The Published Articles of Ernest E. Larkin, O.Carm.

“Scriptural–Theological Aspects of Religious

Life” — Conference Address

Scriptural–Theological Aspects of Religious Life

This is the text of the address given to the Conference of Major Superiors of Religious
Men held at Mundelein, Illinois on June 26, 1968.

The task of this annual meeting of the Our sources are the documents of
Conference of Major Superiors of Men is to Vatican II and contemporary exegesis and
sit in judgment on American religious life. It theology. Theological reflection has moved
is the sober duty of all religious, especially beyond the documents, but it must be rooted
superiors to face the challenges raised by in them, and especially in the world-vision
Vatican II and contemporary religious that made Vatican II necessary in the first
thinking, in order to supply answers, not only place, a world- view that was spelled out in
for the hope that is in them for the future of The Church in the Modern World.
religious life, but for the resolution of the It would take us too far afield to
present critical problems regarding this develop in detail the anthropology that is the
vocation in the Church. background for Vatican II and post-Vatican II
Vatican II has opened the windows, thinking. The burgeoning knowledge-
and gusty winds have blown the dust from explosion in every sector of human learning,
some precious but forgotten truths about both ecclesiastical and secular, from biblical
religious life; at the same time the commotion criticism to cybernetics, has given
has stirred up, in the recent words of Pope contemporary man new perspectives on
Paul VI, “a whirlwind of ideas, of facts … not himself, on society, and on the Christian
in keeping with the good spirit” of the reality itself. We mention only one aspect that
Council. (Cited in The Advocate, May 2, has particular relevance for this paper, the fact
1968). The questioning of unquestioned of Christian secularity.
positions on religious theory and practice is Christian secularity in this context
thus demanded not only by the call to renewal, means that we take the world seriously, as
which is a return to the sources (Perfectae intrinsically valuable, that we recognize
caritatis, 2), but by the welter of ideas put human values as inextricably tied in with the
forward today in the name of Vatican II. divine life of grace, that we refuse to live in a
The present paper is to present the two-story universe, in which religious live in
scriptural-theological dimensions of religious the supernatural upstairs and venture
life with a view to facing these bold and downstairs, into the world of nature and the
unprecedented questions. Its purpose is to secular city, the world of human beings and
supply a theological framework in which to society, only because they need this lower
discuss the evangelical counsels, community, story to exist or because they must bring their
and contemporary Christian and human values other-worldly message into this foreign
sought for in religious life today, values such territory. Our whole lives are identified with
as authentic vocation, personal fulfillment, the Christ through Baptism. Whatever is human
dignity of the person, freedom in obedience, is part of the Christian fact, so that, as Pope
mission and witness, viable prayer and Paul VI wrote in The Development of Peoples,
meaningful self-denial. These terms are a man’s self- fulfillment and his contributions
c1ichés in current religious literature, but they to the progress of humanity are as much his
are battle cries, especially for younger obligation as the salvation of his soul (nn.
religious. 14—21). Christians are called to transform

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the world in expectation of a divine becomes apparent how necessary it is to

transformation. While we believe that spiritual review from a theological point of view the
fulfillment and “the new heavens and the new very foundations of religious life in order to
earth” are gifts from above that transcend evaluate the changes in religious theory and
psychological fulfillment or perfect social practice that are occurring.
order, the coming of the Kingdom of God on
earth, now and in the future, depends on Religious Life in General
honest-to-God human efforts to work on According to one recent writer the task
ourselves and our world. We live in hope, in
of rethinking religious life in postconciliar
expectation of the God to come in Christ, but terms is almost impossible (J. Mahoney in
not by sitting idly by. Fuga mundi gives way
National Catholic Reporter, March 6, 1968).
to involvement.
Religious life, he says, is Gnostic and
But religious do flee the world in a Jansenistic in its opposition to the world so
sense, since they “renounce the world.” (Pc 5)
that it is poisoned in its roots. As an “esoteric
Does this place them in contradiction to the sub-culture” with its “Stoic discipline” and
this-worldly, incarnational approach of
“unearthly spirituality,” it is a countersign and
Christian secularity? Not if Vatican II and
parody of Christian baptism. This is a harsh
subsequent papal encyclicals are meant for judgment; but one that serves to remind us
them! The very concept of Christian
that religious life must be above all Christian
perfection has moved from an almost life, rooted in Christ, the Gospels, and the
unilateral emphasis on the eschatological and
Church.
transcendent aspects of Christian life into the
If one distinguishes renewal and
perspectives of person, community, and social adaptation and identifies renewal as
consciousness. Pre-Vatican II thinking saw
revitalization of the substance, whereas
the religious vocation less in terms of adaptation is adjusting forms and structures,
becoming a person, creating community, and
the primary task before us is renewal. It is a
being involved in the great social issues than
new realization of the radical Christian
in personal detachment and a supernatural dimensions of religious life. Religious life is
charity nourished by spiritual exercises and
“a following of Christ” (Pc 2a), 1 “a sharing in
the observances of the cloister. The emphasis the life of the Church” (Pc 2c), a life in the
has shifted now to these new values which
Spirit (Pc 2e). The principal agent of renewal
bring in the role of terrestrial values. Life is
is the Holy Spirit who calls religious to return
seen as a building of a universe in which the to Christ in faith and personal decision.
individual and society are the agents. A man
Existing structures stand under judgment.
constructs his life through his multiple They must be rethought and, as necessary,
relationships with his fellows, through being–
revamped in terms of authentic Gospel
with–others, through his history.
spirituality and the concrete realities of our
Simplistically and often in exaggerated day (Pc 2d). What is obsolete, that is,
reaction, sweeping changes are urged in the
irrelevant (Pc 20; Es 17), 2 is to be expunged;
name of this new philosophy: silence must what is valid is to be revivified; and viable
cede the place of honor to dialogue, solitude to
new ways of implementing the ideal are to be
community, prayer to a peace march or
created. Religious life is baptismal life;
poverty program, spiritual love to human otherwise it is a thief who “enters not by the
affection, blind obedience to collegiality,
door into the sheepfold but climbs up another
poverty to having the most efficient way” (Jn 10:1).
equipment for the work we do. It thus

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Life” — Conference Address

Religious life is a “special” way of well known, eschewed odious comparisons

Christian life (Lg 44;3 Pc 1), because it is the between one state and another and underlined
way of the evangelical counsels the universal call to holiness in all the
institutionalized in the Church. The baptized. It refused to speak of states of
evangelical counsels, which are “manifold” perfection and took the personalist approach
(Lg 42) and meant for all Christians, are to different vocations in the Church by
reduced in this case to the three values of stressing the uniqueness of each call and the
chastity, poverty, and obedience. These complementarity of all vocations. The mind
counsels can be lived independently of of the Council is summed up in the dictum:
religious life (Lg 42) or concretized in an “Your vocation is the best, indeed the only
approved institute in the Church (Lg 43). In one, for you.” It might have cited the words
the latter case they identify the religious life. of O. W. Holmes: “Every calling is great
The documents stress the theological when greatly pursued.” In summary, we can
significance of the counsels, their relation to maintain, it seems to me, that a religious call
charity, hope, and faith. The legal bonds in is objectively a higher grace than the married
the form of vows, oaths, or promises express vocation, but in the teaching of the Council
the dedication to the ethical values in an one’s state or way of life is as good as it is
approved institute and are necessary as human lived.
instruments for the stability and permanency Why then does a Christian choose the
of this state, even as they promote the more religious life? It is an “outstanding gift of
basic value of “freedom strengthened by grace” (Pc 12), a charism; and ultimately the
obedience” (Lg 43). The vows are servants of conviction that one has been offered this grace
faith, hope, and charity; hence they are open is the only valid reason for entering religion.
to revision, that is, dispensation, when the But the judgment is made on the basis of self-
religious state, which is permanent, becomes a knowledge whereby the candidate believes
hindrance rather than a help to faith, hope, and that in view of his limitations and potential
charity. The evangelical counsels and the this way of life offers him the best
theological virtues, in other words, are the possibilities for his human and transcendent
operative principles of religious existence, in self- fulfillment (see Development of Peoples,
the mind of the Council. The history of the n. 16). Given the appropriate emotional
text of Perfectae caritatis illustrates the shift maturity presupposed for any life-choice,
in emphasis from law to spirit in the conciliar whereby the individual recognizes the values
thinking about religious life. in each option and is free enough to choose
Is religious life a superior way of either one, human or psychological factors
Christian life? Chapter VI of Lumen gentium enter the decision in favor of religious life as
and the decree Perfectae caritatis imply a for marriage. The religious answers a call, but
higher excellence when they refer to the one heard in the depths of his own human
“special” nature of this life (Lg 44; Pc 1), aspirations. He does his “thing” as laymen do
when they use comparatives in stating that their own, and together they express different
religious are “more intimately consecrated” to dimensions of human existence as well as
Christ and enjoy a union with the Church by different aspects of the whole gospel.
“firmer and steadier bonds” (Lg 44), and when Religious life, in other words, is a human
they emphasize the “unique” eschatological value as well as an otherworldly one. It is
sign value of the religious state (Lg 44; Pc 1). important today to see religious life under this
All of these citations, however, refer to grace double aspect. Otherwise it may not appear as
offered, not to grace lived. The Council, as is worth the burden to contemporary Christians,

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Life” — Conference Address

who deeply sense Karl Rahner’s definition of virginal, waiting with a certain freedom and
man as “that being who must necessarily detachment as “this world as we see it passes
realize himself in love in order to correspond away” (v. 31). The advice is ad hoc and
to his own being” (The Word in History, ed. T. pragmatic, in view of “the present distress” (v.
Patrick Burke, New York: Sheed and Ward, 26). Even the general principles which he
1966, p. 70). I shall try to develop these enunciates in the latter half of the passage are
values by first showing the Scriptural basis for to be interpreted in the context of an imminent
each of the evangelical counsels and then by parousia:
indicating the positive values for the person, …He who is unmarried is concerned about
the Church, and the world in these evangelical the things of the Lord, how he may please God.
counsels. Whereas he who is married is concerned about
the things of the world, how he may please his
wife; and he is divided (vv. 32-3).
Scriptural Basis In the context of the Corinthian
Consecrated chastity, or virginity “for church, there is no doubt that in Paul’s mind
the sake of the kingdom,” is a New Testament virginity is a better way. It disposes for
value explicitly taught by St. Matthew in these contemplation, for “praying to the Lord
words of the Lord: without distraction” (v. 35), much as earlier in
…Not all can accept this teaching, but those the chapter Paul allows abstinence from
to whom it is given. For there are eunuchs who intercourse by mutual consent by husband and
were born so from their mothers’ womb; and wife in order that they may give themselves to
there are eunuchs who were made so by men; prayer (v. 5). Is Paul also teaching as a
and there are eunuchs who have made
universal principle that virginity practically
themselves so for the sake of the kingdom of
heaven. Let him accept who can (Mt 19:11-2). speaking is a better way for the Christian than
Both the source and the goal of the marriage? Exegetes generally seem to have
charism of evangelical virginity are taught in thought so, but some recent commentators
this passage. Neither physical impotency nor restrict the teaching to the extremely
psychological ineptitude nor social pressure eschatological perspective of the Corinthian
grounds the choice of virginity over marriage problem. In this reading Paul is not explicitly
for a follower of Christ. Virginity “for the asserting a universal superiority for virginity.
sake of the kingdom” is a gift freely accepted, But there is no doubt in Paul’s mind of the
not out of timidity or selfish bachelorhood, but particular merits of virginity for the
precisely “for the sake of the basileia.” It is cultivation of what we call today the vertical
ordered to charity. This is its positive content: aspect of Christian life.
it frees the heart for love (Pc 12); it is a “sign The paragraph devoted to poverty in
and incentive of charity” (Lg 42). The Perfectae caritatis (n. 13) cites a number of
charism of evangelical virginity makes it texts which single out different aspects of the
possible for a Christian to love God and his Old Testament theme of the anawim, the poor
fellowmen intensely without the normative people of God. The first citation, 2
and natural support of marriage. Corinthians 8:9, holds up Jesus himself, who
A second locus classicus in the New “though he was rich, for our sakes became
Testament is St. Paul’s words in 1 Corinthians poor.” Alan Richardson writes of these
7, especially verses 25-35. Paul is addressing words: “It is Jesus himself who embodies the
himself to practical cases in the Corinthian biblical idea of ‘the poor man’ who trusts only
church. In view of a parousia that may occur in God, and herein lies the real theological
imminently, he advises the Christian converts significance of his poverty” (A Theological
to maintain their present status, married or Word Book of the Bible, ed. Alan Richardson,

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Life” — Conference Address

New York: Macmillan, 1962, p. 169). Other exercise of faith. Thus in St. Paul Abraham
texts cited reinforce the interior attitude of “believed in God” (Rm 4:3), while in Genesis
trust in God (Mt 6:26), resting one’s security Abraham “obeyed God’s voice” (Gn 22:8;
in God and not in earthly treasures (Mt 6:20), 26:5). The decree presents Christ’s example
being detached enough to share everything of love and obedience to the will of His Father
with the poor (Mt 19:21), with those in need (for example, Jn 4:34) recognized in the
(Mt 25:34-45; Jas 2:15-16), in effective acts of institutions of His own earthly existence (Hb
fraternal love (1 Jn 3:17). The interior attitude 5:8) in total service of His fellowmen (for
of trust, openness, and detachment is primary; example, Mt 20:28) as the root of religious
but it thrives best in actual poverty, in obedience. Voluntary choice of submission to
renouncing riches in favor of the poor, and a religious regime beyond the hierarchically
experiencing, therefore, the insecurity of the constituted structures of the Church is not
anawim who are thrown upon the Lord’s care taught explicitly in the New Testament.
and driven to hope in Him since they have no Religious obedience, therefore, is a
worldly prestige and influence on which to development.
rest their security. Even Matthew 19:21 Theologians have endeavored to work
cannot be invoked as a proof text for out a theory of religious obedience (for
voluntary religious poverty, since the context example, K. Rahner, Hillman, Tillar, Orsy).
indicates a universal norm of total The following reflection assimilates some of
renunciation for all Christians. Religious life this thinking. Religious institutes are
specifies that recommendation in an charismatic interventions of the Holy Spirit
institutional form, whereby persons become approved by the Church but not part of the
poor “both in fact and in spirit” (Pc 13) in hierarchical structure. The community is the
order to create the ideal disposition for bearer of the charism; hence the exercise of
centering their lives in God and giving authority and obedience in the group is
generously to their fellowmen. eminently collegial. But religious
The Scriptural basis for poverty, then, communities are not free-floating bodies
lies in the long tradition of the anawim, independent of the Church. They exist in the
celebrated in the first beatitude in both Church, and the superior is the link between
Matthew (who extols poverty of spirit) and the teaching and ruling authority in the Church
Luke (who proclaims actual poverty). While and the religious community. While religious
religious poverty is not primarily a obedience, therefore, cannot be reduced to a
socio-economic condition, it cannot be simple equation of the superior’s will and
reduced to mere lack of ownership or legal God’s will in a magical fashion, still the
(often legalistic) dependence on superiors’ superior remains the authority, the last word,
permissions. Religious poverty is an as it were, in debate and dialogue (Pc 14). In
experience of emptiness and felt need for God summary, religious obedience finds its
created by the lack of significant worldly justification in the individual members
resources. It is a visible witness to the pilgrim subordinating themselves to a community
status of the Church, but its essential spirit effort guided by the Holy Spirit in a life- form
animates rich and poor alike in the Church of service that has the guarantee of the Church
who place their resources at the service of for its evangelical validity.
men. The new ordering of the three
Obedience in the Bible is the counsels, with chastity placed in the first
equivalent of hearing, that is, responding to place, is intended to bring out the radical and
the word of God; hence for Christians it is an central role of evangelical virginity in the

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formation of a religious life. It is the charism vocation is a call to contemplation and

which sets an individual and a community apostolate addressed to all religious.
apart. Virginity implies close companionship The vows are renunciations of
with Christ, an affinity for prayer, and the recognized earthly good for the prosecution of
freedom to dedicate all one’s energies to the this double personal goal. If, however,
kingdom. Poverty is a condition for this sexuality, property, and the exercise of
positive content of chastity. Like celibacy personal judgment and decision are the raw
itself it aims to create an emptiness and material for growth into personhood, as is
disponibility so that one is free to “use the recognized today, will not the vows frustrate
world as though not using it” (1 Cor 7:31), the maturity which is presupposed for a life of
having nothing but possessing all things. prayer and action? Why then renounce these
Obedience is the way of insuring the human goods? The answer is that the vows do
ecclesiastical character of this venture. indeed presuppose a basic adult self-
Chastity forms a celibate community possession, freedom, and responsibility. This
of love in the Church. Without poverty the is why only balanc ed persons, who relate well
celibate community gives no witness; without to their peers, the opposite sex, and superiors,
obedience it lacks mission. The poverty must who have a healthy psychic as well as
be visible, and obedience must be responsible physical development, should be accepted for
search by the whole community for the Spirit. religious profession (see Pc 12). But the vows
All three counsels together, therefore, take human growth a step further to an even
structure the gift of the Spirit which is higher fulfilment. The Development of
religious life. Peoples puts the matter well:
…human fulfillment constitutes, as it were,
Values of the Evangelical Counsels a summary of our duties. But there is much
more: this harmonious enrichment of nature by
We shall consider the meaning of the personal and responsible effort is ordered to a
vows on four different levels suggested by further perfection. By reason of his union with
Cardinal Doepfner in a conciliar speech at Christ, the source of life, man attains to a new
Vatican II. These four levels are the ascetical, fulfillment, to a transcendent humanism which
give him his greatest possible perfection: this is
the ecclesial, the apostolic, and the
the highest goal of personal development (n. 16).
eschatological, all of which are designated The vows, therefore, are no mere
values in paragraph 5 of Perfectae caritatis. negations: “What are called the inhuman
imperatives of the Gospel could just as well be
Ascetical Value called pointers to unexpected possibilities”
The ascetical value, which refers to the (Concilium General Secretariat, “Stirrings in
vows as means of personal sanctification, Religious Life,” in Concilium, Renewal and
corresponds to the first principle of renewal, Reform of Canon Law, New York: Paulist
personal union with Christ (Pc 2a). The Press, 1967, p. 171). The vows apply the
ascetical significance is the key. Whatever the paradox of human life and the gospel, so that
role in the Church of a particular community, by giving we receive, by renunciation we
“the members of every community, seeking possess. Ultimately only renunciation is the
God solely and before everything else, should way to the hundredfold and to full humanity
join contemplation, by which they fix their (see Lg 46). The counsels are not defenses
minds and hearts on Him, with apostolic love, against life, protections for an individualistic
by which they strive to be associated with the “spiritual life” against one’s body and the
work of redemption and to spread the world. They are secrets of growth in an age
kingdom of God” (Pc 5). The religious that has perhaps forgotten the necessity of

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renunciation for true love. If they are lived of fraternal love. They are paradigms of the
loyally and faithfully so that the limitations of Church itself, either after the manner of the
human nature and of the finite are exposed, if Jerusalem community as in the case of
they are renewed daily in the free choices that monastic orders, or in the tradition of the
present themselves in an adult fashion, and not Pauline churches which looked outward as
by legalistic, almost unwilling conformity, with modern apostolic communities. The
they promise the Resurrection as well as the structuring of these two types of community is
cross and the fullest humanity. different, one ad intra, the other ad extra; and
Religious are criticized for immaturity, each religious institute must choose between
mediocrity, and lack of joy. Besides the the two according to its own nature and goals.
inevitable human failings the fault may lie in Too long have apostolic communities
the beginnings, in the acceptance of endeavored to live by a monastic schedule and
candidates who are too immature to make the mystique to the detriment of both professional
renunciations of the vows or in formation excellence and religious growth. In both
policies that preclude further development of monastic and apostolic communities,
the person. Communities should take a long, however, the witness value for the Church lies
hard look at the age level and psychological in visible charity that unites the members and,
condition of their candidates and the kind of in the case of apostolic communities, creates
novitiate and juniorate training that is given. community outside.
Or the fault may lie in the failure of The evangelical counsels make
communities to create the atmosphere of religious community possible, first, by
openness and trust that will allow persons to creating a need for it, and, secondly, by giving
carry out in freedom the implications of their a particular physiognomy to the celibate
vows. Liberty, not overbearing law, is the community. Celibacy needs the support of
only atmosphere in which the Christian life of living community: “Let all, especially
renunciation can thrive. superiors, remember that chastity is guarded
more securely when true brotherly love
Ecclesial Value flourishes in the common life of the
community” (Pc 12). Priestly celibacy is a
The opening paragraph in Perfectae
problem where priests have to live without
caritatis makes clear that the rule of religious
this human support. The religious house must
is a double one of being and function,
be home for its members, where individuals
consecration and apostolate, witness and
can be themselves—accepted, welcomed,
mission. These roles overlap, but they
understood—where they are treated as persons
correspond to the ecclesial and apostolic
and not functions or numbers that man the
meaning of the counsels respectively; they
machinery of a rigid horarium and
also enter the final category of this paper, the
overcommitted apostolates, where genuine
eschatological value of religious life. Our
friendships prevail, in a word, where the
division, therefore, is inadequate, but one that,
religious like to return to from their apostolic
hopefully, suits the purpose of exposition.
labors. The horarium and observances will
This call to being, to consecration, to
depend on the nature of the community work,
witness in the Church is the call to holiness,
and the primary concern will be to create an
not in a purely transcendent, vertical fashion,
atmosphere of peace and friendship. Where
much less in an individualistic way, but in
love is, God is; where two or three are
community as in the present manifestation of
gathered in His name, there is the presence of
the kingdom before the visible return of Christ
the Lord. This means among other things that
at the parousia. Religious create communities

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recreation is as important as faculty meetings Without real poverty the witness of celibacy
and cordiality as necessary as zeal. speaks to no one, because the kind of charity
The celibate community complements that is its touchstone will not be seen.
the married community, and Christian love is Renewed obedience contributes to this
at the heart of both. Celibate love manifests witness insofar as it is more responsible, more
its own constellation of the qualities of collegial in character, when “holy
Christian love: it highlights the freedom, the disobedience” need not be a contradiction in
all-embracing, non-exclusive character of terms. An autocratically oriented Church with
Christian love that gives without looking for a a strictly vertical obedience, in which the
return. Human love that leads to marriage superior has all the answers and takes sole
draws two people apart from the community responsibility for decisions, tends to keep
to form one person (one flesh, one family) people in a state of perpetual childhood and
whereas celibate love emphasizes the creates a “gimme” syndrome rather than a
otherness of the one loved. Each love has “giving” service. In adapting to democratic
something to teach the other, and both methods, obedience need not suffer; it does
participate in the same love that animates the not become majority rule or the totally
union of Christ and the Church. Each “dialogal” type condemned in the decree (n.
expresses part of the Christian mystery, 14). Authority remains, but “an active and
celibacy the freedom of the sons of God, responsible obedience” gives it balance and
marriage the identification love causes and the allows the whole community to be actively
intimacy it seeks. The consecrated virgin engaged in community service.
reserves identification for the Lord and
bestows his love on the People of God freely. Apostolic Value
Even his intimate friends do not close him off
The practical contribution of religious
from others, for he can call no one his own. institutions to the social apostolate of the
His interpersonal relationships, therefore, have
Church is evident. Without this army of low-
a phenomenology different from the
paid, dedicated workers, as Pope Pius XII
friendships that lead to or exist in marriage. remarked, the Church’s work of education and
His way demands faith in God and trust in his
service would collapse. But the external
fellowmen; but he stakes his very life on the apostolate of religious is secondary. Paul VI
principle that by giving he receives, by loving
scored “the false idea that the first place
he is loved.
should be given to the works of the external
The other vows make the witness of apostolate, the second to concern for our
celibate love a reality. Poverty in its Biblical
spiritual perfection, as though such were the
meaning must be visible. Some ways requirement of the spirit of our age and the
suggested in the documents are the sharing of
needs of the Church” (Magno gaudio, May 23,
one’s goods, one’s time, one’s love inside and
1964). The Council itself sees the apostolic
outside the community, identifying with the work for the kingdom promoted in two ways,
poor and experiencing their insecurity by
by “prayer or by active undertakings”
belonging to a religious family that is not according to the nature of a given order (Lg
obviously affluent but has to work hard and
44); and in the case of apostolic orders it
stint in order to survive. Experimentation and
inserts “charitable activity” into “the very
creative expression in new forms are needed nature of the religious life” (Pc 8).
to witness poverty, both personally and as a
The mission of religious in the Church,
community, both to our affluent society and to indeed of the whole redemptive apostolate of
the deprived and destitute peoples in our land.
the Church, lies on a deeper level than the

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pragmatic. The apostolate springs from union the institute relevant to itself and the Church.
with Christ and consists in participation in the Harmonious balance between the common life
Paschal mystery of kenosis and resurrected and apostolic involvement according to the
life as expressed by prayer and work. More institute’s identity is the desideratum. Once
concretely, the apostolate of the Church is the again renewal is more important than
same as Christ’s, to break down the middle adaptation, since ultimately both community
wall of partition (Eph 2:14), creating and apostolate are mere expressions of the one
community inside and outside the local union of charity, of death-resurrection in the
religious community itself. It is the work of Lord.
charity, of self-emptying, that allows God’s
love for mankind to filter into the lives of Eschatological Value
others through the agency of those who are
The Biblical notion of virginity,
bearers of that love. They must possess this especially clear in the New Testament,
love before they can be its instruments. To
contains a strong eschatological note. The
live and express fraternally this gift of God’s state anticipates the future messianic marriage
love means “the bearing about in our bodies of
with Christ, “that wondrous marriage decreed
the dying of Jesus in order that the life of
by God and which is to be fully revealed in
Jesus may be manifest in our bodily frame” (2 the future age in which the Church takes
Cor 4:10); in this way “death is at work in us,
Christ as its only spouse” (Pc 12). Thus
but life in [the community]" (ibid, v. 12). The religious life is a “splendid” (Pc 1) and
apostolate, in other words, is charity,
“unique” (Lg 44) sign of the heavenly
expressed in prayer or action. Far from being
kingdom.
opposed to the witness of religious life, the It is customary to equate this
apostolate is practically identified with
eschatological or transcendent quality of the
community. Community and apostolate in the religious vocation with an exclusive love of
Church are thus correlatives and mutually
Christ that avoids the distraction and
interdependent. Neither one is pure means to
competition of a divided heart (1 Cor 7:32-5).
the other. In a given institute, especially when But this is the vocation of all Christians. All
it strives to remain faithful to its particular
Christians are called to a unique love of God
“spirit and special aims” (Pc 2b) in the midst that does not allow any creature to be placed
of pressing local needs of the Church, there
on the same level as God; otherwise we have
will be tensions in the structuring and
idolatry. In the effort to cultivate this unique
implementation of the two aspects. But in love of God religious bypass one sign, that of
general the type of community life will
marriage and property and independence, and
depend on the institute’s apostolate. Apostolic assume another sign, that of physical virginity
communities will have fewer common
lived in poverty and obedience. The celibate
observances and perhaps greater flexibility in
community does highlight the eschatological
horaria, whereas monastic groups will character of Christian life, just as the married
subordinate external involvements to the
community reflects more clearly the
conventual schedule. The apostolic works as incarnational aspect. As two ways to the
well as the prayer forms and religious
kingdom, they are not as two ways of living
practices should be rigorously reviewed and
Christian love, totally exclusive of each other;
evaluated in view of the nature and goals of an they complement each other as witnesses of
institute, and courageous changes made as
the Church’s love for Christ. The hazard of
necessary. Here again a great deal of the celibate community is to lose sight of the
experimentation is called for in order to make
world and people, whereas the hazard of the

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married community is to forget the transient, index that they are living their vocation in
passing character of the historical moment and Christ.
lose sight of the Christ who is to come. Two practical questions may be raised
Religious, therefore, are dedicated to here. First, what does the eschatological
an eschatological existence as a bias and vocation contribute to the Church and the
emphasis, but not as an exclusive concern. world at large? Second, how does the
Especially in the light of incarnational eschatological emphasis affect the prayer life
theology that identifies Christ’s presence in and self-denial of religious?
the person and community, religious today are The first question is answered
not absolved from temporal concerns, from admirably in Lumen gentium. Religious are “a
making their contribution to human sign which can and ought to attract all the
development and the building of the earth. members of the Church to an effective and
They can engage in the same works as the prompt fulfillment of the duties of their
laity, such as teaching, social work, any Christian vocation” (Lg 44). Why is this
human endeavor; only their bias will be assertion made? Because religious represent
different. They come to human tasks with an the presence of Christ Himself “contemplating
eschatological eye to the future, to what is not on the mountain, announcing God’s kingdom
yet, to what will come in the final age, already to the multitude, healing the sick and the
begun, in Christ. In this sense they live in maimed … doing good to all” (Lg 46).
hope. No matter how important the classes The second question is more complex.
they teach or their social involvement, they Since prayer and self—denial are founded on
bring to their work in the world a sense of the the eschatological dimension of Christian life,
Deus semper major, of the person of Christ it is to be expected that religious life will be
who is to be revealed in the parousia. Where characterized by these acts. But both prayer
specialization is feasible, perhaps it is forms and the practices of self—denial must
desirable to leave secular tasks to the laity and become more incarnational. Prayer should
let religious concentrate on sacred functions. become the loving awareness of Christ present
But no universal law demands such a in human manifestations. Such prayer is
distribution of tasks, and the distinction may nourished above all by Sacred Scripture and
continue the unhealthy separation of sacred the liturgy, the only two sources of “the spirit
and secular. We should abandon the and practice of prayer” explicitly signaled out
dichotomies implicit in the phraseology, by Perfectae caritatis (n. 6). Thus mental
“religious first, professional second,” or prayer as confrontation with the word of God
“religious first, apostle second.” Religious are is more important than a multiplicity of
not “strangers to their fellow men or useless devotions (Es, n. 21). For religious as for the
citizens of the earthly city” (Lg 46). On the whole people of God the liturgy weds the
contrary they embrace the world in its truth human and divine and is the summit and
and reality. They see it as inchoate glory, as source of Christian life (Constitution on the
the kingdom of God in embryo, and yet as “no Liturgy, n. 2, n. 10). Self-denial too will take
lasting city,” as a moment in an evolutionary on a more human dimension. The cross is
process, and as less than the ultimate Good one’s daily life, and it is present wherever
that is Christ reappearing and handing the Christians endeavor to be an Easter people.
kingdom over to His Father. In a word they The self-denial of religious, therefore, will be
live in hope, and this hope is the secret of the the self-renunciations inherent in being all
joy that must be their witness if it is to be true. things to all men, in fostering community, in
For them as for the married joy is the surest giving generously in the apostolate. As a

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disposition for this life a discipline, an ascesis background the practical questions about
is necessary. Today this discipline would religious life today can be raised and
better consist in the cultivation of the discussed. The basic question which must
openness, understanding, welcome, and guide this inquiry is this: In the welter of
patience that are the necessary framework in change and conflicting ideas, where is the
which charity can operate rather than in the Holy Spirit speaking? To what is He calling
corporal penances and often meaningless American religious at this time? The paper
gestures of some religious rules. offers some guidelines in which to pursue this
question, but only in honest and prayerful
Conclusion dialogue can we ask the right practical
questions and move in the direction of the
We have tried to set down the broad
Holy Spirit’s answers.
theological principles of religious life. On this

1
Pc throughout this article refers to Vatican II’s Perfectae caritatis (Decree on Religious Life).
2
Es throughout this article refers to Paul VI’s Ecclesiae sanctae.
3
Lg throughout this article refers to Vatican II’s Lumen gentium (Constitution on the Church).

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