the screw insert manner of spike insertion into a

spike plate. This is because the threads on a steel spike are too thin for a synthetic material to

maintain their original shape. The threads on steel spikes inserted into steel receiving sockets

work well because the threads are very hard and will not deform as threads made from a

synthetic material would. A second reason for unsuccessful plastic spikes is deformation due

to thermal expansion of the synthetic material. Materials such as nylon have relatively high

coefficients of thermal expansion, which intern create a poor juncture between the spikes and

their holding sockets. Due to the reasons mentioned, the development of plastic spikes in track

shoes have resulted in heavier, more awkward designs for the runner.
Track & Field Events

What Makes Track Spikes Different?

Track spikes are constructed with less materials to keep weight down. The less weight on your

feet, the faster you become. All track surfaces are constructed with a rubberized material. Since

you are running on rubber, you don’t need rubber on the outsole of your shoes. Plastic is lighter

than rubber. Hence, the reason for having more plastic on the outsole than rubber. Spikes are

not designed for prolonged use for and will not last for as many miles as road and trail running

shoes. By design, Cross Country spikes/shoes will have some rubber on the outsole and will

weigh slightly more compared to track spikes. You run on grass, dirt and gravel during cross
country and over longer distances; therefore, they are designed to be more durable and

comfortable over the miles. You can still wear Cross Country spikes for track events. You will

not have as much of a competitive edge compared to wearing track spikes.

The future of Footwear

I believe the future of running footwear is in sustainability and customisation. In future, people

could be able to design their own shoes to their preference. I also believe shoes will be designed

to better suit the needs of the runner. For example, we might monitor how someone runs in the

lab and then design a pair of shoes specifically for them.

One thing is certain, though. We still do not fully understand what makes the best running shoe

and science is key. We still have a long race ahead of us. In the near future, experts predict

refinements of current designs and manufacturing processes rather than radical breakthroughs.

Within the next ten years, athletic shoe sizing should become standard worldwide. Designers

will continue to seek lighter weight materials that provide better support and stability with

further use of gels and air systems. Electronic components will also be built into the running

shoe, so that information about physical characteristics and developments can be measured

with a microchip and later downloaded into a computer. Another feature that is already

beginning to appear is the battery-operated lighting systems to accommodate the evening

jogger. As consumers continue to spend millions for the comfort of running shoes,

manufacturers of the ordinary shoe will continue to compete for these dollars by applying

running shoe design principles to everyday shoes.

Quality Control

Manufacturers can test their materials using procedures developed by the Shoe and Allied

Trades Research Association (SATRA), which provides devices designed to test each element
of the shoe. Once the shoe is complete, an inspector at the factory checks for defects such as

poor lasting, incomplete cement bonding, and stitching errors. Because running can cause a

number of injuries to the foot as well as to tendons and ligaments in the leg, another test is

currently being developed to evaluate a shoe's shock absorption properties.

Running shoes: how science can help you to run faster and more efficiently

Long-distance running times are dropping – and the first sub-two-hour marathon was

completed recently by Kenyan athlete, Eliud Kipchoge. Some are arguing that innovations in

trainer design are playing a pivotal role in these improvements. But what is the science behind

these elite running shoes? Can they really make such a big difference? And can they get even

better?

Over the last two decades, there has been growing focus on the engineering of sports

equipment, including running shoes. But while we are seeing rapid development in this area,

these steps are often incremental improvements rather than massive strides of change.

The first ever running shoe appeared about 200 years ago and both materials and

design have improved enormously since then. But if you consider the changes on a year-to-

year basis, the variances are fractional. They do, however, add up.

Preventing injury

A running shoe should protect the foot and the runner from injury. It provides stabilisation of

the foot and protects skin from damage. It should also limit potentially harmful impact forces

as the foot strikes the ground, while returning energy to the runner.
Running shoes are designed in a way that improves running efficiency. Science suggests that

if you can reduce the energy it takes to run, then in theory, you should be able to run faster and

for a longer period.

To do this, a number of techniques can be adopted. First, we can reduce the mass of a

shoe to make it lighter. This will allow a runner to swing their legs more efficiently. Another

claim is that if there is more cushioning in the midsole, then an athlete can run with straighter

legs, again making them more efficient.

Adding stiff plates within the [midsole], may also help an athlete to run better by redistributing

positive lower limb joint work from the knee to the joint of your toes above the ball of your

foot. These stiff plates may also store and return energy to the runner.

In general, when we compress this midsole, and then release it, we want as much energy as

possible to be returned. The more energy that is returned, the more efficiently an athlete should

be able to run.

It can, of course, be difficult to design tests that systematically explore all these factors, but

they are being explored by science.

Every runner is different

Major sporting brands spend a lot of time and resources designing and tuning running shoes,

but the biggest challenge they face is the fact that everyone is different.

The design and engineering that goes into a running shoe is quite heavily dependent on the

runner, and their requirements. Each person will have his or her own running style and, of

course, every foot is unique. There is never going to be a one-size-fits-all in shoe design.
A sprinting shoe would also be entirely different to a marathon shoe, for example. Marathon

footwear needs cushioning to reduce injury risk from many impacts over a long distance; while

a sprinting shoe could benefit from being stiffer without necessarily requiring as much

cushioning.

Similarly, some runners strike the ground right on their heel. These “rear-foot strikers” likely

need more cushioning. Others will strike more on their forefoot. They are probably less

concerned with cushioning, and could benefit from a more minimalist running shoe, or even

running barefoot.

Testing for excellence

Testing falls into two main areas. The first is engineering testing: testing of the design and

materials. This involves testing the shoe in isolation.

For example, you might want to look at the ageing of a shoe. This might involve putting an

artificial foot in the shoe and compressing it thousands and thousands of times to mimic

someone running, and then seeing how the properties change over time.

But you should also explore the interaction of the shoe with the athlete, investigating the effect

the footwear has on the runner, their performance and the general physiological state of the

individual.
What’s the right shoe for you?

To test this, athletes might be asked to run over force plates while being filmed with a motion

capture system, to see how the footwear influences their movement and ground reaction forces.

We could also look at the injury risks at this time.

You might also have participants running on treadmills and then monitor their oxygen levels.

In these types of experiments, you can see how efficient they are at running with different kinds

of footwear.

Material gains

Materials are probably the most crucial thing in footwear science. Many of the latest

innovations in running shoes are based around the materials being used.
The shape of a shoe is more or less fixed to the shape of the foot. But you might make the

midsole thicker and from a softer, more resilient material, providing a bigger distance for it to

compress over, so it can absorb and return more energy.

You can consider a range of things when looking at different materials. You might want to

consider using lighter materials, materials that return more energy or materials, which allow

the shoe to be more fitted to the foot.

Running shoe midsoles are typically made from moulded materials like EVA foam. The bottom

of a shoe needs to be rubbery and provide grip, and often textiles go on top to form the upper.

Fast track science

At the first of the revived Olympic Games in 1896, 241 participants represented 14 nations; in

the London 2012 Games, around 11,000 athletes, representing 204 countries, will compete.

But with so many gold medals and world and Olympic records at stake, by how much can

science and technology really improve an athlete’s performance or is it mainly all down to how

fit they are?

Tracking gold

When it comes to running in the Olympics, the other side of the excellence equation is the track

surface. Throughout the history of the Olympic Games, the search has been on for the optimum

surface to allow athletes to maximise their potential in bad weather as well as in good.

Enhanced traction surfaces were used in the early days: dirt, grass, sand and crushed cinders;

but by the 1950s surfaces were made of a combination of rubber compounds and asphalt –

many of them still in use today.

The construction of running tracks has now become almost as competitive as the athletes who

race on them. Track requirements are specified by the International Association of Athletics

Federation (IAAF) and are exacting, says Martin Oakes, business development manager at

BASF. Both BASF and its competitor Mondo are supplying tracks for the 2012 Olympics.

BASF tracks are poured in layers and Mondo’s are assembled in prefabricated strips.

Mondo has been supplying running tracks since the early 1980s, and is now the manufacturer

of choice for competition. The Mondo ‘carpet’ segments are cut to size then glued together

seamlessly in the direction of the lane lines to eliminate any tripping hazard. The Mondo

surface gives a consistent energy return, or bounce, as well as running shoe traction. Because

of the tight specifications required to achieve a seamless ‘weld’ between sections, Mondo

tracks are one of the most expensive systems to install, which explains why practice tracks,

such as BASF’s, are usually constructed using a cheaper system.

Energy return is key to track performance, Haake emphasises, pointing out that ‘the stiffness

and damping of [the best] surfaces are tuned to optimise energy return to the athletes so that

they … fatigue less’. This means that track construction can be complex. For example, the top-

of-the-range surface from BASF – its Conipur M system – consists of five layers of proprietary

polymers that together provide a Class I track surface, the highest possible rating stipulated by

the IAAF.

Nigg comments that he expects little further improvement in running track technology.

‘Current track and field surfaces are close to optimal within the existing rules,’ he says.

‘Compared with cinder tracks, the horizontal friction is much better.’

The refinement of sports shoes and surfaces are an inseparable component of the search for

athletic excellence. So how would Usain Bolt have fared in the ancient Olympics?
Haake suggests that, while there are too many unknown variables to give a meaningful answer,

‘he [Bolt] would have beaten the average elite runner by about 20m in the 100m’. But 20m is

20% over the 100m sprint – a difference far larger than that attributable to either running shoes

or surfaces.

It seems that the performance of our athletes is more than the sum of their racing appendages

after all.

TRENDS

Nike Air Zoom Victory

The most futuristic track spike on the market today is the all-new Victory. It uses a combination

of a two-piece Air unit and springy ZoomX foam, plus a stiffening carbon-fiber plate to help

you rocket around the track. The shoe is entirely weird the moment you step into it—its tippy,

and you feel two distinct bulges under your foot. As you run, it comes alive. The sensation isn’t

springy, like you might expect from ZoomX, a Pebax-based foam (the same used in the

Vaporfly) that’s extremely lightweight, well-cushioned, and has boatloads of energy return.

Instead, you feel tension build and the shoe load up as you press your weight down into it, then
launch forward with toe-off. The sole isn’t soft in the general sense, but it’s less punishing than

a conventional track spike without being slowed by cushioning. The fit is also different than

typical, as it’s not long and skinny like spikes of old. Instead, there’s a little bit of a flare in the

forefoot, squaring it up a bit and accommodating wider feet.

Asics MetaSprint

The MetaSprint is wildly different from your usual track spike. The entire outsole is made of a

carbon-fiber plate, but the forefoot doesn’t include any metal pins. Instead, there’s a

honeycomb pattern of jagged edges that bite into the track. Beyond the traction component, the

shape of the sole is novel, too, in that the plate is curved and forces your foot to roll inward on

toe-off so that you’re pushing off directly over your big toe for maximum propulsion. It’s a

noticeable effect that feels off initially but smooths when you turn on the speed.
Footwear tech has been under scrutiny in recent years, and the MetaSprint calls to mind Puma’s

“brush spikes” from the late ’60s. Those had dozens of tiny needles on the bottom for grip,

helped runners set world records, and were banned. Current World Athletics regulations

stipulate a maximum of 11 pins on the sole of a track spike. It’s unclear how they count a shoe

like the MetaSprint, which has eight clusters of raised hexagonal shapes, but it’s been approved

for competition by World Athletics.

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