Heberlein 2009
Heberlein 2009
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TOPICAL REVIEW
Abstract
Electric arc anodes frequently determine functional performance and lifetime of a number of
arcing devices, ranging from discharge lamps to plasma spray torches. While there have been
numerous studies of the anode region of electric arcs, our understanding of the detailed
physical processes is still limited. The reason for this lack of detailed knowledge is that
numerous factors influence the arc–anode interaction, and that the plasma–solid interface in
high intensity arcs is in general not accessible to diagnostics and one has to rely on indirect
measurements. Throughout this survey, the emphasis will be on high intensity arc anodes, i.e.
on plasmas with temperatures of more than 10 000 K and electron densities exceeding
1022 m−3 outside the boundary layer, and heat fluxes exceeding 107 W m−2 . The plasma
parameters in the boundary layer as obtained with different techniques by a number of
investigators for a variety of conditions are presented, and the effect of macroscopic flow
conditions is discussed. Experimental and modelling results are presented. A brief comparison
with low current arcs is also given, and the areas that need further research are highlighted.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)
be the main contribution to the anode fall, the thickness Here, ρ is the gas density, u and v are the axial and radial
of the anode fall region has to extend beyond the sheath velocity components of the gas, respectively, h is the gas
thickness to meet the various tasks of the anode fall [45–47]. enthalpy, T the gas temperature, κ the gas thermal conductivity,
Accordingly, the anode fall is defined here as the difference PR the volumetric radiation loss, j the current density and E
between the anode potential and the potential at the point where the electric field strength. In equation (2), σ is the electrical
the potential gradient changes from that in the arc column. This conductivity of the gas, k is the Boltzmann constant, µe and
change in electric field is the result of charge carrier losses and µi are the electron and ion mobilities, respectively, and Te and
energy losses to the anode surface. Following Nemchinsky and Ti and ne and ni are electron and ion temperatures and number
Perett’s description of the anode region [44], three different densities, respectively.
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 2. Illustration of anode voltage drops for diffuse and constricted attachments. uc is the potential at the column end and the dashed
line is an extrapolation of the column potential to the anode position, ua,d is the anode potential for a diffuse attachment with a negative
anode fall (ua,d < uc ), ua,c+ is the anode potential for a constricted attachment with a sheath potential drop and ua,c− is the anode potential
for a constricted attachment with a positive anode fall but a field reversal in the sheath region and a negative sheath potential drop. us
indicate the anode falls ua and the sheath potential drops us .
In the energy equation, the first term describes the on the area over which the plasma contacts the anode surface,
convective transport associated with macroscopic mass fluxes, and according to the density and temperature gradients which
the second and third terms describe thermal conduction in determine the current density (equation (2)), and it can be either
radial and axial direction, and the fourth term describes the negative, zero or slightly positive.
radiation loss. These energy losses are balanced by the A constricted attachment, in contrast will have first an
dissipation term on the right-hand side. In Ohm’s law, the first increase in the electric field due to the constriction; however,
term on the right-hand side describes the current flow due to very steep gradients immediately in front of the anode surface
charge carrier drift due to the electric field, while the remaining could lead to a field reversal. The composite of the voltage drop
terms describe the charge carrier flux due to diffusion due to in the constriction region and that in the region immediately
density and temperature gradients. in front of the anode will give the anode fall, which may be
If we consider an anode region without macroscopic flow, positive or negative. The various potential distributions in front
the first term in the energy equation can be neglected, and of the anode are illustrated in figure 2.
the increase in axial conduction losses must be met by an In addition to the influences of the fluid flow conditions,
increase in energy dissipation. Looking at Ohm’s law and chemical reactions on the anode surface as, for example,
the condition of constant current, this increase in dissipation encountered in arcs operated in atmospheric air or in other
requires a combination of increased electric field, decreased arc oxidizing fluids affect the anode attachment, and anode
radius and possibly increased diffusion fluxes. A decreased evaporation at a specific location is another mechanism which
radius, resulting in an increased current density, increases leads, in general, to spot formation [49, 50].
the self-magnetic pressure, resulting in a macroscopic mass Current continuity requires a sufficiently high electron flux
flow away from the anode [48], resulting in cold gas in- from the arc column to the anode surface leading to substantial
flow from the radial direction, enhancing the heat loss and deviation from LTE in the anode boundary layer [9, 44]. The
the necessary constriction (thermal pinch). Consequently, temperature of the heavy species approaches the temperature
macroscopic flows cannot be neglected in the treatment of of the anode in the immediate vicinity of the anode surface,
the anode boundary layer of high intensity arcs, and for the whereas the electron temperature remains sufficiently high
constricted attachment, the first term in equation (1) is an to ensure the required electrical conductivity as shown for a
additional energy loss term. typical example in figure 3 [9]. For the same conditions as in
If there is a superimposed flow towards the anode, e.g. figure 3, figure 4 [9] shows the electron density in the anode
because of a cathode jet, the plasma will form a stagnation boundary layer derived from a one-dimensional analysis.
layer over a larger region of the anode surface, i.e. an increase A comparison with electron densities under LTE
in the arc radius R and a radial outflow of plasma from the conditions reveals increasing discrepancies as the anode is
attachment zone. Consequently, the first term in equation (1) approached [9]. This is a clear indication that there are not only
represents a power increase in the energy balance, with a deviations from kinetic, but also deviations from composition
reduction of the energy dissipation term on the right-hand side equilibrium in the anode boundary layer. The actual electron
as a consequence. The electric field will adjust, depending density close to the anode may be more than a factor of two
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
higher than the equilibrium density according to the predicted 3.1. Flow perpendicular to the anode
electron temperature. And even more important, the current Plasma flows directed towards the anode are encountered with
flow at the anode is primarily driven by electron diffusion. As the free-burning arc with a cathode jet and with the constricted
previously mentioned, this strong electron diffusion may even arc with a gap between the constrictor channel and the anode
lead to negative electric fields in front of the anode as shown and with superimposed flow towards the anode.
in figure 5 [9]. As discussed in the previous section, a flow directed
Figure 5 refers to the same conditions as figure 3. towards the anode will lead to electron density and temperature
The calculated electric field shows strong negative values gradients over a wide area, as well as to convective energy
immediately in front of the anode (sheath), and by calculating transport towards the anode. The steep gradients of density
the potential drop across this sheath one finds a value of −1.8 V and temperature in front of the anode, as shown by calculations
which may be identified as the direct anode or anode sheath and measurements in figure 9 [14], suggest that diffusion of
fall [9]. A negative anode fall implies that there is a positive electrons to the anode will be an important or even dominating
space charge in front of the anode and the negative electric transport mechanism [9]. The consequence is that an increase
field will drive an ion current to the anode, simultaneously in the electric field is avoided and a negative anode fall can be
decelerating electrons. This ion current, also shown in figure 5, observed.
has been confirmed by experiments which will be discussed in However, a reduction of the plasma flow towards the
section 4. In the case of a helium arc, a positive value for anode, e.g. by increasing the length of the arc and reducing
the direct anode fall has been reported resulting from similar any parallel flow, will reduce the convective transport towards
one-dimensional calculations [44]. the anode and lead to arc constriction. Under these conditions
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 8. Schematic of a plasma torch with the flow parallel to the anode surface.
lateral gas flow parallel to the anode in the gap between the
constrictor and the anode (see figure 15). A gap between the
constrictor and the anode allows observation of the arc, and
cold gas can be introduced parallel to the anode surface. Inaba
et al [58] measured the deflection of the arc due to the lateral
gas flow and defined a ‘Young’s modulus’ and a stiffness for
the arc.
However, no physical explanation for the formulation was
offered. The same experiment was used to determine the effect
of the cross flow on the arc voltage [59] for an arc of up to 250 A
in argon with air as the lateral gas. The increase in voltage was
found to be uniquely dependent on the deflection of the arc root.
In a similar set-up and under similar conditions, Hartmann
and Heberlein [60] found that the arc attachment changes
from a diffuse attachment first to a constricted attachment,
possibly with several spots, then to a fluctuating constricted
attachment which is deflected from the original position, and
finally to a strongly deflected attachment with a restrike. The
thickness of the dark boundary layer outside the arc attachment
Figure 9. Measured and calculated temperature distributions in a region increases at first stepwise during the change from the
free-burning arc. (Reprinted from [14] copyright 1983 American diffuse mode to the constricted mode, then more slowly with
Institute of Physics.) increasing deflection until a maximum is reached and further
increases in lateral gas flow do not change the boundary layer
changed by changing the arc current and the gas flow rate. any more (see figure 16) [60]. Further experiments with
It is at present unclear why one set of data deviates from essentially the same experimental set-up with current values of
the correlation. 75 and 100 A and argon as the plasma gas and argon or nitrogen
As indicated in figure 8, there is a relatively thick cold as the lateral gas confirmed these observed effects of increasing
boundary layer between the main arc column and the anode lateral gas flow and found that nitrogen lateral gas flow will
surface and, as a consequence, the arc section across this result in stronger constriction [61, 62]. By using a segmented
boundary layer and the anode arc root will be constricted. With anode and correlating arc attachment position (obtained with a
increasing current, the main arc column expands, reducing the high speed video camera) with the current transfer and the heat
thickness of the anode boundary layer. As this boundary layer transfer to the different segments it was found that both current
shrinks, a more diffuse anode arc root becomes feasible. This and heat transfer followed the luminous attachment spot with
fact led to a puzzling observation of the anode life in arc plasma some current flow and heat transfer outside the spot [63].
torches. By increasing the arc current, the anode life of a Calorimetric and current measurements with a segmented
given torch may be enhanced, in spite of the fact that the heat anode show that never all the current is transferred to
transfer to the anode increases with increasing current (see downstream segments, but that a certain percentage of the
section 4.4). Anode melting and anode erosion, however, are current keeps flowing to the upstream anode segments with
determined by the specific heat fluxes rather than by the total increasing lateral gas flow, and that the heat transfer essentially
heat fluxes [12]. Specific heat fluxes are substantially higher follows the current flow (see figure 17) [63].
in the case of constricted anode arc roots (section 4.4). Further increase in the lateral gas flow rate will lead to arc
Several investigations of the anode boundary layer effects instabilities, first some random movement of the attachment
were made with the wall stabilized arc arrangement with a with voltage fluctuations similar to those observed with the
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 10. Photographs of arc attachment mode changes with different plasma gas flows; current: 100 A, argon 1 atm, constrictor–anode
gap:10 mm. (Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)
Figure 11. Voltage change during transition from constricted mode to diffuse mode. (Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)
‘take-over mode’ in plasma torches, and then to actual restrike • It appears that for low current arcs (<100 A) the
conditions, i.e. a sudden move to an upstream attachment constricted mode is more stable while for higher currents
spot. High speed movies showed that the frequency of the the diffuse mode provides lower voltages.
restrike movement jumped at a certain threshold lateral gas • Gas flow parallel to the anode surface favours a constricted
flow rate right away to 270 Hz, followed by a more gradual attachment and results in either a random oscillatory
increase. It was also observed that the location from which the movement of the attachment or in the periodic restrike
restrike occurred moved downstream with increasing lateral motion.
gas flow rate, i.e. the length of the restrike to the same
upstream position increases (see figure 18) [63]. Schlieren 4. Experimental characterization of the boundary
images of the arc attachment with lateral gas flow show that layer
the restrike is preceded by a fluid dynamic instability leading
to a reduction of the cold gas boundary layer thickness (see 4.1. Electron temperature and density measurements
figure 19) [64].
This section contains results of spectroscopic, Langmuir probe
While the initial increase in power dissipation during the
and laser scattering measurements in the anode boundary
constriction of the attachment is mostly transferred to the
layer.
anode, the increased power dissipation during the elongation of
the arc did not increase the heat transfer to the anode. One may (a) Spectroscopic measurements. There have been numerous
conclude that convective and radiative heat transfers are less spectroscopic measurements of the anode region of electric
significant than conduction and the heat transfer mechanisms arcs with the anode perpendicular to the arc axis. Free-burning
associated with current flow. arcs as well as wall stabilized arcs with a gap between the
The experimental observations may be summarized by the constrictor and the anode have been used. With free-burning
following statements: arcs, the principal experimental parameters that influence
the anode attachment are the arc current and the anode–
• The fluid flow influences the thickness of the thermal cathode gap. With the constricted arc, the anode attachment
boundary layer in front of the anode and consequently is influenced by the arc current and the gas flow parallel to
the physical processes in the arc anode attachment. the arc towards the anode. The latter arrangement has also
• Two distinctly different attachment modes have been been used to simulate anodes with the arc parallel to the anode
observed, depending on the boundary layer thickness, the surface by introducing a cold gas flow parallel to the anode
constricted and the diffuse attachment. surface towards the arc attachment. In all cases reported here,
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
anode erosion and a strongly constricted anode attachment Heberlein and Pfender [65] report spectroscopic measure-
with anode melting have been avoided. Furthermore, almost ments with a 100 A argon arc using a constrictor assembly with
all investigations have been carried out in argon at pressures a gap of 3.5 mm between the constrictor and the anode. Results
between 80 and 110 kPa, and deviations from these conditions were obtained for a diffuse attachment with the assumption of
are noted. The difficulty with spectroscopic measurements is PLTE, and measurements of several absolute line intensities
the existence of non-equilibrium in the boundary layer, and and continuum intensities yielded electron temperature and
different approaches have been chosen to obtain results for density values at different axial locations (see table 1). Elec-
non-equilibrium conditions. tron density values of 5 × 1022 m−3 or 6 × 1022 m−3 were ob-
Dyuzhev et al [30] report results of spectroscopic tained using the PLTE assumption or the continuum coefficient,
investigations of a free-burning arc in which the anode was a respectively, at 2 mm from the anode, and of 0.9 × 1022 m−3
rotating water-cooled copper cylinder. The current was varied and 1.2 × 1022 m−3 at 0.5 mm from the anode. For a similar
over a wide range, and reducing the current below 50 A led to set-up but with a gap of 10 mm and an arc current of 200 A,
a change in the anode attachment from a diffuse attachment Sanders et al [12] report similar values (see table 1). A com-
to one consisting of several parallel branches, and eventually, parison of temperature profiles for a diffuse and a constricted
at a current of 15 A, to a single constricted attachment. The attachment showed similar values at a location of 1 mm in front
electron density data derived from continuum measurements of the anode; however, with the constricted attachment a tem-
and assuming partial local thermodynamic equilibrium (PLTE) perature maximum of 12 400 K approximately 2 mm from the
are 1.9×1022 m−3 at 0.5 mm in front of the anode for the diffuse anode was found. These results lead to the conclusion that
attachment, and for the constricted attachment, an electron beyond 2 mm from the anode LTE can be assumed without
density maximum is observed close to 1023 m−3 at about 1 mm causing too much of an error, and that the temperatures are in
in front of the anode. the order of 12 000 K, a value which is supported by modelling
The most complete measurements for free-burning arcs results.
have been reported by Tanaka and Ushio [36–38] for an arc Recent Thomson scattering measurements with a wall
gap of 5 mm and arc currents ranging from 50 to 150 A. The stabilized arc and a gap in front of the anode resulted in
assumption of LTE existence has been avoided by using laser electron temperature and density distributions in the entire
scattering measurements, i.e. Rayleigh scattering for atom anode region between 0.05 and 5 mm from the surface at 1 atm
temperatures and Thomson scattering for electron temperature in argon for currents between 60 and 120 A [64, 66]. Variation
measurements. Rayleigh scattering was performed up to of current and parallel gas flow allowed a controlled change
distances of 50 µm from the anode with a roof type anode of the anode attachment type, and two transitional types of
arrangement sloping towards the observer. Langmuir probe attachment between the diffuse attachment and the constricted
measurements with a probe embedded in the anode provided attachment have been observed when the parallel gas flow was
additional data on electron temperatures. The results are given reduced. Figures 20 and 21 show the electron temperature and
in tables 1 and 2. If we consider the action of the cathode electron density distributions along the arc axis for varying
jet and the proximity of the cathode to the anode (5 mm), the currents and axial mass flow rates [66].
results appear to be consistent with the other measurements, For diffuse attachments (high axial gas flow rates) electron
except for the very high electron temperature value measured temperatures and densities increase strongly with current at
with a Langmuir probe at the anode surface for the 50 A arc. both locations, 2 and 0.05 mm from the anode surface. When
The effect of the anode state has been investigated by the axial gas flow rate is decreased, electron temperatures and
Etemadi and Pfender [15] who compared temperature profiles densities initially decrease. However, at a certain flow rate a
of a 150 A free-burning argon arc with a 10 mm gap, 1 mm in transition is observed to a constricted attachment with higher
front of a solid copper and a molten copper anode. A drop electron temperatures and densities, increasing at 0.05 mm in
in peak LTE temperature from 13 000 to about 12 100 K was front of the surface from 10 900 K with 5 slm to 14 400 K
found when copper vapour was present, even though no strong at 0.7 slm, and from 0.8 × 1022 m−3 to 3.8 × 1022 m−3 ,
constriction was observed. Gleizes et al [33] extended these respectively. Both distributions show maxima in a region
measurements to different anode materials, copper, iron and between 2 and 0.05 mm from the anode. The change from
steel, all in their solid and molten forms, with a 90 A argon arc. diffuse to constricted attachment is preceded by the formation
At a location 1 mm in front of the anode, LTE temperatures of a cold boundary layer between the arc plasma and the anode
of 11 500 K were measured for Cu anodes, compared with surface in the arc fringes (lift-up mode) and by an increase in
10 750 K for steel anodes. For liquid anodes with carefully current density in the central region of the attachment. This
controlled evaporation to avoid arc constriction, the data were mode is followed by the formation of several attachment spots
9600 K for a steel anode and 9000 K for the molten copper at different locations on the arc periphery (multiple attachment
anode. The lower temperatures in all cases of metal vapour mode). A more detailed description of this transition will be
presence are explained by higher radiation losses and wider presented in section 4.3.
arcs because of the higher electrical conductivity of the metal The same arrangement has been used to characterize the
containing plasma at lower temperatures in the arc fringes. attachment with cold gas flow parallel to the anode surface,
The differences of the results with different anode materials simulating the parallel flow situation [63, 64]. Langmuir probe
were explained by different arc root diameters due to different and Thomson scattering measurements have been performed
thermal conductivities of the anode materials. for varying lateral gas flows, and the symmetric attachment
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 12. Stepwise change of anode attachment diameter with plasma gas flow during the transition from constricted to diffuse attachment.
(Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)
Figure 13. Arcing mode for arc with flow parallel to the anode, for
different currents and different gas flow rates. (Reprinted from [57]
copyright 2002 ASM International.)
Figure 15. Schematic of wall stabilized arc with perpendicular
anode and lateral gas flow. (Reprinted from [63] copyright 2006
IOP Publishing.)
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 16. Thickness of anode boundary layer as function of lateral (sheath) gas flow [60]; current 100 A, argon 1 atm, plasma gas flow
5 slm, constrictor–anode gap 10 mm.
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 19. Development of fluid dynamic instability leading to restrike [64]. The dark band indicates a high electron density gradient. The
white line is drawn into the figure at the border of the dark band to illustrate the arc boundary, and the anode surface is indicated as a straight
line. (Reprinted from [64] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)
the electron density because in the electron saturation regime, anode [68]. The straight line in this semi-logarithmic plot
the probe will become the anode, and in the ion saturation is an indication that the electrons retain a MB distribution
regime one has to consider collisions in the sheath. throughout the boundary layer.
Operating the probe in the electron retarding regime and Figure 23 shows electron temperatures at the anode
assuming that the electrons have a Maxwell–Boltzmann (MB) surface as a function of the arc current with the electrode gap
distribution, the current density, je , collected by the probe will as parameter [68]. The electron temperature throughout the
allow derivation of electron temperature values. boundary layer up to the anode surface stays above 104 K. It
Figure 22 shows an example of a Langmuir probe should be pointed out that both an increase in the arc current
characteristic with the probe biased with respect to the and a decrease in the electrode gap enhance the velocity of the
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Table 2. Results of Langmuir probe measurements in anode boundary layer (all measurements in Ar at or close to 1 atm).
Arc Te Te Te Te Te Te Te
Configuration current (A) z = 0 µm 50 µm 100 µm 125 µm 150 µm 200 µm 250 µm Reference
Wall 100 9 200 9 700 10 100 [13]
stab.— 150 8 800 9 700
diffuse 200 8 700 9 600 10 100
150 9 100 10 400 12 100
constricted 200 9 840 10 600 10 100
12 100
Wall stab. 80 9 600 [63]
100 9 200
80 10 250
Free 50 23 000 15 000 13 000 [36]
burning 100 16 000
(5 mm) 150 11 000 14 000 14 000
11 300 12 000
Free 75 11 200–11 400 [68]
burning 100
(7 mm) 150 12 900–13 200
14 000
Free 75 11 300 [68]
burning 100 12 600
(10 mm) 150 14 000
Figure 20. Axial electron temperature (a) and electron density (b) Figure 21. Axial electron temperature (a) and density (b)
distributions in the anode boundary layer for four different arc distributions in front of the anode for different axial gas flow rates.
currents; argon, 1 bar. The anode surface is on the left hand side. (Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)
(Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
very pronounced. The increase in je for arc currents, below Determination of the magnitude of the anode fall has been
the value at which the minimum occurs, is due to a more of strong interest to researchers for a long time, because
constricted arc root which is associated with a weaker cathode knowledge of the electric field distribution in the boundary
jet at these lower currents. The arc constriction at the anode layer in front of the anode will not only enhance our
at low arc currents appears to be more severe with narrower understanding of the physical processes in this region, but it
arc gaps. As figure 24 indicates, the current density minimum will also facilitate control of the anode attachment which is
shifts to higher arc currents for larger electrode gaps which is very important for the control of many plasma processes.
due to the weakened effect of the cathode jet at larger gaps [68]. Busz-Peuckert and Finkelnburg [69, 70] measured the
As previously mentioned, for negative anode falls there potential of a tungsten probe swept across the arc 1 mm in front
must be a positive space charge in front of the anode. The of the anode using a free-burning arc, for arc gaps ranging from
reversed electric field as well as strong ion density gradients 2 to 10 mm and arc currents from 10 to 200 A. For all distances,
in front of the anode will drive a positive ion current to constricted attachments were observed at arc currents below
the anode as shown in figure 25 [68]. Although this ion 25 A and diffuse attachments for currents above 75 A. They
current is below or close to 1% of the total arc current for equated the potential difference between the floating potential
arc currents below 100 A, the percentage of ion current to the of the probe and the anode potential with the anode fall. The
total current increases substantially with increasing arc current results are shown in table 3. The data for the fall increased
and decreasing electrode gap. Figure 26 [68] shows the ratio of with increasing arcing gap (lower cathode jet velocity) and
electron to ion current densities as a function of arc current with decreased with increasing arc current (increased cathode jet
the electrode gap as parameter. There is a dramatic reduction velocity). The anode fall values reflect the potential drop across
of this ratio with increasing arc current or equivalent, with the boundary layer and the sheath region, but no correction was
increasing attachment diameter. used for the probe sheath. Of interest is the comment that a
Similar to the differences in electron temperature data fall of 0 V should be expected for high ion flow into the anode
between results from free-burning arcs and wall constricted boundary layer.
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Schoeck and Eckert [71] and Schoeck and Maisenhälder high electron densities in front of the anode will result in high
[72] derived anode fall values from an energy balance of the diffusion currents and eliminate the need for ion production in
anode of a free-burning arc for pressures from 1 to 50 bar. the anode sheath. It must be noted that these MPD discharges
The heat transfer to the anode was assumed to consist of are quite different from arc discharges with quite high ion
convection and radiation from the arc column, and of the terms temperatures, and that the pressure at the anode is not given.
associated with the current transport (see section 4.4), namely But the fall value for a current density of 100 A cm−2 is
electron condensation, electron enthalpy flow and electron comparable to that reported by Busz-Peuckert and Finkelnburg
energy gained in the fall region. Values of 4.5 V at 100 A [70] for similar current densities.
and 3 V at 150 A are reported, and the values decrease with Several of the cited publications mention that anode
increasing pressure. Convective and radiative heat transfer fall values of zero or even negative fall values should be
contributions were determined through calculations using possible; however, all report positive voltage drops in the
simplifying assumptions, and relatively minor errors in these anode boundary layer. In contrast, Sanders and Pfender [13]
values could significantly change the anode fall values. and Leveroni-Calvi [68] report negative anode fall values for
A recent study by Hemmi et al [73] also derives atmospheric pressure argon arcs under all conditions they have
electrode fall values from electrode energy balances, i.e. considered. Sanders and Pfender used the Langmuir probe
from material evaporation rates from un-cooled electrodes. arrangements described in section 4.1, the probe tip being
Heat conduction/convection and radiation from the arc are either flush with the anode surface or protruding 0.25 mm
neglected. For a silver anode and an air arc with one half wave into the plasma. Both free-burning arcs and wall stabilized
of an ac current, with peak values varied from 350 to 1200 A, arcs were investigated, and the conditions were adjusted to get
an anode fall voltage of about 4.5 V is found, independent of either a diffuse or a constricted attachment. The floating probe
peak arc current. potential Vf was corrected to give the plasma potential Vs in
Dickson and von Engel [74] measured the voltage change front of the anode using a collisionless sheath assumption and
of a free-burning arc when the anode approached the cathode. neglecting the ion temperature difference:
Two steps are visible in the voltage trace, the first one was
associated with the collapse of the anode sheath and merging Vs = Vf + (kTe /2e) ln(2mi /π me ). (4)
with the cathode sheath (the anode fall voltage), the second
one when the two electrodes met (the cathode fall voltage). Electron temperature values derived from Langmuir probe
Different values are reported for different anode materials, with measurements were used. Two voltage drops were
a value of 3 V for a 10 A argon arc between copper electrodes. distinguished, the drop across the boundary layer derived from
Values for a nitrogen arc were significantly higher (∼10 V). the probe measurements at 0.25 mm in front of the anode and
Oberth and Jahn [75] determined fall voltages in high the ‘direct anode fall’ measured with the probe flush with the
current MPD arcs with a potential probe 1 mm in front of the anode surface, i.e. the drop across the collisionless sheath. The
anode surface. They corrected the measured potential for the results are shown in table 3. We see, that
sheath drop, and determined the current density distribution (1) in all cases the direct fall voltage as well as the total fall
with magnetic probes. Anode fall values of 10–12 V for voltage are negative;
current densities of 100 A cm−2 and of approximately zero at (2) the direct fall voltages do not vary strongly between
900 A cm−2 are reported. The point was made that sufficiently a diffuse and a constricted mode; however, the total
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
fall voltages are higher (more negative) for a diffuse a diffuse and a lift-up mode attachment for a 100 A argon
attachment, indicating a stronger positive space charge arc. The distributions of the electric potential parallel to the
in the boundary layer in front of the sheath; arc axis at three different radial locations are also shown, at
(3) the fall voltage increases with increasing current the centreline, r = 3 mm and r = 5 mm (6 mm for lift-up
(becoming more negative) for the diffuse attachment while mode). It can be seen that for the diffuse mode, a field reversal
it decreases with increasing current for the constricted (potential maximum) occurs at about 2 mm from the anode
attachment; surface, and slightly closer at larger radii. It also must be
(4) in the diffuse attachment, about half of the (negative) noticed that strong radial field gradients exist. For the lift-
anode voltage drop occurs in the sheath, while the other up mode, a second field reversal is visible at the r = 6 mm
half occurs in the boundary layer in front of it, whereas location approximately 0.4 mm in front of the anode, resulting
in the constricted attachment, the majority of the drop in a positive sheath potential drop. Electric field distributions
occurs in the sheath. The potential drop in the boundary in constricted attachments show strong radial variations of the
layer raises the question whether in these experiments a field, but slightly positive slopes as well as slightly negative
constriction actually existed. slopes are seen in the attachment region. Figure 28 [66]
summarizes the axial potential distributions for the different
Leveroni and Pfender [76] and Leveroni-Calvi [68] attachment modes.
present results of measurements with a Langmuir probe Based on these data, one may arrive at the following
embedded in the anode of a free-burning arc, and the boundary conclusions:
layer thickness was varied by changing the arcing gap between
(1) In a diffuse attachment a negative potential drop towards
7 and 15 mm and the current from 60 to 250 A. The voltage drop
the anode surface exists over the entire attachment region;
across the boundary layer, i.e. across the region of a significant
there is sufficient energy transport from the arc column
temperature drop, is derived by considering diffusion fluxes in
into the anode region to maintain a large enough contact
the analysis. The values are shown in table 3. These values
area of the plasma with the anode surface to carry the
are comparable to those reported by Sanders and Pfender [13].
current.
However, in both cases a collisionless sheath was assumed for (2) Reducing the energy flux from the arc column, the heat
the derivation of plasma potential values from the measured loss to the anode first manifests itself in a reduced high
probe potential data. While the Debye length for the described temperature region in front of the anode; while the current
conditions is shorter than the electron mean free path, the mean density in the attachment region increases, it is insufficient
free path for the ion–neutral charge exchange is shorter than to carry the current, and in order to transport the current
the Debye length. At present it is unclear how collision effects through the cooler fringe regions, a positive potential drop
will change the presented data. is needed.
Comparison of the temperature measurements and the (3) An instability analysis indicates [77] that a positive
potential measurements lead to a few definite conclusions: potential drop can lead to an electron-thermal instability,
(1) The fluid flow in the anode boundary layer affects the which will result in multiple constricted attachments and
temperatures as well as the potential distributions; probes local anode heating and evaporation in the arc fringes
mounted flush with the anode show a slight decrease in where the positive potential drop is initially seen; these
electron temperature and in the potential drop across the local spots surrounding the attachment have been observed
sheath with increasing current for a diffuse attachment, in experiments [78].
and an increase with increasing current for the constricted (4) A constricted attachment is characterized by an increase
attachment, very likely primarily following changes in the in electron temperature in the region immediately in front
current density. of the anode, and by a maximum in the electron density
(2) While there is for the most part an agreement between the distribution close to the anode, resulting in steeper electron
electron temperature measurements by different authors, density gradients and likely also in steeper ion density
significant differences exist between the different potential gradients. While these results should indicate an even
measurements. Agreement exists only in so far that higher fraction of arc current being driven by electron
the potential drop in the sheath is negative for a diffuse diffusion, the ion flux would reduce the total current. A
attachment as measured by probes flush with the anode positive anode fall voltage can exist increasing the ion
surface. current contribution to the total current by reducing the ion
flux towards the anode, and by accelerating the electrons
Indirect determination of the potential distribution in the anode towards the anode. However, the steep radial gradients
boundary layer has been pursued by Yang and Heberlein [66]. of electron density and temperature result in electric field
The Thomson scattering data have been used to determine distributions strongly distorted by diffusion fluxes, and
the distributions of electron partial pressure and electron a one-dimensional analysis of the constriction region is
temperature in the boundary layer. Neglecting the ion current likely not appropriate.
and the thermodiffusion current, an estimate of the electric field (5) In the case of a highly constricted attachment, the electron
has been obtained using equation (2) and current conservation saturation current density may be approached (in the order
for the different attachment modes. of 108 A m−2 ), and the ion flux away from the anode is
Figure 27 [66] shows maps of the electric field magnitude required to transport the total current. A positive sheath
and direction on the right-hand side of the anode region for potential should be the consequence.
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 27. Electric field distributions in the right half of the anode boundary layer of an 100 A argon arc (top); the arc axis is on the
left-hand side and the anode surface is at z = 0. The potential values as function of distance from the anode surface are shown below for
three different radial locations. (Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 31. Radial distributions for the different components of electron heat flux to the anode for (a) a diffuse attachment, (b) a lift-off
attachment, (c) a multiple spot attachment and (d) a constricted attachment [88].
properties remain that of the gas. A positive anode fall of 3.5 V is acceptable considering the assumptions made for the
is assumed for a free-burning 200 A argon arc. The boundary calculations. A further development of a similar model
condition for the electron density at the anode surface has been included the introduction of electron density non-equilibrium,
addressed by Cappelli and by Meeks and Cappelli [20, 21], as i.e. calculation of electron densities with balance equations
well as the effects of fluid flow on the attachment in a stagnation including diffusion, and space charge sheaths calculated from
flow model. Electron recombination at the anode surface at the Poisson equation [32, 80]. Both configurations have been
various rates is assumed as the dominant electron loss term, considered, that of a free-burning arc with the results of
and a strong effect on the electric field near the surface is the model by Hsu and Pfender [94] providing the boundary
demonstrated. While the assumptions for this model are more condition at the arc column, and that of a wall constricted
consistent with those for a low current arc (e.g. free stream arc with a gap in front of the anode. Different mass flow
temperatures of 4000 K), it is concluded that the convective rates towards the anode have been assumed to demonstrate
ion flux into the boundary layer must compensate for the ion the effect of the fluid dynamics. This model has been used
losses by diffusion and recombination, or a constriction and to demonstrate the effect of fluid dynamics by Amakawa et al
increased Joule heating will be needed for ion production. [35]. The following results taken from these models illustrate
The constriction of the arc in front of the anode has the physical processes in the anode boundary layer.
been modelled with an equilibrium approach and with a two- Figure 32 [32] shows that the electron temperatures start
temperature non-equilibrium approach by Chen and Pfender deviating from the heavy particle temperatures about 0.2 mm
[10, 93], and the ‘thermal pinch’ is demonstrated by these in front of the anode surface for a diffuse attachment, and
modelling results for the configuration of a wall constricted that they remain above a value of 10 000 K up to the anode
arc with a 10 mm gap between the constrictor and the surface. Figure 33 shows the calculated streamlines for both
anode. However, the details of the processes in the sheath the diffuse and the constricted mode for a 200 A argon arc [35].
are not described in these models. The results of this With a superimposed mass flow rate of 0.2 g s−1 , the plasma
model are compared with experimental results in figure 9 emanating from the confinement tube impinges on the anode
[14]. The agreement between calculations and measurements and is forced to flow out in the radial direction. A relatively
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 33. Stream lines in the anode region of a 200 A argon arc with a diffuse (a) and a constricted (b) attachment; the anode surface is the
lower boundary, on the upper right hand side. (Reprinted from [35] copyright 1998 IOP Publishing.)
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 38. Distributions of (a) heavy particle temperatures, (b) electron temperatures, (c) electron densities and (d) current densities in
front of the anode of a partially constricted arc with cold gas flow parallel to the anode; argon, 1 bar, 100 A. (Reprinted from [101] copyright
2005 IEEE.)
particle conduction are considered the most important ones. where φ is the thermal diffusion coefficient and σ the electrical
The electron energy flux term contains the thermal energy of conductivity.
the electrons, and the energy gain or loss in the sheath region: What concerns the two conduction terms, the electron
conduction accounts for energy transfer by electrons not
kTe
qe = je 2 + Us (6) incorporated into the metal lattice, i.e. reflected from the
e surface. This term is usually very small. The heavy particle
with Us the voltage drop across the electrical boundary conduction assumes that the atoms and ions equilibrate with
layer (see figure 2). Two different assumptions have been the anode surface. It is not certain that this assumption can
made to calculate this term: (a) the electrons continue to be be made because in the case of a constricted attachment the
thermalized in the electrical boundary layer and an electron temperature gradients are so steep that significant changes can
temperature according to a MB distribution determines the be encountered over one mean free path length, resulting in
electron energy; in this case Us is zero; (b) the electron temperature slip conditions. In this case, the conduction term
energy is composed of a thermal component according to may be replaced by
the temperature at the sheath edge and a non-Maxwellian α(Th − Ta ) (8)
component obtained through acceleration/deceleration by the
with Th and Ta the heavy particle temperature in the sheath
sheath voltage drop; in this case Us is either positive or
and the anode temperature, respectively, and α the energy
negative). Boundary layer calculations using a continuum
accommodation coefficient for non-continuum slip conditions.
approach indicate that Us should be negative even for a
Because there will be a positive ion current ji , driven to
constricted attachment because of the high diffusion fluxes
[32], but the peak of the potential in front of the anode is the anode by the steep ion density gradients and a negative
in the order of 0.1–0.5 mm, i.e. many mean free paths, and anode fall, the energy transport due to this flux needs to be
thermalization of the energy gain should be assumed. On considered. Upon impact on the anode, the positive ions will
the other hand, potential distributions derived from Thomson neutralize, releasing an energy
scattering measurements neglecting the ion current indicate an
ji (Ei − φa ), (9)
increase in the potential to a position 50 µm from the anode.
In this case, it is unknown what sheath potential should be
where Ei is the ionization potential of the neutral atoms. In the
assumed.
case of a negative anode fall and temperature slip of the heavy
In the case of strong electron temperature gradients, a
species, the acceleration of the ions in the sheath region needs
thermodiffusion term should be added:
to be considered, and equation (9) needs to be replaced by
φTe
je , (7)
σ ji (Ei − φa + Us ). (10)
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
The last term in equation (5) accounts for radiation from the (4) in the case of the diffuse attachment there is a strong
plasma transferred to the anode, assuming that the plasma is convective transport from the arc column into the
optically thin. anode region; however, this convective transport is
In summary, one can use for the calculation of the heat distributed over a wider area, and each individual term in
flux to the anode equation (12) is smaller than in the constricted attachment
kTe φTe case. However, the total heat flux in the case of the diffuse
qa = je φa + je 2 + Us + je + α(Th − Ta ) attachment may be comparable or even larger than in the
e σ
case of the constricted attachment;
+ ji (Ei − φa ) + QR (11) (5) experiments as well as simulations indicate that for a
in the case of a positive sheath potential drop (in which case diffuse attachment about 50% of the total heat transfer
the ion flux term is very small), or to the anode is due to the electron flux, and this fraction
is higher in the case of a constricted attachment.
kTe φTe
qa = je φa + je 2 + je + α(Th − Ta )
e σ Figure 39 [32] shows the contributions of the various
terms in the anode heat flux equation (equation (12)) to the
+ ji (Ei − φa + Us ) + QR (12)
anode heat flux. The electron enthalpy makes a significant
in the case of a negative sheath potential drop. contribution to the total anode heat fluxes as shown in figure 39
The difference between the constricted and the diffuse for a 100 A argon arc operated in the cathode jet dominated
attachment can be described by considering an integral energy mode with a superimposed flow of ṁ = 0.165 g s−1 [32].
balance of the boundary layer: The largest contribution, however, is by electron condensation,
ṁh − Qa − Qcon − Qrad + I (Ua + Ecol z) = 0 (13) followed by heavy particle conduction. The reason for this
large contribution is, to a large degree, due to the superimposed
with ṁ the plasma gas mass flow rate into the boundary layer, flow. The contributions of electron conduction and ion
h the change in gas enthalpy from entering and leaving the recombination are almost negligible. The contribution of
boundary layer, Qa the energy loss to the anode, Qcon the net radiation is not included in this diagram.
conduction loss (axial conduction from the column and radial Figure 40 [80] shows the radial distributions of the total
loss), Qrad the radiative loss (assuming optically thin radiation) heat flux to the anode for a 200 A argon arc considering both
and the last term indicating the energy dissipation between the a diffuse and a constricted arc root. Although the peak heat
column end and the anode surface, with z the boundary layer flux is almost four times higher for the constricted arc root,
thickness and Ecol the potential gradient in the column (see the integrated total heat flow is almost the same for both cases.
figure 2). Integrity of the anode, however, is determined by the peak heat
In the case of a constricted attachment, an anode jet fluxes rather than the integrated values. As recently shown by
directed away from the anode surface will carry energy towards Terasaki et al [108] melting of the anode in a free-burning arc
the column, and the first term in equation (13) is negative. The is determined by the peak heat flux rather than the total anode
other loss terms are increasing to some degree. This energy loss heat transfer.
is compensated by increased dissipation, i.e. a higher electric Figure 41 shows the radial distribution of the total anode
field in the constriction region (see figure 2). This increased heat flux for a free-burning 200 A argon arc at p = 100 kPa
electric field results in a voltage drop in the constriction region and an electrode gap of 1.0 cm [80, 87]. Also included in
which is usually larger than the relatively small voltage drop this diagram is a comparison with experimental data [87]. As
immediately in front of the surface which results from the previously mentioned, the arc tends to be non-symmetric for
increased charge transport by diffusion. The total anode fall, arc gaps exceeding 0.5 cm.
considered to be the sum of the voltage drop in the constriction For this reason, figure 41 shows both the left and
region and in the sheath region, is then positive. The increased the right side of the measured radial heat flux distribution.
energy dissipation in the boundary layer is transferred to the This, however, limits comparisons with analytical predictions.
anode, as verified by experiments [61]. However, for a diffuse attachment of a 100 A argon arc,
Comparing the different energy transfer terms for the electron heat flux data derived from Thomson scattering
different attachment modes, we find the following: experiments show good agreement with the theoretical
(1) energy transfer due to electron condensation is the same predictions as shown in figure 42 [88]. In these results, the
in both cases; mass flow towards the anode was assumed to be 0.165 g s−1 in
(2) energy transfer due to electron enthalpy flux may be the model and was 0.446 g s−1 in the experiment. The total heat
slightly higher in the case of a constricted attachment transfer to the anode was modelled to be 1310 W and measured
because of higher electron temperatures; as 1500 W, with the electron flux contribution 735 W [88].
(3) an additional energy transfer exists in the case of
the constricted attachment due to the increased energy 6. Comparison of the anode regions of low and high
dissipation in the anode region; this increased energy flux intensity arcs
may be associated with an increase in the conduction terms
because of steeper temperature gradients, with an increase A reduction in arc current usually results in a change in the
in the enthalpy flux and with an increase in the energy arc attachment mode to a constricted attachment, as described
transport associated with the electron current; by several investigators, e.g. [30, 69], the change occurring
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Figure 39. Contributions to the heat flux to the anode surface of a Figure 41. Comparison of calculated and experimental anode heat
100 A argon arc with a diffuse anode attachment. (Reprinted flux distributions; calculated fluxes are from [32], measured data
from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.) from [87]. The experimental data show an asymmetric attachment,
and measurements for both sides are shown for comparison.
Figure 40. Anode heat flux distribution for a 200 A argon arc with a
diffuse and a constricted attachment. (Reprinted from [32] Figure 42. Radial distributions of the different components for the
copyright 1997 IEEE.) anode heat flux, calculated (lines) [32] and derived from Thomson
scattering measurements (symbols) [88].
between 20 and 40 A. This change is likely caused by the
need for increased ionization processes to compensate for the
loss of energy and of electrons to the anode, i.e. increased The following observations can be made:
energy dissipation. The studies by Mentel and Heberlein (1) All low current arcs have an electron temperature
[96] have concentrated on a special case of low current arcs maximum between the column and the anode. This is
operated between rod shaped tungsten electrodes where the in part due to the fact that the anode diameter is smaller
anode is sufficiently hot to thermionically emit electrons. This
than the arc diameter, resulting in a constricted attachment
fact probably contributes to the observed peak in electron
which may show a moderate constriction and relatively
densities in front of the anode surface in these experiments
low current densities. The cooling of the plasma in front
[96, 109] even though the current densities are similar to those
of the anode at higher anode temperatures can be the
observed in diffuse attachments of high intensity arcs. Table 4
consequence of interactions of the plasma with electrons
presents a comparison of electron density and temperature
which are thermionically emitted and reabsorbed by the
measurements at different distances from the anode for a low
current arc and a high intensity arc operated under different anode. However, this electron temperature maximum is
conditions. also apparent for low anode temperatures for low current
The data in table 4 were obtained with a model arc and for constricted high intensity arcs. This is in contrast
lamp using emission spectroscopy for the low current arcs to high intensity arcs with a diffuse attachment where
[96], and with a wall stabilized arc with a gap in front of there is a monotonic drop in the electron temperature and
the anode using Thomson scattering for the high intensity density values towards the anode.
arcs [66]. The attachment mode in the high intensity arcs (2) The electron temperature values at the arc column increase
was controlled by adjusting the axial gas flow rate towards only by about 30% for an increase in the current from 5
the anode. Measurements by other authors show similar to 120 A, whereas the electron density values increase by
values [30, 65]. more than an order of magnitude.
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
Table 4. Comparison of plasma conditions in front of the anode for high intensity arcs, but estimates indicate that they can be
low current and high intensity arcs and different attachment extremely high, exceeding 109 W m−2 , and comparisons with
modes [66, 96]. The low current arc is operated with a rod shaped
low intensity arcs are no longer meaningful.
tungsten anode of 1.5 mm diameter and 20 mm length.
There are some differences in the approaches for the model
Current Position Te ne formulation for the anode attachment. The major ones are the
(A) from anode (kK) (m−3 ) Condition following:
1 1 mm, column 8 1.45 × 10 21
Constricted
(1) In the low current arcs, the electron flux can be described
1 150 µm, peak Te 12 Constricted
1 50 µm 11.5 4.5 × 10 21
Constricted by an electron saturation current at the sheath edge
5 >1 mm, column 8.5 3 × 1021 Constricted modified by the negative potential drop in the sheath,
5 800 µm, peak Te 11.4 Constricted which is assumed to be always present. In the high
5 400 µm, peak ne 4.3 × 1021 Constricted current arcs, the electron flux is determined by diffusion
5 50 µm 8.5 3.8 × 1021 Constricted (primarily) with an additional drift in the case of a positive
60 2.5 mm, column 11.2 2 × 1022 Diffuse potential drop.
60 50 µm 9 8.5 × 1021 Diffuse (2) The anode fall in the low current arcs is always positive due
120 2.5 mm, column 13.5 4.7 × 1022 Diffuse
120 50 µm 12.4 1.8 × 1022 Diffuse to an increase in the electric field in a constriction region.
100 1.8 mm, ne peak 14.4 6.2 × 1022 Constricted The sheath voltage drop seems to be always negative,
100 50 µm 14.4 3.9 × 1022 Constricted but the magnitude is smaller than the initial increase in
100 50 µm 10.8 1.5–3.3 × 1022 Diffuse the potential. In high intensity arcs, the reported anode
fall values are inconsistent in part because the reference
point at the column end is usually not known. This is
(3) For a constricted attachment there is only a small or even particularly true for negative falls where the potential
no temperature drop between the peak temperature and the gradient shows a monotonic decrease going from the
value at 50 µm for high intensity arcs. The temperature column towards the anode. Considering an electric field
values for high current arcs (100 versus 1 A) are only about in the arc column of 5–10 V cm−1 , this could add an
25% higher, whereas the electron density values at 50 µm uncertainty of 0.5–1 V to the reported data.
from the anode are almost an order of magnitude higher (3) There are some minor differences in the treatment of the
than those in front of low current arc anodes. energy fluxes. The heavy particle energy transfer to the
(4) For a constricted attachment there is a significant electron anode is described in separate terms for the ions and for
density peak between the column and the anode for the the neutrals in the treatment by Mentel and co-workers
high intensity arc. Such an electron density peak in the [96, 109], and the electron conduction term is neglected.
boundary layer is also seen for currents in the 1.5–5 A The power dissipation in the boundary layer is given for
range with hot anodes; however, for the 1 A arc the the low current arc as the product of arc current and
electron densities increase monotonically to the position the potential difference between the column end and the
of 50 µm. anode, and is always positive. For the diffuse attachment
There are also similarities in the current density and power in the high intensity arcs with a monotonically decreasing
flux data. Average current densities for low current arcs potential gradient, this dissipation term can be negative
are between 60 and 130 A cm−2 for currents between 1 and because there is strong convective energy transport into
5 A, compared with current density values between 100 and the boundary layer.
200 A cm−2 for diffuse attachments with currents between 100 The electron condensation term I a is found to be the strongest
and 200 A. It should be noted that these low current arcs contributor to the heat flux in high intensity and low current
are called constricted even though their current densities are arcs. The work function a and with it the heating of the anode
comparable to those of diffuse high intensity arcs because may be reduced by a monolayer of special emitter material,
the power dissipation in the anode boundary layer is largely e.g. of alkali metals. An example is the reduced heating of
transported to the arc column and away from the anode. This the tungsten anode in a high pressure sodium lamp [109]. But
energy transfer is mainly due to convection which results no difference has been found in the heating of anodes made of
from magnetic forces produced according to Maecker by pure and thoriated tungsten in carefully controlled experiments
the increase in current density towards the anode. But in the model lamp [96, 109]. One could hypothesize that
the constricted attachment for high current arcs has current only a small part of the anode surface is covered with a
densities exceeding 500 A cm−2 . Values of several kA cm−2 thorium monolayer so that the average work function remains
are possible for currents of 100–300 A. These values typically rather unchanged. Of interest should be to note that different
lead to anode material evaporation and therefore cannot be materials do have an effect on the plasma in front of the anode
used for a valid comparison. for high intensity arcs as shown by Gleizes et al [33].
The power flux densities are about 1 kW cm−2 for a 3 A Finally, it needs to be emphasized that the self-magnetic
arc, and about 1.5 kW cm−2 in the case of a diffuse attachment pressure increases with the product of current and current
of a 100 A arc, with the total power transferred to the anode density, and fluid dynamic effects induced by magnetic
being 18 W for the 3 A arc and 1500 W for the 100 A arc. There pressure gradients are much stronger with high intensity
are few if any power density measurements for constricted arcs. The consequence is that the transition to a constricted
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
attachment mode and the formation of an anode jet appears as the authors also acknowledges the Alexander v Humboldt
an instability, i.e. as an abrupt transition in the case of high Foundation for granting the Senior Scientist Award during
intensity arcs. which this survey was initiated.
The authors acknowledge the permission to reproduce
7. Conclusions some figures from the following copy right holders: Institute
of Physics, figures 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 27, 28 and
The arc anode attachment of high intensity arcs is strongly 33; American Institute of Physics, figures 3, 4, 5 and 9; IEEE,
affected by the fluid dynamics of the arcing arrangement. figures 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41; ASM International,
Current and heat flux densities can change by more than a figure 13: Université de Rennes, France, figure 31; Université
factor of four for almost identical conditions if the attachment de Orleans, France, figure 16; Dr E Leveroni-Calvi,
changes from a diffuse to a constricted one. While results figures 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26; Dr J Menard, figures 29
of electron temperature and density measurements are in and 30.
general in agreement in different studies, results of anode fall
measurements differ quite widely. One of the major reasons
is the difficulty of defining a reference point from which to References
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J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review
[20] Cappelli M A 1993 The nonequilibrium region of an electrode [41] Gonzalez J J, Freton P and Gleizes A 2002 Comparisons
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