Chapter 7 Politics Sociology Final

7.
Politics and Society:
a. Sociological theories of power.

b. Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups, and political parties.
c. Nation, state, citizenship, democracy, civil society, ideology.
d. Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution.
Sociological theories of power
Power: Possession of control, authority or influence over others, a relationship in which an

individual is able to exert influence over the mind and actions of others.
Max Weber: Opportunity existing within a social relationship which permits one to carry out one’s
will even against resistance and regardless of the basis on which opportunity rests.
Amos Hawley: Every social act is an exercise of power, every social relationship is a power
equation and every social group or a system is an organization of power.
STEVEN LUKES : Weber definition is narrow.

3-D view of power
Three faces of power-
1) Decision making
2) Non decision making (by giving limited preferences to chose)
3) Shaping discussions (manipulating wishes and desires)
Basis of power: Wealth, status, knowledge, charisma, force, authority.
Features of power:
• Structural aspect of social reality,
• operates reciprocally but usually not equally reciprocally,
• manifests itself in a relationship manner,
• appears as a process not a fixed part of social structure,
• power in inherent in social stratification,
• it becomes basis of social stratification ex CW Mills.
Sources of power:
Legitimate (traditional, charisma, rational legal) illegitimate – force (violence, coercion)
THEORIES OF POWER
1) Elite theory of power: developed by Italian sociologists Vilferado Pareto and Gaetano
Mosca, only minority has talent/intelligence/ability/ leadership to occupy positions of
power, minority influence govt decisions and gains it dominant position beyond general
elections (democracy is utopia), elites hold power due to religious values, hereditary or
certain personal qualities
www.YouTube.com/SleepyClasses
https://testseries.sleepyclasses.com/
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CLASSICAL ELITE THEORIES
POWER ELITE (V PARETO- circulation of elites)

- Elite most strongest, most energetic and most capable of good and evil;
- Occupy higher stratum (Eco- wealthy, political- rulers, religion- most holy, art-most
artistic, ethics- most virtuous) and higher stratum comprises of
o governing (ministers/secretaries) and
o non-governing elites
- Society degenerates when elites occupy status due to ascription and not through
achievement
- Psychologically human actions consist of residues (major motivations-6) and derivatives

(elaboration of human action)
o Elites are divided into Foxes and Lions (Taken from Machiavelli’s anti thesis);
▪ Lions are conservative elites who have residue of persistence (faith in
ideology, group loyalty);
▪ Foxes have vitality and imagination, prefer materialistic goals and
strategy of emotional appeal to fraud; replace lions who lack manipulative
skills
Criticisms:
• No method of measuring qualities,
• T Parsons(residues change with change in society),
• Difference between foxes and lions is nothing but style of rule,
• Pareto used only 2 residues out of 6.
CLASS THEORY OF POWER (G MOSCA)

- Book ‘ruling class’; emphasized sociological and personal characteristics of elites; elite
rule is universal necessity and inevitability
- Societies divided in two groups- ruling and ruled; ruling class is divided into elites
(political power, property) and sub elites (technocrats, managers, civil servants)
- Dominant interest reflected in ruling class and they dominate structures and values
- He differs from pareto (elites are restrained by various social factors, ruled are not
powerless in democracy)
Robert Michels (Iron law of oligarchy)

- Oligarchy inevitable within democracy as it is part of technical and tactical necessity
- Leadership class comes to dominate power structure; it controls access to info, centralize
the power with little accountability
- Any democratic attempt fails because leadership class rewards loyalty
- Elites have three principles which help in bureaucratic structure (need and specialization,
importance of psychological attributes, utilizations of facilities by old elites)
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ELITE THEORIES:
a) CW MILLS: book ‘the power elite’;
Mills explained elite rule in Institutional rather than Psychological terms.
Two kinds of elites

- Segmental- arts/music and science,
- Strategic- those who govern);
Three institutions yield power

Major corporations,
Federal govt
Military
Elites have same lifestyle, family relationship and perpetuate rules through self recruitment.
Command Posts – Key pivotal positions in institutions. Elites occupy these.
However, elites have no moral/psychological superiority. Elite rule is not inevitable. Masses are
not incompetent. They are kept in state of ignorance and powerlessness.
b) JAMES BURNHAM – book ‘the managerial revolution’

All the power is in hands of managers (separation of operation and control), capitalism is on
decline. Managers are new elites
c) TB Bottomore: book ‘the elites and society’

Examined roles of elites in relation to class and class structure and criticized democratic and
socialistic conception of elites; elites are different in industrial and developing world. Society is
moving towards egalitarianism and multiple elites are present in developing world
(dynastic, middle class, revolutionary intellectuals, colonial administrators , nationalist leaders)
CRITIQUE-
- Power of public opinion is ignored.
Karl Mannheim in his book ‘ideology and Utopia’ says that elites are different from
totalitarians. In democracy, people remove leaders not working according to their wishes
- Power changes moment to moment and issue to issue.

David Riesman rejected Mills theory and says that there is so much diversity in US in
terms of thoughts and interests
- Altruistic motives do exist ex people do charity not to gain power
- Modern society is complex and has various power centres
- Robert Dahl – “Who Governs” – Found in New Haven, Connecticut that power is
dispersed. Arnold Rose reconfirmed the findings.
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PLURALIST THEORY OF Power
Based on functionalism (Parsons) and classical pluralism with emphasis on equilibrium, stability
and gradual change) society is decentralized
Power is widely shared/diffused and fragmented and derived from multiple resources.
Diverse group with conflicting interests such that none play dominant role.
Natural balance of power is preserved through bargaining and compromise.
Alexis de Tocqueville – democracy becomes dysfunctional if dominated by one interest. State

is ‘honest broker’.
NEIL SMELSER : strain theory
T PARSONS (variable sum): criticized Weber for constant sum of power. Power can decrease
and increase.
For ex modernity has raised lifestyle of all. It is structural feature of society and a generalized
facility or resource.
It is capacity to mobilize resources for attainment of goals.
Value consensus, goals are shared and power is used to further collective goals.
Parsonian conception of authority –
Cooperation requires organization and direction which necessitate position of command.
Western democracies are ‘deposit’ of power and people can withdraw deposit in next elections.
Max Weber (zero-sum) –

Aspect of social relationship and present in social situation; fixed amount- somebody gain is
somebody loss;
Differs from situation to situation;
Three ideal types – Charismatic, Traditional and Rational-Legal.
Critique:
- Concentration on first face (Steven Lukes),
- Not all interest groups have equal power (ex refugees),
- Safe decision are taken in disguise.
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CONFLICT theories
MARXIAN :
Haves (owners of production) have power like elites. Coercive power but accepted due to false
consciousness.
In communist manifesto, oppression of one class by other is political power;
Power is pervasive which dominant class exercises in every field through dominant ideologies.
Michel Foucault - Power and Knowledge
Power not concentrated in one place or in the hands of particular individuals.

Power is found in all social relationships and is not just exercise by the state
Power is intimately linked with knowledge.
Power and knowledge produce one another
Power of the state therefore involves the development of new types of knowledge, to collect
more information and exercise more control over its population.
This involves development of discourses.
Foucault does not just think of power in coercive terms, paradoxically Foucault only sees power
as operating when people have some freedom.
Book “Madness and Civilization”
Foucault says discourse is practice that systematically forms the objects of which they speak.
Example psychiatry created the mentally ill.
Power is part of the discourse of psychiatry and not something that is held by individual
psychiatrist.
Book “Discipline and Punish”
Foucault traced the changes in nature and purpose of punishments in 18th century.
By 19th century punishment changed from that of body to that of soul, intention changed to
reform.
People were judged for what they were instead of what they had done.
Motivation behind the crime began to be taken into account.
This Foucault argues brought experts into power relations making discourses carry the power.
He says power is exercised rather than possessed.

When attempts are made to exercise power there is always an element of uncertainty.
Foucault believes that power can sometimes be reversed.
Example accuracy of a psychiatrist diagnosis can be questioned.
Foucault imagines state to be Panopticon.

Pointing towards techniques of surveillance which encourage self discipline.
With an idea that humans have a soul that can be manipulated, with state trying to produce
“Docile Bodies”.
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Michael Mann - The sources of social power
Non existence of society –

Human behaviour is not and has never been exclusively related to or caused by a particular
territory in which an individual lives.
In modern world mass media impacts in many ways.
Example - Britain can be analysed as either a country, a part of military alliance NATO or part of
economic grouping EU.
Mann said throughout history there has never been an isolated society.
His idea of power is the ability to pursue and attain goals through mastery of the environment.
Power can take two forms -

1) Distributional power - that is power over others. It is the ability of individuals to get others
to help them to their own goals.
2) Connected power which is exercised by social groups over one another, by one nation
over another.
Two main ways in which the power can be exercised

1) Extensive power - the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flunged
territories in order to engage in minimally stable cooporation.
Example – Major Religions.
2) Intensive Power - ability to organise tightly and command high level of mobilisation or
commitment from the participants.
Example - Religious sect.
Difference between authoritative and diffused power –

Authoritative power is exercised when deliberate commands are issued. There is a conscious
decision to follow them.
Example of football player following the referee’s instruction.
Diffused power spreads in a more spontaneous way. It involves power relationships but ones
which operate without commands being issued.
Example – a company going out of business not because someone commands it to but because
it is unable to compete.
Sources of power
• Economic
• Ideological
• Political
• Military
That is, Mann’s idea is wider than that of Karl Marx’s.
Marxism stresses economic power

Pluralism stresses ideological power in democracy
Elite and State Centered theories emphasize political power
However Mann’s approach embraces all of these including military power and is, thus, the
broadest theoretical approach to power.
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Pierre Bourdieu - The concept of symbolic power
To account for the tacit almost unconscious modes of cultural/social domination occurring within
the everyday social habits maintained over conscious subjects.
Symbolic power accounts for discipline used against another to confirm that individual's
placement in a social hierarchy, at times in individual relations but most basically through system
institutions, in particular education.
Also referred to as "soft power", symbolic power includes actions that have discriminatory or
injurious meaning or implications, such as gender dominance and racism. Symbolic power
maintains its effect through the mis-recognition of power relations situated in the social matrix of
a given field.
While symbolic power requires a dominator, it also requires the dominated to accept their
position in the exchange of social value that occurs between them.
The concept of symbolic power was first introduced by Pierre Bourdieu in La Distinction.
Bourdieu suggested that cultural roles are more dominant than economic forces in determining
how hierarchies of power are situated and reproduced across societies.
Status and economic capital are both necessary to maintain dominance in a system, rather than
just ownership over the means of production alone. The idea that one could possess symbolic
capital in addition and set apart from financial capital played a critical role in Bourdieu's analysis
of hierarchies of power.
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Political parties
They are driven by clear ideologies which influence other members to become part of these
organizations which then elect a common leader.
This leader is defined by the ideology and rule of law.
Weber – Party is an organized group action intended to capture power.

Party is an ideal type, present in every society.
FW Riggs - Any organisation that nominates candidates to election.
TB Bottomore - Groups with divergent interest form political parties.

They are a link between state and sectional interest. The ultimate aim is to capture power.
Seymour Lipset - parties compete with each other to gain office.
In a democracy–
1) Parties represent popular opinion

2) They are obligated to fulfill interest of supporters or else be voted out (Parsons and Aron)
3) They require support from various groups so can't only represent sectional interest.
Forms of Political Party –
Maurice Duverger -
1) Mass Based (China, Cuba. Mostly Socialist or Communist Countries)

2) Cadre Based (in Democracies) (These are Rank Based, hierarchical, Division of
Responsibilities)
Robert Dahl –
1) Exterior Party – Emerging out of external influence. Like CPI in India due to CP China,
Russia.
2) Interior Party – Like Communist Party of USSR.
General Criteria –
1) Right- Gradualism in welfarism

2) Left - Radical welfarism
3) Centre- Balanced
There are various political system –

1) Uni-party
2) Bi-party
3) Multi party
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Advantages of Uniparty System-
Maurice Duverger-
Political Stability. Strict adherence to public policy. Glorification of Nationalism.
Disadvantages –
David Lane-
Voice of people not given due acknowledgement. Authoritarian govt.
Advantages of Bi-party System-

Harold Laski-
Autocracy checked. People given 2 distinct ideologies. Strong opposition.
Responsible Govt.
Disadvantages –
Robert Smith -
Divides the nation. In the globalised world, parties follow similar policies.
Advantages of multi-party System-

True democracy highlighted. Suitable for multi-cultural society.
Sudipto Kaviraj, Zoya Hassan – Multi party system true reflection of India’s multi-culturalism
and maturity of Indian democracy.
Disadvantages –
Political Confusion. Instability. Opportunistic politics. Death of ideological
politics. FPTP employed, with its own demerits (a small fraction can win the results).
Elite pluralist parties are governed by leaders who are Elite and elite make critical decisions.
Pressure groups
Interest Group - Unlike political parties interest groups do not aim to form government, rather
they seek to influence political parties and the various departments of the state.
They do not have wide range of interests rather they want to project a specific interest (e.g. CII
- confederation of Indian Industries)
When an interest group seeks governmental aid in achieving its own ends and succeeds in
influencing governmental policy to its advantage, then it becomes a pressure group.
Robert McKenzie –
Two types of pressure groups –
Protective groups- Defends the interests of a particular section of society, e.g. trade unions, CII
(zero-sum game)
Promotional groups- Support a particular cause rather than guard the interests of a particular
group- e.g. Greenpeace, PETA etc. membership is larger and open than the protective groups
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Gabriel Almond –
Categorized these groups in terms of structural forms as under:
1. Institutional interest groups (within the institutions like army and business associations) –
Generally consist of legislatures, executives, bureaucracies etc.

A formally organised group. Consists of professional persons. Particularly the bureaucracy.
2. Non-associational interest groups- (with similar ascriptive positions)
Associations or groups out of human’s sociable character. Formed on the basis of different
grounds. Same religion, ethnic group, or kinship. The members complain about their non-
delegation to the legislature, or the non-fulfilment of their legitimate demands. Very common in
developing societies (because stronger ascriptive identities).
3. Associational interest groups. (with similar class positions)
Associational groups- Formed by the trade unions, businessmen, industrialists or professional

groups and persons. The articulation of interest by such groups is quite prominent in all political
systems. If necessary they launch agitation.
4. Anomic interest groups (forming spontaneously) (terrorist organization, criminal gang).
Riots or militant demonstrations. These groups have no permanent structure or organisations.

They spontaneously form agitation or lead demonstrations.
Another criteria-
1) Insider - With access to power
2) Outside the power circles
Durkheim –
In “Professional Ethics and Civic Morals” Durkheim calls them tool for associative
democracy.
They hold people together and effective checks on individual in Industrial society.
Bernard Barber –
They are called third sector of democracy.
Roles played by pressure group
For parties :
- Funds and resources
- Policy feedback
- Constructive criticism
- Mobilize support and votes
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- Link between people party and state
- Conduit for opinion transition
For society :
- Control individualism
- Platform
- Grievance venting organ
- Represent sectional interest
- Criticise policies
- Check Elite rule or authoritarianism
- Transmit public opinion
- Sensitize people
- Represent disadvantaged
Criticism :
- Lobbying between pressure group and state
- Often vulnerable groups left out only dominant voice is heard
- Many pressure groups try to capture political power
- Often disintegrate and lose vigor
- Can't handle repressive state
But Dawes and Hughes believe that pressure group are continuous mandate for government or
parties and democracy can't be conceived without them
Voting behaviour
Miliband - Caters to demands of class, age, gender, race.

Cross class voting is present.
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Democracy
Democracy entails direct participation of all in political process
Gandhi – It is not a legal phenomenon but a spiritual one involving respect for each other and
decentralisation of power.
Abraham Lincoln - Rule by people and government by, of, for the people
Pluralist - democracy requires power at hands of a few to lead and represent
Functionalist (Parsons) - people bestow power to leaders which could be withdrawn during
elections (as in a saving account in a bank).
Political participation of people at the core of democracy
Types
1) Participative-
Direct participation via referendum, recall, plebiscite, initiative
2) Representative
- Agent based (one who consults the electorate).
- Delegate based (one who acts on his own discretion while taking decisions)
Bestowing responsibility or Power at hands of a few to represent collective interest.
3) Associative
In “Professional ethics and Civic morals” by Durkheim
Participation via voluntary organisation (socialist society)
Sensitize, check on bureaucracy, Civic culture etc
Critique
1) Bottomore - pluralist societies - Undemocratic : democracy needs social + industrial

democracy and equality of all.
2) Marx - communist societies are true democracies
3) R Aran - communist societies represent all interest. Pluralist represent Elite rule.
4) Lipset and Coleman find control of Institutions by economic elites but Real democracy
requires institutional democracy.
5) Robert Michels (political parties) -

Iron hand of Oligarchy.
In representative democracy organisation develop a bureaucratic structure that itself has
various flaws.
It facilitates few to control institutional landscape and suppress genuine people's participation.
Elite rule by guile and cunningness.
Bureaucracy within organisation makes society won't have democracy.
6) Dynasty Rule
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7) Elite Self Recruitment
8) Catch-All - Parties with divergent ideologies tend to become centrist after being voted-in
9) Illetracy and ignorance of populace
10) Episodic Accountability - Democracy limited to voting only.
11) Limited accountability mechanism.
12) Alexis de Tocqueville - Tyranny of majority.
13) Steven Lukes – 3rd Face of Power – State using its power to form opinions of people in its
favour.
14) JS Mill - “If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the
contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he
had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind” -
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State
Weber - State is a "human community that successfully claims monopoly over the legitimate
use of physical force within a given territory".
Other groups might resort to violence, but they are termed as terrorists, or hooligans.
Thomas Hobbes – State exercises Sovereignty.
Machiavelli –
State comprises institutions governing members within a territorial boundary.
Members confined in a boundary are deemed citizens and enjoy several political, cultural,
religious, social and economic rights.
2 problems for contemporary States –
1) Territorial - posed by globalisation

2) Institutional - posed by blurring of boundary between state and non-state private
organizations, civil society, NGO, voluntary organisations
Theories
1) Pluralist –
State controlled by many parties and organisation and represent interest of all.
Lipset - institutionalization of class-conflict through parties.
Aran - power with people in socialist regimes (pluralism).
2) Elite –
CW Mills - State represents Elite interest
Michels - democracy is rule by oligarchic organisations through Bureaucracy.
Elite interest not put to serious challenge
3) Functionalist –
Parsons : State needed for two objectives –
- Determining goals based on value consensus
- Mobilizing resources for fulfillment
4) Marxian –
(state in capitalism)
State committed to common interest of capitalist and staffed by ruling class.
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Relation between ruling class and governing class –
Stanley Aronowitz - capitalist staff are organs of state
Ralph Miliband - State functions to serve capitalist interests. Because of the similar social
origins of members of state, government and the personal ties between members of state
government and the ruling-class elites.
Poulantzas - The relative autonomy of the state from the capitalist class. The structure of
society is capitalist, thus, state is by default capitalistic in nature. No need for capitalists to be
there in the governing class.
Westergaard and Risler - welfare state a myth. Still inequality prevails. Social security
systems concessions to suppress proletarian Revolt.
Postmodernist – Habermas
Space between public private is shrinking
Institutional apparatus serves state interest at cost of individual Liberty
Ralph Milliband (Marxist) says that state becomes agent of wealthy but direct intervention is not
needed. (3rd face – indoctrination)
Antonio Gramsci (Neo marxist):

No economic determinism but reciprocity in infrastructure and superstructure.
Hegemony is achieved not by force but by idea (concessions /dual consciousness – ideas are
not always derived from capitalists).
Cultural ideological hegemony: In culturally diverse society ruling class manipulate culture
(beliefs/ explanations/ perceptions/values) so that it becomes accepted;
Dominant ideology becomes acceptable/perpetual and beneficial for all (status quo) rather than a
fake social construct;
Operates through state apparatus.
BOB JESSOP
(The future of capitalist state) Neo-marxist
Post Fordist specialized production.

Capitalist don’t run the state always, as state does not serve their interests.
- Operational autonomy of the state: capitalism cannot exist without non capitalist
institutions; capitalism merely exercises dominance.
- In regulationist approach, state can harm capitalism.
- Shift from Keynesian welfare model to Schumpeterian Workfare Economy
(unemployed should seek work) Post national (International competition in knowledge
economy) model.
- Various state capacities like military, financial institutions etc don’t necessarily act to
achieve same goals
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LOUIS ALTHUSSER
Repressive state apparatus : ruling class controls govt/courts/police/military and even state.
People submit due to fear of legal prosecution and police action.
Ideological state apparatus: religion/school/families controlled through ideology (system of

ideas and values).
People submit due to fear of social ridicule.
NICOS POULANTZAS (Neo-Marxist)

Emphasized importance of social structure and minimizes of individual action (capitalist)
Class origin does not matter, class position is.
Relative autonomy of state

(diffuse protests, has to promote myth of inclusiveness, burgeoise are not free from internal
divisions)
Critique :
State is stronger than ever,
Eco growth has become imp functional duty of state,
Other sources of power than wealth.
ERIC A NORDLINGER:
Although some Marxists and neo Marxists predicted relative autonomy of state but state is never
to go against ruling class. Nordlinger says that state has autonomy.
TYPE 1: State has different wishes from major groups (state has resources. Decision making
power)
TYPE 2: Persuades opponents to change their mind (active role in manipulating public opinion).
TYPE 3: Apathy of the public (not every group is sure of its demands so leaves it to state).
THEDA SKOCPOL (Bringing the State back in)
State can have its own goals like reinforce the authority, political longevity etc
She talks about state capacity which depends on reliable income (taxes from rich), no foreign
debt, increase in state power by having human resource etc.
When state capacity decreases only then revolution occurs (ex Russian, French, Chinese
revolution).
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Globalisation and power of the nation-state
John Baylis and Steve Smith- The globalisation of world politics
Globalisation is a process of increasing interconnection and it has led to a new era in

• Politics(economic transformation) (state has less control over national economy),
• Electronic Communication (no boundaries),
• Global culture,
• homogeneity,
• Cosmopolitan culture,
• Global polity (UN –NGOs) and
• Risk culture(AIDS, environment)
But
- globalisation is not New and it is not reducing power of nation state
- globalisation has impacted Western societies more where infrastructure is present
- globalisation has exploited the poor explicitly
- Global problems have emerged like terrorism, drug, weapon trade, money laundering
- Global Institutions may not be subject to democratic control
LESLIE SKLAIR (Sociology of the global system)
Power of transnational companies

Transnational practices include -
1) Economic transnational corporations
2) Political capitalist inspired politician
3) Cultural ideological consumerism
Globalisation has mostly negative impact that is class polarization and ecological unsustainability
DAVID HELD AND ANTHONY MCGREW: (Democracy and Cosmopolitan order)
Two types of globalisation

a) Globalists (economy, global politics, risk)
b) Sceptics (nothing new about migration and int’l trade; people have maintained strong
national identities)
Transformationalist Stance:
There is nothing new about globalization and in future, it might change direction or can be
reversed.
Globalization is bringing diverse people together which can become source of conflict.
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CITIZENSHIP:
A citizen is not one who lives in a nation state, he is not just an inhabitant (aliens also are), he is the
one who participates in the process of govt-two way – rights (demands on state) and duties (demand
by state). Harold J Laski says that state is known by rights it maintains. State is not merely a
sovereign organization which is entitled to citizen’s allegiance. In monarchies, only subjects are
there.
Citizenship has been defined as legal status of membership in political community. Citizenship is
rights to have rights.
TH MARSHALL defines citizenship as a status, which is enjoyed by a person who is a full member of a
community. Citizenship has three components: civil (individual freedom institutionalized in law)
political (right to participate in exercise of political power and holding of public office) and social
(right to participate in appropriate standard of living). He says that there is permanent tension
between citizenship and capitalist market (capitalism involves inequality while citizenship involves
distribution of sources because of rights).
Marshall theory critique: only English experience with no comparative analysis. Expansionary
analysis of citizenship without examining social processes which undermine citizenship (gender
differences, discrimination ). It is not clear about cause of expansion of citizenship.
Talcott Parsons says that citizenship is measure of modernization of society because it is based on
values of universalism and achievement.
Citizenship is treated as an aspect of bourgeois liberalism and sometimes as an aspect of radical

democratic politics. Globalization is transcending regionalism and parochial nationalism to make us
global citizens. Dual citizenship is a new phenomenon where connections are more based on
convenience rather than love of mother land.
STATE AND CITIZENSHIP:
State is imp political organization but it mainly pursues its objective through law and coercive force.
State role is expanding due to welfarism even if as a regulator. State and citizens often are at
opposite end due to difference of opinion on morality, private sentiments, high social values,
aspirations etc. ex Kashmir.
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Nationalism
It represents an ideology that those with the common identity and characteristics represent
distinct political community.
This political community is unified by territorial boundary.
Ernest Gellner’s idea of Nationalism –
• Shared, formal educational system

• Cultural homogenisation and "social entropy" (natural decay of a social system)
• Central monitoring of polity, with extensive bureaucratic control
• Linguistic standardisation
• National identification as abstract community (even relating with those who we haven’t
ever seen)
• Cultural similarity as a basis for political legitimacy (politics relating with cultural
aspects to garner legitimacy)
Eric Hobsbawm – Nationalist ideology represents a bourgeouise construct where capitalism

replaced traditional aristocracy and nationalism was the result of economic capital.
Albert Cohen - Nationalism was the result of a reaction to colonialism in third world Nations.
Modern view - nationalism develops in peripheral regions against imbalanced development.
Intellectual nationalism invests with Industrial Revolution and French revolution.
Ideological Nationalism in East on basis of religion, culture, ethnicity, Nationalist ideology.
Globalised nationalism in Middle East (Arab Spring).
Nationalism And Globalisation -
- With rise of globalization, internationalisation and Cosmopolitanisation.
Economic globalisation to pose threat to territorial homogeneity and control the economy of
nation state.
Privatization, rise of new non state Agencies, civil society organisations, ngos etc would make
differentials in society.
People lose a sense of culture (identity crisis).
Andrew Pilkington –
Otherisation - As the globalisation grew, the idea that we are different from the others also grew.
Eventually leading to the proposal of the idea of nation and nationalism. It flew from Elites to
lower stratas.
Hybrid Identities – One is English + British + European at the same time.
Hyphenated identities (minorities) need to be mainstreamed and protected to form ‘inclusive
nationalism’.
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Ernest Gellner - nationalism intensifies with global forces.
Recent World War 1 and 2 have reinforced National ideologies
Stuart hall - nationalism provides sense of security to ethnies amidst turbulence of global forces.
Ian Robertson - migrating communities revive National culture in other Nations.
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Revolution
A forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system.
A revolution is a fundamental change in political power or organizational structures that takes

place in a relatively short period of time.
Generally, the population rises up in revolt against the current authorities.
Aristotle described two types of political revolution:
1. Complete change from one constitution to another

2. Modification of an existing constitution.
The most dramatic and far-reaching example of non -orthodox political action is revolution - the
overthrow of an existing political order by means of a mass movement, using violence.
Revolutions are tense, exciting and fascinating events; understandably, they attract great
attention.
Yet for all of their high drama, revolutions occur relatively infrequently
Any sudden change in government of a society brought about violently often called coup-de-etat
or Palace revolution.
More broadly it's a complete change of social structure where political change reflects one of its
manifestations
Revolution may be due to political, economic and social other factors or a combination of all on
any of these.
J curve theory of revolution - believe that it's a result of relative deprivation when period of
economic prosperity are reversed.
Marxian view –
Describe nature of revolution where changes brought about in economic organisation results in
change in political structure
For Marx history of society was history of struggle between the classes (replacement of one
mode of production by another is involved in a revolution)
Analyses India where periodic changes led to changes in mode of production.
Marxists view revolution in terms of either –

- As struggle between two classes
- Conflict in mode of production
Many believed that Revolution would occur where the social contradictions are more prominent.
Example collapse of socialism in Soviet replaced by multi party
Fukuyama (End of History) - Democracy and economic capitalism called true revolution.
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Althuser believed that Revolution would occur in weak link in chain of capitalism where social
condratictions are more prominent
Theda Skocpol – Revolutions occur when state capacity wekanens. (Russian, French, Chinese)
Civil society-
Civil society is community of citizens linked by common interests and collective identity. It
manifests will and interests of the citizens. It is third sector of society after govt and business. It
limits power of state and usher in true and vibrant democracy by enhancing participation.
JS MILL and Alexis de Tocqueville: CS is domain of social association which will check
excesses of the state. (based on liberal democratic theory: right bearing individuals are free to
pursue their private associations with others)
Hegel: subordinated CS to state as he thought it as a mediating domain where particular

interests of individual and universal interest of state can be reconciled for producing ethical basis
for modern society.
Antonio Gramsci: CS furthers dominant ideologies.
Partha Chatterjee and SudiptaKaviraj:

Dealinate western CS from Indian;
Application of concepts of western CS on india is wrong as state in india is not extensive as on
west
Anthony Giddens—
Groups which fall outside the market and government both can be termed as civil society.
Government and the market alone are not enough to solve the many challenges in late modern
societies.
Civil society - must be strengthened and joined up with government and business.
Voluntary groups, families and civic associations can play vital roles in addressing community
issues from crime to education.
Some elements of civil society (often characterised as ‘social movements’) seek radical
transformations of the prevailing order.
However, civil society also includes reformist elements that seek only modest revisions of
existing governance arrangements and conformist elements that seek to reinforce established
rules.
Jan Aart Scholte –

Highlighted how civil society can play a very important role in enhancing democracy –
- Public education activities

- Giving voice to stake holders. For e.g. giving voice to Singur farmers in WB, and
unorganised labour
- Fuel debate about governance. For e.g. highlighting environmental issues.
- Increasing transparency-- public scrutiny.
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- Increases public accountability- Civic groups can monitor the implementation and effects
of policies
- Fosters legitimacy- providing for interaction between people and the government, giving
the government legitimacy
Caution -
- Civil society can pursue anti-democratic goals
- Employ antidemocratic means
- produce anti-democratic consequences
But these risks are by no means grounds to exclude civil society, but they give reason to treat it
with care.
Six paramaters to judge quality of NGO-

1) People’s participation
2) Cost effectiveness
3) Institutional/ environmental/ financial sustainability
4) Accountability
5) Technical excellence
6) Equity concern for deprived and for women
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCARACY
General issues
• Funding and elite run,
• Mafia and militia group are part of cs (ideology and propaganda),
• Black money in the name of aid,
• Internal democracy lacking and corruption,
• Govt agencies are ill equipped to handle cs inputs,
• Insensitivity to local cultures (foreign ngo)
Positives:
• People power,
• Empowering citizen,
• New leaders,
• End of tyranny,
• Generate public support
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Protest, agitation, social movements, collective action, revolution
Collective action—
Group of people engaged in some sort of interaction, within the group as well as with other
groups, which creates a collective identity.
In sociology collective action is treated differently from individual action and can be classified
in terms of (DISCOO) –
• Duration
• Ideology
• Structure (under what structure is the collective action happening, Authoritative or
Democratic)
• Consequences
• Objective
• Organisation
Individual Action → Social Action → Collective Action
Protest-
The process of opposition against any other person, group, issue or even society.
Agitation-
The activity of showing opposition to fulfill the purpose of protest.
Both agitation and protest are interrelated and mutually exclusive.
Visible at manifest and latent levels.
Manifest – Verbal Comments, Expression of angers, disruptive activities, sometimes rioting.
Latent – Inaction, inefficient behaviour, distress, tension, disillusionment, alienation.
Common interest + Collective Action = Protests/Agitation
Types-
Both could be
- Organised (Socio-Religious Movements of 19th Century)
- Unorganised (Rioting, blockade)
- Acceptability (Acceptability in the society. Anna Hazare movement)
- Non-Acceptability (Non-Acceptability in the society. LGBT protests, Slut Walk)
Protests – Mostly non-violent

Agitation – Mostly violent.
Ghanshyam Shah – Gave testing criteria of Protest or Agitation-

“Compulsive Demand” in Agitation. Eg. – Salt Satyagraha, Anna Hazare’s Fast unto Death.
Causes
General Causes -
- Dissatisfaction (with the prevalent conditions)
- Dissent (Manifest. Difference of opinion)
- Disagreement (Latent)
- Relative Deprivation
- Strain
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- Vested Interest
Special Causes –
- Precipitating Factor
- Specific Demands.
When same thing is –

- Spontaneity in Start
- Sustained
- Non-Institutional (by not being a part of the state)
- Organised (to achieve certain objective)
it becomes Movement.
Example – Driver beaten after an accident is not a movement because it is not sustained, but
Sanskritisation by Rajvanshis is.
How Social Movements get Institutionalised in Society–

- Leadership
- Objective
- Ideology
Gives longevity to movement.
Eg. – Bhoodan Movement, Naxal Movement.
Social Movements are

- collective action
- by a large number of people
- which is directed towards – Changing (Promoting or Resisting) some of the values,
norms and social relations in a society.
Difference between Protest, Agitation and Social Movement –

- Social movements are essentially collective action (Agitation and Protests can be
individualised).
- SM are broader in terms of influence and reach.
- SM are sustained in nature.
- SM are non-institutional in character.
- SM are preceded by Protests and Agitation.
Therefore, all SM are collective actions but not vice versa.
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Social movements-
Anthony Giddens-
"collective attempts to further a common interest or secure a common goal through action
outside the sphere of established institutions"
Social movements often arise with the aim of bringing about change on a –
- public issue, such as expanding civil rights for a segment of the population.
- In response to social movements, counter-movements sometimes arise in defence of
the status quo.
Example - Abortion movements vs Prolife movements
The American civil rights movement succeeded in pushing through important pieces
of legislation outlawing racial segregation in schools and public places.
David Aberle –
Charles Tilly –
Social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which
ordinary people make collective claims on others.
For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's participation in public
politics.
On basis of Ideology –
- Marxian
- Gandhian
- Feminist
- Anti-state
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- Anti-Society
Theories of social movement
Herbert Blumer - Theory of social unrest

Blumer saw social movements as motivated by dissatisfaction with some aspects of current
society, which they sought to rectify (outside the sphere of formal party politics).
In doing so, they were trying to build a 'new order of life'.
Types
'Active' or outwardly directed, aiming to transform society—
e.g. An example of the former would be the labour movement, which aimed to radically change
capitalist societies in egalitarian ways
'Expressive' or inwardly directed, trying to change the people who become involved.
e.g. 'New Age' movements, which encourage people to transform their inner selves.
In practice most social movements involve both active and expressive elements.
As movement activists and supporters undergo changes in their self-identity as a result of
campaigns to change society.
Many environmental campaigns. for example, are explicitly aimed at preventing environmental
damage, but in the process they often generate an increasing self-identification with the natural
world, thereby transforming people's perception of self.
Life cycle- (SPFI)

Involves four consecutive stages-
Social ferment --> when people are agitated about some issue but this is relatively unfocused
and disorganized.
Popular excitement--> This develops into a stage of ‘popular excitement' during which the
sources of people's dissatisfaction are more clearly defined and understood.
Formal organisation-- In the third stage, formal organizations are normally created which are
able to bring about a higher level of coordination to the emerging movement and a more effective
campaigning structure is put in place.
Institutionalisation--> Finally comes 'institutionalization', in which the movement, which was
originally outside mainstream politics, comes to be accepted as part of the wider society and
political life.
Of course, some movements partly succeed, while others completely fail. Some endure over
quite long periods of time, while others simply run out of finances or enthusiasm, thus ending
their life-cycle
(also Tilly - )
Critics
Studies tended not to explore the rational decisions and strategies of movement activists.
This aspect was left for later scholars to pursue.
Critics argued that these were largely descriptive accounts that did not really pay enough
attention to explanations that were able to connect social movement activity to changes in the
social structure.
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Neil Smelser- Strain theory (CS GF AC)
Smelser argued that six 'value-added' elements are necessary for a social movement
to develop:
Structural conduciveness- Structural context has to be conducive to movement

formation. For example, in authoritarian societies there may be very little scope for people to
gather together in large groups or to demonstrate legally against things they oppose.
Structural strain -- There needs to be a strain between people's expectations and social
reality.
Generalized beliefs- If the first two conditions are met, then it is necessary for generalized
beliefs about the causes of strain to develop and spread in order to convince people of the need
to join or form a social movement. He sees such generalized beliefs as often quite primitive and
based on wish fulfilment, rather than rationally thought through
Precipitating factors- These are essentially events that act as sparks to ignite the flame
of protest action. A good example of this would be the removal of Rosa Parks from a
racially segregated bus in the USA in 1955, which triggered protests and became a key event
in the black civil rights movement. Without them, the process of movement formation may be
stalled for a long period. Tunisia – Vegetable Vendor self-immolated, started Arab Spring.
Mobilization for action Having witnessed a precipitating event, the next value-added element is
effective communication via the formation of an active social network which allows activists to
perform some of the functions necessary for successful protest and organization-building; writing
and distributing pamphlets. organizing demonstrations, taking membership fees and so on. All of
this activity requires a higher level of networking and social networking. (made possible in today's
times by internet)
Failure of social control -- The final causal factor in Smelser's model is the response of
the forces of social control. The response of authorities can be crucial in closing down
an emergent social movement or creating opportunities for it to develop. Sometimes an over-
reaction by authorities can encourage others to support the movement, especially in our
media-dominated age. Theda Skocpol calls it- Decrease in State Capacity.
Critical points
- In focusing attention on generalized beliefs, Smelser's model implied that individuals are
motivated to start social movements for irrational reasons, rooted in misleading
ideas about their situation.
- This fell back into an older tradition that saw movements as unusual or marginal
phenomena.
- Smelser's theory was also structural functionalist in orientation, setting social

movements in the context of their adaptive function during periods of rapid social change.
Contemporary significance
Smelser's work on social movements has deservedly received more attention in recent years and
is undergoing something of resurgence.
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It still offers a multi-causal model of movement formation and even critics have extracted
elements from it - such as ideas within resource mobilization theory, political opportunity
structures and frame analysis - which have proved very productive
Similarly, his model connects movement activism to social structures and may provide insights
into the rise of new social movements.
Resource mobilisation theory
RMT developed in the late 1960s and 1970s, partly as a reaction to social unrest theories,
which appeared to portray social movements as 'irrational' phenomena.
Oberschall, Tilly, Zald and McCarthy –

Capitalist societies produce chronic discontent so there should be perpetual movements.
Social unrest is always present and movements therefore cannot be explained by reference to it.
Cause
Chronic discontent turn into social movements when necessary resources are available to
effectively challenge the established order.
RMT
- Political dissatisfaction is not enough to bring about social change.
- Resources are needed to become an active force in society.
- RMT have an economistic feel.
- There are similarities between social movements and the competitive market economy.
- There is a competitive field of movements - a 'social movement industry' (SMI) -
within which movements compete for scarce resources, members and activists.
- Social movement organizations (SMOs) therefore find themselves in competition with
other SMOs, some of which may appear to share their aims.
Critics
- RMT underplays the effects of post-industrialism or globalization processes in bringing
change on Social Movements. These may change the context of movement struggles.
- One-off incidents, like reporting of an asylum seeking kid dying while crossing the seas,
stirred the European community to change their asylum policy.
- A lack of resources can be turned to a movement's advantage

Example - 'Poor people's movements' in the USA.
This was because activists in the early stages were very enthusiastic and took part in
many direct actions such as strikes and sit-ins.
- But once they became more effectively organized, direct actions became fewer and the
'dead hand of bureaucracy', as described by Max Weber and Robert Michels, took
over as the movements lost momentum and impact.
Social movements in the modern world
Anthony Giddens states that some recent changes have been taking place in modernity. He
believes modernity is developing into a phase which may be called high modernity or radicalised
modernity.
He identifies 4 dimensions of modernity
1. Capitalism-Private ownership
2. Industrialism-Mass production using machines
3. Surveillance-Supervision of activities of subjects
4. Military Power- Control of means of violence
According to Giddens SMs develop corresponding to these 4 dimensions
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1. Labour movements-
2. Ecological movements-
3. Free speech/democratic movements-
4. Peace
Giddens believes ecological and peace movements are relatively new phenomenon which have
come up with globalisation and more awareness.
Nation
(Nation – Psychological. State – Political. Country – Geographical)
A nation is a large group or collective of people with common characteristics attributed to them -
including language, traditions, mores (customs), habitus (habits), and ethnicity.
By comparison, a nation is more impersonal, abstract, and overtly political than an ethnic group.
It is a cultural-political community that has become conscious of its autonomy, unity, and
particular interests.
Joseph Stalin –
"a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;"
"a nation is not a casual or ephemeral conglomeration, but a stable community of people";
"a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people
living together generation after generation";
"a nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a
common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common
culture."
Benedict Anderson - "imagined community" (Paul James -"abstract community")

It is an imagined community in the sense that the material conditions exist for imagining
extended and shared connections.
It is an abstract community in the sense that it is objectively impersonal, even if each individual in
the nation experiences him or herself as subjectively part of an embodied unity with others.
For the most part, members of a nation remain strangers to each other and will never likely
meet.
Vance Packard - Hence the phrase, "a nation of strangers".
Two types of nations,

- the civic nation of which France was the principal example
- the ethnic nation exemplified by the German peoples.
Civic nation was traced to the French Revolution and ideas deriving from 18th-century French
philosophers (Driven by the ideas like Liberty, Equality, Fraternity).
Ernest Renan - A willingness to "live together", producing a nation that results from an act of
affirmation.
Present day analysis –

- Building of national identity sentiments
Ernest Gellner –
o Shared, formal educational system
o Cultural homogenisation
o Central monitoring of polity, with extensive bureaucratic control
o Linguistic standardisation
o National identification as abstract community
o Cultural similarity as a basis for political legitimacy
o Anonymity, single-stranded social relationships
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- Identifying the individual and collective mechanisms within a nation (Duties vs Rights
of a citizen)
- Role of United Nations as an international collectivity
- the role a State plays in a nation (Granville Austin – in India, the State is making the
nation)
- Nations becoming economies
- Issues of Sub-nationalism
Bureaucracy-
Bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution.
Karl Marx
Marx was opposed to the bureaucracy.
He saw the development of bureaucracy in government as a natural counterpart to the
development of the corporation in private society.
Marx posited that while the corporation and government bureaucracy existed in seeming
opposition, in actuality they mutually relied on one another to exist.
John Stuart Mill

He theorized that successful monarchies were essentially bureaucracies, and found evidence of
their existence in Imperial China, the Russian Empire, and the regimes of Europe.
Mill referred to bureaucracy as a distinct form of government, separate from representative
democracy.
He believed bureaucracies had certain advantages, most importantly the accumulation of
experience in those who actually conduct the affairs.
Criticism of Bureaucracy –
- Bureaucracy is a form of governance compared poorly to representative government, as
it relied on appointment rather than direct election.
- The bureaucracy stifles the mind, and that "A bureaucracy always tends to become a
pedantocracy (bookish theorists)."
Max Weber
1922 essay Bureaucracy published in his “Economy and Society”.
Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination through knowledge.
Bureaucracy as an Ideal-typical forms of public administration, government, and business.
Bureaucratisation of society.
As the most efficient and rational way of organizing.
Bureaucratization - key part of the rational-legal authority
Weber does agree that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and (formally) rational way in
which human activity can be organized, and that thus is indispensable to the modern world.
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Weber listed several precondititions for the emergence of bureaucracy-
- The growth in space and population being administered
- The growth in complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out
- The existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative system.
- Democratization and rationalization of culture resulted in demands that the new system
treats everybody equally
Weber's ideal-typical bureaucracy is characterized by
- hierarchical organization
- delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity
- action taken on the basis of and recorded in written rules
- bureaucratic officials need expert training
- rules are implemented by neutral officials
- career advancement depends on technical qualifications judged by organization, not
individuals
There is
- a rigid division of labor
- a chain of command is established, restricted by regulations
- there is a regular and continuous execution of the assigned tasks by qualified and trained
people
He is not an admirer of bureaucracy.

Weber –
- a threat to individual freedoms
- the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a "polar night of icy darkness", in which
increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in a soulless "iron cage" of
bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control.
Woodrow Wilson
Essay "The Study of Administration"
Argued for a bureaucracy as
- A professional cadre
- Devoid of allegiance to fleeting politics of the day
- Raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail
- Administrative questions are not political questions
- Politics sets the tasks for administration but it should not be suffered to manipulate its
offices
Robert K. Merton
In “Social Theory and Social Structure”
Dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy-
- A "trained incapacity" resulting from "overconformity."
- Bureaucrats more likely to defend their own interests than to act to benefit the
organization.
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- Bureaucrats took pride in their craft, which led them to resist changes.
- Bureaucrats emphasized formality over interpersonal relationships
- Trained to ignore the special circumstances of particular cases, causing them to come
across as "arrogant" and " haughty”.
Ritzer- Mcdonaldisation i.e. increasing rationality leads to irrational outcomes. It is

dehumanising.
Formal & Informal relations-Weber gave importance to formal relations within an organisation.
Peter Blau on the other hand, found that informal organization actually tend to increase the
efficiency of workers instead of pulling it down. Informal networks bring life into the organisations.
Elton Mayo’s study of human relations- Study of Hawthrone works of GE, Chicago
It came as a response to classical theory which laid emphasis on formal structure
Arguments against bureaucracy (use it under formal orgn/weber’s study of bureaucracy)
• Robert K merton: Bureaucracy is rule ritualism which provides no space for creativity
or own judgement. It leads to displacement of goals as rules become end in itself.
• Alvin Gouldner: Study inside industrial mine. How degree of bureaucratisation
changes [gave three types- Mock (no smoking- but smoking allowed), representative
centred (to solve differences), punishment centred ( no absenteeism )]
• Burns and Stalker: argue that system should not be mechanistic like bureaucracy but
organic.
• Robert Michels: In his political theory- ‘iron law of oligarchy’ he says that flow of
power towards the top is an inevitable part of increasingly bureaucratised world.
Bureaucracy is sworn enemy of individual liberty.
• Peter Sleznik- in his book ‘TVA and grass roots’ argues organisations need to be
flexible and restructure power in order to create more participatory and adaptive
structure.
• Giddens: in defence of bureaucracy observes that as organisations expand in size,
power relations become looser and there is increased decentralization in decision
making. It is not possible to have a top down approach as size increases. Eg:
Transnational organisations can be ethnocentric- where power resides in home
country; polycentric- where it is shared or geocentric- where it’s most flexible.
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Ideology
An ideology is a set of cultural beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie and justify either the
status quo or movements to change it.
Ideology can also underlie movements for social change, which rely on sets of ideas that explain
and justify their purpose and methods.
Marxist view
A society's dominant ideology is integral to its superstructure.
In the Marxist economic base and superstructure model of society, base denotes the relations of
production and modes of production, and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology
(religious, legal, political systems).
The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society.
Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology.
For example, in a feudal mode of production, religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of
the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social
democracy dominate.
Hence ideology politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness.
Marx argued that "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has
control at the same time over the means of mental production."[13]
György Lukács proposes ideology as a projection of the class consciousness of the ruling class.
Antonio Gramsci
Uses cultural hegemony to explain why the working-class have a false ideological conception of
what are their best interests.
Gramsci wrote about the power of ideology to reproduce the social structure via institutions like
religion and education.
Intellectuals, often viewed as detached observers of social life, enjoy prestige in society.
They function as the “deputies” of the ruling class, indoctrinating the populace to follow the
norms and rules established by the ruling class.
Importantly, this includes the belief that the economic system, the political system, and a
class stratified society are legitimate, and thus, the rule of the dominant class is legitimate.
Karl Mannheim, Daniel Bell, and Jürgen Habermas - The Marxist formulation of "ideology as
an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge
Pierre Bourdieu - ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only
conscious, but also unconscious ideas.
Louis Althusser's Ideological State Apparatuses

Both spiritual and materialistic conception of ideology
Sleepy Classes
Made use of a special type of discourse: the lacunar discourse. A number of propositions,
which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are.
Example, the statement "All are equal before the law", which is a theoretical groundwork of
current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal
"opportunities". This is not true, for the concept of private property and power over the means of
production results in some people being able to own more (much more) than others.
The rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law.
Ideological State Apparatus - to explain his theory of ideology.

For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse.
What is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious
"minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these beliefs, the material
institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to conscious examination
and critical thinking.
Silvio Vietta: Ideology and Rationality

Ddescribed the development and expansion of Western rationality from ancient times onwards
as often accompanied by and shaped by ideologies like that of the "just war", the "true religion",
racism, nationalism, or the vision of future history as a kind of heaven on earth in communism.
He said that ideas like these became ideologies by giving hegemonic political actions an
idealistic veneer and equipping their leaders with a higher and, in the "political religions" (Eric
Voegelin), nearly God-like power, so that they became masters over the lives (and the deaths) of
millions of people.
He considered that ideologies therefore contributed to power politics irrational shields of ideas
beneath which they could operate as manifestations of idealism.
Sleepy Classes

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7.

Politics and Society:

a. Sociological theories of power.

Sociological theories of power

Power: Possession of control, authority or influence over others, a relationship in which an

STEVEN LUKES : Weber definition is narrow.

Basis of power: Wealth, status, knowledge, charisma, force, authority.

POWER ELITE (V PARETO- circulation of elites)

- Psychologically human actions consist of residues (major motivations-6) and derivatives

CLASS THEORY OF POWER (G MOSCA)

Robert Michels (Iron law of oligarchy)

Mills explained elite rule in Institutional rather than Psychological terms.

Two kinds of elites

Three institutions yield power

Command Posts – Key pivotal positions in institutions. Elites occupy these.

b) JAMES BURNHAM – book ‘the managerial revolution’

c) TB Bottomore: book ‘the elites and society’

- Power changes moment to moment and issue to issue.

- Altruistic motives do exist ex people do charity not to gain power

- Modern society is complex and has various power centres

Natural balance of power is preserved through bargaining and compromise.

Alexis de Tocqueville – democracy becomes dysfunctional if dominated by one interest. State

NEIL SMELSER : strain theory

Parsonian conception of authority –

Cooperation requires organization and direction which necessitate position of command.

Max Weber (zero-sum) –

Michel Foucault - Power and Knowledge

Power not concentrated in one place or in the hands of particular individuals.

This involves development of discourses.

Book “Madness and Civilization”

Book “Discipline and Punish”

He says power is exercised rather than possessed.

Foucault imagines state to be Panopticon.

Non existence of society –

Power can take two forms -

Two main ways in which the power can be exercised

Difference between authoritative and diffused power –

Marxism stresses economic power

Weber – Party is an organized group action intended to capture power.

FW Riggs - Any organisation that nominates candidates to election.

TB Bottomore - Groups with divergent interest form political parties.

Seymour Lipset - parties compete with each other to gain office.

1) Parties represent popular opinion

Forms of Political Party –

1) Mass Based (China, Cuba. Mostly Socialist or Communist Countries)

1) Right- Gradualism in welfarism

There are various political system –

Advantages of Bi-party System-

Advantages of multi-party System-

Generally consist of legislatures, executives, bureaucracies etc.

2. Non-associational interest groups- (with similar ascriptive positions)

3. Associational interest groups. (with similar class positions)

Associational groups- Formed by the trade unions, businessmen, industrialists or professional

4. Anomic interest groups (forming spontaneously) (terrorist organization, criminal gang).

Riots or militant demonstrations. These groups have no permanent structure or organisations.

Roles played by pressure group

Miliband - Caters to demands of class, age, gender, race.

Democracy entails direct participation of all in political process