SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Satellite Services: Packet satellite networks and services, fixed

satellite services, broadcast satellite services, mobile satellite
UNIT-V services- VSAT, global positioning satellite system, maritime
satellite services, gateways, ATM over satellite, role of satellite
in future network.

5.1 Packet Satellite Networks:

Introduction:

The Internet revolution of several years ago had dramatic effects on the
telecommunications industry. Massive investments in the development of IP based equipment for
mainstream requirements resulted in the ability for a single IP transmission network to carry
multiple services. A second effect was a tremendous build out of the worldwide transmission
network (including satellites), resulting in “limitless” bandwidth availability at low costs. A
primary outcome of this has been that both legacy services (e.g., telephone) and new ones (e.g.,
broadband) can now be supported on a single transmission network and offered at low costs. A
secondary effect of this revolution has been that a host of new tools are now available to create
solutions to solve the classic rural communications problem and provide equivalent services to
the previously “disadvantaged” subscribers of the world.

5.1.1 Network Requirement:

It is cost prohibitive to provide standalone transport for different telecom services. By
adapting all services to a single format (i.e., IP) a common transport system which combines all
the traffic can be created. In smaller markets this sharing of resources can have a significant
effect on reducing network operations costs and thus the viability of the operator. The
expectation of the services that a network is to provide today is far greater than in the past. As a
case in point, the example of a network provided to the Kingdom of Tonga is given. The network
requirement was to provide GSM mobile telephony, digital television, and wireless broadband IP
data services via a common IP network to several island groups within the kingdom. Due to the

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distance between the islands and the size of the market, a satellite-based solution was the only
viable approach, and a traditional cellular network architecture would not be cost effective. A
conceptual diagram of this network is given in Figure 1. The solution was to provide a network
architecture based on the integration of multiple technologies consisting of
• A distributed packet-based GSM network
• An IP-based satellite network including bandwidth on demand (BOD) capabilities
• A terrestrial digital television distribution network
• A broadband point-to-multipoint (PMP) wireless data distribution system
• A complete remotely managed network operations, administration, maintenance and
provisioning (OAM&P) capability
5.1.2 Technologies & Protocols
As each network technology has its own protocols, the integration of multiple
technologies to create an end service to the subscriber (e.g., the GSM phone service) results in
the concatenation of multiple protocols. Particular attention must be paid to this concatenation if
the network and its services are to be successful. This concept is further developed below in
order to illustrate the resultant GSM solution.
5.1.3 Internet Protocol
Mass interest in the Internet has created enormous investments in routing equipment and
a continuous drive to provide all telecommunications services over the Internet. The result of this
is to be powerful, inexpensive, and flexible equipment, along with adaptations of the protocol
itself to handle all services efficiently. However, although IP is often thought of as the common
method upon which all services coexist, it must be realized that it is a collection of multiple
protocols for multiple services sharing a common transport platform (a.k.a. the IP “cloud”). As a
result, one protocol or service will affect another, and care must be given to the interactions and
tradeoffs between these services if an acceptable quality of service (QOS) is to be maintained
throughout the network. A better description is that all communication services are encapsulated
in an IP format. This IP format allows the use of standard open protocol equipment to create
service offerings, and enables the sharing of the cloud by all the IP conditioned services. If well
engineered, the advantages of sharing the IP cloud significantly outweigh any inefficiency
associated with conditioning the service to carry in IP format (i.e., the IP packet overheads).
5.1.4 Mesh Connectivity

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 In general communications are most efficient when mesh connectivity exists (i.e., where
there is a direct connection between the source and destination). IP connections have an inherent
mesh quality in that the network will typically route the packet to its destination via the shortest
route. In addition, IP communication has inherent Bandwidth-On-Demand (BOD) and
prioritization functions allowing the sharing of bandwidth between the various services and
network nodes while still providing quality of service mechanisms. With the network services in
an IP format, this mesh advantage can be utilized to minimize the amount of required bandwidth
for the network, which is a significant recurring operations cost. This advantage is taken a step
further in the satellite network. Through the proper use of geostationary satellite technologies
incorporating BOD techniques, an additional level of efficiency is achieved in maximizing the
utilization of the satellite bandwidth. Furthermore, it should be realized that the IP network cloud
encompasses the complete satellite coverage footprint, allowing the sharing of the satellite
resource and network services across a large geographic area on a distance insensitive basis.
5.1.5 Soft switches
Some of the latest developments in telephony are centered on software-based switches
(“softswitches”). These switches do not require physical connection between the control element
of the switch and the physical hardware that switches the communication circuits. IP based
softswitches are also now available along with IP versions of other network elements, and are an
excellent candidate to address distributed switching requirements. The remainder of this
document concerns itself with the application of an IP based GSM softswitch over a satellite IP
cloud. However it is noted that the discussions contained herein can largely be applied to CDMA
based cellular networks as well.
IP GSM Soft switch Network
Network Architecture
A general network block diagram of the system architecture is shown in Figure 2. The
diagram depicts the system components which constitute a solution to provide GSM cellular
telephone service to select areas via satellite. A single centralized Network Switching Subsystem
(NSS) and Operational Support Subsystem (OSS) is deployed. This NSS/OSS connects to any
number of Radio Access Networks (RANs) via IP satellite connections. Each RAN consists of
the necessary equipment (e.g. base stations) to provide mobile phone service in the local region.
The RAN can also provide the interface to other local wireline or wireless networks that may be

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present. Some of the features and benefits resulting from the use of this technology are
summarized.
• IP Format – GSM communications are carried in an IP format. This IP format allows the use
of standard open protocol equipment to create service offerings, and enables sharing of the
common transmission backbone with other IP based services, such as Internet access.
Furthermore the fully meshed nature of an IP network allows for single hop communication
between network nodes (i.e., traffic is automatically routed to its destination via the shortest
route).
• Distributed Architecture – The resultant effect of an IP-based softswitch is that GSM network
elements can be located anywhere within the IP “cloud,” that is, they can be put where they best
suit the requirements of the network. In other words, the traditional MSC/BSC architecture of
legacy GSM networks is no longer a requirement. This means, for example, that an MSC can be
located in one place, such as at a remote secure service provider facility, and the BSC/BTS
infrastructure is only deployed as and where needed. Furthermore, call processing is distributed
and intelligent. In a satellite example this allows local calls to connect locally (voice path
requires no satellite bandwidth), and a mesh satellite network allows all long distance (over
satellite) calls to be single hop.
• Network Expansion – An IP based soft switch makes service available anywhere within the IP
network. New remote service areas can be easily added to the network regardless of location via
satellite technology, and network expansion costs are incremental (i.e., a new service area does
not require a new switch).
• Network Operations – Network operations can be simplified and reduced since the amount of
remote infrastructure to be deployed is minimized, and key network infrastructure (e.g., MSC,
billing, and other support functions) can be centrally located and leveraged to manage many
remote areas.
• 3G Ready – This solution is packet based and offers a clear path for 3rd Generation (3G)
networks and services. The key aspect of this solution is its highly distributed architecture. The
use of a packet based GSM switch allows for all the elements of the GSM network to
interconnect.
5.2 SATELLITE SERVICES

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 A communications satellite or comsat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the purpose
of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including
geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits.

For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay
technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile
applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for
TV and radio broadcasting.

Satellite Types

Commercial satellite communications services are grouped into three general categories:

Figure 5.1 Satellite types

 Fixed Satellite Services (FSS), which use ground equipment at set locations to receive
and transmit satellite signals. FSS satellites support the majority of our domestic and
international services, from international Internet connectivity to private business
networks.
 Mobile satellite services (MSS), which use a variety of transportable receiver and
transmitter equipment to provide communication services for land mobile, maritime and
aeronautical customers

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  Broadcast satellite services (BSS), which offer high transmission power for reception
using very small ground equipment. BSS is best known for direct-to-consumer television
and broadband applications such as DIRECTV.

5.2.1 Fixed satellite service

Fixed satellite service (FSS) is the official classification (used chiefly in North America)
for geostationary communications satellites that provide broadcast feeds to television stations,
radio stations and broadcast networks. FSSs also transmit information for telephony,
telecommunications, and data communications. FSSs have been used for Direct-To-Home
(DTH) satellite television channels in North America since the late 1970s. This role has been
largely supplanted by direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television systems, which began in 1994
with the launch of Primstar, the first DBS television system. FSSs in North America are used to
relay channels of cable TV networks from their originating studios to local cable headends and to
the operations centers of DBS services (such as DirecTV and Dish Network), to be re-broadcast
over their DBS systems.

FSSs were the first geosynchronous communications satellites (such as Intelsat 1 (Early
Bird), Syncom 3, Anik 1, Westar 1, Satcom 1 and Ekran); new satellites continue to be launched
to this day. FSSs operate in either the C band (from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz) or the FSS Ku bands (from
11.45 to 11.7 and 12.5 to 12.75 GHz in Europe, and 11.7 to 12.2 GHz in North America). The
higher-frequency bands tend to have more spectrum and orbital slots available, but more
expensive technology and higher rain margin.

FSSs operate at lower power than DBSs, requiring a much larger receiving dish than a
DBS system, usually 3 to 8 feet (0.91 to 2.44 m) for Ku band, and 12 feet (3.7 m) or larger for C
band, compared to 18 to 24 inches (460 to 610 mm) for DBS dishes. Unlike DBSs, which use
circular polarization on their transponders, FSS transponders use linear polarization. Systems
that receive television channels and other feeds from FSSs are usually referred to as TVRO
(Television Receive Only) systems, or pejoratively "big ugly dish" (BUD) systems (due to the
much larger dish size compared to systems for DBS reception). The Canadian Shaw Direct
satellite TV service relies on FSS technology in the K u band. Primestar in the USA used Ku

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transponders on an FSS for its delivery to subscribing households until Primestar was acquired
by DirecTV in 1999.

5.2.2 Direct-broadcast satellite

Direct-broadcast satellite (DBS) is a type of artificial satellite which usually sends satellite
television signals for home reception. The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast
satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV) or direct-to-home television
(DTHTV). This has initially distinguished the transmissions directly intended for home viewers
from cable television distribution services that are sometimes carried on the same satellite. The
term DTH predates DBS and is often used in reference to services carried by lower power
satellites which required larger dishes (1.7 m diameter or greater) for reception.

In Europe, prior to the launch of Astra 1A in 1988, the term DBS was commonly used to
describe the nationally commissioned satellites planned and launched to provide television
broadcasts to the home within several European countries (such as BSB in the United Kingdom
and TV-Sat in Germany). These services were to use the D-Mac and D2-Mac format and BSS
frequencies with circular polarization from orbital positions allocated to each country. Before
these DBS satellites, home satellite television in Europe was limited to a few channels, really
intended for cable distribution, and requiring dishes typically of 1.2m.

SES launched the Astra 1A satellite to provide services to homes across Europe receivable on
dishes of just 60-80 cm and, although these mostly used PAL video format and FSS frequencies
with linear polarization, the DBS name slowly came to applied to all Astra satellites and services
too. As a technical matter, DBS (also known by the International Telecommunication Union as
Broadcasting Satellite Service, or BSS) refers only to services transmitted by satellite in specific
frequency bands: 11.7-12.2 GHz in ITU Region 3 (Asia and Australia), 10.7 - 12.75 GHz in ITU
Region 1 (Europe, Russia and Africa), and 12.2-12.7 GHz ITU Region 2 (North and South
America).[3] In 1977, the ITU adopted an international BSS Plan under which each country was
allocated specific frequencies at specific orbital locations for domestic service. Over the years,
this plan has been modified to, for example, accommodate new countries, increase coverage
areas, and reflect digital (rather than analog) technology. At present, numerous countries have
brought into use their BSS Plan allocations.
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By contrast, DTH can apply to similar services transmitted over a wider range of frequencies
(including standard Ku band and Ka band) transmitted from satellites that are not part of any
internationally planned band. Nonetheless, the term DBS is often used interchangeably with
DTH to cover both analog and digital video and audio services (including video-on-demand and
interactive features) received by relatively small dishes (less than 1 meter). A "DBS service"
usually refers to either a commercial service or a group of free channels available from one
orbital position targeting one country. In certain regions of the world, especially in North
America, DBS is used to refer to providers of subscription satellite packages, and has become
applied to the entire equipment chain involved.

5.2.3 Mobile Satellite Service (MSS)

Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) is the term used to describe telecommunication services
delivered via satellite to or from mobile users. MSS extends mobile communications beyond the
range constraints of terrestrial based wireless systems and allows mobile-to-fixed and mobile-to
mobile voice and data communications worldwide. Until recently, the limited availability, cost
and complexity limited use of MSS by the public. As a result, MSS has been employed primarily
for unique communication applications and for serving niche markets. For example, MSS can be
used in remote areas where wired networks do not exist or to serve public safety needs where
terrestrial lines and portable radios are unavailable or ineffective during emergency situations.
Technology advances in satellite and antenna designs have overcome many of the limitations
associated with providing satellite access to a mobile user. More sophisticated and powerful
satellites and smaller, more user friendly terminals make mobile voice and data services
available at very reasonable costs. MSS is expected to fill the gaps in wireless voice telephony
and complement existing terrestrial wireless or public switched network (PSN) services, while
others will compete directly with existing terrestrial services. MSS services will include voice,
low-speed data, fax, paging, highspeed data, and broadcast and video on demand; specific
services may vary among MSS providers.

Working principle
MSS systems are configured in global or national networks called satellite constellations.
They have numerous Earth stations responsible to control and monitor the health and status of
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the satellites and to provide overall network management. Each satellite in the constellation
provides coverage to a geographic area on the Earth called a footprint. Together, the entire
satellite constellations provide satellite footprints that provide either global or national coverage,
depending on the specific MSS system design. Most communication satellites are little more than
groups of active microwave repeaters located in the sky. Each repeater is known as a
transponder. Each satellite has multiple transponders (usually between 20 to 50). A satellite
receives signals from an Earth transmitter, amplifies them, translates them to another frequency,
and then retransmits the signals back to an MSS gateway or subscriber terminal. Signal
amplification is required at the satellite and the receiving gateway because signal degradation
and strength loss occur when signals travel long distances through the atmosphere. Once the
signal reaches Earth, MSS systems offer connectivity and interoperability with the PSN and
cellular/PCS networks via satellite gateways. Three segments comprise a satellite system: the
space segment, the user segment, and the control segment.

User Segment
The user segment consists of the terminal equipment that transmits and receives signals
to and from the satellite. MSS user terminals can range in size from a hand-held, telephone
terminal resembling a cellular telephone, to a suitcase-sized terminal, to a vehicular mounted
terminal, with many variations in between. The size of the terminal is dictated primarily by the
technical capabilities of the terminal and the radio frequency (RF) power output.
Control segment
The control segment is responsible for operating the satellite and providing overall
network management. It ensures that the satellite is maintained in the proper orbit, assigns
transponders, adjusts power levels, allocates bandwidth, steers antennas, etc. Space Segment The
space segment is composed of the satellite platform (the frame of the satellite) and the satellite
payload (the operational service-providing equipment). The payload provides communications
capabilities to the users.

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 Figure 5.2 Basic MSS system
Types of Network MSS Architectures:

Traditionally, commercial service satellites have used only one type of architecture to
transmit and receive signals, the bent pipe architecture. Using this architecture, a satellite
receives a signal, amplifies it, and sends the signal back. No call processing occurs within the
satellite. Bent pipe systems require that the user and the gateway be in the same satellite
footprint. The two types of satellite architectures are illustrated in Figure 5.3.

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 Figure 5.3 Bent pipe Vs. Internetworked satellite architectures
MSS Systems Categorization:
MSS systems can be categorized by their orbital altitude: geostationary orbit (GEO), medium
earth orbit (MEO), and low earth orbit (LEO).

MSS systems currently offering mobile services include International Maritime Satellite
(INMARSAT) and American Mobile Satellite System (AMSC), both of which are GEO systems.
International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) Organization INMARSAT is an internationally
owned cooperative (79 member countries) established in 1979 to serve the maritime community.
INMARSAT has evolved to become a provider of global mobile satellite communications for
use at sea, in the air, and on land. Each member government designates an in-country
telecommunications entity, or signatory, to invest in the organization. Comsat Corporation is the
U.S. signatory and the largest in terms of ownership. Land mobile communications conducted
solely within the United States are no longer allowed by INMARSAT, because a domestic
alternative, AMSC, now has an exclusive license. From outside the United States, INMARSAT
terminal users can place direct-dial telephone calls and send faxes, electronic mail, and digital
data via INMARSAT’s five operational GEO satellites. All communications are accomplished
by the user’s terminal transmitting up to the satellite and then down to a gateway, into the
appropriate local or international phone system or to another terminal. Terminals can be adapted
for vehicular mounting using dynamically driven antenna systems that can track a satellite
regardless of vehicle movement.

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Limitations of MSS:
Although MSS systems will offer capabilities not available from current services, they do have
some limitations:
Availability— While the new generation of MSS systems are expected to offer a wide range of
services applicable to public safety users, they are not expected to be fully operational until the
year 2000 or later.
Line-of-Sight Requirement— Satellite systems are susceptible to shadowing. This requires
the user to maintain line-of-sight with the satellite for quality communications to occur.
Lack of Interoperability Between MSS Systems— It is highly unlikely that MSS providers
will establish direct interoperability with each other’s systems. Each MSS provider can use
different protocols, technology, and frequencies. Users that require access to multiple MSS
providers will be required to obtain a terminal for each MSS service or use the PSN for
interconnection.
Emerging Technology— With the exception of INMARSAT and AMSC, MSS systems are
still in the initial deployment stage. In fact, only a handful of MSS companies have satellites in
orbit. Until MSS systems become fully operational, their actual capabilities are unclear.

5.3 VSAT
Introduction :
VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal and refers to receive/transmit terminals installed
at dispersed sites connecting to a central hub via satellite using small diameter antenna dishes
(0.6 to 3.8 meter). Traditionally, the satellite is a radio relay station that receives, amplifies and
redirects analog and digital signals contained within a carrier frequency. These signals contain
data, voice, and video communications. VSAT systems can be configured for bi-directional or
receive-only operation. In bi-directional operation, the dish both sends (uplinks) and receives
(downlinks) the information for use in LANs. VSATs are used for a wide variety of
telecommunications applications such as Corporate networks, Rural Telecom, Distance
Learning, Telemedicine, Disaster Recovery, Ship - Board communications (communication on
large ships), etc.

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VSATs have become increasingly popular, because they are a flexible communication platform
that can be installed quickly & cost effectively to provide telecom solutions to consumers,
governments & corporations. VSATs have a wide range of users starting from large corporates
with large value chains having a wide geographical spread to smaller organizations which have
office in different locations, the defense establishments, stock exchanges, manufacturing &
FMCG companies are the typical users of VSAT's.
5.3.1 Components of VSAT system:
5.3.1.1Antenna:
The antenna is responsible for transmitting, the amplified signal from the power amplifier to the
satellite and also receiving the signal from the satellite in conjunction with the low noise
amplifier. The Antenna is parabolic in size.

Figure 5.4 Antenna

Antennas are the passive equipment, which serve the purpose of directing a transmission
to a specific satellite as well as receiving the relevant transmission from the same. The Antenna
systems also provide the mechanical support for mounting the RF units as well as the rest of the
VSAT equipment configured for outdoor mounting. Antennae are specified for the frequency
band of operation, directional gain, aperture efficiency levels and the accuracy of orientation in
the specific frequency. The antenna sizing for VSATs is one key aspect of Link design. The
sizing depends on Frequency of operation: Antenna size varies in inverse proportion to the

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frequency of operation for a given set of specifications like directional gain. A C/Ext C band
antenna with the same features shall be larger than a Ku band antenna.
Feed horn is a part of Antenna. It plays a vital role in a VSAT system. It receives signal
from the Satellite reflected to Antenna and fed to the Indoor unit. Also, the signal which to be
send to the Satellite is also thrown through this feed horn so that the signal reflecting to the
reflector should reach Satellite.

Figure 5.5 Working of feed horn and reflector

5.3.1.2Power Amplifier:
The Power Amplifier is used for amplifying the Up converter RF signal before being fed into the
Antenna system. The Amplifier can be either Mounted on the Antenna system or could be placed
in the Indoor Rack. The amplification is required to send the up stream signals to the Satellite.
5.3.1.3Low Noise Amplifier:
The signal that travels from the satellite would have become weak due to various atmospheric
issues, the signal strength is reduced to a few watts hence the signal need to pass through an
equipment that will increase the signal strength from a few watts to several Kilowatts. The low
noise amplifier is responsible for amplifying very low power satellite signals received at the
antenna to a higher signal strength before it is fed into the down converter.

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 Figure 5.6 Components of VSAT system
5.3.1.4 Down-Converter:
A down converter amplifies and converts the frequency (RF to IF), which is received from the
low noise amplifier. This is then passed on to the demodulator. Up-Converter An up-converter
amplifies & converts the frequency (IF to RF), that is received from the modulator. This is then
passed on to the power amplifier for further amplification and transmission.
5.3.1.5 Demodulator & Modulators:
Demodulator is responsible for converting the IF signals into digital format. This is understood
by the networking components like Routers, Switches, Telephone systems, etc. and the same is
then fed into the computer. Modulators on the contrary are responsible for converting the digital
data into IF signals.

Advantages of VSAT:
a) VSATs are highly reliable & boasts of uptimes as high as 99.5%
b) Since VSATs use a satellite to communicate geographical boundaries or terrain is not a
constraint.
c) A centrally managed network, which reduces a lot of logistics cost for the customer.
d) In case of a failure the Mean Time to Repair is in the order of a few Hours.
e) No last Miles for the customer
f) Most important One Vendor Management.

5.3.2 VSAT hub

A VSAT hub is a huge earth station that is responsible for controlling & monitoring all the
activities of the geographical spread of VSATs. In some cases all the remote VSATs
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communicate to one central site, this Central Site is connected to the hub, as the Hub is the
switching element.
Multiplexing Techniques
A satellite link can relay signals from a single earth station. These signals must be separated to
avoid interfering with each other. This separation is called multiplexing.
The most common forms of multiplexing are:
a) FDM - Frequency Division Multiplexing
A group of signals pass through the same channel but on different frequencies.
b) TDM -Time Division Multiplexing

5.3.3 Mesh and Star networks:

VSAT's are connected by radio frequency links via a satellite. Those links are radio frequency
links with a so-called `unlink' from the station to the satellite and a so called `downlink' from the
satellite to the station. The overall link from station to station, sometimes called a Hop, consists
of an uplink and downlink. A radio frequency link is a modulated carrier conveying information.
Basically the satellite receives the unlinked carriers from the transmitting earth stations within he
field of view of its receiving antenna, amplifies those carriers. Translates their frequency to a
lower band in order to avoid possible output / input interference, and transmits the amplified
carriers to the stations located within the field of view of its transmitting antenna. Present VSAT
networks use Geo-stationary satellites and as a result all the VSAT's are visible from the satellite
all the time, carriers can be relayed by the satellite from
any e VSAT to any other VSAT in the network. These are nothing but Mesh networks. However
in mesh networks one must take into account the following limitations:
· Typically 200 dB carrier power attenuation on the uplink & the downlink as a result
of the distance to and from a GEO-stationary satellite
· Limited satellite radio frequency power, typically few tens of watts
· Small size of the VSAT, which limits its transmitting power and its receiving
sensitivity

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5.3.4 Different access methods used in VSAT communication:

Various Access methods used in VSATs to communicate with each other are:
1. SCPC Single
Channel Per Carrier ( In simple terms this is nothing but lease lines in the sky).
SCPC Channels can be either PAMA or DAMA.
2. TDMA
PAMA: Pre Assigned Multiple Access
PAMA is an access scheme where in when 2 VSATs want to communicate with Each other a
bandwidth is assigned to them exclusively. This assigned bandwidth will be available the
VSAT's on a permanently basis. This link can either be a symmetric and asymmetric link. It is
nothing but a point to point connectivity.

Figure 5.7 Point to Point connectivity, Leased Line in the sky

The PAMA service interconnects high data traffic sites within an organization. It is a
cost-effective alternative to terrestrial leased lines, providing high reliability links to support
mission critical applications. DAMA: Demand Assigned Multiple Access The DAMA scheme is
very similar to a telephone connection. Whenever, there is a need to talk to someone, you dial a
number. The call lands at the telephone exchange, and the telephone exchange connects you to
the dialed number. The role of the telephone exchange is to connect you to the desired number.
This is exactly how a DAMA network operates. The HUB plays the role of a telephone
exchange, between any two VSAT's. The DAMA service addresses point to point voice, fax, and
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data communication requirements of remote sites. It provides a cost effective and reliable
solution to business having a high internal voice/ fax communication requirements. Additionally
it enables organizations with operations in remote areas, to establish a reliable communications
network.

Figure 5.8 Typical DAMA / PAMA Network

TDM/TDMA: Time Division Multiplexed/Time Division Multiple Access The TDMA
network operates in a Star topology. All the remote VSATs communicate to the central hub
station, on a Time Division Multiple Access Modes. At the hub the signal is re -transmitted to
the destination VSAT using TDM technology after amplification. The Access mechanism of
TDMA operates on a technology called Slotted Aloha. All the remote VSAT's contend for a time
divisional slot to transmit their packets to the Hub. The channel used by the remotes to
communicate to the Hub is called the Return Link. Each of these return channels operates at a
maximum of 128 Kbps. The Hub communicates to all the destination remotes using the TDM
technology.The communication channel from the Hub to the remote is also called the Outbound
or Outlink. The outbound or outlink from operates at 256 Kbps. In TDM/TDMA the
implementation topology is a Hub & Spoke architecture here all the remote sites communicate to
the central site via the HUB. The Hub is connected to the central site on an SCPC connection.

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5.4 Maritime Satellite Services:

The International Maritime Satellite Corporation (INMARSAT) was formed in 1979 to

provide safety and other communication services to the maritime community. Today it serves a
wide range of business and government customers on land, at sea and in the air. It provides
global voice, data and IP communications solutions, in a range of cross-platform mobile and
fixed satellite microwave and wireless technologies. It enables users to make phone calls or
connect to the internet whenever and wherever they need on land, at sea or in the air.

"INMARSAT provides bulk use and pay-per-use alternatives that support information
transfer requirements during both normal operations and periods of contingency or crisis.
INMARSAT does not provide the survivability, LPI, or antijam capabilities required in tactical
applications. It may be subject to electromagnetic interference (EMI), jamming, or intrusion.

Due to lower frequencies, L-Band is easiest to implement for marine satellite stabilised
systems. There is not much L-Band bandwidth available. The higher you go in frequency, the
more bandwidth is available, but the equipment needs to be more sophisticated.  
If one could equate the cost and availability of L-Band space segment to say, city real estate, C-
Band might be the suburbs, Ku band the countryside, and Ka-Band the prairies of the wild west.
Maybe a little more difficult to get to, but a lot of it available at a reasonable price.

C-Band (4-8 GHz):

Satellite C-band usually transmits around 6 GHz and receives around 4 GHz. It uses large
(2.4- 3.7 meter) antennas. These are the large white domes that you see on top of the cruise ships
and commercial vessels. C-band is typically used by large ships that traverse the oceans on a
regular basis and require uninterrupted, dedicated, always on connectivity as they move from
region to region.  The shipping lines usually lease segment of satellite bandwidth that is provided
to the ships on a full time basis, providing connections to the Internet, the public telephone
networks, and data back-hauls to their head office. C-band is also used for terrestrial microwave
links,  which can present a problem when vessels come into port and interfere with critical

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terrestrial links. This has resulted in serious restrictions within 300Km of the coast, requiring
terminals to be turned off when coming close to land.

5.5 GLOBAL POSITION SATELLITE SYSTEMS:

The basic concept behind GPS is that signals are transmitted from the satellites in space
and these are received by the receivers on or near to the surface of the earth. Using timing it is
possible to determine the distance from each satellite and thereby using a process of triangulation
and a knowledge of the satellite positions the position on Earth can be determined.

The satellites all send timing information so the receiver knows when the message was
sent. As radio signals travel at the speed of light they take a very short but finite time to travel
the distance from the satellite to the receiver. The satellites also transmit information about their
positions. In this way the receiver is able to calculate the distance from the satellite to the
receiver. To obtain a full fix of latitude, longitude and altitude, four or more satellites are
required, and when the receiver is in the clear, more than four satellites are in view all the time.
A fix of just latitude and longitude can be obtained from three satellites.

Figure 5.9 GPS satellite orbits

GPS, or Global Positioning System, is also sometimes called NavStar. GPS is a satellite
based global navigation satellite system, GNSS that is used to provide accurate location and time
information anywhere on or near the Earth. GPS is run and maintained by the US government,

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although access to it has been opened up so that it is freely available worldwide when used with
suitable GPS receivers.

Typically GPS is able to provide position information to within a few metres, allowing
accurate positioning to be made. It is also possible to extract timing information that enables
frequencies and time to be very accurately maintained. Frequency stability performance figures
of systems using GPS timing are far in better than crystal or many other accurate frequency
sources. The performance and ease of use of GPS has meant that it is now an integral part of
everyday life, with many portable or car-based "satnav" systems being used, as well as many
mobile phones incorporating them to enable them to provide location information superimposed
on the maps from the phone or satnav.

The fully operational GPS satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 operational

satellites with a few more in orbit as spares in case of the failure of one. The GPS satellites are in
one of six orbits. These are in planes that are inclined at approximately 55° to the equatorial
plane and there are four satellites in each orbit. This arrangement provides the earth user with a
view of between five and eight satellites at any time from any point on the Earth.

Using economic ground based receivers GPS is able to provide position information to
within a number of metres. The economic costs have also meant that it is now fitted to many
motor vehicles, while separate GPS receivers can be bought for a few hundred pounds or dollars.
As a result it is widely used by private individuals, as well as many commercial and professional
users. In fact the primary use for GPS is as a military navigation system. The fact that it is used
so widely is a by-product of its success.

5.5.1 GPS satellites

The satellites are orbiting above the Earth. Their orbits are tightly controlled because
errors in their orbit will translate to errors in the final positions. The time signals are also tightly
controlled. The satellites contain an atomic clock so that the time signals they transmit are very
accurate. Even so these clocks will drift slightly and to overcome this, signals from Earth stations
are used to correct this.

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 The GPS satellites themselves have a design life of ten years, but to ensure that there are
no holes in service in the case of unexpected failures, spares are held in orbit and these can be
brought into service at short notice.

The satellites are provide their own power through their solar panels. These extend to
about 17 feet, and provide the 700 watts needed to power the satellite and its batteries when it is
in sunlight. Naturally the satellite needs to remain operation when it is on the dark side of the
Earth when the solar panels do not provide any power. This means that when in sunlight the solar
panels need to provide additional power to charge batteries, beyond just powering the basic
satellite circuitry.

5.5.2 GPS receivers

A large number of GPS receivers are available today. They make widespread use of
digital signalling processing techniques. The transmissions from the satellites use spread
spectrum technology, and the signal processors correlate the signals received to recover the data.
As the signals are very weak it takes some time after the receiver is turned on to gain the first fix.
This Time To First Fix (TTFF) is of importance, and in early receivers it could be as long as
twelve minutes, although modern receivers use many more correlators are able to shorten this
considerably. When using a GPS receiver the receiver must be in the open. Buildings, or any
structure will mask the signals and it may mean that few satellites can be seen. Thus the receivers
will not operate inside buildings, and urban areas may often cause problems.

5.5.3 GPS satellite orbits:

The GPS satellites orbit the earth in a Medium Earth Orbit, MEO. The mean distance
from the centre of the Earth is 26560 km (the mean radius of the Earth is 6360 km) and this
means that the orbit altitude of the satellites is around 20 200 km.

The GPS satellites travel with a speed of about 3.9 km /s relative to the Earth as a whole,
as opposed to relative to a fixed point on its surface. They have an orbit time of 12 hours
(sidereal time) which equates to about 11 hours 58 minutes "Earth" time. This means that each
satellite reaches a given position four minutes earlier each day (as it orbits the earth twice a day).

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 The satellite orbits are arranged on six planes. The inclination of the angles of the planes
towards the equator is 55° and these planes are rotated by 60° against each other. This gives
complete coverage of the globe. This means that the orbits range from 55° north to 55° degrees
south. It is worth noting that Block I satellites had an inclination of 63° against the equator.
Within each orbit, there are at least four satellites. The system was designed for four satellites in
each slot, but additional satellites are in orbit to act as "hot" spares in case of failure. In this way,
when a satellite fails, and other one can be quickly put into its position to fill the gap.

5.5.4 Inclination of GPS satellite planes:

The arrangement of the inclination of the satellite orbits at 55° to the equator has been
decided upon to avoid too many satellites being over the polar regions at any time. The orbits run
far enough north and south to ensure sufficient polar coverage. However it also ensures
improved coverage in areas where there are more users.

Figure 5.10 GPS satellite orbit angles

An additional advantage is that it provides for a more stable constellation - factors

disturbing orbits like the solar wind and gravitation fields have almost equal effects on all of the
satellites using this arrangement. The disadvantage for the polar regions is that at no time are any
satellites directly above the users. This can lead to a small but predictable loss of precision.

In order to run the GPS satellite system, a comprehensive worldwide network is required.
The fully operational GPS satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 operational satellites
with a few more in orbit as spares in case of the failure of one. The GPS satellites are in one of
six orbits. These are in planes that are inclined at approximately 55 degrees to the equatorial

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plane and there are four satellites in each orbit. This arrangement provides the earth user with a
view of between five and eight satellites at any time from any point on the Earth. When four
satellites are visible, sufficient information is available to be able to calculate the position on
Earth.

5.5.5 GPS control network:

The GPS satellites need to be monitored and controlled from the ground and it is
necessary to be in contact with each satellite for most of the time to be able to maintain the level
of performance required. To achieve this there is a master station located at Falcon Air Force
Base, Colorado Springs, USA. However there are other remote stations are located on Hawaii,
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and at Kwajalein. Using all these stations the satellites can be
tracked and monitored for 92% of the time. This results in two 1.5 hour periods each day when
the satellite is out of contact with the ground stations.

Using the network of ground stations the performance of the GPS satellites is monitored
very closely. The information that is received at the remote stations is passed to the main
operational centre at Colorado Springs and the received information is assessed. Parameters such
as the orbit and clock performance are monitored and actions taken to reposition the satellite if it
is drifting even very slightly out of its orbit, or any adjust the clock if necessary or more usually
provide data to it indicating its error.

5.5.6 GPS operation:

GPS operates by a process of triangulation. Each GPS satellite transmits information

about the time, and its position. By comparing the signals received from four satellites the
receiver is able to deduce how long it has taken for the signals to arrive and from knowledge of
the position of the satellites it can calculate its own position.

The GPS satellites transmit two signals on different frequencies. One is at 1575.42 MHz
and the other at 1227.6 MHz. These provide two services, one known as course acquisition (C/A)
and the other is a precision (P) signal. The precision signal is only available for the military, but
the C/A elements of GPS are open to commercial use, although initially a random "wobble" was

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put onto this to degrade its accuracy for civilian use. This facility known as Selective
Availability (S/A) was discontinued in May 2000.

Both signals are transmitted using direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), and this
enables all the satellites to use the same frequency. They can be separated in the GPS receiver by
the fact that they use different orthogonal spreading codes, and this works in exactly the same
way as the CDMA cell phone systems. The spreading codes are accurately aligned to GPS time
to enable decoding of the signals to be facilitated.

The coarse acquisition signal at 1.5 GHz uses a 1.023 MHz spreading or chip code, while
the precision signal is transmitted at 1.2 GHz using a 10.23 MHz code. This precision signal is
encrypted and uses a higher power level. Not only does this assist in providing a higher level of
accuracy, it also improves the reception in buildings.

All the GPS satellites continually transmit information. This includes what are termed
ephemeris data, almanac data, satellite health information, and clock correction data. Correction
parameters for the ionosphere and troposphere are also transmitted as these have a small but
significant effect on signals even at these frequencies.

The ephemeris data is information that enables the precise orbit of the GPS satellite to be
calculated. The almanac data gives the approximate position of all the satellites in the
constellation and from this the GPS receiver is able to discover which satellites are in view.
Although each satellite contains an atomic clock, they all drift to a small extent and as a result
details of the clock offsets are transmitted. It is found that it is more effective to measure the
error and transmit this data than maintain the clock exactly on time. The Global Positioning
System, GPS, has been in use for a number of years now and has proved to be very successful,
with the GPS technical aspects being well understood by the various companies designing,
manufacturing and selling GPS or satnav systems.

5.5.7 GPS Signal:

GPS satellites transmit signals that are received by the GPS receivers on the ground. These
signals are then decoded and enable the receivers to provide the position information required.

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With limited power on the satellites, the signals transmitted are relatively low power, and in view
of the bandwidth available, multiplexing techniques are used to provide access to all the signals
that are available.

5.5.8 GPS signal basics:

The GPS satellites transmit a variety of signals that are picked up by the GPS receivers. These
signals are relatively complicated but enable the system to operate in a very efficient fashion.
There are two primary frequencies that are used for the transmission of the GPS signal - both
signals are in the UHF portion of the frequency spectrum. Additional GPS signals are used or
being proposed as summarised below:

 L1 - 1575.42 MHz:   This GPS signal is used to provide the course-acquisition (C/A) and
encrypted precision P(Y) codes. It is also used for the L1 civilian (L1C) and military (M)
codes on the Block III satellites
 L2 - 1227.60 MHz:   This signal is used to carry the P(Y) code, as well as the L2C and
military codes on the Block IIR-M and later satellites
 L3 - 1381.05 MHz:   This frequency is used to carry information regarding any nuclear
detonation (NUDET) event detected.
 L4 - 1379.913 MHz:   This signal is being studied for use with additional ionospheric
correction. This would considerably improve the accuracy.
 L5 - 1176.45 MHz:   This GPS signal is being proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life
(SoL) signal.

The GPS signal uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique to allow all the satellites to use the
same frequencies without mutual interference. Using the CDMA based signal low rate message
data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random number, PRN, sequence that is different for each
satellite - this spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth. In order to decode the signal the
correlate or decode the signal, the receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite.
There are two codes that are used:

 C/A code:   The C/A code on the GPS signal is the one used for general or Civilian
Access. This code is transmitted at 10.23 million chips per second, Mcps.

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  P code:   The P code is the precision code that can only be accessed by the US military.
The P code transmits at a rate of 10.23 Mcps.

Both the C/A and P codes provide time of day information to the receiver. These two codes are
modulated onto the GPS signal. The C/A code is only carried by the L1 signal, whereas the P
code is carried by both L1 and L2.

5.5.9 GPS signal data

The data carried by the GPS signal contains three types of data:

 Pseudo-random code:   This is an identification or ID code that identifies which satellite

is transmitting the information. It is possible to view this information on many SatNav
systems.
 Ephemeris data:   The almanac data on the GPS signal is used to carry information about
the status of the satellite it also carries the current date and time which is used in the
calculations for determining the position of the GPS receiver. This data is updated every
two hours and is normally valid for four hours.
 Almanac data:   the almanac data elements of the GPS signal provide information about
the position of the satellite - orbit information about the satellite transmitting the
information and all other satellites in constellation. This data is updated every 24 hours.

5.5.10 GPS transmitted data:

Data transmitted in the GPS signals is split into frames to provide structure, and allow the
receivers to be able to know where the beginning and end of messages are so that they can
synchronise with the incoming signals and decode the data correctly.

A complete message is contained within a frame consisting of 15000 bit, transmitted at a

rate of 50 bits per second which takes 30 seconds to complete. It starts transmission exactly on
the minute or half minute as determined by the atomic clock on each satellite. Each frame is then
further subdivided into five sub-frames, equal in length which take six seconds to transmit and
contain 300 bits. Each sub-frame then contains ten words of 30 bits which take 0.6 seconds to
transmit. Data required to be transmitted within the overall GPS signal is transmitted in set
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frames as detailed in the table below. The GPS signal frames are split into sub-frames. In turn
these have a specific structure to enable the system to be able to identify the data and keep the
timing, etc.

Figure 5.11 GPS Data Frame and Subframe Structure

It can be seen that the sub-frames are split into two sections:

Header:   In turn, the header itself is also split, and again into two sections:

Telemetry Word, TLM:   The GPS Telemetry Word, TLM is used to provide start information
for the sub-frame - effectively providing data synchronisation. The GPS Telemetry Word is 24
bits long and it includes parity information. The GPS TLM starts with an 8 bit preamble for
recognition for the receiver. This is then followed by 16 bits of reserved data which includes the
ending 6 bit checksum or parity. A receiver will look for the pre-amble which marks the
beginning of the new sub-frame. To confirm this, the receiver takes the reserved data, creates a
parity, and checks to see if this corresponds with the last 6 bits of the TLM. If this does not
match, the receiver again looks for the next preamble.

Handover Word, HOW:   The GPS Handover Word, HOW, again comprises two
sections. The first 17 bits of this part of the header are given over to providing Time of Week,
TOW. This is used to ensure that the GPS receiver is fully synchronized to the satellite time. The
next 7 bits of the GPS TLM contain general sub-frame data. This consists of the sub-frame ID -
indicating which one of the five sub-frames this one is. It also contains a reserved alert flag and
an Anti-Spoofing flag. The alert flag is used to indicate to the receiver about inaccurate
measurement.The last six bits within the GPS HOW are again used for parity checking. Before
the receiver stores data, it performs a further check to ensure that it is reading the header and not
a very similar bit pattern. If the parity check does not match, it then moves on to look for the next

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preamble. Each sub-frame has a separate header so that a receiver can stare meaningful reception
in the middle of a broadcast, and not have to wait up to 30 seconds for the next cycle.

Data:   Although the headers for each of the sub-frames are identical in format so that the
receivers can identify which GPS sub-frame is being received and perform the relevant parity
checks, the data sections of the sub-frame are completely different.

One of the key points and advantages of GPS is its accuracy. The GPS errors can be reduced to a
sufficiently small level that the system provides excellent results in commercial applications as
well as the much higher level of accuracy obtainable by US military users.

GPS accuracy is far greater than anything that was previously available, and it is sufficiently
accurate for most applications. However there are GPS errors that have been significant for some
applications, and much work has been undertaken to reduce the level of GPS errors to a level
where they are insignificant.

It is found that if GPS positions are logged over a period of time, the positions indicated will
be scattered over an area as a result of the measurement errors. The plot of the dispersion of the
indicated points is called a scatter plot, and it is this indication that manufacturers of GPS
receivers use to determine the accuracy of the GPS equipment. The scatter plot is then analysed
statistically to provide an indication of the GPS accuracy performance for the receiver

5.5.11 GPS accuracy & precision:

The term GPS accuracy is a rather over-used term. However it can be said that the levels of
GPS accuracy are extremely high these days, even for civilian use GPS units. It is also worth
defining the difference between accuracy and precision:

 GPS accuracy:   The accuracy refers to the degree of closeness the indicated readings are
to the actual position.
 GPS precision:   Is the degree to which the readings can be made. The smaller the circle
of unknown the higher the precision.

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5.5.12 GPS Applications:

The primary use for GPS is as a military navigational aid. Run by the American
Department of Defense its primary role is to provide American forces with an accurate means of
navigation anywhere on the globe. However its use has been opened up so that commercial and
private users have access to the signals and can use the system. Accordingly it is very widely
used for many commercial applications from aircraft navigation, ship navigation to surveying,
and anywhere where location information is required.

For private users very cost effective receivers are available these days and may be used
for applications including sailing. Even many motor vehicles have them fitted now to provide
SatNav systems enabling them to navigate easily without the need for additional maps. It can be
said that GPS has revolutionised global navigation since it became available. Prior to this
navigation systems were comparatively localised, and did not offer anything like the same
degrees of accuracy, flexibility and coverage. The GPS history shows how the system required
many other related developments to take place to enable, what is a very sophisticated technology
to become reality. There are many significant GPS dates of significant satellite launches as well
as other developments that took place before the overall system could become reality. The
accuracy of GPS systems available nowadays is taken for granted - it is is everyday use by all
people in consumer devices as well as professional and military devices.

5.6 Gateway :
Gateways are an integral part of the Globalstar ground segment. In addition to the
gateways the ground segment includes the Ground Operations Control Center (GOCC), Satellite
Operations Control Center (SOCC), and Globalstar Data Network (GDN).
Each gateway, which is owned and managed by the service provider for the country in which the
gateway is located, receives transmissions from orbiting satellites, processes calls, and switches
them to the appropriate ground network.
A gateway may service more than one country. Gateways consist of three or four dish antennas,
a switching station and remote operating controls. Because all of the switches and complex
hardware are located on the ground, it is easier for Globalstar to maintain and upgrade its system
than it is for systems that handle switching in orbit. Gateways offer seamless integration with

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local and regional telephony and wireless networks. They utilize a standard T1/E1 interface to
the existing PSTN/PLMN systems. Encryption ensures voice and signaling security for
individualtransmissions. Ground Operations Control Center (GOCC) is responsible for planning
and controlling the use of satellites by gateway terminals and for coordinating with the Satellite
Operations Control Center (SOCC). The GOCC plans the communications schedule for the
gateways and controls the allocation of satellite resources to each gateway.

5.7 ATM over Satellite Network:

ATM technology is expected to provide quality of service based networks that support
voice, video and data applications. ATM was originally designed for fiber based terrestrial
networks that exhibit low latencies and low error rates. With the widespread availability of
multimedia technology, and an increasing demand for electronic connectivity across the world,
satellite networks play an indispensable role in the deployment of global networks. Ka-band
satellites using the gigahertz frequency spectrum reach user terminals across most of the
populated world. As a result, ATM based satellite networks effectively provide real time as well
as non-real time communications services to remote areas.
Satellite communications technology offers a number of advantages over traditional terrestrial
point-to-point networks. These include,

 wide geographic coverage including interconnection of “ATM islands”,

 multipoint to multipoint communications facilitated by the inherent broadcasting ability of

satellites,

 bandwidth on demand, or Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA) capabilities, and

 an alternative to fiber optic networks for disaster recovery options.

5.7.1 Architectural Issues

A reference architecture is presented, and a summary of the various ATM service

categories is given. A Reference Architecture for Satellite-ATM Networks a satellite-ATM
network represented by a ground segment, a space segment, and a network control center. The
ground segment consists of ATM networks that may be further connected to other legacy

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networks. The network control center (NCC) performs various management and resource
allocation functions for the satellite media. Inter-satellite links (ISL) in the space segment
provide seamless global connectivity to the satellite constellation.

The network allows the transmission of ATM cells over satellite, multiplexes and
demultiplexes ATM cell streams from uplinks and downlinks, and maintains the QoS objectives
of the various connection types. The satellite-ATM network also includes a satellite-ATM
interface device connecting the ATM network to the satellite system. The interface device
transports ATM cells over the frame based satellite network, and demultiplexes ATM cells from
the satellite frames. The device typically can use a DAMA technique to obtain media access to
the satellite physical layer. The interface unit is also responsible for forward error correction
techniques to reduce the error rates of the satellite link. The unit must maintain ATM quality of
service parameters at the entrance to the satellite network. As a result, it translates the ATM QoS
requirements into corresponding requirements for the satellite network. This interface is thus
responsible for resource allocation, error control, and traffic control. This architectural model
presents several design options for the satellite and ground network segments. These options
include

 No on-board processing or switching.

 On-board processing with ground ATM switching.

 On-board processing and ATM switching.

About 53% of the planned Ka-band satellite networks propose to use on-board ATM like fast
packet switching Error: Reference source not found. An overview of the network architectures of
some of the proposed systems can be found. In a simple satellite model without on-board
processing or switching, minimal on-board buffering is required. However, if on-board
processing is performed, then on-board buffering is needed to achieve the multiplexing gains
provided by ATM. On-board processing can be used for resource allocation and media access
control (MAC). MAC options include TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA and can use contention
based, reservation based, or fixed media access control. Demand Assignment Multiple Access
(DAMA) can be used with any of the MAC options.

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 Figure 5.12 Satellite-ATM network model

If on-board processing is not performed, DAMA must be done by the NCC. On-board
DAMA decreases the response time of the media access policy by half because link access
requests need not travel to the NCC on the ground any more. In addition to media access control,
ABR explicit rate allocation or EFCI control, and UBR/GFR buffer management can also be
performed on-board the satellite. On-board switching may be used for efficient use of the
network by implementing adaptive routing/switching algorithms. Trade-offs must be made with
respect to the complexity, power and weight requirements for providing on-board buffering,
switching and processing features to the satellite network. In addition, on-board buffering and
switching will introduce some additional delays within the space segment of the network. For
fast packet or cell switched satellite networks, the switching delay is negligible compared to the
propagation delay, but the buffering delay can be significant. Buffering also results in delay
variations due to the bursty nature of ATM traffic.

5.7.2 Service Categories in ATM Networks

ATM networks carry traffic from multiple service categories, and support Quality of
Service (QoS) requirements for each service category. The ATM-Forum Traffic Management

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Specification 4.0, defines five service categories for ATM networks. Each service category is
defined using a traffic contract and a set of QoS parameters. The traffic contract is a set of
parameters that specify the characteristics of the source traffic. This defines the requirements for
compliant cells of the connection. The QoS parameters are negotiated by the source with the
network, and are used to define the expected quality of service provided by the network. For
each service category, the network guarantees the negotiated QoS parameters if the end system
complies with the negotiated traffic contract. For non-compliant traffic, the network need not
maintain the QoS objective.

The Constant Bit Rate (CBR) service category is defined for traffic that requires a
constant amount of bandwidth, specified by a Peak Cell Rate (PCR), to be continuously
available. The network guarantees that all cells emitted by the source that conform to this PCR
will be transferred by the network with minimal cell loss, and within fixed bounds of cell delay
and delay variation. The real time Variable Bit Rate (VBR-rt) class is characterized by PCR,
Sustained Cell Rate (SCR) and a Maximum Burst Size (MBS) in cells that controls the bursty
nature of VBR traffic. The network attempts to deliver cells within fixed bounds of cell delay
and delay variation. Non-real-time VBR sources are also specified by PCR, SCR and MBS, but
are less sensitive to delay and delay variation than the real time sources. The network does not
specify any delay and delay variation parameters for the VBR-nrt service.

The Available Bit Rate (ABR) service category is specified by a PCR and Minimum Cell
Rate (MCR) which is guaranteed by the network. The bandwidth allocated by the network to an
ABR connection may vary during the life of a connection, but may not be less than MCR. ABR
connections use a rate-based closed-loop feedback-control mechanism for congestion control.
The network tries to maintain a low Cell Loss Ratio by changing the allowed cell rates (ACR) at
which a source can send. The Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) class is intended for best effort
applications, and this category does not support any service guarantees. UBR has no built in
congestion control mechanisms. The UBR service manages congestion by efficient buffer
management policies in the switch. A new service called Guaranteed Frame Rate (GFR) is being
introduced at the ATM Forum and the ITU-T. GFR is based on UBR, but guarantees a minimum
rate to connections. The service also recognizes AAL5 frames, and performs frame level
dropping as opposed to cell level dropping.

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 In addition, the ITU-T has specified four QoS classes to be used to deliver network based
QoS . It is imperative that a broadband satellite network be able to support the various QoS
services specified by the standards. Most importantly, the network should be able to support
TCP/IP based data applications that constitute the bulk of Internet traffic.

Most of the parameters specified in the standards are relevant only to terrestrial networks.
These values have to be re-evaluated for Satellite-ATM networks. For example, the ITU-T
specifies a maximum cell transfer delay of 400 ms for the ITU Class 1 stringent service. Error:
Reference source not found This class is expected to carry CBR traffic for real-time voice
communications over ATM. However, the 400ms maximum delay needs to be reviewed to
ensure that it properly accounts for the propagation delays in geosynchronous satellite networks.
The peak-to-peak cell delay variation of QoS Class 1 is also specified to be a maximum of 3 ms
by the ITU-T his value may be too stringent for many satellite systems. As a result, the QoS
parameters are under careful consideration by ITU-4B. In this context, the ITU-4B preliminary
draft recommendations on transmission of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Traffic via
Satellite is in the process of development.

5.8 Roles of Satellite in future networks:

Advances in satellite technology have given rise to a healthy satellite services sector
that provides various services to broadcasters, Internet service providers (ISPs), governments, the
military, and other sectors. There are three types of communication services that satellites
provide: telecommunications, broadcasting, and data communications. Telecommunication
services include telephone calls and services provided to telephone companies, as well as
wireless, mobile, and cellular network providers.

Satellite applications :

Advances in satellite technology have given rise to a healthy satellite services sector that
provides various services to broadcasters, Internet service providers (ISPs), governments, the
military, and other sectors. There are three types of communication services that satellites
provide: telecommunications, broadcasting, and data communications. Telecommunication

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services include telephone calls and services provided to telephone companies, as well as
wireless, mobile, and cellular network providers.

Broadcasting services include radio and television delivered directly to the consumer and
mobile broadcasting services. DTH, or satellite television, services (such as the DirecTV and
DISH Network services in the United States) are received directly by households. Cable and
network programming is delivered to local stations and affiliates largely via satellite. Satellites
also play an important role in delivering programming to cell phones and other mobile devices,
such as personal digital assistants and laptops.

Data communications involve the transfer of data from one point to another. Corporations
and organizations that require financial and other information to be exchanged between their
various locations use satellites to facilitate the transfer of data through the use of very small-
aperture terminal (VSAT) networks. With the growth of the Internet, a significant amount of
Internet traffic goes through satellites, making ISPs one of the largest customers for satellite
services.

Satellite communications technology is often used during natural disasters and

emergencies when land-based communication services are down. Mobile satellite equipment can
be deployed to disaster areas to provide emergency communication services. One major
technical disadvantage of satellites, particularly those in geostationary orbit, is an inherent delay
in transmission. While there are ways to compensate for this delay, it makes some applications
that require real-time transmission and feedback, such as voice communications, not ideal for
satellites.

Satellites face competition from other media such as fibre optics, cable, and other land-
based delivery systems such as microwaves and even power lines. The main advantage of
satellites is that they can distribute signals from one point to many locations. As such, satellite
technology is ideal for “point-to-multipoint” communications such as broadcasting. Satellite
communication does not require massive investments on the ground—making it ideal for
underserved and isolated areas with dispersed populations.

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 Satellites and other delivery mechanisms such as fibre optics, cable, and other terrestrial
networks are not mutually exclusive. A combination of various delivery mechanisms may be
needed, which has given rise to various hybrid solutions where satellites can be one of the links
in the chain in combination with other media. Ground service providers called “teleports” have
the capability to receive and transmit signals from satellites and also provide connectivity with
other terrestrial networks.

In a relatively short span of time, satellite technology has developed from the
experimental (Sputnik in 1957) to the sophisticated and powerful. Future communication
satellites will have more onboard processing capabilities, more power, and larger-aperture
antennas that will enable satellites to handle more bandwidth. Further improvements in satellites’
propulsion and power systems will increase their service life to 20–30 years from the current 10–
15 years. In addition, other technical innovations such as low-cost reusable launch vehicles are in
development. With increasing video, voice, and data traffic requiring larger amounts of
bandwidth, there is no dearth of emerging applications that will drive demand for the satellite
services in the years to come. The demand for more bandwidth, coupled with the continuing
innovation and development of satellite technology, will ensure the long-term viability of the
commercial satellite industry well into the 21st century.

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