C1 - Corporate Reporting

Corporate Reporting
Study Text
ICAN
Institute of Chartered
Accountants of Nigeria

ICAN
Corporate reporting
First edition published by
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Professional level
Corporate reporting
C
Contents
Page
Syllabus v
Chapter
1 Regulatory framework
(including convergence, ethics, integrated reporting) 1
2 Accounting and reporting concepts 33
3 IAS 1: Presentation of financial statements
(IAS 34, IFRS 8, IAS 24) 77
4 Other information in the annual report 107
5 Beyond financial reporting 123
6 IAS 8: Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates
and errors 147
7 Impact of differences in accounting policies 163
8 Revenue standards (IAS 18, IAS 11 and IFRS 15) 177
9 IAS 2: Inventories 229
10 IAS 16: Property, plant and equipment 241
11 Non-current assets: sundry standards
(IAS 23, IAS 20 and IAS 40) 287
12 IAS 38: Intangible assets 311
13 IAS 36: Impairment of assets 339
14 IFRS 5: Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued
operations 357
15 IAS 17: Leases 379
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Corporate reporting
Page
16 IAS 37: Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets 443
17 IAS 12: Income taxes 479
18 IAS 19: Employee benefits 521
19 IFRS 2: Share based payments 543
20 Financial instruments: Recognition and measurement 569
21 Financial instruments: Presentation and disclosure 615
22 Sundry standards and interpretations
(IAS 26, IAS 41, IFRS 4, IFRS 6, IFRS for SMEs, IFRIC 12) 637
23 Business combinations and consolidation 673
24 Consolidated statements of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income 717
25 Associates and joint ventures 727
26 Business combinations achieved in stages 747
27 Disposal of subsidiaries 765
28 Other groups standards (IAS 27 and IFRS 12) 793
29 Foreign currency 803
30 IAS 7: Statements of cash flows 831
31 IAS 33: Earnings per share 873
32 Analysis and interpretation of financial statements 911
33 IFRS 1: First time adoption of IFRS 953
Index 967
© Emile Woolf International iv The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Professional level
Corporate reporting
S
Syllabus
CORPORATE REPORTING
Purpose
This syllabus extends students’ coverage of generally accepted accounting practices but
also deepens their understanding of reporting and their ability to apply practices to more
complex situations. Assessments will test their ability to evaluate the acceptability of
alternatives from a compliance perspective and an understanding as to how reporting
alternatives affect the results, position and risks disclosed by entities. Assessments will also
include considerations relating to the use of complex financial instruments. Students may
be assessed on their understanding of earnings management, creative accounting and
aggressive earnings management. Students may also be assessed on their competences in
financial statement analysis and analysis of other reports as a basis for understanding the
position, performance and risks of businesses. Reporting extends to sustainability and
corporate social responsibility reports and business reviews management commentaries or
similar reports.
Content and competencies - overview

Grid Weighting
A Current issues in reporting framework 10
B Formulation of accounting policies 30
C Preparation and presentation 30
D Analysis and interpretation 30
Total 100
© Emile Woolf International v The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Corporate reporting
Contents and competencies Chapter
A Current issues in reporting framework

1 The reporting framework and generally accepted practice:
a) Evaluate and apply basic calculations to show how accounting 3 to 33
requirements nationally and internationally affect financial
reporting.
b) Explain how local and international standards of reporting are 1
converging.
c) Identify and evaluate the ethical and professional considerations 1
when undertaking work, giving advice on financial accounting
and reporting including common dilemmas that may be faced
based on business and reporting scenarios.
2 Current issues in corporate reporting:
a) Identify and explain current issues arising in the development of 3 to 33
generally accepted accounting practice at a local and
international level.
b) An in-depth critical understanding of all technical 3 to 33
pronouncements currently in issue with particular reference to
their application to practical situations.
c) Explore the development in sustainability and integrated 1
reporting.
B Formulation of accounting policies
1 Selecting, assessing and presenting suitable accounting policies:
a) Draft and advise upon suitable accounting policies based on a 3 to 33
business scenario under local and international requirements for
private sector entities including single and consolidated financial
statements.
b) Evaluate and advise upon how alternative choices of revenue 7
recognition, asset and liability recognition and measurement can
affect the understanding of the performance, position and
prospects of an entity in the private sector or when presenting
consolidated or single entity financial statements.
© Emile Woolf International vi The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Syllabus and study guide
C Preparation and presentation

1 Preparing and reporting information for financial statements
and notes:
a) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of a 3 and 5
single entity undertaking a variety of transactions on the basis of to 33
chosen accounting policies and in accordance with IFRS and
local regulations.
b) Identify from a given scenario a subsidiary, associate or joint 23, 25
venture according to international standards and local
regulation.
c) Calculate from given data and information the amounts to be 23 to 27
included in an entity’s consolidated financial statements arising
from existing, new or discontinuing activities or interests
(including any part disposal) in subsidiaries, associates or joint
ventures in accordance with IFRS and local regulations.
d) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of an 23 to 27
entity preparing consolidated financial statements undertaking a
variety of transactions on the basis of chosen accounting
policies and in accordance with IFRS and local regulations.
e) Identify and explain the extent of distributable profits of an entity 20
based on local regulations
f) Identify and explain with examples the additional information that 4 and 5
may be included in annual reports beyond financial statements
in accordance with international best practice and local
requirements including management reports, risk information,
governance reports, financial summaries, key performance
indicators and highlights.
© Emile Woolf International vii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Corporate reporting
D Analysis and interpretation

1 Interpretation and evaluation of financial information and
disclosures:
a) Explain and communicate to a chosen user the application of 3 and 5
IFRS and local requirements for a private sector entity. to 33
b) Identify and assess the choice of accounting treatments that 3 and 5
may be adopted based on a given scenario explaining how they to 33
may affect a users’ understanding of a business.
c) Identify and assess chosen policies and treatments for a given 3 and 5
entity or entities comparing the fairness of presentation and to 33
compliance with international and local practice for a private
sector entity.
2 Financial and business analysis:
a) Identify and calculate suitable performance, position and 32
prospect measures using key indicators, financial statement
ratios, stock market ratios, comparisons, trend analyses and
other representations of relationships that support a meaningful
financial and business analysis of a private sector entity.
b) Identify and comment upon limitations of your analysis. 32
c) Draw conclusions and report on the analysis undertaken from a 32
business perspective.
© Emile Woolf International viii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

The following competencies listed above require a detailed knowledge of IFRS.
Competencies
1(a) Evaluate and apply basic calculations to show how accounting requirements
nationally and internationally affect financial reporting.
2(b) An in-depth critical understanding of all technical pronouncements currently in
issue with particular reference to their application to practical situations.

1(a) Draft and advise upon suitable accounting policies based on a business
scenario under local and international requirements for private sector entities
including single and consolidated financial statements.

1 Preparing and reporting information for financial statements and notes:
1(a) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of a single entity
undertaking a variety of transactions on the basis of chosen accounting
You will have studied many of the necessary standards at an earlier level. Material covering
these standards is often reproduced in full (for your convenience) so you may find that you
already know the content of many chapters. However, this paper requires you to apply your
knowledge in a more sophisticated way. Chapters on standards included in an earlier paper
often include extra observations relevant to this paper so make sure that you do not miss
these.
Also note that this paper requires a deeper knowledge of some areas covered in an earlier
paper (for example, deferred taxation and financial instruments) and introduces further
standards some of which are quite complex. These should be studied carefully.
© Emile Woolf International ix The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Corporate reporting
Examinable in Examinable
Standard earlier paper at this level? Chapter
IAS 1: Presentation of Financial
Statements Yes Yes 3
IAS 2: Inventories Yes Yes 9
IAS 7: Cash Flow Statements Yes Yes 30
IAS 8: Accounting Policies, Changes in
Accounting Estimates and Errors Yes Yes 6
IAS 10: Events occurring after the
reporting period Yes Yes 3
IAS 11: Construction Contracts Yes Yes 8
IAS 12: Income Taxes Yes (in part) Yes 17
IAS 16: Property, Plant and Equipment Yes Yes 10
IAS 17: Leases Yes Yes 15
IAS 18: Revenue Yes Yes 8
IAS 19: Employee Benefits Yes 18
IAS 20: Accounting for Government
Grants and Disclosure of Government
Assistance Yes Yes 11
IAS 21: The Effects of Changes in Foreign
Exchange Rates Yes 29
IAS 23: Borrowing Costs Yes Yes 11
IAS 24: Related Party Disclosures Yes Yes 3
IAS 26: Accounting and Reporting by
Retirement Benefit Plans Yes 22
IAS 27: Separate Financial Statements Yes Yes 28
IAS 28: Accounting for Investments in
Associates and Joint ventures Yes Yes 25
IAS 29: Financial Reporting in not
Hyperinflationary Economies Yes applicable
IAS 32: Financial Instruments:
Presentation Yes Yes 20
IAS 33: Earnings Per Share Yes Yes 31
IAS 34: Interim Financial Reporting Yes 3
IAS 36: Impairment of Assets Yes Yes 13
IAS 37: Provisions, Contingent Liabilities
and Contingent Assets Yes Yes 16
IAS 38: Intangible Assets Yes Yes 12
IAS 39: Financial Instruments: Recognition
and Measurement Yes Yes 21
IAS 40: Investment Property Yes Yes 11
IAS 41: Agriculture Yes 22
© Emile Woolf International x The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Examinable in Examinable at
Standard
earlier paper this level? Chapter
IFRS 1: First time adoption of IFRS No Yes 33
IFRS 2: Share-based payment No Yes 19
IFRS 3: Business combinations Yes Yes 23
IFRS 4: Insurance contracts No Yes 22
IFRS 5: Non-current assets held for sale
and discontinued operations Yes Yes 14
IFRS 6: Exploration for and evaluation of
mineral resources No Yes 22
IFRS 7: Financial Instruments: Disclosures Yes Yes 20
IFRS 8: Operating segments Yes Yes 3
IFRS 9: Financial Instruments No Yes 21
IFRS 10: Consolidated financial
statements Yes Yes 23-27
IFRS 11: Joint arrangements No Yes 25
IFRS 12: Disclosure of interests in other
entities No Yes 28
IFRS 13: Fair value measurement No Yes 2
IFRS 14: Regulatory deferral accounts No Yes 2
IFRS 15: Revenue from contracts with
customers No Yes 8
IFRS for SMEs No Yes 22
The following pages provide lists of the interpretations (SICs and IFRICs), recent
amendments to standards, exposure drafts and discussion papers. These were not
examinable in the earlier papers but all are examinable at this level.
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Corporate reporting
Interpretations Chapter
SIC 10: Government assistance—no specific relation to operating activities 11
SIC 15: operating leases—incentives 15
SIC 25 Income taxes—changes in the tax status of an entity or its
shareholders 17
SIC 27: Evaluating the substance of transactions involving the legal form of a
lease 15
SIC-29: Service concession arrangements: disclosures 22
SIC 31: revenue—barter transactions involving advertising services 8
SIC 32: Intangible assets—web site costs 12
IFRIC 1: Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar
liabilities 10
IFRIC 2: Members’ shares in co-operative entities and similar instruments 21
IFRIC 4: Determining whether an arrangement contains a lease 15
IFRIC 5: Rights to Interests arising from decommissioning, restoration and
environmental rehabilitation funds 16
IFRIC 6: Liabilities arising from participating in a specific market—waste
electrical and electronic equipment 16
IFRIC 7: Applying the restatement approach under IAS 29 Financial reporting not
in hyperinflationary economies applicable
IFRIC 10: Interim financial reporting and impairment 13
IFRIC 12: Service concession arrangements 22
IFRIC 13: Customer loyalty programmes 8
IFRIC 15: Agreements for the construction of real estate 8
IFRIC 17: Distributions of non-cash assets to owners 21
IFRIC 18: Transfers of assets from customers 8
IFRIC 19: Extinguishing financial liabilities with equity instruments 21
IFRIC 20: Stripping costs in the production phase of a surface mine 10
IFRIC 21: Levies 16
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Current issues
Amendments Chapter
IAS 16 and IAS 41: Bearer plants 10 and
22
IAS 16 and IAS 38: Clarification of acceptable methods of depreciation 10 and
12
IAS 27: Equity method in separate financial statements 28
IFRS 10 and IAS 28: Sale or contribution of assets between an investor and its
associate or joint venture 27
IFRS 11: Accounting for acquisitions of interests in joint operations 25
Exposure drafts Chapter

ED/2013/1: Recoverable amount disclosures for non-financial assets 13
ED/2013/4: Defined benefit plans: Employee contributions 18
ED/2013/6: Leases 15
ED/2013/9: IFRS for SMEs 22
ED/2014/1: Disclosure initiative – proposed amendments to IAS 1 3
ED/2014/2: Investment entities: Applying the consolidation exception 23
ED/2014/4: Measuring quoted investment in subsidiaries, joint ventures and
associates at fair value 23
Discussion papers Chapter

DP 2013/1: A review of the conceptual framework for financial reporting 2
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Corporate reporting
© Emile Woolf International xiv The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
1
Regulatory framework
Contents
1 The regulatory framework
2 Convergence with IFRS
3 Regulatory framework for accounting in Nigeria
4 Ethics
5 Chapter review
© Emile Woolf International 1 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1(b) Explain how local and international standards of reporting are converging.
1(c) Identify and evaluate the ethical and professional considerations when
undertaking work, giving advice on financial accounting and reporting
including common dilemmas that may be faced based on business and
reporting scenarios.
2(a) Identify and explain current issues arising in the development of generally
accepted accounting practice at a local and international level.
2(c) Explore the development in sustainability and integrated reporting.
Exam context
This chapter starts with an introduction on the regulatory environment. This does not serve
any particular competency but is important as an introduction to subsequent sections on
convergence and ethics.
The chapter also includes section on accounting in Nigeria. Again, this is not directed at any
particular competence but is important contextual information for much that follows in later
chapters.
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

 Explain the role of the IASB in convergence of accounting standards
 Explain the extent of convergence
 Explain the sources of accounting regulation in Nigeria
 Outline the roadmap for conversion to IFRS in Nigeria
 Identify ethical issues in relation to financial reporting
 Discuss and explain integrated reporting

Chapter 1: Regulatory framework
1 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK
Section overview
 The need for regulation

 Sources of regulation
 Principles and rules
1.1 The need for regulation

There are several reasons why financial reporting practice should be regulated.
The most obvious one is that without it, an entity would be free to adopt any
accounting treatment that it chose.
Other reasons are as follows:
 Persons external to the business are normally dependent on the published
financial statements for information about an entity’s activities. Regulation
ensures that external users of financial statements are provided with
information that is relevant to their decisions and reliable.
 Accounting standards and other forms of regulation help to ensure that
entities adopt similar accounting treatments for similar items and account
for similar transactions in the same way over time. This makes it possible to
compare the financial statements of different entities and to compare an
entity’s performance for the current year with its performance in previous
years.
 Without regulation, management would adopt whichever accounting
treatment presented its results and position in the best possible light.
Sometimes management might deliberately mislead users of the financial
statements.
1.2 Sources of regulation

The main sources of regulation are:
 Accounting standards;
 Company law; and
 For listed companies, the listing rules of the relevant Stock Exchange.
Accounting standards are authoritative statements of how particular types of
transactions and events are reflected in the financial statements. International
Financial Reporting Standards are used in Nigeria.
Company law varies from country to country, but typically also it sets out rules
for determining profits available for distribution, issuing and redeeming share
capital, the reserves that a company must have and the uses to which they can
be put. These matters are not covered in accounting standards. The main
company law statute in Nigeria is the Companies and Allied Matters Act 2004.
Listing rules set out the information which entities must supply when their
shares are traded on a major stock market. They must comply with these rules in
order to maintain their listing. These rules include requirements relating to
information, including financial reports that entities must prepare and provide to
the stock market while they are listed.

Corporate reporting
Further regulations are often issued by central banks and insurance regulators.
These would apply to relevant entities in the financial services industry.
1.3 Principles and rules

Company law consists of detailed rules. Accounting standards may be rules-
based or principles-based. IASs and IFRSs are mainly principles based, though
some would argue that in practice they are a mixture of rules and principles.
It is possible for rules and principles to complement each other. Many countries
(including Nigeria, the UK, Canada and Australia) have a regulatory system in
which company law deals only with a few specific matters. Detailed financial
reporting practice is developed by the accounting profession through accounting
standards. Accounting standards are generally (though not always) principles-
based. This allows reporting practice to develop over time in response to the
needs of users and changes in the business environment. Accounting standards
usually allow preparers to exercise judgement in developing accounting policies
that are appropriate to the circumstances of a particular entity.
In other countries the content of financial statements and accounting practice
may be prescribed in great detail by company law with little scope for individual
judgement. Because the existing framework is based on detailed rules, users of
the financial statements tend to view principles-based accounting as insufficiently
rigorous.

2 CONVERGENCE WITH IFRS
Section overview
 Convergence of accounting standards

 Advantages and disadvantages of harmonisation
 International Accounting standards (International Financial Reporting) Standards
 The IFRS Foundation
 Support from international organisations
 International adoption of IFRS
 National standard setters and the IASB
 FASB and the IASB
 Developing a new standard
2.1 Convergence of accounting standards

Convergence of accounting standards refers to the goal of establishing a single
set of accounting standards that will be used internationally. This is also
described as the international harmonisation of accounting standards.
Harmonisation of accounting would result in all companies anywhere in the world
reporting financial position and financial performance in the same way with the
belief being that this would lead to greater market efficiency through the quality of
the information and should make raising finance cheaper and easier.
There are two candidate GAAPs to become the basis for an international GAAP.
These are:
 US GAAP; and
 International Accounting Standards (International Financial Reporting
Standards.
International accounting standards have found widespread support.
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of harmonisation

There are some strong arguments in favour of the harmonisation of accounting
standards in all countries of the world, and in particular for the convergence of
US GAAP and IFRSs. There are also some arguments against harmonisation -
even though these are probably not as strong as the arguments in favour.
Advantages of harmonisation
1 Investors and analysts of financial statements can make better
comparisons between the financial position, financial performance and
financial prospects of entities in different countries. This is very important,
in view of the rapid growth in international investment by institutional
investors.
2 For international groups, harmonisation will simplify the preparation of
group accounts. If all entities in the group share the same accounting
framework, there should be no need to make adjustments for consolidation
purposes.

Corporate reporting
3 If all entities are using the same framework for financial reporting,
management should find it easier to monitor performance within their
group.
4 Global harmonisation of accounting framework may encourage growth in
cross-border trading, because entities will find it easier to assess the
financial position of customers and suppliers in other countries.
5 Access to international finance should be easier, because banks and
investors in the international financial markets will find it easier to
understand the financial information presented to them by entities wishing
to raise finance.
6 Harmonisation could also lead to a reduction in cost of capital as a result of
4 and 5 above.
Disadvantages of harmonisation
1. National legal requirements may conflict with the requirements of IFRSs.
Some countries may have strict legal rules about preparing financial
statements, as the statements are prepared mainly for tax purposes.
Consequently, laws may need re-writing to permit the accounting policies
required by IFRSs.
2. Some countries may believe that their framework is satisfactory or even
superior to IFRSs. This has been a problem with the US, although currently
is not as much of an issue as in the past.
3. Cultural differences across the world may mean that one set of accounting
standards will not be flexible enough to meet the needs of all users.
2.3 International Accounting standards (International Financial Reporting)

Standards
The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) was established in
1973 to develop international accounting standards with the aim of harmonising
accounting procedures throughout the world.
The first International Accounting Standards (IASs) were issued in 1975. The
work of the IASC was supported by another body called the Standing
Interpretation Committee. This body issued interpretations of rules in standards
when there was divergence in practice. These interpretations were called
Standing Interpretation Committee Pronouncements or SICs.
In 2001 the constitution of the IASC was changed leading to the establishment of
a body called the IFRS Foundation and the replacement of the IASC and the SIC
by new bodies called the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and
the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee (IFRIC). This
body has since been named the International Financial Reporting Standards
Interpretations Committee (IFRSIC).
The change in the constitution to establish the IASC foundation and to replace
the IASC with the IASB was a vital step towards wider international acceptance
of IFRS. The IASB is now better funded and has wider geographical and wider
industry representation than the IASC.
The IASB adopted all IASs and SICs that were extant at the time but said that
standards written from that time were to be called International Financial
Reporting Standards (IFRS). Interpretations are known as IFRICs.

The term IFRS is also used to refer to the whole body of rules (i.e. IAS and IFRS
in total) and thus comprises:
Published by the IASC Published by the IASB

(up to 2001) (from 2001)
Accounting standards IASs IFRSs
Interpretations SICs IFRICs
Many IASs and SICs have been replaced or amended by the IASB since 2001.
International accounting standards cannot be applied in any country without the
approval of the national regulators in that country. All jurisdictions have some
kind of formal approval process which is followed before IFRS can be applied in
that jurisdiction.
2.4 The IFRS Foundation

As explained above, the change to the IASC’s constitution in 2001 led to the
formation of the IFRS Foundation.
Twenty two trustees provide oversight to the operations of the IFRS Foundation
and the IASB. These trustees are responsible for:
 governance of the Foundation and the bodies within it
 fund-raising.
The Trustees are publicly accountable to a Monitoring Board of public authorities,
and also are accountable for following the due processes and procedures to the
Due Process Oversight Committee (DPOC).
The objectives of the IFRS Foundation

The objectives of the IFRS Foundation are to:
 develop, in the public interest, a single set of high-quality global accounting
standards
 promote the use and rigorous application of those standards
 take account of the special needs of small and medium sized entities and
emerging economies
 bring about the convergence of national accounting standards and the
international accounting standards.
Structure of the IFRS Foundation

The current structure of the IFRS Foundation is as follows.
IFRS
Foundation
IASB
IFRSIC IFRSAC

Corporate reporting
The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) is the standard-setting
body of the IFRS Foundation.
The chairman of the IASB is also the Chief Executive of the IFRS Foundation,
and is accountable to the Trustees.
The IASB consists of 15 members (with provision to increase this to 16), all with
technical expertise in accounting, who are appointed by the Trustees. Each IASB
member is appointed for a five-year term, which might be renewed once for a
further five years.
Each IASB member has one vote, and approval of 8 members is required for the
publication of:
 an exposure draft
 a revised International Accounting Standard (IAS)
 an International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS)
 a final Interpretation of the International Financial Reporting Interpretations
Committee (IFRSIC).
The IASB has full responsibility for all IASB technical matters, including the issue
of IFRSs and revised IASs, and has full discretion over the technical agenda of
the IASB.
The IFRS Interpretations Committee (IFRSIC)

The role of IFRSIC is to issue rapid guidance where there are differing possible
interpretations of an international accounting standard. Its role is therefore to:
 interpret international accounting standards (IASs and IFRSs)
 issue timely guidance on issues not covered by an IAS or IFRS, within the
context of the IASB Conceptual Framework
 publish draft Interpretations for public comment. After studying responses
to the draft Interpretation, it will obtain IASB approval for a final (published)
Interpretation (an IFRIC)
The IFRS Advisory Council (IFRSAC)

The IFRS Advisory Council (IFRSAC) provides a forum through which the IASB is
able to gather opinions and advice from different countries and industries. The
IFRSAC consists of experts from different countries and different business
sectors, who offer advice to the IASB.
2.5 Support from international organisations
Wide support
That aim of the IASC Foundation has been publicly supported by many
international organisations, including the G20, World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), Basel Committee, International Organization of Securities
Commissions (IOSCO) and the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC).

The influence of IOSCO

IOSCO is the International Organisation of Securities Commissions. Securities
Commissions are the regulators of the stock markets in their country. The
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in Nigeria is an IOSCO member.
Within each country, the financial markets regulator is responsible for the rules
that companies must follow if they wish to have their shares traded on the stock
market.
One of IOSCO’s aims is to develop international investment, and they believe
that international investment would be encouraged if major companies were to
use the same accounting standards for reporting their financial position and
performance.
IOSCO has therefore been an influential supporter of the development of
international accounting standards. An IOSCO representative is a non-voting
observer at meetings of the IASB. The US Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) is a key IOSCO member. This is important to note, as it implies that the
US SEC supported IOSCO initiatives.
In 1995 the IASC agreed with IOSCO to develop a set of core standards. IOSCO
also agreed that if it approved these core standards, it would endorse them as an
acceptable basis of accounting for companies seeking to raise capital and list
their shares in all global stock markets (including the US).
The IASC completed its core standards with the issue of IAS 39 in December
1998. IASs were endorsed by IOSCO in 2000. IOSCO then recommended that
its members (including the SEC) should permit multinational issuers of shares to
use financial statements based on IASs and IFRSs for cross-border share
offerings and listings.
This was an important step towards international acceptance and use of
international accounting standards.
2.6 International adoption of IFRS

Most jurisdictions already require IFRS for domestic reporting.
In 2014, the IASB published a booklet called IFRS as global standards: a pocket
guide.
In this they stated that “IFRS has become the de facto global standard for
financial reporting. Its quality has been validated by almost a decade of use by
markets in both advanced and developing economies”.
The guide included the following statistics.
 95% (124/130) of jurisdictions have made a public commitment to IFRS as
the single set of global accounting standards.
 81% (105/130) jurisdictions already require the use of IFRS by all or most
public companies, with most of the remaining jurisdictions permitting their
use.
 The combined GDP of IFRS jurisdictions is S$40 trillion, representing more
than half of worldwide GDP.
 The European Union remains the single biggest IFRS jurisdiction (GDP $17
trillion) but the combined GDP of IFRS jurisdictions outside of the European
Union (US$23 trillion) is now greater than that of the European Union.

Corporate reporting
 In less than six years since its publication, the IFRS for SMEs has been
adopted by 48 per cent (63/130) of jurisdictions while a further 16
jurisdictions are considering doing so.
Several more jurisdictions allow rather than require the use of IFRS including
China, India, Singapore and Switzerland.
There are still seven jurisdictions still using national standards. These include
China and the USA.
Nigeria
The adoption of IFRS in Nigeria is explained later in a separate section (3.3 of
this chapter).
USA
Foreign companies, whose securities are traded in the USA, can file financial
statements prepared under IFRS without reconciling these to US GAAP.
It is hoped that the USA will adopt IFRS in the future though there is a great deal
of resistance there.
European Union
Companies listed on any stock exchange in the EU have had to publish accounts
that comply with international accounting standards since 2005.
The EU has an endorsement mechanism. Standards become compulsory in the
EU once they are approved by the necessary regulatory authority.
The EU regulation applies only to the group accounts of listed entities. It was left
to member states to decide on the accounting rules that should apply in other
financial statements.
For example, in the UK other companies were given a choice of whether to apply
IFRS or to continue with UK GAAP. Thereafter, UK GAAP itself, changed by
incorporating standards identical to some IFRS.
2.7 National standard setters and the IASB

The IASB has no power to enforce its standards. Without the support of at least
the major national standard setters, IFRSs are unlikely to be adopted.
However, there are strong arguments for international convergence.
(International convergence means that the accounting standards of different
countries move towards each other, so that they are increasingly similar.) Most
national standard setters are committed to the principle of international
convergence.
All the major national standard setting bodies are represented on the IASB, so
that they can influence the development of new standards and their views are
taken into account.
All the major national standard setters issue Discussion Papers and Exposure
Drafts in their own countries so that preparers and users in each country can
comment on them.
In addition, the IASB has been working with national standard setters on specific
projects. For example:

 the IASB and the UK Accounting Standards Board worked together to

develop IAS 36 Impairment of assets and IAS 37 Provisions, contingent
liabilities and contingent assets (and the equivalent UK standards)
 some other recent standards have been developed by a group of national
standard setters and the IASB working together
 the IASB Conceptual Framework was originally based on work carried out
by the US FASB and has in turn influenced the UK ASB in developing its
own conceptual framework
2.8 FASB and the IASB

The stated mission of the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is “to
protect investors, maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets, and facilitate capital
formation in the United States of America”.
The SEC recognises the importance of a single set of global financial reporting
standards.
The Norwalk Agreement
The SEC has delegated the responsibility for the preparation of accounting
standards to the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB).
In 2002, the IASB and FASB held a joint meeting in Norwalk, Connecticut,
USA. At this meeting they each acknowledged their commitment to the
development of high-quality, compatible accounting standards that could be
used for both domestic and cross-border financial reporting.
After the meeting, they jointly produced a Memorandum of Understanding
known as the Norwalk Agreement. They agreed to use their best efforts to:
 make their existing financial reporting standards fully compatible as soon as
is practicable; and
 to coordinate their future work programs to ensure that once achieved,
compatibility is maintained.
To achieve compatibility, FASB and IASB agreed to:
 undertake a short-term project aimed at removing a variety of individual
differences between U.S. GAAP and IFRS; and
 enter into other joint projects on major areas (e.g. business combinations,
financial instruments, leases, revenue recognition, insurance contracts)
Roadmap for adoption of IFRS in the US
The aim of the collaboration was to reach a stage where IFRS would be adopted
in the US. To this end, the SEC announced a Roadmap to conversion with IFRS.
At one time it was hoped that large companies would have adopted IFRS in the
US by 2014 and other entities in stages thereafter. However, this hope has not
been realised and it is long way from being so.
Progress on joint projects
The projects have been successful insofar as they have led to convergence of
standards in several key areas (though sometimes with small differences). Areas
of significant convergence include business combinations, consolidation, share-
based payment and revenue recognition. Also many rules of accounting for
financial instruments are similar.

Corporate reporting
However, the two boards have arrived at different conclusions in other areas.
These include accounting for leases and insurance contracts.
Condorsement
Until 2010, there were three schools of thought, or options, for moving to IFRS:
 Adoption / Conversion - a switch from local standards to IFRS, without
converging them first.
 Convergence - migration of local standards to being closely aligned with
IFRS.
 Endorsement - formal endorsement of new or amended IFRS before they
become legally binding.
Condorsement is a term was coined by a senior SEC official in a conference
speech in America (in 2010), to describe a fourth approach. Under this plan, the
U.S. transition to worldwide accounting standards would occur through a
continuation of “convergence” projects, and then through gradual Financial
Accounting Standards Board endorsement of IFRS in those areas where FASB
and IASB still differ. U.S. GAAP would continue to exist under this scenario, and
FASB would still retain its authority.
Conclusion
There is little hope that IFRS will be adopted for use in the US in the near future
(if ever). It seems that US GAAP will continue in the US but IFRS will be used in
most other parts of the world.
2.9 Developing a new standard

The development of a new or revised accounting standard involves widespread
consultation and discussion.
 The IFRS Foundation identifies and issue requiring a financial reporting
standard, taking into account advice from IFRSAC and others.
 An advisory group is established to give advice to the IASB.
 A discussion document is issued by the IASB for public comment. (This is
not a mandatory step but is normally the case for major new projects).
 After receiving comments on the discussion document, the IASB issues an
Exposure Draft (provided it is approved by at least 8 IASB members.) The
Exposure Draft also includes the opinions of any dissenting IASB members,
and the basis for the IASB’s conclusions.
 All comments on the Exposure Draft and discussion documents are
considered.
 An approved IFRS is published (provided it is approved by at least 8 IASB
members.) This will also include the opinions of any dissenting IASB
members, and the basis for the IASB’s conclusions. In some cases, a
revised Exposure Draft has been issued, when the deliberations following
the original ED indicate that there will be substantial changes from what
was originally envisaged
Each new or revised standard has a date for implementation.
All interested parties including national regulators, industry groups, professional
accounting bodies and multi-national companies have every opportunity to
express their views during the development of a standard.

3 REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR ACCOUNTING IN NIGERIA
Section overview
 Companies and Allied Matters Act (CAMA) 2004 – Introduction to accounting

requirements
 Standard setting in Nigeria
 Adoption of IFRS in Nigeria
 Summary: Which schedules and standards?
 International Financial Reporting Standards – A list
3.1 Companies and Allied Matters Act (CAMA) 2004 – Introduction to accounting
requirements
CAMA is the primary source of company law in Nigeria. Amongst other things it
establishes the requirements for financial reporting by all companies in Nigeria.
Requirement to keep accounting records

Section 331 rules that:
 Every company must cause accounting records to be kept.
 The accounting records must be sufficient to show and explain the
transactions of the company and must be such as to:
 disclose with reasonable accuracy, at any time, the financial position
of the company; and
 enable the directors to ensure that financial statements prepared
comply with the requirements of the Act with regard to form and
content.
 The accounting records must, contain:
 entries from day-to-day of all sums of money received and expended
by the company, and the matters in respect of which the receipts and
expenditure take place, and
 a record of assets and liabilities of the company.
 If the business of the company involves dealing in goods, the accounting
records must contain:
 statements of stock held by the company at the end of each
accounting year of the company;
 all statements of stock takings from which any such statement of
stock has been or is to be prepared; and
 except in the case of goods sold by way of ordinary retail trade,
statement of all goods sold and purchased, showing the goods and
the buyers and sellers in sufficient detail to enable all these to be
identified.
This section also states that the balance sheet must give a true and fair view of
the state of affairs of the company as at the year end and the profit and loss
account must give a true and fair view of the profit or loss of the company for the
year.

Corporate reporting
General requirements as to financial statements

Section 334 places a duty on directors to prepare annual financial statements
each year.
These statements must include:
 A statement of accounting policies;
 A balance sheet (statement of financial position);
 A profit and loss account (statement of comprehensive income);
 Notes on the accounts;
 The auditors’ reports;
 The directors’ report;
 A value added statement for the year;
 A five year financial summary; and
 In the case of a holding company, the group financial statements.
Form and content of financial statements

Section 335 ruled that financial statements must comply with the requirements of
the second schedule to the act with respect to their form and content.
The section continued to say that financial statements must also comply with
accounting standards laid down in the Statements of Accounting Standards
issued from time to time by the Nigerian Accounting Standards Board to be
constituted by the Minister.
In June 2011 Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria Act, No. 6, 2011 replaced
the Nigerian Accounting Standards Board and, in effect, resulted in the
replacement of Statements of Accounting Standards by International Financial
Reporting Standards. This is explained in more detail in the next section.
3.2 Standard setting in Nigeria
Nigerian Accounting Standards Board (NASB)

The Nigerian Accounting Standards Board (NASB) was previously responsible
for the development and issuance of Nigerian accounting standards. These were
called Statements of Accounting Standards.
The standards were given legal authority in Nigeria by section 335 of the
Companies and Allied Matters Act 1990. This section required that “financial
statements ….shall comply.... with the accounting standards laid down in the
Statements of Accounting Standards issued from time to time by the Nigerian
Accounting Standards Board to be constituted by the Minister ...."
The Nigerian Accounting Standards Board was originally a unit set up by ICAN in
1982. It subsequently became independent when taken over by the government
and established as a parastatal in 1992.

Definition: Parastatal
Noun: A company or agency owned or controlled wholly or partly by the
government
Adjective: Of an organisation or industry, having some political authority and
serving the state indirectly (e.g. a parastatal organisation).
The Nigerian Accounting Standards Board Act No. 22, 2003 clarified the status,
authority and responsibilities of the board.
Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria

In June 2011 Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria Act, No. 6, 2011 repealed
the Nigerian Accounting Standards Board Act No. 22, 2003. This new act
resulted in the Nigerian Accounting Standards Board being replaced by the
Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria (FRCN).
The Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria is a federal government parastatal
under the supervision of the Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment.
The FRCN’s main objects, as defined in the FRC Act, are:
 To protect investors and other stakeholder’s interest;
 To give guidance on issues relating to financial reporting and corporate
governance to professional, institutional and regulatory bodies in Nigeria;
 To ensure good corporate governance practices in the public and private
sectors of the Nigerian economy;
 To ensure accuracy and reliability of financial reports and corporate
disclosures, pursuant to the various laws and regulations currently in
existence in Nigeria;
 To harmonise activities of relevant professional and regulatory bodies as
relating to corporate governance and financial reporting;
 to promote the highest standards among auditors and other professionals
engaged in the financial reporting process;
 To enhance the credibility of financial reporting; and
 To improve the quality of accountancy and audit services, actuarial,
valuation and corporate governance standards.
The FRCN is structured into a series of directorate to allow it to fulfil its many
responsibilities. The directorates are:
 Directorate of Accounting Standards – Private Sector
 Directorate of Accounting Standards – Public Sector
 Directorate of Auditing Practice Standards
 Directorate of Actuarial Standards
 Directorate of Valuation Standards
 Directorate of Inspection and Monitoring
 Directorate of Corporate Governance

Corporate reporting
Directorate of Accounting Standards – Private Sector

The FRCN is responsible for, among other things, developing and publishing
accounting and financial reporting standards to be observed in the preparation of
financial statements of public entities in Nigeria; and for related matters.
To this end the Directorate of Accounting Standards has the following
responsibilities:
 To develop accounting and financial reporting standards to be observed in
the preparation of financial statements in the private sector and small and
medium scale enterprises;
 To promote the general acceptance and adoption of such standards by
preparers and users of financial statements;
 To promote compliance with the accounting standards developed or
reviewed by the Directorate;
 To review from time to time the accounting standards developed in line with
the prevalent social, economic and political environment;
 To promote compliance with the accounting and financial reporting
standards adopted by the Council;
 To promote, in the public interest, accounting and financial reporting
standards to be observed in the preparation of financial statements of
public interest entities; and
 To perform such other duties which in the opinion of the Board are
necessary or expedient to ensure the efficient performance of the functions
of the Council.
The FRCN is overseeing the convergence of Nigerian GAAP to IFRS. A plan has
been constructed (known as a roadmap) to set out the route to conversion. This
roadmap is structured as several phases with each phase requiring certain
categories of companies to comply with IFRS by a given date.
3.3 Adoption of IFRS in Nigeria

Adoption of IFRS in Nigeria is proceeding in the following phases:
Phase 1: Significant public interest entities and publicly listed entities

Entities in this category include:
 Government business entities
 Entities that have equity or debt instruments listed and traded in domestic
markets, foreign markets or in over the counter trades.
 All other organisations which are required by law to file returns with
regulatory authorities (this excludes private companies that routinely file
returns only with the Corporate Affairs Commission and Federal Inland
Revenue Service). This category will include private entities involved in
financial services.
 All entities in this category must adopt IFRS for periods ending after 1
January 2012.

Phase 2: All other public interest entities

These are unquoted private companies which are of significant public interest
because of the nature of their business, size, number of employees etc.
All entities in this category must adopt IFRS for periods ending after 1 January
2013.
Phase 3: Small and medium sized entities (SMEs)

This refers to entities that may not have public accountability and have the
following characteristics:
 Their equity and debt instruments are not traded or in the process of
becoming traded.
 They do not hold assets in a fiduciary capacity for a broad group of
outsiders as one of their primary businesses
 Their annual turnover (revenue) is not more than ₦500 million or such
amount as might be fixed by the Corporate Affairs Commission.
 Their total assets value is not more than ₦200 million or such amount as
might be fixed by the Corporate Affairs Commission.
 They do not have foreign board members
 No members of the entity are a government, government agency,
government corporation or a nominee of any such body.
 The directors hold not less than 51% of its equity share capital
All entities in this category must use the IFRS for SMEs for periods ending after 1
January 2014.
Entities that do not meet the IFRS for SMEs criteria must report using the Small
and Medium-sized Entities Guidelines on Accounting (SMEGA) Level 3 issued by
the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

Corporate reporting
3.4 Summary: Which schedules and standards?
Entity Which standards? Date

Significant public Full IFRS For periods ending
interest entities and after 1 January 2012
publicly listed entities
Other public interest Full IFRS For periods ending
entities after 1 January 2013
Small and medium IFRS for SMEs For periods ending
sized entities after 1 January 2014
Comment on Nigerian Accounting Standards

Nigerian accounting standards have been replaced by International Financial
Reporting Standards.
However, Nigerian standards included industry specific rules which are not found
in IFRS. Companies in the industries covered are expected to continue to apply
these rules (insofar as they do not conflict with IFRS). Such relevant standards
include:
 SAS 14: Accounting in the petroleum industry: Down-stream activities
 SAS 17: Accounting in the petroleum industry: Up-stream activities
 SAS 25: Telecommunications activities)

3.5 International Financial Reporting Standards – A list

This is a list of standards, provided so that you can appreciate the breadth of the
GAAP. All of these documents are examinable at this level.
Applicable Examinable at
Standard
in Nigeria? this level?
IAS 1 – Presentation of Financial Statements Yes Yes
IAS 2 – Inventories Yes Yes
IAS 7 – Cash Flow Statements Yes Yes
IAS 8 – Accounting Policies, Changes in
Accounting Estimates and Errors Yes Yes
IAS 10 – Events occurring after the reporting
period Yes Yes
IAS 11 – Construction Contracts Yes Yes
IAS 12 – Income Taxes Yes Yes
IAS 16 – Property, Plant and Equipment Yes Yes
IAS 17 – Leases Yes Yes
IAS 18 – Revenue Yes Yes
IAS 19 – Employee Benefits Yes Yes
IAS 20 – Accounting for Government Grants
and Disclosure of Government Assistance Yes Yes
IAS 21 – The Effects of Changes in Foreign
Exchange Rates Yes Yes
IAS 23 – Borrowing Costs Yes Yes
IAS 24 – Related Party Disclosures Yes Yes
IAS 26 – Accounting and Reporting by
Retirement Benefit Plans Yes Yes
IAS 27 – Separate Financial Statements Yes Yes
IAS 28 – Accounting for Investments in
Associates and Joint ventures Yes Yes
IAS 29 – Financial Reporting in Not relevant
Hyperinflationary Economies in Nigeria Yes
IAS 32 – Financial Instruments: Presentation Yes Yes
IAS 33 – Earnings Per Share Yes Yes
IAS 34 – Interim Financial Reporting Yes Yes
IAS 36 – Impairment of Assets Yes Yes
IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities
and Contingent Assets Yes Yes
IAS 38 – Intangible Assets Yes Yes
IAS 39 – Financial Instruments: Recognition Yes Yes
and Measurement
IAS 40 – Investment Property Yes Yes
IAS 41 – Agriculture Yes Yes

Corporate reporting
Applicable in Examinable at
Standard
Nigeria? this level?
IFRS 1 – First time adoption of IFRS Yes (subject to
specific guidance
issued by FRCN) Yes
IFRS 2 – Share-based payment Yes Yes
IFRS 3 – Business combinations Yes Yes
IFRS 4 – Insurance contracts Yes Yes
IFRS 5 – Non-current assets held for
sale and discontinued operations Yes Yes
IFRS 6 – Exploration for and evaluation
of mineral resources Yes Yes
IFRS 7 – Financial Instruments: Yes
Disclosures Yes
IFRS 8 – Operating segments Yes Yes
IFRS 9 – Financial Instruments Yes Yes
IFRS 10 – Consolidated financial
statements Yes Yes
IFRS 11 – Joint arrangements Yes Yes
IFRS 12 – Disclosure of interests in other Yes
entities Yes
IFRS 13 – Fair value measurement Yes Yes
IFRS for SMEs Yes Yes

4 ETHICS
Section overview
 Introduction
 The fundamental principles
 Threats to the fundamental principles
 Accountants in business
 Preparation and reporting of information
 Potential conflicts
4.1 Introduction
Ethics can be difficult to define but it is principally concerned with human
character and conduct. Ethical behaviour is more than obeying laws, rules and
regulations. It is about doing ‘the right thing’. The accountancy profession is
committed to acting ethically and in the public interest.
Professional accountants may find themselves in situations where values are in
conflict with one another due to responsibilities to employers, clients and the
public.
ICAN has a code of conduct which members and student members must follow.
The code provides guidance in situations where ethical issues arise.
Comment
Most people are honest and have integrity and will always try to behave in the
right way in a given set of circumstances. However, accountants might face
situations where it is not easy to see the most ethical course of action. One of the
main roles of the ICAN code is to provide guidance in these situations.
Impact on members in practice

All members and student members of ICAN are required to comply with the code
of ethics and it applies to both accountants in practice and in business.
This chapter explains ethical issues surrounding the preparation of financial
statements and other financial information.
4.2 The fundamental principles

ICAN’s Code of Ethics expresses its guidance in terms of five fundamental
principles. . These are:
 integrity;
 objectivity;
 professional competence and due care;
 confidentiality; and
 professional behaviour

Corporate reporting
Integrity
Members should be straightforward and honest in all professional and business
relationships. Integrity implies not just honesty but also fair dealing and
truthfulness.
A chartered accountant should not be associated with reports, returns,
communications or other information where they believe that the information:
 Contains a materially false or misleading statement;
 Contains statements or information furnished recklessly; or
 Omits or obscures information required to be included where such omission
or obscurity would be misleading.
Objectivity
Members should not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue influence of others
to override their professional or business judgements.
A chartered accountant may be exposed to situations that may impair objectivity.
It is impracticable to define and prescribe all such situations.
Relationships that bias or unduly influence the professional judgment of the
chartered accountant should be avoided.
Professional competence and due care

Practising as a chartered accountant involves a commitment to learning over
one’s entire working life.
Members have a duty to maintain their professional knowledge and skill at such a
level that a client or employer receives a competent service, based on current
developments in practice, legislation and techniques. Members should act
diligently and in accordance with applicable technical and professional standards.
Continuing professional development develops and maintains the capabilities
that enable a chartered accountant to perform competently within the
professional environments.
Confidentiality
Members must respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of
professional and business relationships and should not disclose such information
to third parties without authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or
duty to disclose.
Confidential information acquired as a result of professional and business
relationships should not be used for the personal advantage of members or third
parties.
Professional behaviour
Members must comply with relevant laws and regulations and should avoid any
action which discredits the profession. They should behave with courtesy and
consideration towards all with whom they come into contact in a professional
capacity.

4.3 Threats to the fundamental principles

Compliance with the fundamental principles may potentially be threatened by a
broad range of circumstances. Many threats fall into the following categories:
 Self-interest;
 Self-review;
 Advocacy;
 Familiarity; and
 Intimidation.
Members must identify, evaluate and respond to such threats. Unless any threat
is clearly insignificant, members must implement safeguards to eliminate the
threats or reduce them to an acceptable level so that compliance with the
fundamental principles is not compromised.
Self- interest threats

Self-interest threats may occur as a result of the financial or other interests of
members or their immediate or close family members.
Such financial interests might cause members to be reluctant to take actions that
would be against their own interests.
Examples of circumstances that may create self-interest threats include, but are
not limited to:
 Financial interests, loans or guarantees
 Incentive compensation arrangements.
 Inappropriate personal use of corporate assets
 Concern over employment security.
 Commercial pressure from outside the employing organisation.
Example: Self- interest threats

Adeola is member of ICAN working as a unit accountant.
He is a member of a bonus scheme under which, staff receive a bonus of 10% of
their annual salary if profit for the year exceeds a trigger level.
Adeola has been reviewing working papers prepared to support this year’s financial
statements. He has found a logic error in a spreadsheet used as a measurement
tool for provisions.
Correction of this error would lead to an increase in provisions. This would decrease
profit below the trigger level for the bonus.
Analysis:
Adeola faces a self-interest threat which might distort his objectivity.

Corporate reporting
Self-review threats
Self-review threats occur when a previous judgement needs to be re-evaluated
by members responsible for that judgement. For example, where a member has
been involved in maintaining the accounting records of a client he may be
unwilling to find fault with the financial statements derived from those records.
Again, this would threaten the fundamental principle of objectivity.
Circumstances that may create self-review threats include, but are not limited to,
business decisions or data being subject to review and justification by the same
chartered accountant in business responsible for making those decisions or
preparing that data.
Advocacy threats
A chartered accountant in business may often need to promote the organisations
position by providing financial information. As long as information provided is
neither false nor misleading such actions would not create an advocacy threat.
Familiarity threats
Familiarity threats occur when, because of a close relationship, members
become too sympathetic to the interests of others. Examples of circumstances
that may create familiarity threats include:
 A chartered accountant in business in a position to influence financial or
non-financial reporting or business decisions having an immediate or close
family member who is in a position to benefit from that influence.
 Long association with business contacts influencing business decisions.
 Acceptance of a gift or preferential treatment, unless the value is clearly
insignificant.
Intimidation threats
Intimidation threats occur when a member’s conduct is influenced by fear or
threats (for example, when he encounters an aggressive and dominating
individual at a client or at his employer).
Examples of circumstances that may create intimidation threats include:
 Threat of dismissal or replacement over a disagreement about the
application of an accounting principle or the way in which financial
information is to be reported.
 A dominant personality attempting to influence decisions of the chartered
accountant.

4.4 Accountants in business

Accountants in business are often responsible for the preparation of accounting
information.
Accountants in business need to ensure that they do not prepare financial
information in a way that is misleading or that does not show a true and fair view
of the entity’s operations.
Accountants who are responsible for the preparation of financial information must
ensure that the information they prepare is technically correct, reports the
substance of the transaction and is adequately disclosed.
There is a danger of influence from senior managers to present figures that
inflate profit or assets or understate liabilities. This puts the accountant in a
difficult position. On one hand, they wish to prepare proper information and on
the other hand, there is a possibility they might lose their job if they do not comply
with their managers wishes.
In this case, ethics starts with the individual preparing the information. They have
a difficult decision to make; whether to keep quiet or take the matter further. If
they keep quiet, they will certainly be aware that they are not complying with the
ethics of the accounting body they belong to. If they speak out, they may be
bullied at work into changing the information or sacked.

Corporate reporting
4.5 Preparation and reporting of information

Chartered accountants in business are often involved in the preparation and
reporting of information that may either be made public or used by others inside
or outside the employing organisation. Such information may include financial or
management information, for example:
 forecasts and budgets;
 financial statements;
 management discussion and analysis; and
 the management letter of representation provided to the auditors as part of
an audit of financial statements.
Information must be prepared and presented fairly, honestly and in accordance
with relevant professional standards. In particular financial statements must be
prepared and presented in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
standards.
A chartered accountant in business must maintain information for which he is
responsible in a manner that:
 describes clearly the true nature of business transactions, assets or
liabilities;
 classifies and records information in a timely and proper manner; and
 represents the facts accurately and completely in all material respects.
Threats to compliance with the fundamental principles, for example self-interest
or intimidation threats to objectivity or professional competence and due care,
may be created where a chartered accountant in business may be pressured
(either externally or by the possibility of personal gain) to become associated with
misleading information or to become associated with misleading information
through the actions of others.
The significance of such threats will depend on factors such as the source of the
pressure and the degree to which the information is, or may be, misleading.
The significance of the threats should be evaluated and unless they are clearly
insignificant, safeguards should be considered and applied as necessary to
eliminate them or reduce them to an acceptable level. Such safeguards may
include consultation with superiors within the employing organisation, for
example, the audit committee or other body responsible for governance, or with a
relevant professional body.
Where it is not possible to reduce the threat to an acceptable level, a chartered
accountant should refuse to remain associated with information they consider is
or may be misleading.
If the chartered accountant is aware that the issuance of misleading information
is either significant or persistent, he should consider informing appropriate
authorities in line with the guidance in this code. The chartered accountant in
business may also wish to seek legal advice or resign.

4.6 Potential conflicts

There may be times when the responsibilities of a chartered accountant to an
employing organisation come into conflict with their professional obligations to
comply with the fundamental principles in the Code. Where compliance with the
fundamental principles is threatened, a chartered accountant in business must
consider a response to the circumstances.
Responsibilities to an employer may put a chartered accountant under pressure
to act or behave in ways that could directly or indirectly threaten compliance with
the fundamental principles. Such pressure may be explicit or implicit; it may come
from a supervisor, manager, director or another individual within the employing
organisation.
A chartered accountant in business may face pressure to:
 Act contrary to law or regulation.
 Act contrary to technical or professional standards.
 Lie to, or otherwise intentionally mislead (including misleading by remaining
silent) others, in particular:
 The auditors of the employing organisation; or
 Regulators.
 Issue, or otherwise be associated with, a financial or non-financial report
that materially misrepresents the facts, including statements in connection
with, for example:
 The financial statements;
 Tax compliance;
 Legal compliance; or
 Reports required by securities regulators.
The significance of threats must be evaluated and unless they are clearly
insignificant, safeguards should be considered and applied to eliminate them or
reduce them to an acceptable level.
Such safeguards may include:
 Obtaining advice where appropriate from within the employing organisation,
or an independent professional advisor or a relevant professional body.
 The existence of a formal dispute resolution process within the employing
organisation.
 Seeking legal advice.

Corporate reporting
Example: Self-interest threat

Adeola is member of ICAN working as a unit accountant.
He is a member of a bonus scheme under which, staff receive a bonus of 10% of
their annual salary if profit for the year exceeds a trigger level.
Adeola has been reviewing working papers prepared to support this year’s financial
statements. He has found a logic error in a spreadsheet used as a measurement
tool for provisions.
Correction of this error would lead to an increase in provisions. This would decrease
profit below the trigger level for the bonus.
Analysis:
Adeola faces a self-interest threat which might distort his objectivity.
Adeola has a professional responsibility to ensure that financial information is
prepared and presented fairly, honestly and in accordance with relevant
professional standards. He has further obligations to ensure that financial
information is prepared in accordance with applicable accounting standards and
that records maintained represent the facts accurately and completely in all
material respects.
Adeola must make the necessary adjustment even though it would lead to a loss to
himself.

Example: Self-interest threat

Olawale is a chartered accountant recruited on a short-term contract to assist the
finance director, Adayemi (who is not a chartered accountant) in finalising the draft
The decision on whether to employ Olawale on a permanent basis rests with
Adayemi.
Olawale has been instructed to prepare information on leases to be included in the
financial statements. He has identified a number of large leases which are being
accounted for as operating leases even though the terms of the contract contain
clear indicators that the risks and benefits have passed to the company. Changing
the accounting treatment for the leases would have a material impact on asset
and liability figures.
Olawale has explained this to Adayemi. Adayemi responded that Olawale should
ignore this information as the company need to maintain a certain ratio between
the assets and liabilities in the statement of financial position.
Analysis
Olawale faces a self-interest threat which might distort his objectivity.
The current accounting treatment is incorrect.
Olawale has a professional responsibility to ensure that financial information is
material respects.
Possible course of action
Olawale must explain his professional obligations to Adayemi in particular that he
cannot be party to the preparation and presentation of knowingly misleading
information.
Olawale should refuse to remain associated with information that is misleading.
If Adayemi refuses to allow the necessary changes to the information Olawale
should report the matter to the audit committee or the other directors.
As a last resort if the company refuses to change the information Olawale should
resign from his post.
Olawale may need to consider informing the appropriate authorities in line with the
ICAN guidance on confidentiality.

Corporate reporting
Example: Intimidation threat

Efe is a chartered accountant who works as in a team that reports to Kunle, the
finance director of Oshogbo Holdings.
Kunle Is also a chartered accountant. He has a domineering personality.
Oshogbo Holdings revalues commercial properties as allowed by IAS 16. Valuation
information received last year showed that the fair value of the property portfolio
was 2% less than the carrying amount of the properties (with no single property
being more than 4% different). A downward revaluation was not recognised on the
grounds that the carrying amount was not materially different from the fair value.
This year’s valuation shows a continued decline in the fair value of the property
portfolio. It is now 5% less than the carrying amount of the properties with some
properties now being 15% below the carrying amount.
Efe submitted workings to Kunle in which he had recognised the downward
revaluations in accordance with IAS 16.
Kunle has sent him an email in response in which he wrote “Stop bothering me
with this rubbish. There is no need to write the properties down. The fair value of
the portfolio is only 5% different from its carrying amount. Restate the numbers
immediately”.
Analysis
Efe faces an intimidation threat which might distort his objectivity.
The current accounting treatment might be incorrect. The value of the properties as
a group is irrelevant in applying IAS 16’s revalution model. IAS 16 allows the use of
a revalution model but requires that the carrying amount of a property should not
be materially different from its fair value. This applies to individual properties not
the whole class taken together.
(It could be that Kunle is correct because there is insufficient information to judge
materiality in this circumstance. However, a 15% discrepancy does sound
significant).
Efe has a professional responsibility to ensure that financial information is
material respects.

Example (continued): Intimidation threat

Possible course of action
Efe should arrange a meeting with Kunle to try to explain Kunle’s misapplication of
the IAS 16 guidance and to try to persuade Kunle that a change might be
necessary.
Kunle should be reminded that he too is bound by the same guidance that applies
to Efe. Indeed he has a greater responsibility as the more senior person to show
leadership in this area.
Efe cannot be party to the preparation and presentation of knowingly misleading
information. He should explain that he cannot remain associated with information
that is misleading. If Kunle refuses to allow the necessary changes to the
information Efe should report the matter to the audit committee or the other
directors.
As a last resort if the company refuses to change the information Efe should
resign from his post.
Efe may need to consider informing the appropriate authorities in line with the
ICAN guidance on confidentiality.

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5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
Before moving on to the next chapter check that you now know how to:
 Explain the role of the IASB in convergence of accounting standards
 Explain the extent of convergence
 Explain the sources of accounting regulation in Nigeria
 Outline the roadmap for conversion to IFRS in Nigeria
 Identify ethical issues in relation to financial reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
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2
Accounting and reporting concepts
Contents
1 A conceptual framework for financial reporting
2 The IASB Conceptual Framework
3 Qualitative characteristics of useful financial
information
4 The elements of financial statements
5 Recognition in the financial statements
6 Accounting concepts
7 Bases of accounting
8 Measurement and capital maintenance
9 Fair presentation
10 Measurement
11 IFRS 13: Fair Value Measurement
12 Discussion paper: A review of the conceptual
framework for financial reporting
13 Chapter review

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INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1 Accounting and reporting concepts, frameworks and practices
1(b) Explain the objectives and limitations of financial statements using appropriate
examples or using a given scenario
1(d) Identify and present the financial effects of accounting for events and
transactions under the IASB Conceptual Framework
1(e) Identify, present and explain the differences between financial statements
prepared using accruals and cash bases
1(f) Identify and explain the break up basis of accounting
1(g) Identify, present and explain to professional accountants or general users the
different bases of measurement or of capital and capital maintenance that
may be used under accruals based accounting.
1(h) Explain the meaning of true and fair or fairly presented in relation to financial
reporting.
Exam context
This chapter explains each of the above.
Much of the content of this chapter will already be familiar to you. The regulatory framework
has already been examined in your previous studies. This subject is still examinable, but the
focus is slightly different. The Examiner expects higher level skills, expecting you to be able
to assess an accounting scenario or case study and give advice on dealing with problems
that are evident in the scenario.
For example you may be given a situation where an entity is not following the guidance of an
accounting standard, and you may be asked to provide advice. These questions will require
that you have a good understanding of the relevant accounting standards as well as the
Framework, which provides the underpinning for accounting standards.

 Explain the objectives of financial statements
 List and explain the components of the conceptual framework
 Explain the difference between the accruals, cash and break up basis of accounting
 Prepare simple cash and break up basis financial statements
 Explain the measurement bases available under IFRS
 Explain and illustrate the capital maintenance concepts described in the conceptual
framework
 Explain the meaning of true and fair or fairly presented
 Explain different measurement bases
 Explain and apply the rules set out in IFRS13

Chapter 2: Accounting and reporting concepts
1 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR FINANCIAL REPORTING
Section overview
 The meaning of GAAP

 The meaning of a conceptual framework
 The purpose of a conceptual framework
 The alternative to a conceptual framework
1.1 The meaning of GAAP

The preparation and presentation of financial statements is based on a large
number of concepts, principles and detailed rules. Some of these are contained
in law, and others are in financial reporting standards. Many of the most
fundamental concepts are not contained in any law or regulation or standard, but
are simply accepted accounting principles and conventions.
All the concepts, principles, conventions, laws, rules and regulations that are
used to prepare and present financial statements are known as Generally
Accepted Accounting Principles or GAAP.
‘Generally accepted accounting principles’ vary from country to country, because
each country has its own legal and regulatory system. The way in which
businesses operate also differs from country to country. (For example, there is
US GAAP, UK GAAP and Nigerian GAAP).
Many countries have now adopted International Financial Reporting Standards or
IFRSs, sometimes called international accounting standards. It is now fairly
common to refer to the totality of the rules as IFRS or IAS.
1.2 The meaning of a conceptual framework

A conceptual framework is a system of concepts and principles that underpin the
preparation of financial statements. These concepts and principles should be
consistent with one another.
The International Accounting Standards Committee (the predecessor of the
IASB) issued a conceptual framework document in 1989. This was called the
Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements and
was adopted by the IASB. It is comprised of the following sections:
 The objective of financial statements (now replaced – see below)
 Underlying assumptions of financial statements
 Qualitative characteristics of financial statements (now replaced – see
below)
 The elements of financial statements
 Recognition of the elements of financial statements
 Measurement of the elements of financial statements
 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
The IASB has been working closely with FASB (the US standard setter) on a
wide range of projects with the aim of converging IFRS and US GAAP. One of

Corporate reporting
the projects has had the aim of producing a conceptual framework common to
each GAAP.
The new conceptual framework is being developed on a chapter by chapter
basis. Each chapter is being released as an exposure draft and then, subject to
comments received, released as the final version. To date, two chapters have
been finalised and these replace the sections on “The objective of financial
statements” and “Qualitative characteristics of financial statements” from the
original document.
To avoid confusion the IASB has published a new document called ”The
conceptual framework for financial reporting” which, includes the new chapters
and those retained from the original framework.
The new document is made up of the following sections:
 Chapter 1 – The objective of general purpose financial statements.
 Chapter 2 – The reporting entity (to be added – currently in release as an
exposure draft).
 Chapter 3 – Qualitative characteristics of financial information.
 Chapter 4 – The Framework (1989): The remaining text (These sections
are unchanged as of yet).
 Underlying assumptions of financial statements.
 The elements of financial statements.
 Recognition of the elements of financial statements.
 Measurement of the elements of financial statements.
 Concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
The original document was known as The Framework. This text will describe the
new document as The Conceptual Framework. Note that the changes are not
fundamental in terms of their impact on IFRS.
1.3 The purpose of a conceptual framework

Most preparers and users of financial statements recognise that there is a need
for a formal conceptual framework and that this can be useful in a number of
ways.
Where there is a formal conceptual framework for accounting, accounting
practice and accounting standards are based on this framework.
Lack of a formal framework often means that standards are developed randomly
or only to deal with particular problems. The result is that standards are
inconsistent with each other or with legislation.
Lack of a conceptual framework may also mean that accounting standards fail to
address important issues. For example, until the IASB developed its Framework,
there was no proper definition of terms such as ‘asset’, ‘liability’, ‘income’ and
‘expenses’.
The business environment is becoming increasingly complex. It is unlikely that
accounting standards can cover all possible transactions. Where an entity enters
into an unusual transaction and there is no relevant accounting standard, it can
refer to the framework and apply the principles in it.

It can also be argued that a conceptual framework strengthens the credibility of

financial reporting and the accounting profession in general.
1.4 The alternative to a conceptual framework

The alternative to a system based on a conceptual framework is a system based
on detailed rules.
Accounting standards based on detailed rules are open to abuse. ‘Creative
accounting’ is the name given to techniques which enable management to give a
biased impression (usually favourable) of the company’s performance while still
complying with accounting standards and other regulations. During the 1980s
there were a number of scandals in which investors were misled by the financial
statements of apparently healthy companies which then collapsed. This was one
of the original reasons why the IASB and other standard setters developed their
conceptual frameworks. Principles are normally much harder to evade than rules.
Another disadvantage of a rule-based system is that standard setters are more
likely to be influenced by ‘vested interests’ such as large companies or a
particular business sector. The existence of a conceptual framework is an
important safeguard against this kind of political pressure.
Despite these problems, some preparers and regulators still appear to favour rule
based standards. Standards based on principles may require management to
use its judgement (and to risk making a mistake), while rules simply need to be
followed. This can be important where management can face legal action if an
investor makes a poor decision based on the financial statements.
The use of a conceptual framework can lead to standards that are theoretical and
complex. They may give the ‘right answer’ but be very difficult for the ordinary
preparer to understand and apply. However, a system of extremely detailed rules
can also be very difficult to apply.

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2 THE IASB CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Section overview
 Introduction
 Underlying assumption
 Users and their information needs
 Chapter 1: Objective of general purpose financial statements
2.1 Introduction
Financial reports are based on estimates, judgements and models rather than
exact depictions. The Conceptual Framework establishes the concepts that
underlie those estimates, judgements and models.
The Conceptual Framework deals with:
 the objective of financial reporting;
 the qualitative characteristics of useful financial information;
 the definition, recognition and measurement of the elements from which
financial statements are constructed; and
 concepts of capital and capital maintenance.
The Conceptual Framework sets out the concepts that underlie the preparation
and presentation of financial statements for external users. Its purpose is:
 to assist the IASB in the development of future IFRSs and in its review of
existing IFRSs;
 to assist the IASB in promoting harmonisation of regulations, accounting
standards and procedures relating to the presentation of financial
statements by providing a basis for reducing the number of alternative
accounting treatments permitted by IFRSs;
 to assist national standard-setting bodies in developing national standards;
 to assist preparers of financial statements in applying IFRSs and in dealing
with topics that have yet to form the subject of an IFRS;
 to assist auditors in forming an opinion on whether financial statements
comply with IFRSs;
 to assist users of financial statements in interpreting the information
contained in financial statements prepared in compliance with IFRSs; and
 to provide those who are interested in the work of the IASB with information
about its approach to the formulation of IFRSs.
This Conceptual Framework is not an IFRS and nothing in the Conceptual
Framework overrides any specific IFRS.
On very rare occasions there may be a conflict between the Conceptual
Framework and an IFRS. In those cases, the requirements of the IFRS prevail
over those of the Conceptual Framework.

2.2 Underlying assumption

The going concern basis of accounting is the assumption in preparing the
financial statements that the entity will continue to operate for the foreseeable
future, and does not intend to go into liquidation and will not be forced into
liquidation. The going concern assumption is particularly relevant for the
valuation of assets.
This is found in chapter 4 of The Conceptual Framework.
2.3 Users and their information needs

Many existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors cannot require
reporting entities to provide information directly to them and must rely on general
purpose financial reports for much of the financial information they need. These
are the primary users to whom general purpose financial reports are directed.
 General purpose financial reports cannot provide all the information needed
and users also need to consider pertinent information from other sources.
 General purpose financial reports do not show the value of a reporting
entity; but they provide information to help users estimate a value.
 Individual primary users have different information needs. The aim of IFRSs
is to provide information that will meet the needs of the maximum number
of primary users.
Other users
 Regulators and members of the public other than investors, lenders and
other creditors, may also find general purpose financial reports useful but
these reports are not primarily directed to these groups.
 A company’s management is of interested in financial information but the
management do not need to rely on general purpose financial reports.

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2.4 Chapter 1: Objective of general purpose financial statements

The objective of general purpose financial reporting forms the foundation of the
Conceptual Framework. Other aspects of the Conceptual Framework flow
logically from the objective.
The objective
The objective of general purpose financial reporting is to provide financial
information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential
investors, lenders and other creditors in making decisions about providing
resources to the entity.
Those decisions involve buying, selling or holding equity and debt instruments,
and providing or settling loans and other forms of credit.
 In order to make these decisions the users need information to help them
assess the prospects for future net cash inflows to an entity.
 In order to assess an entity’s prospects for future net cash inflows, users
need information about:
 the resources of the entity;
 claims against the entity; and
 how efficiently and effectively the entity’s management have
discharged their responsibilities to use the entity’s resources. (This
information is also useful for decisions by those who have the right to
vote on or otherwise influence management performance).
Information provided
General purpose financial statements provide information about:
 the financial position of the entity – information about economic resources
and the claims against them; and
 changes in its financial position which could be due to:
 financial performance; and/or
 other events or transactions (e.g share issues).
Economic resources and claims

Information about the nature and amounts of economic resources and claims can
help users to:
 identify the financial strengths and weaknesses of a reporting entity;
 to assess a reporting entity’s liquidity and solvency and its needs for
additional financing;
Information about priorities and payment requirements of existing claims helps
users to predict how future cash flows will be distributed among those with a
claim against the reporting entity.

Changes in economic resources and claims – Financial performance

Accrual accounting depicts the effects of transactions and other events and
circumstances on a reporting entity’s economic resources and claims in the
periods in which those effects occur, even if the resulting cash receipts and
payments occur in a different period.
This is important because such information provides a better basis for assessing
the entity’s past and future performance than information solely about cash
receipts and payments during that period.
Importance of information about a reporting entity’s financial performance:
 It helps users to understand the return generated from its economic
resources. This in turn provides an indication of how well management has
discharged its responsibilities to make efficient and effective use of these
resources.
 It shows the capacity of a reporting entity to generate net cash inflows
through its operations rather than by obtaining additional resources directly
from investors and creditors.
 It gives an indication of the extent to which events such as changes in
market prices or interest rates affect its ability to generate net cash inflows.
 Information about the variability and components of return is also important,
especially in assessing the uncertainty of future cash flows.
 Information about past financial performance is helpful in predicting the
entity’s future returns on its economic resources.
Another aspect of performance is management of cash flow. Information about a
reporting entity’s cash flows during a period helps users to assess the entity’s
ability to generate future net cash inflows. It indicates how the reporting entity
obtains and spends cash, including information about its borrowing and
repayment of debt, cash dividends or other cash distributions to investors, and
other factors that may affect the entity’s liquidity or solvency. Information about
cash flows helps users understand a reporting entity’s operations, evaluate its
financing and investing activities, assess its liquidity or solvency and interpret
other information about financial performance.
Changes in economic resources and claims – Other events and transactions

Information about this type of change is necessary to give users a complete
understanding of why the reporting entity’s economic resources and claims
changed and the implications of those changes for its future financial
performance.
Objectives of financial statements: summary

The objectives of financial statements are met by:
 the main financial statements (statement of financial position, statement of
profit or loss and other comprehensive income (or statement of profit or
loss and statement of other comprehensive income), statement of cash
flows, and statement of changes in equity), and
 supporting notes to the accounts, which provide additional details.

Corporate reporting
3 QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL FINANCIAL

INFORMATION
Section overview
 Introduction
 Relevance
 Faithful representation
 Enhancing qualitative characteristics
 Cost constraint on useful information
3.1 Introduction
This is covered by chapter 3 of The IASB Conceptual Framework.
Information must have certain characteristics in order for it to be useful for
decision making. The IASB Conceptual Framework describes:
 fundamental qualitative characteristics; and
 enhancing qualitative characteristics
Fundamental qualitative characteristics:
 relevance; and
 faithful representation
The qualitative characteristics that enhance the usefulness of information that is
relevant and a faithful representation are:
 comparability;
 verifiability
 timeliness; and
 understandability
“If financial information is to be useful, it must be relevant and faithfully represent

what it purports to represent. The usefulness of financial information is enhanced
if it is comparable, verifiable, timely and understandable”.
Emphasis
Information must be both relevant and faithfully represented if it is to be useful.
The enhancing qualitative characteristics cannot make information useful if that
information is irrelevant or not faithfully represented.

3.2 Relevance
Information must be relevant to the decision-making needs of users. Information
is relevant if it can be used for predictive and/or confirmatory purposes.
 It has predictive value if it helps users to predict what might happen in the
future.
 It has confirmatory value if it helps users to confirm the assessments and
predictions they have made in the past.
The relevance of information is affected by its materiality.
Information is material if omitting it or misstating it could influence decisions that
users make on the basis of financial information about a specific reporting entity.
 Materiality is an entity-specific aspect of relevance based on the nature or
magnitude (or both) of the items to which the information relates in the
context of an individual entity’s financial report.
 Therefore, it is not possible for the IASB to specify a uniform quantitative
threshold for materiality or predetermine what could be material in a
particular situation.
3.3 Faithful representation

Financial reports represent economic phenomena (economic resources, claims
against the reporting entity and the effects of transactions and other events and
conditions that change those resources and claims) by depicting them in words
and numbers.
To be useful, financial information must not only represent relevant phenomena,
but it must also faithfully represent the phenomena that it purports to represent.
A perfectly faithful representation would have three characteristics. It would be:
 complete – the depiction includes all information necessary for a user to
understand the phenomenon being depicted, including all necessary
descriptions and explanations.
 neutral – the depiction is without bias in the selection or presentation of
financial information; and
 free from error – where there are no errors or omissions in the description
of the phenomenon, and the process used to produce the reported
information has been selected and applied with no errors in the process.
3.4 Enhancing qualitative characteristics
Comparability
Comparability is the qualitative characteristic that enables users to identify and
understand similarities in, and differences among, items
Information about a reporting entity is more useful if it can be compared with
similar information about other entities and with similar information about the
same entity for another period or another date.
Consistency is related to comparability but is not the same. Consistency refers to
the use of the same methods for the same items, either from period to period
within a reporting entity or in a single period across entities. Consistency helps to
achieve the goal of comparability.

Corporate reporting
Verifiability
This quality helps assure users that information faithfully represents the
economic phenomena it purports to represent.
 Verifiability means that different knowledgeable and independent observers
could reach consensus that a particular depiction is a faithful
representation.
 Quantified information need not be a single point estimate to be verifiable.
A range of possible amounts and the related probabilities can also be
verified.
Verification can be direct or indirect.
 Direct verification means verification through direct observation, e.g. by
counting cash.
 Indirect verification means checking the inputs to a model, formula or other
technique and recalculating the outputs using the same methodology. For
example, the carrying amount of inventory might be verified by checking the
inputs (quantities and costs) and recalculating the closing inventory using
the same assumption (e.g. FIFO).
Timeliness
This means having information available to decision-makers in time to be capable
of influencing their decisions.
Understandability
Information is made understandable by classifying, characterising and presenting
it in a clear and concise manner.
Financial reports are prepared for users who have a reasonable knowledge of
business and economic activities and who review and analyse the information
diligently.
3.5 Cost constraint on useful information

Reporting financial information that is relevant and faithfully represents what it
purports to represent helps users to make decisions with more confidence. This
results in more efficient functioning of capital markets and a lower cost of capital
for the economy as a whole. An individual investor, lender or other creditor also
receives benefits by making more informed decisions. However, it is not possible
for general purpose financial reports to provide all the information that every user
finds relevant.
The benefits obtained from financial information should exceed the cost of
obtaining and providing it. Information should not be provided if the cost is not
worth the benefit.
Since it is difficult to measure the benefits of financial information, the setters of
accounting standards must use their judgement in deciding whether certain items
of information should be provided in the financial statements (and if so, in how
much detail).

4 THE ELEMENTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview
 Assets
 Liabilities
 Equity
 Income
 Expenses
The IASB Framework discusses the five elements of financial statements:

 for reporting financial position: assets, liabilities and equity
 for reporting financial performance: income and expenses.
4.1 Assets
An asset is defined as:
 a resource controlled by the entity;
 as a result of past events; and
 from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.
Resource controlled by the entity

Control is the ability to obtain economic benefits from the asset, and to restrict
the ability of others to obtain the same benefits from the same item.
An entity usually uses assets to produce goods or services to meet the needs of
its customers, and because customers are willing to pay for the goods and
services, this contributes to the cash flow of the entity. Cash itself is an asset
because of its command over other resources.
Many assets have a physical form, but this is not an essential requirement for the
existence of an asset.
The result of past events

Assets result from past transactions or other past events. An asset is not created
by any transaction that is expected to occur in the future but has not yet
happened. For example, an intention to buy inventory does not create an asset.
Expected future economic benefits

An asset should be expected to provide future economic benefits to the entity.
Providing future economic benefits can be defined as contributing, directly or
indirectly, to the flow of cash (and cash equivalents) into the entity.

Corporate reporting
4.2 Liabilities
A liability is defined as:
 a present obligation of an entity
 arising from past events
 the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow of resources that
embody economic benefits.
Present obligation
A liability is an obligation that already exists. An obligation may be legally
enforceable as a result of a binding contract or a statutory requirement, such as a
legal obligation to pay a supplier for goods purchased.
Obligations may also arise from normal business practice, or a desire to maintain
good customer relations or the desire to act in a fair way. For example, an entity
might undertake to rectify faulty goods for customers, even if these are now
outside their warranty period. This undertaking creates an obligation, even
though it is not legally enforceable by the customers of the entity.
Past transactions or events

A liability arises out of a past transaction or event. For example, a trade payable
arises out of the past purchase of goods or services, and an obligation to repay a
bank loan arises out of past borrowing.
Future outflow of economic resources

The settlement of a liability should result in an outflow of resources that embody
economic benefits. This usually involves the payment of cash or transfer of other
assets. A liability is measured by the value of these resources that will be paid or
transferred.
Some liabilities can be measured only with a substantial amount of estimation.
These may be called provisions.
4.3 Equity
Equity is the residual interest in an entity after the value of all its liabilities has
been deducted from the value of all its assets. It is a ‘balance sheet value’ of the
entity’s net assets. It does not represent in any way the market value of the
equity.
Equity may be sub-classified in the statement of financial position, into share
capital, retained profits and other reserves that represent capital maintenance
adjustments.
4.4 Income
Income is defined as increases in economic benefits during the accounting period
in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that
result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity
participants.
Financial performance is measured by profit or loss and gains or losses
recognised in other comprehensive income. Profit is measured as income less
expenses.

The concept of income includes both revenue and gains.

 Revenue is income arising in the course of the ordinary activities of the
entity. It includes sales revenue, fee income, royalties income, income and
income from investments (interest and dividends). Revenue is recognised
in the statement of profit or loss.
 Gains represent other items that meet the definition of income. Gains may
be recognised in the statements of profit or loss or in the statement of other
comprehensive income. For example:
 Income includes gains on the disposal of non-current assets. These
are recognised in the statement of profit or loss.
 Income also includes unrealised gains which occur whenever an
asset is revalued upwards, but is not disposed of. For example, an
unrealised gain occurs when a property owned by the entity is
revalued upwards. Unrealised gains might be recognised in the
statement of profit or loss (e.g. revaluation gains on property
accounted for under IAS 16) or in the statement of other
comprehensive income (e.g. revaluation gains on property accounted
for under the IAS 40 fair value model).
4.5 Expenses
Expenses are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the
form of outflows or depletions of assets or incurrences of liabilities that result in
decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity
participants.
Expenses include:
 Expenses arising in the normal course of activities, such as the cost of
sales and other operating costs, including depreciation of non-current
assets. Expenses result in the outflow of assets (such as cash or finished
goods inventory) or the depletion of assets (for example, the depreciation of
non-current assets).
 Losses include for example, the loss on disposal of a non-current asset,
and losses arising from damage due to fire or flooding. Losses are usually
reported as net of related income.

Corporate reporting
5 RECOGNITION IN THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview
 Probability of future economic benefit flowing in or out

 Reliability of measurement
 Recognition of assets, liabilities, income and expenses
 Assessment of the Framework
The IASB Framework states that an element (asset, liability, equity, income or
expense) should be recognised in the statement of financial position or in profit and
loss (the statement of profit or loss) when it:
 meets the definition of an element, and also
 satisfies certain criteria for recognition.
Items that fail to meet the criteria for recognition should not be included in the financial
statements. However, some if these items may have to be disclosed as additional
details in a note to the financial statements.
The criteria for recognition are as follows:
 It must be probable that the future economic benefit associated with the item will
flow either into or out of the entity.
 The item should have a cost or value that can be measured reliably.
5.1 Probability of future economic benefit flowing in or out

The concept of probability relates to the degree of certainty or uncertainty that the
future economic benefit associated with the item will flow into or out of the entity.
The degree of certainty or uncertainty should be assessed on the basis of the
evidence available at the time the financial statements are prepared.
For example, if it is considered fairly certain that a trade receivable will be paid at
a future date, it is appropriate to recognise the receivable as an asset in the
statement of financial position. However, there is probably a reasonable degree
of certainty that some trade receivables will become ‘bad debts’ and the
economic benefit will not flow into the entity. It would then be appropriate to
recognise an ‘expense’ for the expected reduction in economic benefits (as an
allowance for irrecoverable debts).
5.2 Reliability of measurement

An item should be recognised in the financial statements only if it has a cost or
value that can be measured with reliability.
In many cases, the value of an item has to be estimated because its value is not
known with certainty. Using reasonable estimates is an essential part of
preparing financial statements, and provided that the estimates are reasonable, it
is appropriate to recognise items in the financial statements.
However, if it is not possible to make a reasonable estimate, the item should be
excluded from the statement of financial position and statement of profit or loss
and other comprehensive income.

An item that cannot be estimated with reliability at one point in time might be
estimated with greater certainty at a later time, when it would then be appropriate
to include it in the financial statements.
5.3 Recognition of assets, liabilities, income and expenses
Recognition of assets
An asset is recognised in the statement of financial position when there is an
increase in future economic benefits relating to an increase in an asset (or a
reduction in a liability) which can be measured reliably.
An asset should not be recognised when expenses have been incurred but it is
unlikely that any future economic benefits will flow to the entity. Instead, the item
should be treated as an expense, and the cost of the asset should be ‘written off’.
Recognition of liabilities
A liability is recognised when it is probable that an outflow of resources that
embody economic benefits will result from the settlement of a present obligation,
and the amount of the obligation can be measured reliably.
Recognition of income
Income is recognised in the statement of profit when an increase in future
economic benefits arises from an increase in an asset (or a reduction in a
liability) and this can be measured reliably.
Recognition of expenses
Expenses are recognised in the statement of profit or loss when a decrease in
future economic benefits arises from a decrease in an asset or an increase in a
liability, which can be measured reliably.
Note that an expense is recognised at the same time as an increase in a liability
(for example, trade payables) or a reduction in an asset (for example, cash).
Expenses are recognised in the statement of profit or loss by means of a direct
association between items of income and the expenses incurred in creating that
income.
 Matching of costs and income involves the simultaneous recognition of
revenues and related expenses.
 When economic benefits arise over several accounting periods, and the
association with income can only be decided in broad terms, expenses
should be recognised in profit and loss (the statement of profit or loss) of
each accounting period on the basis of ‘systematic and rational
allocation procedures’. For example, depreciation charges for a non-
current asset are allocated between accounting periods on a systematic
and rational basis, by means of an appropriate depreciation policy and
depreciation method.
 When an item of expenditure is not expected to provide any future
economic benefits, it should be recognised immediately as an expense in
the statement of profit or loss. When the future economic benefits
associated with an asset are no longer expected to arise, the value of the
asset is written off, and the write-off is treated as an expense.

Corporate reporting
 An expense may also be recognised when a liability arises without the

recognition of any matching asset. For example, a liability might arise when
an entity recognises that it will have to make a payment to settle a legal
dispute. The cost of the future liability is treated as an expense in the period
when the liability is recognised.
5.4 Assessment of the Framework

In theory, IASs and IFRSs are based on the IASB Framework. In practice, the
standards are a mixture of principles and rules.
Many standards (for example, the main standards dealing with non-current
assets) reflect the fundamental principles in the Framework and are consistent
with each other. This improves the quality of financial reporting as there are fewer
options available and the standards are based on the definitions in the
Framework.
However, some of the more recent standards (for example, the standards on
financial instruments) have been heavily influenced by US accounting practice.
These standards are complex and tend to contain many detailed rules and
definitions.
It can be argued that the success of the IASB’s Framework is that recent
accounting standards have been successful in providing consistent accounting
rules. The application of the definitions in the Framework and the recognition and
measurement criteria should mean that any accounting issue not covered by a
standard can be dealt with.
The development of the new Conceptual Framework with FASB should further
improve reporting in the future.

6 ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS
Section overview
 Consistency of presentation
 Materiality and aggregation
 Offsetting
In addition to the accounting concepts in the IASB Framework, some other accounting
concepts are used in financial reporting. These concepts, together with the underlying
assumptions of going concern and accruals, are explained in IAS 1 Presentation of
6.1 Consistency of presentation

Consistency of presentation is needed if financial information is to be
comparable. IAS 1 states that there should be consistency in the presentation
and classification of items in the financial statements from one year to the next.
There are just two exceptions to the requirement for consistency:
 Consistency is not required when it is apparent, following a significant
change in the entity’s operations or a review of its financial statements, that
a different presentation or classification would be more appropriate.
 Consistency is not appropriate if a new accounting standard (or the
interpretation of a Standard by IFRIC) requires a change in the presentation
of information.
6.2 Materiality and aggregation

IAS 1 also states that each material class of similar items should be presented
separately in the financial statements.
In addition, items of a dissimilar nature should not be aggregated together in the
financial statements (combined as a single item and in a single total), unless their
value is immaterial.
6.3 Offsetting
IAS 1 states that:
 Assets and liabilities should not be offset against each other.
 Similarly incomes and expenses should not be offset against each other.
Instead they should be reported separately.
The exceptions to this rule are when:
 offsetting is required or permitted by an accounting standard or the
Interpretation of a standard
 offsetting reflects the economic substance of a transaction. An example
specified in IAS 1 is reporting of a gain or loss on disposal of a non-current
asset at sale value minus the carrying value of the asset and the related
selling expenses.

Corporate reporting
7 BASES OF ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 Introduction
 Accruals basis of accounting (matching concept)
 Cash basis of accounting
 Break-up basis of accounting
7.1 Introduction
There are three bases of accounting which go to the heart of how transactions
are recognised and measured:
 accruals basis;
 cash basis; and
 break up basis
The accruals basis is by far and away the most important of these three in
practice.
7.2 Accruals basis of accounting (matching concept)

Accruals basis accounting (accruals accounting, the accruals concept)
recognises transactions and other events and circumstances in the periods in
which those effects occur, even if the resulting cash receipts and payments occur
in a different period.
 Revenue from sales and other income should be reported in the period
when the income arises (which might not be the same as the period when
the cash is received).
 The cost of sales in the statement of comprehensive income must be
matched with the sales. Income and ‘matching’ expenses must be reported
in the same financial period.
 Other expenses should be charged in the period to which they relate, not
the period in which they are paid for.
7.3 Cash basis of accounting

Cash basis accounting recognises transactions in the periods in which cash
receipts and payments occur.
 Revenue from sales and other income would be reported in the period
when the cash is received (which might be in a later period than when the
income arose).
 Expenses are charged in the period to which they are paid not the period in
which they are incurred.

Over time the accruals based accounting and cash based accounting result in
recognising the same amounts. However, transactions might be recognised in
different periods under each system.
Example: Accruals vs cash basis

A company prepares its financial statements to the 31 December each year.
It sells goods for ₦50,000 to a customer on 6 December Year 2, but does not
receive a cash payment from the customer until 15 January Year 3.
Accruals basis
The sale is recognised as income in the year to 31 December Year 2, even though
the cash is not received until after the end of this financial year.
Cash basis
The sale is recognised as income in Year 3, even though sale was made in year 2.
₦50,000 is recognised as revenue under each basis but in different periods.
Example: Accruals vs cash basis

A company starts in business on 1 September Year 1. It acquires an office for
which it pays one year’s rent in advance, to 31 August Year 2.
The cost of the annual rental is ₦120,000. The company prepares its financial
statements for a financial period ending on 31 December each year.
Accruals basis
The office rental cost in the period to 31 December Year 1 is the cost of just four
months’ rent.
The expense is therefore ₦40,000 (₦120,000  4/12) in Year 1, and there has been
a prepayment for ₦80,000 that relates to the next financial period, the year to 31
December Year 2.
Cash basis
The entire cost is recognised in the year to 31 December Year 1.

Corporate reporting
7.4 Break-up basis of accounting

Both the accruals basis and the cash basis assume that a business is a going
concern. That means that the business is expected to continue into the future.
This may not always be the case.
A business might be brought to an end (wound up) either due to financial
difficulty or, less likely, the owners decide that the business has run its course.
The break-up basis of accounting is used when the business is no longer a going
concern. This basis results in all assets and liabilities being measured at the
amount of cash that they can be sold for (assets) or settled (liabilities).
Example: Break-up basis

A company prepares its financial statements to the 31 December each year.
The company is in severe financial difficulty and is not expected to survive. It has a
building in its accounts carried at ₦1,500,000.
Real estate professionals have advised that this building could be sold for only
₦1,200,000 in current market conditions.
Break-up basis
The building should be remeasured ₦1,200,000 in the financial statements.

8 MEASUREMENT AND CAPITAL MAINTENANCE
Section overview
 Measurements of elements of financial statements

 Fair value
 Capital maintenance concepts
8.1 Measurements of elements of financial statements

The Conceptual Framework allows that several measurement bases are used for
the elements in financial statements. These include:
 Historical cost. Assets are measured at the amount of cash paid, or at the
fair value of the consideration given to acquire them. Liabilities are
measured at:
 the amount of proceeds received in exchange for the obligation (for
example, bank loan or a bank overdraft), or
 the amount of cash that will be paid to satisfy the liability.
 Current cost or current value is the basis used in current value
accounting/current cost accounting. Assets are measured at the amount
that would be paid to purchase the same or a similar asset currently.
Liabilities are measured at the amount that would be required to settle the
obligation currently.
 Realisable value (or settlement value). This method of measurement is
relevant when an entity is not a going concern, and is faced with liquidation
(and a forced sale of its assets). Assets are measured at the amount that
could be obtained by selling them. Liabilities are measured at the amount
that would be required to settle them currently.
 Present value. Assets might be measured at the value of the future net
cash inflows that the item is expected to generate, discounted to a present
value. Similarly, a liability might be measured at the discounted present
value of the expected cash outflows that will be made to settle the liability.
Historical cost is the most commonly used measurement basis. However, the
other bases of measurement are often used to modify historical cost. For
example, inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realisable value.
Deferred income is measured at present value. Some non-current assets may be
valued at current value.
The Framework does not favour one measurement base over the others.

Corporate reporting
8.2 Fair value

Fair value is a possible basis for the valuation of assets in the financial
statements. Although it is not described in the IASB Conceptual Framework,
many IASs and IFRSs require it to be used instead of historical cost or as an
alternative to historical cost. For example, IAS 39 requires many types of
investment to be measured at fair value.
Fair value may be used in financial statements in the following circumstances:
 After its initial recognition at acquisition, a non-current asset may be re-
valued to its fair value.
 Inventory is measured in the statement of financial position at the lower of
cost or net realisable value. Net realisable value (NRV) is the selling price
of the inventory item in the ordinary course of business, less the estimated
further costs to completion and the expected selling costs. NRV may or
may not be the same as fair value.
 Revenue should be measured in the statement of profit or loss at the fair
value of the consideration received or receivable (IAS 18).
Fair value is often approximately the same as current value, but sometimes fair
value and current value can be very different.
Problems with the use of fair value

Fair value is easy to understand and less complicated to apply than value to the
business/current value. Arguably, it is also more reliable than value to the
business, because market value is more easily verified than (for example)
economic value. However, it has some serious disadvantages:
 There may not be an active market for some kinds of asset. Where there is
no active market, estimates have to be used and these may not be reliable.
 It anticipates sales and profits which may never happen (the entity may
have no plans to sell the asset).
 Market values can move up and down quite rapidly. This may distort trends
in the financial statements and make it difficult for users to assess an
entity’s performance over time.
A notable example of this problem occurred during 2007 and 2008 with the
collapse of the market for certain types of asset-backed securities (mortgage-
related securities known as CDOs). Many banks, particularly in the US and
Europe, announced huge losses, due largely to the requirement to write down
their investments in these financial instruments to fair value, even though fair
value was difficult to assess.
Despite these problems, it looks increasingly likely that the IASB will require
greater use of fair value in future.

8.3 Capital maintenance concepts

The Conceptual Framework states that there are two concepts of capital:
 A financial concept of capital;
 A physical concept of capital.
Different systems of accounts used different capital maintenance concepts. The
choice of capital maintenance has a profound effect on the measurement of
profit.
Consider the basic accounting equation.
Formula: Accounting equation

Assets = Liabilities + Equity or Assets  Liabilities = Equity
A = L + E A  L = E
Net assets
The accounting equation is an equation. Therefore, changes in one side are

matched by changes in the other side.
Profit or loss for a period can be calculated from the difference between the
opening and closing net assets after adjusting for any distributions during the
period.
Formula: Profit
Change in equity = Closing equity  Opening equity
Increase in equity = Profit + capital introduced  distributions
Profit = Increase in equity  capital introduced + distributions
This shows that the value ascribed to opening equity is crucial in the
measurement of profit.
Financial capital maintenance

With the financial concept of capital maintenance, a profit is not earned during
a period unless the financial value of equity at the end of the period exceeds the
financial value of equity at the beginning of the period (after adjusting for equity
capital raised or distributed).
Historical cost accounting is based on the concept of money financial capital
maintenance. Under this concept, an entity makes a profit when its closing
equity exceeds its opening equity measured as the number of units of currency at
the start of the period. Note that this is a separate issue from asset valuation.
Assets could be revalued during the period but this would have no effect on the
opening capital position.
An alternative view of financial capital maintenance is used in constant
purchasing power accounting. This system is based on the concept of real
financial capital maintenance. Under this concept, an entity makes a profit
when its closing equity exceeds opening equity remeasured to maintain its
purchasing power.

Corporate reporting
This requires the opening equity to be uplifted by the general inflation rate. This is
achieved by a simple double entry.
Illustration: Adjustment to maintain opening equity

Debit Credit
Statement of profit or loss X
Inflation reserve X
Physical capital maintenance

A physical concept of capital is that the capital of an entity is represented by its
productive capacity or operating capability. Where a physical concept of capital is
used, the main concern of users of the financial statements is with the
maintenance of the operating capability of the entity.
With a physical concept of capital maintenance, a profit is not earned during a
period unless (excluding new equity capital raised during the period and adding
back any distribution of dividends to shareholders) the operating capability of the
business is greater at the end of the period than at the beginning of the period.
This requires the opening equity to be uplifted by the specific rates of inflation
that apply to the individual components of the net assets of the company. Again,
this is achieved by the same simple double entry.
The following example should help you to understand this.

Example: Capital maintenance concepts

X Limited commenced business on 1 January with a single item of inventory
which cost ₦10,000.
During the year it sold the item for ₦14,000 (cash).
During the year general inflation was 5% but the inflation specific to the item was
10%.
Profit is calculated under each concept in the following ways.
Capital maintenance concept
Financial Financial
(money terms) (real terms) Physical
Statement of profit or loss ₦ ₦ ₦
Revenue 14,000 14,000 14,000
Cost of sale (10,000) (10,000) (10,000)
Inflation adjustment
(inflation rate applied to
opening equity):
5%  ₦10,000 (500)
10%  ₦10,000 (1,000)
4,000 3,500 3,000
Statement of financial
position ₦ ₦ ₦
Net assets 14,000 14,000 14,000
Equity:
Opening equity
Before adjustment 10,000 10,000 10,000
Inflation reserve (see
above) 500 1,000
After adjustment 10,000 10,500 11,000
Retained profit (profit for the
year) 4,000 3,500 3,000
14,000 14,000 14,000

Corporate reporting
Commentary on the example

Under historical cost accounting, the profit is ₦4,000. If the business paid this out
as a dividend it would have ₦10,000 left.
₦10,000 is the opening equity expressed as a number of units of currency. This
means that the company would have maintained its equity expressed as a
number of units of currency. However, inflation in the period has caused the
purchasing power of the currency to decline. This means that ₦10,000 no longer
has the same purchasing power that it had a year ago. The company has not
maintained its capital in real terms.
To maintain its opening equity in real terms the company would have to ensure
that it had the same purchasing power at the year-end as it had at the start.
Inflation was 5% so the company would need ₦10,500 at the year-end in order to
have the same purchasing power as it had at the start of the year. The company
can achieve this by transferring ₦500 from profit and loss into an inflation
reserve. Profit would then be reported as ₦3,500.
If the business paid out ₦3,500 as a dividend it would have ₦10,500 left. This is
not enough to buy the same asset that it had at the start of the year. The asset
has been subject to specific inflation of 10% therefore the company would need
₦11,000 at the year-end in order to buy the same asset.
This means that the company would not have the same capacity to operate as it
had a year ago.
To maintain its opening equity in physical terms the company would have to
ensure that it had the same ability to operate at the year-end as it had at the
start. In other words it would need to have ₦11,000. The company can achieve
this by transferring ₦1,000 from profit and loss into an inflation reserve. Profit
would then be reported as ₦3,000.
Comparing the two concepts

Neither the IASB Conceptual Framework nor accounting standards require the
use of a specific capital maintenance concept. In practice, almost all entities use
money financial capital maintenance, but both concepts can provide useful
information.
Financial capital maintenance is likely to be the most relevant to investors as they
are interested in maximising the return on their investment and therefore its
purchasing power.
Physical capital maintenance is likely to be most relevant to management and
employees as they are interested in assessing an entity’s ability to maintain its
operating capacity. This is particularly true for manufacturing businesses, where
management may need information about the ability of the business to continue
to produce the same or a greater volume of goods.

9 FAIR PRESENTATION
Section overview
 What is meant by fair presentation (or a true and fair view)?

 Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs
 Where fair presentation conflicts with an accounting standard
9.1 What is meant by fair presentation (or a true and fair view)?
Financial statements are often described as showing a ‘true and fair view’ or
‘presenting fairly’ the financial position and performance of an entity, and
changes in its financial position. In some countries (for example, the UK) this is
the central requirement of financial reporting.
Under ‘international GAAP’ (specifically IAS 1) financial statements are required
to present fairly the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of the
entity.
The Framework does not deal directly with this issue. However, it does state that
if an entity complies with international accounting standards, and if its financial
information has the desirable qualitative characteristics of information, then its
financial statements ‘should convey what is generally understood as a true and
fair view of such information’.
IAS 1 states that: ‘Fair presentation requires the faithful representation of the
effects of transactions, other events and conditions in accordance with the
definitions and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set
out in the IASB Framework.
The use of the term faithful representation means more than that the amounts in
the financial statements should be materially correct. It implies that information
should present clearly the transactions and other events that it is intended to
represent. To provide a faithful representation, financial information must account
for transactions and other events in a way that reflects their substance and
economic reality (in other words, their true commercial impact) rather than their
legal form. If there is a difference between economic substance and legal form,
the financial information should represent the economic substance.
Faithful representation also implies that the amounts in the financial statements
should be classified and presented, and disclosures made in such a way that
important information is not obscured and users are not misled.
9.2 Fair presentation and compliance with IFRSs

The application of IFRSs, with additional disclosure when necessary, is
presumed to result in financial statements that achieve a fair presentation.’ IAS 1
states that:
 When the financial statements of an entity comply fully with International
Financial Reporting Standards, this fact should be disclosed.
 An entity should not claim to comply with IFRSs unless it complies with all
the requirements of every applicable Standard.
IAS 1 appears to equate fair presentation with compliance with accounting
standards.

Corporate reporting
In some situations fair presentation may require more than this. It is important to
apply the spirit (or general intention) behind an accounting standard as well as
the strict letter (what the standard actually says).
The requirement to ‘present fairly’ also applies to transactions which are not
covered by any specific accounting standard. It is worth noting that there is no
IFRS that covers complex transactions and arrangements which have been
deliberately structured so that their economic substance is different from their
legal form.
IAS 1 states that a fair presentation requires an entity:
 to select and apply accounting policies in accordance with IAS 8
Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors. IAS 8
explains how an entity should develop an appropriate accounting policy
where there is no standard.
 to present information in a manner that provides relevant, reliable,
comparable and understandable information
 to provide additional disclosures where these are necessary to enable
users to understand the impact of particular transactions and other events
on the entity’s financial performance and financial position (even where
these are not required by IFRSs).
9.3 Where fair presentation conflicts with an accounting standard

IAS 1 acknowledges that in extremely rare circumstances, compliance with a
standard or an Interpretation may produce financial statements that are so
misleading that they do not provide useful information and no longer give a fair
presentation.
An entity can then depart from the requirements of the standard or Interpretation.
It must disclose:
 that management has concluded that the financial statements present fairly
the entity’s financial position, financial performance and cash flows;
 that it has complied with applicable standards and Interpretations, except
that it has departed from a particular requirement to achieve a fair
presentation;
 the title of the standard or Interpretation from which the entity has departed,
the nature of the departure, including the treatment that the standard or
Interpretation would require, the reason why that treatment would be
misleading, and the treatment adopted; and
 for each period presented, the financial impact of the departure on each
item in the financial statements that would have been reported in complying
with the requirement.

10 MEASUREMENT
Section overview
 Cost bases
 Fair value
10.1 Cost bases

There used to be an international accounting standard IAS 15 Information
reflecting the effects of changing prices. This was withdrawn with effect from 1
January 2005.
Inflation accounting requires the use of a system such as current cost accounting
(CCA) or current purchasing power accounting (CPP). Attempts to introduce full
inflation accounting have been unpopular. Each system has some advantages
but neither is ideal and neither has been widely accepted. It is extremely unlikely
that the IASB or any other major standard setter will require either of CCA or CPP
in the foreseeable future.
However, most people accept that information based on historical cost is not
particularly relevant to users. Many entities attempt to overcome this problem by
using modified historical cost accounting. Some or all non-current assets are
measured at a valuation, instead of at historical cost. For example, properties are
often included in the statement of financial position at market value.
The issue here is how assets and liabilities should be measured. This is the
subject of an important debate within the accounting profession. Some, including
the UK Accounting Standards Board favour current value (that is value to the
business or deprival value). This has the advantage that it reflects economic
reality and the intentions of management. For example, a business will not sell an
asset if it can obtain a greater inflow of cash by continuing to use it and vice
versa. However, current value can be complex to apply in practice and may not
be easily understood by users.
Others, including the US Financial Accounting Standards Board favour fair
value. The IASB is also moving towards greater use of fair value.
10.2 Fair value

Fair value is a possible basis for the valuation of assets in the financial
statements. Although it is not described in the IASB Conceptual Framework,
many IASs and IFRSs require it to be used instead of historical cost or as an
alternative to historical cost. For example, IAS 39 requires many types of
investment to be measured at fair value.
Fair value may be used in financial statements in the following circumstances:
 After its initial recognition at acquisition, a non-current asset may be re-
valued to its fair value.
 Inventory is measured in the statement of financial position at the lower of
cost or net realisable value. Net realisable value (NRV) is the selling price
of the inventory item in the ordinary course of business, less the estimated
further costs to completion and the expected selling costs. NRV may or
may not be the same as fair value.

Corporate reporting
 Revenue should be measured in the statement of profit or loss at the fair

value of the consideration received or receivable (IAS 18).
Fair value is often approximately the same as current value, but sometimes fair
value and current value can be very different.
Problems with the use of fair value

Fair value is easy to understand and less complicated to apply than value to the
business/current value. Arguably, it is also more reliable than value to the
business, because market value is more easily verified than (for example)
economic value. However, it has some serious disadvantages:
 There may not be an active market for some kinds of asset. Where there is
no active market, estimates have to be used and these may not be reliable.
 It anticipates sales and profits which may never happen (the entity may
have no plans to sell the asset).
 Market values can move up and down quite rapidly. This may distort trends
in the financial statements and make it difficult for users to assess an
entity’s performance over time.
A notable example of this problem occurred during 2007 and 2008 with the
collapse of the market for certain types of asset-backed securities (mortgage-
related securities known as CDOs). Many banks, particularly in the US and
Europe, announced huge losses, due largely to the requirement to write down
their investments in these financial instruments to fair value, even though fair
value was difficult to assess.
Despite these problems, it looks increasingly likely that the IASB will require
greater use of fair value in future.

11 IFRS 13: FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENT
Section overview
 Introduction
 Measuring fair value
 Fair value of non-financial assets – further comment
 Valuation techniques
 Fair value hierarchy
11.1 Introduction
Some IFRSs require or allow entities to measure or disclose the fair value of
assets, liabilities or their own equity instruments. Some of these standards
contained little guidance on the meaning of fair value. Others did contain
guidance but this was developed over many years and in a piecemeal manner.
The purpose of IFRS 13 is to:
 define fair value;
 set out a single framework for measuring fair value; and
 specify disclosures about fair value measurement.
IFRS 13 does not change what should be fair valued nor when this should occur.
Scope limitations
IFRS 13 does not apply to share based payment transactions within the scope of
IFRS 2.
Measurements such as net realisable value (IAS 2 Inventories) or value in use
(IAS 36 Impairment of Assets) have some similarities to fair value but are not fair
value and are outside of the scope of IFRS 13.
Definition
Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement
date (i.e. it is an exit price).
Comments on the definition

This definition emphasises that fair value is a market-based measurement, not an
entity-specific measurement. In other words, if two entities hold identical assets
these assets (all other things being equal) should have the same fair value and
this is not affected by how each entity uses the asset or how each entity intends
to use the asset in the future.
An entity must use the assumptions that market participants would use when
pricing the asset or liability under current market conditions when measuring fair
value.
Fair value at initial recognition

In most cases the price paid for an asset is its fair value. However, this is not
always the case. The price of some assets might vary depending on whether the
asset is being bought (entry price) or sold (exit price).

Corporate reporting
If such an asset is purchased and IFRS allows or requires the asset to be

measured initially at fair value there will be a gain or a loss (the difference
between the amount paid for the asset and the amount it could be sold for). Any
such gain or loss must be recognised in profit or loss. (This will only relate to
certain financial assets [liabilities]).
11.2 Measuring fair value

Fair value measurement assumes that the asset (liability) is exchanged in an
orderly transaction between market participants to sell the asset (transfer the
liability) at the measurement date under current market conditions.
However, in each case fair value measurement looks at the asset (liability) from
the point of view of a market participant. The fair value must take into account all
factors that a market participant would consider relevant to the value. These
factors might include:
 the condition and location of the asset; and
 restrictions, if any, on the sale or use of the asset.
IFRS 13 defines an active market as a market in which transactions for the asset
(liability) take place with sufficient frequency and volume to provide pricing
information on an on-going basis.
If an active market exists then it will provide information that can be used for fair
value measurement. If there is no such active market (e.g. for the sale of an
unquoted business or surplus machinery) then a valuation technique would be
necessary.
 A quoted price in an active market provides the most reliable evidence of
fair value and must be used to measure fair value whenever available.
 It would be unusual to find an active market for the sale of non- financial
assets so some other sort of valuation technique would usually be used to
determine their fair value.
Principal or most advantageous market

Fair value measurement is based on a possible transaction to sell the asset or
transfer the liability either:
 in the principal market for the asset or liability; or
 in the absence of a principal market, in the most advantageous market for
the asset or liability.
Note that if there is a principal market for the asset or liability, the fair value
measurement must use the price in that market even if a price in a different
market is potentially more advantageous at the measurement date.
Different entities might have access to different markets. This might result in
different entities reporting similar assets at different fair values.

Transaction costs
The price in the principal (or most advantageous) market used to measure the
fair value of the asset (liability) is not adjusted for transaction costs.
 Fair value is not “net realisable value” or “fair value less costs to sell”; and
 Using the price that an asset can be sold for as the basis for fair valuation
does not mean that the entity intends to sell it
Transport costs
If location is a characteristic of the asset the price in the principal (or most
advantageous) market is adjusted for the costs that would be incurred to
transport the asset from its current location to that market.
Example:
An entity holds an asset which could be sold in one of two markets.
Information about these markets and the costs that would be incurred if a sale
were to be made is as follows:
Market A Market B
₦ ₦
Sale price 260 250
Transport cost (20) (20)
240 230)
Transaction cost (30) (10)
Net amount received 210 220
(a) What fair value would be used to measure the asset if Market A were the
principal market?
(b) What fair value would be used to measure the asset if no principal market
could be identified?
Answer
(a) If Market A is the principal market for the asset the fair value of the asset
would be measured using the price that would be received in that market,
after taking into account transport costs (₦240).
(b) If neither market is the principal market for the asset, the fair value of the
asset would be measured using the price in the most advantageous
market.
The most advantageous market is the market that maximises the amount
that would be received to sell the asset, after taking into account
transaction costs and transport costs (i.e. the net amount that would be
received in the respective markets). This is Market B where the net amount
that would be received for the asset would be ₦220.
The fair value of the asset is measured using the price in that market
(₦250), less transport costs (₦20), resulting in a fair value measurement of
₦230.
Transaction costs are taken into account when determining which market
is the most advantageous market but the price used to measure the fair
value of the asset is not adjusted for those costs (although it is adjusted for
transport costs).

Corporate reporting
11.3 Fair value of non-financial assets – further comment

Fair value measurement of a non-financial asset must value the asset at its
highest and best use. This must take into account use of the asset that is:
 physically possible – physical characteristics that market participants would
take into account when pricing the asset (e.g. the location or size of a
property).
 legally permissible – any legal restrictions on the use of the asset that
market participants would take into account when pricing the asset (e.g. the
zoning regulations applicable to a property).
 financially feasible – whether a use of the asset that is physically possible
and legally permissible generates adequate income or cash flows (taking
into account the costs of converting the asset to that use) to produce an
investment return that market participants would require from an investment
in that asset put to that use.
11.4 Valuation techniques

The objective of using a valuation technique is to estimate the price at which an
orderly transaction to sell the asset (or to transfer the liability) would take place
between market participants at the measurement date under current market
conditions.
 IFRS 13 requires that one of three valuation techniques must be used:
 market approach – uses prices and other relevant information from market
transactions involving identical or similar assets and liabilities;
 cost approach – the amount required to replace the service capacity of an
asset (also known as the current replacement cost)
 income approach – converts future amounts (cash flows, profits) to single
current (discounted) amount.
An entity must use a valuation technique that is appropriate in the circumstances
and for which sufficient data is available to measure fair value, maximising the
use of relevant observable inputs and minimising the use of unobservable inputs.
A valuation technique should be used to maximise the use of relevant observable
inputs and minimise the use of unobservable inputs.
Quoted price in an active market provides the most reliable evidence of fair value
and must be used to measure fair value whenever available.
Bid /Offer prices

For some assets (liabilities) markets quote prices that differ depending on
whether the asset is being sold to or bought from the market.
The price at which an asset can be sold to the market is called the bid price (it is
the amount the market bids for the asset).
The price at which an asset can be bought from the market is called the ask or
offer price (it is the amount the market asks for the asset or offers to sell it for).
The price within the bid-ask spread that is most representative of fair value in the
circumstances must be used to measure fair value. Previously, bid price had to
be used for financial assets and ask price for financial liabilities but this is no
longer the case.

11.5 Fair value hierarchy

IFRS 13 establishes a fair value hierarchy to categorise inputs to valuation
techniques into three levels.
Definition Examples
Level 1 Quoted prices in active Share price quoted on the London
markets for identical Stock Exchange
assets or liabilities that the
entity can access at the
measurement date
Level 2 Inputs other than quoted Quoted price of a similar asset to the
prices included within one being valued.
Level 1 that are Quoted interest rate.
observable for the asset or
liability, either directly or
indirectly.
Level 3 Unobservable inputs for Cash flow projections.
the asset or liability.

Corporate reporting
12 DISCUSSION PAPER: A REVIEW OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

FOR FINANCIAL REPORTING
Section overview
 Introduction
 Definitions of assets and liabilities
 Present obligations
 Recognition and derecognition
 Definition of equity and distinction between liability and equity elements
 Measurement
 Presentation and disclosure
 Presentation in the statement of comprehensive income
12.1 Introduction
This Discussion Paper is the first step towards issuing a revised Conceptual
Framework.
It is designed to obtain initial views and comments on a number of matters, and
focuses on areas that have caused the IASB problems in practice.
The Discussion Paper sets out the IASB’s preliminary views on some of the
topics discussed.
Why is the IASB issuing this Discussion Paper?

The aim of The Conceptual Framework is to assist the IASB by identifying
concepts that it will use consistently when developing and revising IFRSs.
The IASB has identified a number of problems with the existing document when
developing and revising IFRSs. These include the following.
 Some important areas are not covered (e.g. there is very little guidance on
measurement, presentation, disclosure or how to identify a reporting entity).
 Guidance in some areas is unclear (e.g. definitions of assets and liabilities
could be improved).
 Some content is out of date and fails to reflect the current thinking of the
IASB. For example, existing guidance is that an asset or a liability should
be recognised only if it is probable however, current thinking is that
probability is a measurement attribute rather than a recognition attribute.
The IASB has concluded in some situations that recognising an asset or a
liability would provide useful information even when a flow of economic
resources is not probable.

This Discussion Paper suggests and seeks comments on a number of changes

to the existing Conceptual Framework. These include:
 a revised statement of its primary purpose;
 revised definitions of assets and liabilities and additional guidance on
applying these definitions;
 revised guidance on when assets and liabilities should be recognised;
 new guidance on when assets and liabilities should be derecognised;
 a new way to present information about equity claims against the reporting
entity;
 a new section on the concepts that should guide the IASB when it selects
measurements in a new or revised standards;
 a new section on presentation and disclosure; and
 principles for distinguishing profit or loss from other comprehensive income
(OCI).
12.2 Definitions of assets and liabilities

The existing definitions of assets and liabilities focus on economic phenomena
that exist in the real world (resources and obligations) and have proved to be
useful tools for solving many issues in standard-setting over many years.
However, the IASB believes that the definitions could be clarified.
The definitions contain references to expected inflows or outflows of economic
benefits. This has led to misinterpretation in some quarters where the incorrect
view has been expressed that the ultimate inflow or outflow of economic benefits
is the asset or liability rather than the underlying resource or obligation.
The IASB proposes the following definitions:
 an asset is a present economic resource controlled by the entity as a result
of past events.
 a liability is a present obligation of the entity to transfer an economic
resource as a result of past events.
 an economic resource is a right, or other source of value, that is capable of
producing economic benefits.
The IASB’s view is that the new definitions will prevent misunderstanding by
confirming that:
 an asset (or a liability) is the underlying resource (or obligation), rather than
the ultimate inflow (or outflow) of economic benefits; and
 an asset (or a liability) must be capable of generating inflows (or outflows)
of economic benefits. Those inflows (or outflows) need not be certain.

Corporate reporting
Uncertainty
This section also discusses whether uncertainty should play any role in the
definitions of, and the recognition criteria for, assets and liabilities.
The IASB’s preliminary views are as follows:
 The definitions of assets and liabilities should not retain the notion that an
inflow or outflow of economic benefits is ‘expected’.
 an asset must be capable of producing economic benefits but they
need not be expected; and
 a liability must be capable of resulting in a transfer of economic
resources but they need not be expected.
 There should not be a probability threshold for rare cases in which it is
uncertain whether an asset or a liability exists. The IASB would decide how
to deal with that uncertainty when it develops or revises a standard in cases
where there might be uncertainty about whether a particular type of asset
or liability exists.
 The recognition criteria should not retain the existing reference to
probability.
12.3 Present obligations

A present obligation arises from past events. However, it is unclear whether past
events are sufficient to create a present obligation if any requirement to transfer
an economic resource remains conditional on the entity’s future actions.
The discussion paper identifies three different views that could be used as a
starting point in developing guidance.
 View 1: a present obligation must have arisen from past events and be
strictly unconditional. An entity does not have a present obligation if it
could, at least in theory, avoid the transfer through its future actions.
 View 2: a present obligation must have arisen from past events and be
practically unconditional. An obligation is practically unconditional if the
entity does not have the practical ability to avoid the transfer through its
future actions.
 View 3: a present obligation must have arisen from past events, but may
be conditional on the entity’s future actions.
The IASB has tentatively rejected View 1 but has not reached a preliminary view
in favour of View 2 or View 3.
12.4 Recognition and derecognition
Recognition
The DP discusses recognition and derecognition of assets and liabilities.
The IASB’s preliminary view on recognition is that an entity should recognise all
its assets and liabilities, unless a standard says otherwise. This might be the
case because:
 recognising the asset (liability) would provide users with information that is
not relevant or is not sufficiently relevant to justify the cost; or

 no measure of the asset (liability) would result in a faithful representation of

both the asset (liability) and the changes in the asset (liability), even if all
necessary descriptions and explanations are disclosed.
Derecognition
The existing Conceptual Framework does not address derecognition.
The IASB’s preliminary view is that an entity should derecognise an asset or a
liability when it no longer meets the recognition criteria.
There might be cases in which an entity retains a component of an asset or a
liability. In those cases, the relevant standards should advise how an entity
should best portray the changes that resulted from the transaction. Possible
approaches include:
 enhanced disclosure;
 presenting any rights or obligations retained on a line item that is different
from the line item used for the original rights or obligations, to highlight the
greater concentration of risk; or
 continuing to recognise the original asset or liability and treating the
proceeds received or paid for the transfer as a loan received or granted.
12.5 Definition of equity and distinction between liability and equity elements
The DP addresses the following problems:
Existing IFRSs do not apply the definition of a liability consistently when
distinguishing financial liabilities from equity instruments. This results in
exceptions to the definition of a liability. Those exceptions are complex, difficult to
understand and difficult to apply.
The IASB’s preliminary views are as follows.
 The existing definition of equity (as the residual interest in the assets of the
entity after deducting all its liabilities) should be retained.
 The definition of a liability should be used to distinguish liabilities from
equity instruments.
Also, some entities do not have equity instruments. In such cases it may be
appropriate to treat the most subordinated class of instruments (i.e. those with
the last claim on the entity’s assets) as if it were an equity claim. This is an
important issue for financial reporting by entities such as unit trusts and similar.
12.6 Measurement
The existing Conceptual Framework provides little guidance on measurement
and when particular measurements should be used.
The IASB’s preliminary views on measurement are that:
 the objective of measurement is to contribute to the faithful representation
of relevant information about:
 the resources of the entity, claims against the entity and changes in
those resources and claims; and
 how efficiently and effectively the entity’s management discharge
their responsibilities in using the entity’s resources.

Corporate reporting
 a single measurement basis for all assets and liabilities may not provide the
most relevant information for users of financial statements.
 when selecting which measurement to use for a particular item, the IASB
should consider what information that measurement will produce in both the
statement of financial position and the statements of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income.
 the selection of a measurement method for a particular asset should
depend on how that asset contributes to future cash flows and for a
particular liability should depend on how the entity will settle or fulfil that
liability.
 the number of different measurements used should be the smallest number
necessary to provide relevant information.
 Unnecessary measurement changes should be avoided and necessary
measurement changes should be explained.
 the benefits of a measurement method needs to be sufficient to justify its.
The DP describes and discusses three categories of measurement:
 cost-based measurements;
 current market prices, including fair value; and
 other cash-flow based measurements.
12.7 Presentation and disclosure

The existing Conceptual Framework does not provide guidance on presentation
and disclosure.
The IASB’s preliminary views on presentation and disclosure are as follows.
 The objective of primary financial statements is to provide summarised
information about recognised assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses,
changes in equity, and cash flows that has been classified and aggregated
in a manner that is useful to users of financial statements in making
decisions about providing resources to the entity.
 The objective of the notes to the financial statements is to supplement the
primary financial statements by providing additional useful information
about:
 the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses, changes in equity,
and cash flows of the entity; and
 how efficiently and effectively the entity’s management and governing
board have discharged their responsibilities to use the entity’s
resources.
 To meet the objective of disclosure, the IASB would normally consider
requiring disclosure about the following:
 the reporting entity as a whole;
 amounts recognised in the entity’s primary financial statements,
including changes in those amounts (for example, disaggregation of
line items, roll-forwards, reconciliation);
 the nature and extent of the entity’s unrecognised assets and
liabilities;

 the nature and extent of risks arising from the entity’s assets and
liabilities (whether recognised or unrecognised); and
 the methods, assumptions and judgements, and changes in those
methods, assumptions and judgements, that affect amounts
presented or otherwise disclosed.
 forward-looking information would be included in the notes to the financial
statements if it provides relevant information about existing assets and
liabilities, or about assets and liabilities that existed during the reporting
period.
12.8 Presentation in the statement of comprehensive income

The existing Conceptual Framework does not specifically discuss presentation of
financial performance in the statement(s) of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income (OCI).
The IASB’s preliminary views are that:
 the Conceptual Framework should require a profit or loss total that could
result, in some items of income or expense being recycled; and
 the use of OCI should be limited to items of income or expense resulting
from changes in current measures of assets and liabilities
(remeasurements).

Corporate reporting
13 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain the objectives of financial statements
 List and explain the components of the conceptual framework
 Explain the difference between the accruals, cash and break up basis of
accounting
 Prepare simple cash and break up basis financial statements
 Explain the measurement bases available under IFRS
 Explain and illustrate the capital maintenance concepts described in the
conceptual framework
 Explain the meaning of true and fair or fairly presented
 Explain different measurement bases
 Explain and apply the rules set out in IFRS13

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
3
IAS 1: Presentation of
financial statements
Contents
1 IAS 1: Presentation of financial statements
2 ED/2014/1: Disclosure initiative
3 IAS 34: Interim financial reporting
4 IAS 24: Related party disclosures
5 IFRS 8: Operating segments
6 IAS 10: Events after the reporting period
7 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies and accounting standards

IAS 1, IAS 34, IAS 24, IFRS 8 and IAS 10 are examinable standards.
Exam context
This chapter explains the main features of IAS 1, IAS 34, IAS 24, IFRS 8 and IAS 10.
These standards were examinable in a previous paper. They are covered here again in detail
for your convenience.
 Explain the general features of financial statements described in IAS 1
 Describe the requirements of IAS 34
 Explain the objective of IAS 24 in setting out rules on disclosure of related party
relationships and transactions
 Define and identify related parties
 Prepare related party disclosures based on a scenario
 Explain why the information provided by IFRS 8 is useful to users of financial
statements
 Define and identify operating segments
 Prepare operating segment disclosure notes based on a simple scenario
 Distinguish between adjusting and non-adjusting items
 Explain and apply the IAS 10 guidance on the recognition of dividends

Chapter 3: IAS 1: Presentation of financial statements
1 IAS 1: PRESENTATION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview
 Form and content

 Statement of financial position
 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
 Statement of changes in equity (SOCIE)
 Notes to the financial statements
1.1 Form and content

IAS 1: Presentation of Financial Statements sets out the rules on the form and
content of financial statements.
A complete set of financial statements consists of:
 a statement of financial position as at the end of the period;
 a statement of comprehensive income for the period (made up of a
statement of profit or loss and a statement of other comprehensive
income);
 a statement of changes in equity for the period;
 a statement of cash flows (this is dealt with in a later chapter); and
 notes to these statements, consisting of a summary of significant
accounting policies used by the entity and other explanatory notes;
 comparative information in respect of the previous period (as specified);
and
 a statement of financial position as at the beginning of the preceding period
when an entity applies an accounting policy retrospectively or
retrospectively restates or reclassifies items (as specified).
1.2 Statement of financial position
Current and non-current assets and liabilities

IAS 1 requires an entity to present current and non-current assets, and current
and non-current liabilities, as separate classifications on the face of its statement
of financial position unless a liquidity presentation provides more relevant and
reliable information. In such cases, all assets and liabilities must be presented
broadly in order of liquidity.
Some items may be presented using a current/non-current distinction and others
in order of liquidity if this provides information that is more relevant and reliable.
Whichever method of presentation is adopted an entity must disclose the amount
expected to be recovered or settled after more than twelve months for each asset
and liability line item that combines current and non-current amounts.

Corporate reporting
Information to be presented on the face of the statement of financial position

IAS 1 provides a list of items that, as a minimum, must be shown on the face of
the statement of financial position as a ‘line item’ (in other words, on a separate
line in the statement):
Additional line items should be included in the statement of financial position
when presenting them separately and is ‘relevant to an understanding of the
entity’s financial position.
Some of the line items in the statement of financial position should be sub-
classified into different categories, giving details of how the total figure is made
up. This sub-classification may be presented either:
 as additional lines on the face of the statement of financial position (adding
up to the total amount for the item as a whole); or
 in notes to the financial statements.
1.3 Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
A single statement or two statements

The statement provides information about the performance of an entity in a
period. It consists of two parts:
 a statement of profit or loss – a list of income and expenses which result in
a profit or loss for the period; and
 a statement of other comprehensive income – a list of other gains and
losses that have arisen in the period.
IAS 1 allows an entity to present the two sections in a single statement or in two
separate statements.
IAS 1 provides a list of items that, as a minimum, must be shown on the face of
the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Additional line items should be presented on the face of the statement of
comprehensive income when it is relevant to an understanding of the entity’s
financial performance.
Information to be shown on the face of the statement of comprehensive income (or

the statement of profit or loss, if separate) or in the notes
The following information may be shown either on the face of the statement of
comprehensive income or in a note to the financial statements:
 material items of income and expense
 an analysis of expenses, providing either:
 expenses analysed by their nature, or
 expenses analysed by the function that has incurred them.

Information to be presented in the other comprehensive income section

The other comprehensive income section must present line items for amounts of
other comprehensive income in the period, classified by nature (including share
of the other comprehensive income of associates and joint ventures accounted
for using the equity method) and grouped into those that, in accordance with
other IFRSs:
 will not be reclassified subsequently to profit or loss:
 revaluation surpluses on property, plant and equipment (IAS 16);
 revaluation surpluses on intangible assets (IAS 38);
 remeasurements of defined benefit pension schemes (IAS 19); and
 will be reclassified subsequently to profit or loss when specific conditions
are met, including:
 gains and losses on retranslation of foreign operations (IAS 21);
 gains and losses recognised on remeasurement of available for sale
financial assets (IAS 39); and
 gains and losses recognised on the effective element of cash flow
hedges (IAS 39)
Example: Reclassification adjustments

Year 1:
A company buys a foreign subsidiary at the start of year 1.
At the end of year 1 the financial statements of the subsidiary are retranslated
resulting in an exchange loss of ₦100,000.
Debit Credit
Other comprehensive income 100,000
Net assets of S 100,000
This debit is transferred to a separate balance in equity.
Year 2:
The company sells the subsidiary at the start of year 2.
This debit is transferred to a separate balance in equity.
The loss previously recognised in OCI must now be recognised in P&L. The double
entry to achieve this is:
Debit Credit
Profit or loss 100,000
This credit in OCI in turn is transferred to the separate balance in equity

where it nets the debit that was taken there in year 1 back to zero.

Corporate reporting
1.4 Statement of changes in equity (SOCIE)

A SOCIE shows the amount at the beginning of the period, changes during the
period, and the amount at the end of the period for each component of equity.
For each component of equity, the SOCIE should show changes resulting from:
 profit (gain) or loss for the period;
 each item of other comprehensive income;
 transactions with owners in their capacity as owners.
 new issues of shares;
 payments of dividends;
 repurchases and cancellation of its own shares by the company; and
 charges in respect of equity-settled share based payment
transactions.
Transactions with owners in their capacity as owners are not gains or losses so
are not shown in the statement so comprehensive income but they do affect
equity. The SOCIE highlights such transactions.
1.5 Notes to the financial statements

Notes contain information in addition to that presented in the statement of
financial position, statement of comprehensive income, statement of changes in
equity and statement of cash flows.
Notes provide narrative descriptions of items in those statements and information
about items that do not qualify for recognition in those statements. They also
explain how totals in those statements are formed.
Disclosure of accounting policies

An entity must disclose the following in the summary of significant accounting
policies:
 the measurement basis (or bases) used in preparing the financial
statements; and
 the other accounting policies used that are relevant to an understanding of
the financial statements.
 the judgements (apart from those involving estimations) made by
management in applying the accounting policies that have the most
significant effect on the amounts of items recognised in the financial
statements. For example:
 whether financial assets are held-to-maturity investments;
 when substantially all the significant risks and rewards of ownership
of financial assets and lease assets are transferred to other entities;
 whether, in substance, particular sales of goods are financing
arrangements and therefore do not give rise to revenue; and
 whether the substance of the relationship between the entity and a
special purpose entity indicates that the entity controls the special
purpose entity.

Which policies?
Management must disclose those policies that would assist users in
understanding how transactions, other events and conditions are reflected in the
reported financial performance and financial position.
If an IFRS allows a choice of policy, disclosure of the policy selected is especially
useful.
Some standards specifically require disclosure of particular accounting policies.
For example, IAS 16 requires disclosure of the measurement bases used for
classes of property, plant and equipment.
It is also appropriate to disclose an accounting policy not specifically required by
IFRSs, but selected and applied in accordance with IAS 8.
Key measurement assumptions

An entity must disclose information regarding key assumptions about the future,
and other key sources of measurement uncertainty, that have a significant risk of
causing a material adjustment to the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities
within the next financial year.
In respect of those assets and liabilities, the notes must include details of:
 their nature; and
 their carrying amount as at the reporting date.
Examples of key assumptions disclosed are:
 future interest rates;
 future changes in salaries;
 future changes in prices affecting other costs; and,
 useful lives.
Examples of the types of disclosures made are:
 the nature of the assumption or other measurement uncertainty;
 the sensitivity of carrying amounts to the methods, assumptions and
estimates underlying their calculation, including the reasons for the
sensitivity;
 the expected resolution of an uncertainty and the range of reasonably
possible outcomes within the next financial year in respect of the carrying
amounts of the assets and liabilities affected; and
 an explanation of changes made to past assumptions concerning those
assets and liabilities, if the uncertainty remains unresolved.
Capital disclosures
An entity must disclose information to enable users to evaluate its objectives,
policies and processes for managing capital.
An entity must disclose the following:
 qualitative information including:
 a description of what it manages as capital;
 the nature of any externally imposed capital requirements and how
they are incorporated into the management of capital;

Corporate reporting
 how it is meeting its objectives for managing capital;

 summary quantitative data about what it manages as capital; and
 whether any externally imposed capital requirements have been complied
with and if not the consequences of such non-compliance.
These disclosures must be based on information provided internally to key
management personnel.

2 ED/2014/1: DISCLOSURE INITIATIVE
Section overview
 Introduction
 Materiality
 Information to be presented in the SOFP or the SOPL & OCI
 Notes
 Disclosure of accounting policies
2.1 Introduction
The objective of this project is to make narrow-focus amendments to IAS 1
Presentation of Financial Statements to address some of the concerns expressed
about existing presentation and disclosure requirements, and to ensure that
entities are able to use judgement when preparing financial statements
The proposed amendments relate to:
 materiality and aggregation;
 statement of financial position and statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive ;
 notes structure; and
 disclosure of accounting policies.
2.2 Materiality
The proposed amendments clarify the materiality requirements in IAS 1 and
include an emphasis on the potentially detrimental effect of overwhelming useful
information with immaterial information.
 Entities must not aggregate or disaggregate information in a manner that
obscures useful information;
 the materiality requirements apply to the statement(s) of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income, statement of financial position, statement of
cash flows and statements of changes in equity and to the notes; and
 An entity need not provide a specific disclosure required by an IFRS in the
financial statements, including in the notes, if the information resulting from
that disclosure is not material. When a standard requires a specific
disclosure, an entity must assess whether all of that information needs to
be presented or disclosed, or whether some of the information is immaterial
and presenting or disclosing it would reduce the understandability of its
financial statements by detracting from the material information.
2.3 Information to be presented in the SOFP or the SOPL & OCI

IAS 1 includes a list of line items that should be shown in the statement of
financial position and a list of line items that should be shown the statement of
profit or loss. The ED proposes to add the following paragraph below each list.
“These line items must be disaggregated when such presentation is relevant to
an understanding of the entity’s financial position”.

Corporate reporting
IAS 1 requires that an entity should “present additional line items, headings and
subtotals in the statement of financial position when such presentation is relevant
to an understanding of the entity’s financial position”. There is a similar
requirement for the statement of profit or loss.
The ED proposes to add a requirement that when an entity presents subtotals in
accordance with these paragraphs, those subtotals must:
 be made up of items recognised and measured in accordance with IFRS;
 be presented and labelled in a manner that makes what constitutes the
subtotal understandable; and
 be consistent from period to period.
In addition any extra subtotal in the statement of profit or loss cannot be

displayed with more prominence that the subtotals and totals already required by
IAS 1.
2.4 Notes
IAS 1 contains a requirement that notes must be presented in a systematic
manner.
The ED clarifies that entities have flexibility as to the order in which they present
the notes, but also emphasise that understandability and comparability should be
considered by an entity when deciding that order. The ED proposes to provide
additional guidance which allows the entity to consider:
 sequence of notes based on importance;
 inter-related disclosures and grouping of notes;
 sequence of notes compared to the primary financial statements sequence;
and
 whether accounting policy descriptions should be in a separate section, or
as part of other notes
2.5 Disclosure of accounting policies

The ED proposes the removal of potentially unhelpful guidance in IAS 1 for
identifying a significant accounting policy.
This is a minor change and is not discussed further.

3 IAS 34: INTERIM FINANCIAL REPORTING
Section overview
 Scope of IAS 34
 Form and content of interim financial statements
 Periods for which interim financial statements must be presented
 Recognition and measurement
 Use of estimates in interim financial statements
 Interim reporting in Nigeria
3.1 Scope of IAS 34

IAS 1 requires that financial statements should be produced at least annually.
Many companies are required by national regulations to produce accounts on a
half-yearly basis or sometimes on a quarterly basis. For example, in the UK the
Financial Services Authority requires listed companies whose shares are traded
on the London Stock Exchange to produce accounts at the half year stage
(‘interim accounts’) and at the year-end (‘annual report’). This is one of their
conditions of listing.
IAS 34 Interim financial reporting does not specify the frequency of interim
reporting: this is a matter for national regulations, which may vary between
countries. IAS 34 focuses on providing guidance on the form and content of
these interim accounts.
It encourages publicly-traded companies to prepare interim accounts and to file
them with the national authority no later than 60 days after the end of the interim
period.
3.2 Form and content of interim financial statements

IAS 34 requires that, as a minimum, an interim financial report should include:
 a condensed statement of financial position
 a condensed statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income,
presented as either a condensed single statement or a condensed separate
statement of profit or loss followed by a condensed statement of other
comprehensive income
 a condensed statement of changes in equity
 a condensed statement of cash flows, and
 selected explanatory notes.
In the statement that presents the components of profit or loss an entity should
present the basic and diluted EPS for the period.
An entity could provide a full set of financial statements or additional selected
information if it wishes to do so. If it chooses to produce a full set of financial
statements for its interim accounts, the entity must comply with IAS 1.
The interim statements are designed to provide an update on the performance
and position of the entity. It should focus on new activities, events, and
circumstances that have occurred since the previous annual financial statements

Corporate reporting
were issued. They should not duplicate information that has already been
reported in the past.
3.3 Periods for which interim financial statements must be presented

Interim reports must include the following financial statements (condensed or
complete):
 a statement of financial position at the end of the current interim period and
a comparative balance sheet at the end of the previous financial year.
 statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income for the current
interim period and cumulatively for the current financial year to date.
 comparative statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
for the comparable interim period last year, and the comparable cumulative
period last year.
 a statement of changes in equity for the current financial year to date, with
a comparative statement for the comparable year-to-date period in the
previous year.
 a statement of cash flows cumulatively for the current financial year to date,
with a comparative statement for the comparable year-to-date period in the
previous year.
Example: Periods for which interim financial statements must be presented

X plc publishes interim financial reports quarterly.
The entity's financial year ends 31 December (calendar year).
The statements that must be presented in the quarterly interim report as of 30
June 2015:
31st
30th June December 30th June
2014 2014 2015
Statement of financial position -  
Statement of profit or loss and

other comprehensive income
6m ending  - 
3m ending  - 
Statement of cash flows

6m ending  - 
3m ending - - -
Statement of changes in equity

6m ending  - 
3m ending - - -

3.4 Recognition and measurement

An entity should use the same accounting policies in the interim accounts that it
uses in the annual financial statements.
Measurement for interim purposes should be made on a year-to-date basis. For
example, suppose that a company uses quarterly reporting and in the first quarter
of the year, it writes down some inventory to zero. If it is then able to sell the
inventory in the next quarter, the results for the six-month period require no write-
down of inventory, and the write-down of inventory should be reversed for the
purpose of preparing the interim accounts for the first six months of the year.
An appendix to IAS 34 gives some guidance on applying the general recognition
and measurement rules from the IASB Conceptual Framework to the interim
accounts. Some examples are given below.
Intangible assets
The guidance in IAS 34 states that an entity should follow the normal recognition
criteria when accounting for intangible assets. Development costs that have been
incurred by the interim date but do not meet the recognition criteria should be
expensed. It is not appropriate to capitalise them as an intangible asset in the
belief that the criteria will be met by the end of the annual reporting period.
Tax
Interim period tax should be accrued using the tax rate that would be applicable
to expected total earnings.
3.5 Use of estimates in interim financial statements

The interim financial statements should be reliable and relevant. However IAS 34
recognises that the preparation of interim accounts will generally rely more
heavily on estimates than the annual financial statements. An appendix of IAS 34
provides examples.
Pensions
A company is not expected to obtain an actuarial valuation of its pension
liabilities at the interim date. The guidance suggests that the most recent
valuation should be rolled forward and used in the interim accounts.
Provisions
The calculation of some provisions requires the assistance of an expert. IAS 34
recognises that this would be too costly and time-consuming for the interim
accounts. IAS 34 therefore states that the figure included in the annual financial
statements for the previous year should be updated without reference to an
expert.
Inventories
A full count of inventory may not be necessary at the interim reporting date. It
may be sufficient to make estimates based on sales margins to establish a
valuation for the interim accounts.

Corporate reporting
3.6 Interim reporting in Nigeria

The Nigerian Stock Exchange is regulated by the Securities and Exchange
Commission and subject to its regulations.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Companies wishing to be admitted to the official list of the Nigerian Stock
Exchange must, in addition to complying with the exchange’s listing rules, comply
with the relevant provisions of the Companies And Allied Matters Act 1990 and
the Investment and Securities Act, 1999 Rules and Regulations.
The SEC regulations contain the following requirements with respect to interim
reporting.
Quarterly report
Public quoted companies are required prepare a report prepared in accordance
with IFRS. Therefore, IAS 34 applies.
The report must be filed with the commission and simultaneously with the
relevant securities exchanges and the investing public within 30 days of the end
of the quarter. The report must be accompanied by a certification letter signed by
the chief executive officer and chief financial officer.
The quarterly report must contain the following by way of notes
 accounting policy changes;
 seasonality or cyclicality of operations;
 Changes in estimates;
 issuance, repurchase and repayment of debts and equity securities;
 dividends;
 items of segment information;
 significant events after the end of the interim period;
 business combinations;
 long term investments;
 restructuring and reversals of restructuring provisions;
 discontinuing operations;
 correction of prior errors;
 write down of inventory to net realisable value;
 the impairment loss of property, plant and equipment intangible or other
assets and reversal of such impairment loss;
 the litigation settlements;
 any debt defaults or any breach of a debt that has not been corrected
subsequently;
 related party transactions;
 acquisitions and disposals of property, plant and equipment;
 commitments to purchase property, plant and equipment;

All public companies must publish the signed quarterly statement of financial
position, statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income and
statement of cash flows in at least one national daily newspaper. However the
accounting policy notes and other relevant information must be posted on the
company’s website the address of which must be disclosed in the newspaper
publication
Half yearly returns

Public companies shall file half yearly returns with the commission in the
prescribed manner and shall contain the following:
 general information;
 corporate governance issues;
 unclaimed dividends; and
 audit committee;
 an undertaking by the company secretary, chief internal auditor, financial
controller, managing director, board chairman and chairman of the audit
committee certifying the reliability of the information in the format provided.
This must be filed with the commission within 30 days of the end of the half year
period either in hard or electronic copy.

Corporate reporting
4 IAS 24: RELATED PARTY DISCLOSURES
Section overview
 Impact on the financial statements

 The objective of IAS 24
 Definitions
 Disclosure requirements
4.1 Impact on the financial statements

A user of financial statements will normally expect the financial statements to
reflect transactions that have taken place on normal commercial terms (‘at arm’s
length’). The user of the financial statements would want to be informed if:
 Transactions have taken place that were not at ‘arm’s length’; or
 There are parties that could enforce transactions on the entity that are not
on an ‘arm’s length’ basis.
For example, in a group of companies, an entity might sell goods to its parent or
fellow-subsidiaries on more favourable terms than it would sell to other
customers.
In this situation, the financial performance or financial position reported by the
financial statements would be misleading. In each situation there is a special
relationship between the parties to the business transactions. This is referred to
as a ‘related party relationship’.
4.2 The objective of IAS 24

The objective of IAS 24 is to ensure that an entity’s financial statements contain
sufficient disclosures to draw attention to the possibility that the entity’s financial
position, or profit or loss may have been affected by:
 the existence of related parties; and
 transactions and outstanding balances with related parties.
IAS 24 is a disclosure standard. It does not require the redrafting of financial
statements. Such redrafting would be difficult as without the related party
relationship the transactions might never have taken place, and even if they had,
it may not be possible to determine at what amount.
Specified disclosures are required of:
 related party relationships; and
 related party transactions.

4.3 Definitions
IAS 24 provides a lengthy definition of a related party and also a definition of a
related party transaction.
Related party
Related party: A party is related to an entity (it is a related party) in any of the
following circumstances:
 The party controls the entity, or is controlled by it.
 It has significant influence over the entity.
 It has joint control over the entity.
 The parties are under common control.
 The party is an associate.
 The party is a joint venture in which the entity is a venturer.
 The party is a member of the key management personnel of the entity or its
parent.
 The party is a close family member of any of the above.
A parent entity is related to its subsidiary entities (because it controls them) and
its associated entities (because it exerts significant influence over them). Fellow
subsidiaries are also related parties, because they are under the common control
of the parent.
In considering each possible related party relationship the entity must look to the
substance of the arrangement, and not merely its legal form. Although two
entities that have the same individual on their board of directors would not meet
any of the above conditions for a related party, a related party relationship would
nevertheless exist if influence can be shown.
Some examples are given by IAS 24 of likely exemptions, where a related party
relationship would usually not exist. However, the substance of the relationship
should always be considered in each case.
Examples of entities that are usually not related parties are:
 Two venturers that simply share joint control over a joint venture
 Providers of finance (such as a lending bank or a bondholder)
 Trade unions
 Public utilities
 Government departments and agencies
 Customers, suppliers, franchisors, distributors or other agents with whom
the entity transacts a significant volume of business.
Close family members are those family members who may be expected to
influence, or be influenced by that individual. They include:
 The individual’s partner, children and dependants
 Children or dependants of the individual’s partner.

Corporate reporting
Related party transactions

A related party transaction is:
 A transfer of resources, services, or obligations between related parties;
 Whether or not a price is charged.
The following examples of related party transactions are given in IAS 24. (These
are related party transactions when they take place between related parties.)
 Purchases or sales of goods
 Purchases or sales of property and other assets
 Rendering or receiving of services
 Leases
 Transfer of research and development costs
 Finance arrangements (such as loans or contribution to equity)
 Provision of guarantees
 Settlement of liabilities on behalf of the entity or by the entity on behalf of
another party.
Example: Related party transactions

In the following examples, identify related party relationships between all parties
and state any additional factors to consider in order to form a conclusion:
(a) W Plc holds a controlling interest in X Ltd and Y Ltd. Z Ltd is a wholly owned
subsidiary of X Ltd.
(b) Mr Z holds 75% of the voting capital of A Ltd and 40% of the voting capital
of B Ltd.
(c) H and W (who are husband and wife) are the directors and majority
shareholders of Q Ltd. The company makes purchases from P Ltd, a
company jointly controlled by W and their daughter, D. D is a director of P
Ltd but holds no share in Q Ltd.

Answer
(a) W Plc
W PLC is related to both X Ltd and Y Ltd (both subsidiaries) because of its
controlling interest.
X Ltd and Y Ltd are related because they are under the common control of
W PLC.
Z Ltd is related to X Ltd because of its subsidiary status.
Z Ltd is also related to W PLC as he is indirectly controlled by W PLC
through W PLC’s holding of X Ltd.
(b) Mr Z
Mr Z is related to A Ltd because of the subsidiary status of A Ltd.
As an associate of Mr Z, B Ltd is also a related party
A Ltd and B Ltd are not related. Although they are both owned by Mr Z,
there is no common control because Mr Z only has a 40% stake in B Ltd.
(c) Q Ltd
H and W are both related to Q Ltd, because they are key management of
the entity
D could be considered to be close family to H and W, but this is only true if
it can be shown that she is influenced by them in business dealings (and
there is insufficient information in this example to ascertain whether this is
true).
P Ltd is related to Q Ltd as it is jointly controlled by a member of the key
management of Q Ltd. Therefore any business dealings between the two
entities will need to be disclosed.
4.4 Disclosure requirements

IAS 24 requires disclosure in the notes to the financial statements of the
following, whether or not transactions have taken place between those related
parties:
 the name of the entity’s parent
 if different, the name of the ultimate controlling party
Where transactions have taken place between the related parties, irrespective of
whether a price was charged, the following should be disclosed:
 The nature of the related party relationship
 The amount of the transactions
 In respect of outstanding balances
 the amount
 their terms and conditions
 any guarantees given or received
 any provision for doubtful/irrecoverable debts
 The expense recognised in the period in respect of irrecoverable debts due
from related parties.

Corporate reporting
The above disclosures should be given separately for each of the following
categories of related party:
 The parent
 Entities with joint control or significant influence over the entity
 Subsidiaries
 Associates
 Joint ventures in which the entity is a venturer
 Key management personnel of the entity or its parent
 Other related parties
In addition, IAS 24 requires disclosure of compensation to key management
personnel, in total, and for each of the following categories:
 Short-term employee benefits
 Post-employment benefits
 Other long-term benefits
 Termination benefits
 Share-based payments.
Illustration: Disclosure note

An example of a note to the financial statements for related party transactions of
a large quoted company is shown below:
Trading transactions
Amounts Amounts
Sales to Purchases owed by owed to
related from related related related
parties parties parties parties
₦m ₦m ₦m ₦m
Associates 48 17
Joint ventures 57 14 12
Non-trading transactions
Loans to Loans from
related parties related parties
₦m ₦m
Associates 11
Joint ventures 33

5 IFRS 8: OPERATING SEGMENTS
Section overview
 Scope of IFRS 8
 Operating segments
5.1 Scope of IFRS 8

Many companies operate in several different industries (or ‘product markets’) or
diversify their operations across several geographical locations. A consequence
of diversification is that companies are exposed to different rates of profitability,
different growth prospects and different amounts of risk for each separate
‘segment’ of their operations.
Objective of IFRS 8
IFRS 8 requires quoted companies to disclose information about their different
operating segments, in order to allow users of the financial statements to gain a
better understanding of the company’s financial position and performance.
Users are able to use the information about the main segments of the company’s
operations to carry out ratio analysis, identify trends and make predictions about
the future. Without segment information, good performance in some segments
may ‘hide’ very poor performance in another segment, and the user of the
financial statements will not see the true position of the company.
Segment reporting is required for any entity whose debt or equity is quoted on a
public securities market (stock market) and also entities that are in the process of
becoming quoted. If an entity includes some segment information in the annual
report that doesn’t comply with IFRS 8, it cannot call it ‘segmental information.’
5.2 Operating segments

IFRS 8 defines an operating segment as a component of an entity:
 that engages in business activities from which it earns revenues and incurs
expenses
 whose operating results are regularly reviewed by the entity’s chief
operating decision maker to make decisions about resources to be
allocated to the segment and assess its performance, and
 for which discrete financial information is available.
Not every part of an entity is necessarily an operating segment. For example a
corporate head office may not earn revenue and would not be an operating
segment.
The standard requires a segment to have its results reviewed by the chief
operating decision maker. The reason for this part of the definition of an
operating segment is to ensure that an entity reports segments that are used by
management of the entity to monitor the business.

Corporate reporting
Aggregation of segments
Two or more operating segments may be aggregated into a single operating
segment if they have similar economic characteristics, and the segments are
similar in each of the following respects:
 The nature of the products and services
 The nature of the production process
 The type or class of customer for their products and services
 The methods used to distribute their products or provide their services, and
 If applicable, the nature of the regulatory environment, for example,
banking insurance or public utilities.
Quantitative thresholds
An entity must report separately information about an operating segment that
meets any of the following quantitative thresholds:
 Its reported revenue, including external sales and intersegment sales is
10% or more of the combined internal and external revenue of all operating
segments
 Its reported profit is 10% or more of the greater of the combined profit of all
segments that did not report a loss and the combined reporting loss of all
segments that reported a loss
 Its assets are 10% or more of the combined assets of all operating
segments
Reportable segments
An entity must report separately information about each operating segment that:
 Has been identified in accordance with the definition of an operating
segment shown above
 Or is aggregated with another segment
 Or exceeds the quantitative thresholds.
If the total external revenue reported by operating segments constitutes less than
75% of the entity’s total revenue, then additional operating segments must be
identified as reporting segments, even if they do not meet the criteria, until 75%
of revenue is included in reportable segments.

Example:
The following information relates to Oakwood, a quoted company with five
divisions of operation:
Wood Furniture Veneer Waste Other Total
sales sales sales sales sales
₦m ₦m ₦m ₦m ₦m ₦m
Revenue from
external
customers 220 256 62 55 57 650
Inter segment
revenue 38 2 - 5 3 48
Reported profit 54 45 12 9 10 130
Total assets 4,900 4,100 200 400 600 10,200
Which of the business divisions are reportable segments under IFRS 8 Operating
segments?
Answer
IFRS 8 states that a segment is reportable if it meets any of the following criteria:
1. its internal and external revenue is more than 10% of the total entity internal
and external revenue.
2. its reported profit is 10% or more of the greater of the combined profit of all
segments that did not report a loss.
3. its assets are 10% or more of the combined assets of all operating
segments.
From the table above, only the Wood and Furniture department sales have more
than 10% of revenue, assets and profit and meet the requirements for an
operating segment. The other three divisions do not meet the criteria: none of
them pass the 10% test for assets, profit or revenue.
Additionally IFRS 8 states that if total external revenue reported by operating
segments constitutes less than 75% of the entity’s revenue then additional
operating segments must be identified as reporting segments, until 75% of
revenue is included in reportable segments
The total external revenue of Wood and Furniture is ₦476m and the total entity
revenue is ₦650m, which means that the revenue covered by reporting these two
segments is only 73%. This does not meet the criteria so we must add another
operating segment to be able to report on 75% of revenue. It doesn’t matter that
any of the other entities do not meet the original segment criteria.
In this case, we can add on any of the other segments to achieve the 75% target.
If we add in Veneer sales, this gives total sales of ₦538m, which is 83% of the
sales revenue of ₦650m. This is satisfactory for the segmental report.

Corporate reporting
Disclosure
IFRS 8 states that an entity must disclose information so that users of the
financial statements can evaluate the nature and financial effects of the business
activities in which it engages and the economic environments in which it
operates.
The information that is to be disclosed is:

 A measure of profit or loss for each reportable segment
 A measure of total assets liabilities for each reportable segment if such an
amount is reported regularly to the chief operating decision maker
 Information about the following items if they are specified and included in
the measure of segment profit that is reported to the chief operating
decision maker:
 revenues from external customers
 revenues from transactions with other operating segments of the
same entity
 interest revenue
 interest expense
 depreciation and amortisation
 material items of income and expense in accordance with IAS 1
 the entity’s interest in the profit or loss of associates and joint
ventures accounted for by the equity method
 income tax expense or income
 material non-cash items other than depreciation and amortisation.
 the amount of investment in associates and joint ventures accounted for by
the equity method and the amounts of additions to non-current assets
(excluding financial instruments, deferred tax assets, post-employment
benefit assets and rights arising under insurance contracts), providing
these amounts are included in segment assets.
Additionally, the following reconciliations are required:
 Reconciliation of the totals of segment revenues to the entity’s revenue;
 Reconciliation of the total of reported segment profits or losses to the
entity’s profit before tax and discontinued operations;
 Reconciliation of the total of the assets of the reportable segments to the
entity’s assets;
 Reconciliation of the total of the liabilities of the reportable segments to the
entity’s liabilities (but only if segment liabilities are reported); and
 Reconciliation of the total of the assets of the other material items to the
entity’s corresponding items.
Also, the factors used to identify the entity’s reportable segments, including the
basis of organisation, (i.e. whether the entity is organised around different
products and services or geographical area), and the types of products and
service from which the reportable segments derive their income must all be
disclosed.

Measurement
IFRS 8 requires that the amount of each segment item reported shall be the
measure reported to the chief operating decision maker for the purposes of
making decisions about allocating resources to the segment and assessing its
performance. This is based on the internal structure of how division of the entity
report their results to the chief operating decision maker. Any adjustments and
eliminations made in preparing an entity’s financial statements shall be included
in determining segment results only if they are included in the measure of the
segment’s results used by the chief operating decision maker.
The minimum amount the entity must disclose is:
 The basis of accounting for any transactions between reportable segments
 The nature of any differences between the measurement of the reportable
segments’ profit or loss before tax and the entity’s profit or loss, for
example, the allocation of centrally incurred costs.
segments’ assets and the assets of the entity.
segments’ liabilities and the liabilities of the entity.
 The nature of any changes from prior periods in measurement methods
used to determine segment profit or loss and the effect on profit or loss
from those changes.
 The nature of asymmetrical allocations to reportable segments. For
example, a reportable segment may be charged the depreciation expense
for a particular asset but the depreciable asset might not have been
allocated to the segment.
Entity wide disclosures

The reporting entity must also make the following disclosures in the financial
statements, even if it only has one reportable segment:
 Revenue from external customers for each product and service or each
group of similar products and services.
 Revenue from external customers attributed to the entity’s country of
domicile and attributed to all foreign countries in total where revenue is
made.
 Non-current assets located in the country of domicile and located in all
foreign countries in total where the entity holds assets
 If revenue from any customer is more than 10% of total revenue then it
must be disclosed along with the total of revenues from these customers
and the identity of the segment reporting the revenue.

Corporate reporting
6 IAS 10: EVENTS AFTER THE REPORTING PERIOD
Section overview
 Purpose of IAS 10
 Accounting for adjusting events after the reporting period
 Disclosures for non-adjusting events after the reporting period
 Dividends
 The going concern assumption
6.1 Purpose of IAS 10

IAS 10 Events after the reporting period has two main objectives:
 to specify when a company should adjust its financial statements for events
that occur after the end of the reporting period, but before the financial
statements are authorised for issue, and
 to specify the disclosures that should be given about events that have
occurred after the end of the reporting period but before the financial
statements were authorised for issue.
IAS 10 also includes a requirement that the financial statements should disclose
when the statements were authorised for issue, and who gave the authorisation.
IAS 10 sets out the following key definitions.
Definitions
Events after the reporting period: Those events, favourable and unfavourable that
occur between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial
statements are authorised for issue.
Adjusting events: Events that provide evidence of conditions that already existed as
at the end of the reporting period.
Non-adjusting events: Events that have occurred due to conditions arising after the
end of the reporting period.

6.2 Accounting for adjusting events after the reporting period

IAS 10 states that if a company obtains information about an adjusting event after
the reporting period, it should update the financial statements to allow for this
new information.
IAS 10 gives the following examples of adjusting events.
 The settlement of a court case after the end of the reporting period,
confirming that the company had a present obligation as at the end of the
reporting period as a consequence of the case.
 The receipt of information after the reporting period indicating that an asset
was impaired as at the end of the reporting period.
 The discovery of fraud or errors showing that the financial statements are
incorrect.
6.3 Disclosures for non-adjusting events after the reporting period

Non-adjusting events after the reporting period are treated differently. A non-
adjusting event relates to conditions that did not exist at the end of the reporting
period, therefore the financial statements must not be updated to include the
effects of the event. IAS 10 states quite firmly: ‘A company shall not adjust the
amounts recognised in the financial statements to reflect non-adjusting events
after the reporting period’.
However, IAS 10 goes on to say that if a non-adjusting event is material, a failure
by the company to provide a disclosure about it could influence the economic
decisions taken by users of the financial statements. For material non-adjusting
events IAS 10 therefore requires disclosure of:
 the nature of the event; and
 an estimate of its financial effect or a statement that such an estimate
cannot be made.
IAS 10 gives the following examples of non-adjusting events:
 A fall in value of an asset after the end of the reporting period, such as a
large fall in the market value of some investments owned by the company,
between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial
 The acquisition or disposal of a major subsidiary.
 The formal announcement of a plan to discontinue a major operation.
 Announcing or commencing the implementation of a major restructuring.
 The destruction of a major plant by a fire after the end of the reporting
period.

Corporate reporting
6.4 Dividends
IAS 10 also contains specific provisions about proposed dividends and the going
concern presumption on which financial statements are normally based.
If equity dividends are declared after the reporting period, they should not be
recognised, because they did not exist as an obligation at the end of the reporting
period.
Dividends proposed after the reporting period (but before the financial statements
are approved) should be disclosed in a note to the financial statements, in
accordance with IAS 1.
6.5 The going concern assumption

There is one important exception to the normal rule that the financial statements
reflect conditions as at the end of the reporting period.
A deterioration in operating results and financial position after the end of the
reporting period may indicate that the going concern presumption is no longer
appropriate.
There are a large number of circumstances that could lead to going concern
problems. For example:
 The financial difficulty of a major customer leading to their inability to pay
their debt to the agreed schedule if at all.
 An event leading to the net realisable value of lines of inventory falling to
less than cost.
 An event leading to a crucial non-current asset falling out of use. This might
cause difficulties in supplying customers and fulfilling contracts.
 A change in market conditions leading to a loss in value of major
investments.
 Shortages of important supplies
 The emergence of a highly effective competitor.
If it becomes clear that the client cannot be considered to be a going concern, the
financial statements will need to disclose this and the basis for preparing them
will change to the ‘break-up’ basis.
This means that values will have to be adjusted to the amounts expected to be
realised through sale.

7 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain the general features of financial statements described in IAS 1
 Describe the requirements of IAS 34
 Explain the objective of IAS 24 in setting out rules on disclosure of related party
relationships and transactions
 Define and identify related parties
 Prepare related party disclosures based on a scenario
 Explain why the information provided by IFRS 8 is useful to users of financial
statements
 Define and identify operating segments
 Prepare operating segment disclosure notes based on a simple scenario
 Distinguish between adjusting and non-adjusting items
 Explain and apply the IAS 10 guidance on the recognition of dividends

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
4
Other information in the annual report
Contents
1 Annual reports
2 Governance reports
3 Management commentary
4 Risk reporting
5 Other financial information
6 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1(f) Identify and explain with examples the additional information that may be
included in annual reports beyond financial statements in accordance with
international best practice and local requirements including management
reports, risk information, governance reports, financial summaries, key
performance indicators and highlights.
Exam context
This chapter describes and explains additional information that might be included in annual
reports.
 List other types of information found in annual reports
 Describe the general requirements for the content of governance reports
 Explain the purpose and describe the content of a management commentary
 Explain the purpose and describe the content of effective risk reports
 Describe other financial information that might appear in annual reports

Chapter 4: Other information in the annual report
1 ANNUAL REPORTS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Content of annual reports
 Voluntary disclosures
1.1 Introduction
An annual report is a comprehensive report on a company's activities throughout
the preceding year. Annual reports are intended to give shareholders and other
users, who are interested, information about the company's activities and
financial performance.
Most jurisdictions, including Nigeria, require companies to prepare and disclose
annual reports, and many require the annual report to be filed at the company's
registry, in Nigeria the Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC). Companies listed on
a stock exchange are also required to report at more frequent intervals
(depending upon the rules of the stock exchange involved).
1.2 Content of annual reports

In addition to the audited financial statements, annual reports contain a great
deal of extra information.
This information might be:
 numerical and/or narrative; and
 financial and non-financial
A lot of the information is provided in narrative form. There is a view that narrative
reports can be much easier to understand than financial statements and notes to
the financial statements.
The extra information provided may be provided on a mandatory or voluntary
basis.
Mandatory and voluntary disclosures

Disclosures may be a mandatory requirement of the law or other regulations, or
they may be provided as voluntary disclosures by a company. In practice, the
disclosures by a company are likely to be a mixture of mandatory and voluntary
disclosures.
The nature and amount of mandatory disclosures depends on the laws and
regulations of the country.
 Some disclosures are required by law. For example, companies are
required to prepare an annual report and accounts, and present these to
the shareholders. Company law specifies what the directors’ report and the
accounts must contain, and in addition other regulations about content
apply such as the requirements of financial reporting standards.
 Some disclosures are required by stock market rules. For example, the
SEC rules require listed companies to provide information relating to
corporate governance and a chairman’s report in their annual report and
accounts. There are also stock market rules about other announcements by

Corporate reporting
the company, such as profit warnings and announcements of proposed

takeovers.
1.3 Voluntary disclosures

In addition to the mandatory disclosures required by law or regulation, many
companies provide additional information, as part of their normal reporting cycle.
Typically, these include
 an operating and financial review;
 a social and environmental report;
 corporate social responsibility report;
 financial summaries;
 details of key performance indicators (KPIs)
There are several reasons why a company might make voluntary disclosures:
 some voluntary information might be provided as a public relations or
marketing exercise, to present ‘good news’ about the company to investors
and other users of the company’s published reports.
 providing information on a voluntary basis might persuade the government
or financial service regulator that compulsory disclosures and regulation are
not necessary.
 companies might publish social and environmental reports out of a genuine
ethical and cultural belief in the responsibilities of the company to society
and the environment. If a company believes that it has social and
environmental responsibilities, publishing a report on these issues is a way
of making itself accountable.
 a company might use voluntary disclosures as a way of improving
communications with its shareholders. By giving more disclosures to
shareholders, companies might encourage shareholders to respond, and
enter into a dialogue with the company about its strategies and plans for
the future.
The main limitations of information provided on a voluntary basis are that:
 the company can decide what to include in the report and what to leave out;
 The information is often presented in a very positive form, as public
relations for investors, and might not be entirely reliable.

2 GOVERNANCE REPORTS
Section overview
 Requirements for disclosures about corporate governance

 Requirements in Nigeria
 Requirements in the European Union
2.1 Requirements for disclosures about corporate governance

Institutional investors need information about corporate governance in order to
make better investment decisions. Such information is provided in corporate
governance statements as part of the annual report.
Corporate governance statements by listed companies are often quite long.
Typically, they fill five or six pages in the annual report and accounts.
The specific content of a corporate governance statement may vary from
jurisdiction to jurisdiction, although modern corporate governance reports often
rest on similar foundations and require similar disclosures.
2.2 Requirements in Nigeria

Nigeria has a modern and comprehensive corporate governance code. The
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) require that the annual reports of all
quoted companies should include a corporate governance statement.
The corporate governance report should convey clear information on the strength
of the company’s governance structures, policies and practices to stakeholders.
General requirements
The report should include the following:
 details of the composition of board of directors stating the names of
chairmen, CEO and non-executive directors;
 the roles and responsibilities of the board setting out matters which are
reserved for the board and those delegated to management;
 details of the process for making board appointments and the induction and
training of board members;
 details of the evaluation process for the board as a whole, its committees
and each individual director with a summary of evaluation results;
 details of directors standing for re-election and their biographical details;
 the composition of board committees including names of chairmen and
members of each committee;
 a description of the roles and responsibilities of the board committees and
how the committees have discharged those responsibilities;
 the number of meetings of the board and the committees held during the
year and details of attendance;
 disclosure of the code of business conduct and ethics, if any, for directors
and employees;

Corporate reporting
 human resource policies, internal management structure, relations with

employees, employee share ownership schemes and other work place
development initiatives;
 companies sustainability policies and programmes covering issues such as
corruption, community service, environmental protection, HIV/AIDs and
general corporate social responsibility issues.
Statement of compliance
The annual report should contain a statement from the board with regards to the
company’s degree of compliance with the provisions of this code.
In particular it should provide:
 assurances that effective internal audit function exists and that risk
management control and compliance systems are operating efficiently and
effectively in all respects;
 justification where the board does not accept the audit committee’s
recommendation on the appointment, reappointment or removal of an
existing external auditor; explaining the recommendation and the reason for
the board decision;
 statement on sustainability initiatives;
 related party transactions;
 the nature of the related party relationships and transactions as well as
information about the transactions necessary to understand the potential
effect of the relationship on the financial statements
Accounting and risk management issues

The board of every public company should ensure that the company’s annual
report makes sufficient disclosure on accounting and risk management issues.
In particular, the following matters must be disclosed:
 the statement of the directors’ responsibilities in connection with the
preparation of financial statements;
 details of accounting policies utilised and reasons for changes in
accounting policies;
 where the accounting policies applied do not conform to standard practice,
the external auditor should express an opinion on whether they agreed with
the departure and the reasons for such departure;
 a statement from the directors that the business is a going concern;
 executive directors remuneration and share options;
 non-executive directors fees and allowances and share options if any;
 risk management indicating the board’s responsibility for the total process
as well as its opinion on the effectiveness of the risk management
procedures.

2.3 Requirements in the European Union

In the European Union and in other countries, the principle of ‘comply or explain’
is applied. Major companies are required to comply with a recognised code of
corporate governance, or explain their non-compliance.
Major companies are required to prepare a corporate governance statement
each year. This is included in their annual report and accounts. In the UK for
example, the Listing Rules of the London Stock Exchange require a statement in
the annual report and accounts (of listed companies) relating to compliance with
the UK Corporate Governance Code.

Corporate reporting
3 MANAGEMENT COMMENTARY
Section overview
 Definition and purpose of management commentary

 IFRS Practice Statement: Management commentary
3.1 Definition and purpose of management commentary

‘Management commentary’ is additional information about an entity that
complements the information provided in the financial statements of an entity.
Two important features of management commentary are that:
 it is provided by management, and expresses the view of the management
of the entity;
 it is a commentary; therefore much of it is in a narrative form.
The Canadian Accounting Standards Board has defined management
commentary as follows:
Definition
Management commentary: A narrative explanation, through the eyes of
management, of how your company performed during the period covered by the
financial statements and of your company’s financial condition and future
prospects
The IASB agrees with most of this definition, but believes that management
commentary should include quantitative information as well as narrative;
therefore to call it a ‘narrative’ explanation is misleading.
Management commentary is useful to the users of financial statements because
it provides them with additional information that supplements the figures in the
accounts. It also gives them an insight into how management view the
performance of the business and what they hope to achieve in the future. An
assessment of the risks and opportunities facing the entity can also be useful for
an investor who may want to make a decision as to whether to continue investing
in the entity.
Management commentary is common in many countries. In the European Union,
companies are required to include a business review in their annual report and
accounts.
A business review is a management commentary, and might sometimes be
called an Operating and Financial Review (OFR). In the UK there is a statement
of best practice that gives guidance on the content and presentation of
information in an OFR, which is consistent with the statutory requirements for the
content of the business review.

3.2 IFRS Practice Statement: Management commentary

This is a non-mandatory document that sets out guidelines to be followed by
companies who wish to or are required to produce a management commentary in
accordance with IFRS.
The guidance is intended to provide a basis for the development of good
management commentary. It offers a non-binding framework which could be
adapted to the legal and economic circumstances of individual jurisdictions.
The Practice Statement (PS) defines management commentary as a narrative
report accompanying financial statements prepared in accordance with IFRSs
that provides users with historical and prospective commentary on the entity’s
financial position, financial performance and cash flows, and a basis for
understanding management’s objectives and its strategies for achieving those
objectives.
The PS prescribes a framework for the preparation and presentation of
management commentary to assist management in preparing decision-useful
management commentary to accompany financial statements prepared in
accordance with IFRS.
Management commentary may help users to understand:
 the entity’s risk exposures, its strategies for managing risks and the
effectiveness of those strategies
 how resources that are not presented in the financial statements could
affect the entity’s operations
 how non-financial factors have influenced the information presented in the
Management commentary should:
 provide management’s view of the entity’s performance, position and
development
 supplement and complement information presented in the financial
statements; and
 be orientated to the future.
The relevant focus of management commentary will vary with facts and
circumstances but a decision-useful management commentary should include
information that is essential to an understanding of:
 the nature of the business
 management’s objectives and strategies for meeting those objectives
 the entity’s most significant resources, risks and relationships
 the results of operations and prospects
 the critical performance measures and indicators that management uses to
evaluate the entity’s performance against stated objectives.

Corporate reporting
4 RISK REPORTING
Section overview
 Risk management
 Situation in Nigeria
 Components of effective risk reporting
 Situation in the UK
4.1 Risk management

A company may be exposed to a wide range of risks which might affect its ability
to achieve its corporate objectives.
Risk management is a corporate governance issue. A board should safeguard
the assets of the company and protect the shareholders’ investment from a loss
of value. In order to achieve this, the board should manage risks.
The publication of information on risk management activities enables
shareholders (and other stakeholders) to evaluate the importance that a
company attaches to risk management and its effectiveness in managing those
risks identified as significant.
Risk reports help boost shareholders’ confidence that the company has adopted
a responsible attitude towards risk.
ICGN Corporate Risk Oversight Guidelines

The International Corporate Governance Network (ICGN) has issued guidelines
on responsibilities for the oversight and management of corporate risk (2010).
Key features are as follows:
 the risk oversight process begins with the board. The board is responsible
for deciding the company’s risk strategy and business model, and it should
understand and agree the level of risk that goes with this. It should then
have oversight of the implementation by management of a strategic and
operational risk management system.
 management has the responsibility for developing and implementing the
company’s strategic and routine operational risk management system,
within the strategy set by the board and subject to board oversight.
 shareholders have responsibility for assessing the effectiveness of the
board in overseeing risk. Investors are not themselves responsible for the
oversight of risk in the company.
The ICGN Guidelines provide guidance on processes for the oversight of
corporate risk by the board and within the company, for investor responsibility
and for disclosures by a company on its risk management oversight processes.
Shareholders need information about risk in order to fulfil their responsibility.
IFRS 7 Financial Instruments: Disclosure requires companies to make disclosure
in respect of specified financial risks including, credit risk, liquidity risk and market
risk. These disclosures could be included in the financial statements or
incorporated as part of the risk report (in which case they are still subject to audit
even though presented outside the financial statements). These are only part of

the risks that a company faces. A risk report should be broader in scope than just
the financial risks.
Illustration: Other risks

BP’s 2013 financial statements explain a number of risk areas including:
a. Climate change and carbon pricing
b. Geopolitical
c. Competition
d. Reserves progression
e. Major project deliveries
f. Digital infrastructure
4.2 Situation in Nigeria

SEC rules require the following:
 the board of every public company must establish a risk management
committee to assist it in its oversight of risk.
 every public company must include risk management as part of its
accounting policies.
 public companies must disclose, by way of notes:
 any material effect of unmitigated risk on corporate profitability; and
 strategies for preventing risks the company is exposed to.
4.3 Components of effective risk reporting

The required content of effective risk reports can be stated using the following
five components that would be expected in an effective risk management system.
 risk agenda;
 risk assessment;
 risk response;
 risk communication;
 risk governance.
Risk agenda
This explains the reasons for undertaking risk management activities and
expected benefits from doing so.
Good risk reports would include the following:
 a clear statement of the drivers for the company when planning and
undertaking risk management activities;
 a description of the benefits from the risk management processes
established; and
 information on resources allocated to risk management activities.

Corporate reporting
Risk assessment
 a clear description of the procedures in place and information used to
identify risks;
 an explanation of how risk is evaluated;
 a list of significant risk.
Risk response
 description of appropriate responses for each risk;
 information on how the efficiency and effectiveness of existing controls is
assessed;
 description of disaster response and business continuity plans.
Risk communication
 a description of how risk management processes and responsibilities are
communicated throughout the company;
 information on risk management recordkeeping and on risk reporting and
whistleblowing arrangements in the company.
Risk governance
 a description of risk governance arrangements;
 a description of how emerging risks are being managed.
4.4 Situation in the UK

The UK Corporate Governance Code requires the board of directors to maintain
a sound system of risk management, to carry out a review of effectiveness of the
risk management system at least once each year and report to shareholders that
the system is effective.
The UK Corporate Governance Code requires companies listed on the London
Stock Exchange to report their risk management activities.
All companies listed on the London Stock Exchange publish a list of significant
risk factors with explanation of why they are deemed to be significant and the
steps taken to mitigate the risk. Typically, good reports would satisfy all of the
requirements in the previous section.

5 OTHER FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Section overview
 Financial summaries
 Financial highlights
 Key performance indicators
 Trends
5.1 Financial summaries

Financial statements contain a great deal of detail.
Public companies often publish summaries of key figures from the financial
statements as an aid to users. Good practice would require that figures in the
financial summaries should be referenced back to the financial statements.
There are no set formats for such summaries. A financial summary might contain
the following information.
Illustration: Financial summaries

Financial performance 2015 2014
₦m ₦m
Revenue 200 190
Profit before tax 80 75

Profit for the year 60 59
Other comprehensive income
(net of tax) 15 10
Total comprehensive income 75 69
Financial position
Non-current assets 700 600
Current assets 800 825
1,500 1,425
Equity reserves 500 425

Non-current liabilities 400 350
Current liabilities 600 650
1,500 1,425
Financial summaries are useful to provide an overview of financial performance

and financial position but a true understanding can only come from a detailed
analysis of the financial statements in the light of knowledge of the industry within
which the company operates.

Corporate reporting
5.2 Financial highlights

Financial highlights constitute information that, in the company’s view, are
important to an understanding of financial performance and financial position in a
period.
Financial highlights can overlap financial summaries but might also include other
information including performance statistics and narrative information about key
events in the period (for example, relating to a major acquisition).
Illustration: Financial summaries

Financial performance 2015 2014 Increase
₦m ₦m
Revenue 200 190 5.3%
Profit before tax 80 75 6.7%

Profit for the year 60 59 1.7%
(net of tax) 15 10 50%
Total comprehensive income 75 69 8.7%
Financial position
Total assets 1,500 1,425
Equity reserves 500 425

Total liabilities 1,000 1,000
1,500 1,425
Earnings per share

Basic 25.0 24.9
Diluted 23.0 20.0
Share price at year end 135.0 128.0
Dividend per share 15.0 10.0
A problem with financial highlights is that companies might use them to promote
a particular agenda by focussing on certain areas to detract attention from others.
Once again, remember that a true understanding can only come from a detailed
analysis of the financial statements in the light of knowledge of the industry within
which the company operates.

5.3 Key performance indicators

Many companies might include key performance indicators in the annual report,
perhaps, as part of the financial highlights.
Companies can choose to include whatever they like but ideally, the information
reported would be on true KPIs, that is to say, those used by management in
running the business.
There are no standard versions of many KPIs so best practice would dictate that
the company should define how they are calculated. Best practice would also
require that the KPIs should be supported by narrative commentary.
KPIs might include both financial (e.g. ROCE, gross profit margin etc.) and non-
financial (e.g. growth in market share, quality scores etc.).
5.4 Trends
Many companies include tables or diagrams in the annual reports to indicate
performance in key areas over time.
Such information might include revenue, operating profit, profit after tax, eps and
share price, typically over a five or ten year period.
Some companies also include non-financial information, for example, the number
of employees.

Corporate reporting
6 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 List other types of information found in annual reports
 Describe the general requirements for the content of governance reports
 Explain the purpose and describe the content of a management commentary
 Explain the purpose and describe the content of effective risk reports
 Describe other financial information that might appear in annual reports

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
5
Beyond financial reporting
Contents
1 Corporate social responsibility
2 Sustainability reporting
3 Integrated reporting
4 The UK Strategic Report
5 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
This syllabus extends students’ coverage of generally accepted accounting practices but also
deepens their understanding of reporting and their ability to apply practices to more complex
situations.
Reporting extends to sustainability and corporate social responsibility reports and business
reviews management commentaries or similar reports.
Exam context
This chapter does not address a specific competence but aims to explain references in the
“Purpose” section of the syllabus.
 Explain the meaning of corporate social responsibility
 Describe the content of corporate responsibility reports
 Explain the meaning of sustainability and sustainability reporting

Chapter 5: Beyond financial reporting
1 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Section overview
 Introduction
 Corporate social responsibility explained
 Reporting requirements
 Voluntary CSR reporting
 Consequences of poor track record on CSR issues
1.1 Introduction
Historically, companies have considered themselves responsible to their
shareholders by generating dividends and capital growth on their investment.
More recently, companies have been criticised for striving to maximise profits at
the expense of social and environmental concerns, for example, by such means
as underpaying their workforce or by abusing their power over their smaller
suppliers to negotiate prices and terms.
There is now a widely-accepted view that companies should be answerable to a
wider range of ‘stakeholders’ who are taking an increasing interest in their
activities. They are interested in the good and bad aspects of a company’s
operations – its products and services, its impact on the environment and local
communities and how it treats and develops its workforce.
Many large companies now accept (possibly for commercial reasons) that their
responsibilities extend beyond their shareholders to other stakeholders – their
employees, the government, the local community and society in general.
Initiatives include sourcing goods from deprived countries at fair prices,
campaigns to promote re-cycling of materials, job-sharing and flexi-time working
to improve working opportunities and conditions for employees.
In some aspects of reporting and disclosures, many large quoted companies
publish an annual corporate social responsibility report. This may be given a
different name, such as a social and environmental report or a sustainability
report, and is usually published as a separate document from the annual report
and accounts, but at the same time.
1.2 Corporate social responsibility explained

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a term for the responsibility that a
company should have towards society and the environment in which it operates.
CSR has been defined in various ways:
 It is ‘a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental
concerns in their business operations and their interaction with their
stakeholders on a voluntary basis.’
 ‘While there is no single, commonly-accepted definition of corporate social
responsibility … it generally refers to business decision-making linked to
ethical values, compliance with legal requirements, and respect for people,
communities and the environment’ (Business for Social Responsibility).
An important element of CSR is that it goes beyond compliance with legal and
regulatory obligations, and involves voluntary initiatives and investment in people

Corporate reporting
and the environment, and better relations with all stakeholders, not just
shareholders and other investors.
The practice of CSR increases the transparency and accountability of an
organisation. Transparency is important as stakeholders want to know about an
organisation’s activities. (They want to ‘see into’ an entity, to understand what it is
doing and which strategic directions it is taking.) For example, if a local
community believe that a company is dumping waste in the local area, then it will
be important to understand what is actually happening.
Likewise, the company needs to accept that it is accountable for its actions.
Stakeholders believe that they have a right to know whether a company is acting
in the best interests of society and the environment and wish to understand what
the company is doing to remedy any faults.
With the exception of the disclosures in the business review, described above,
UK companies are under no obligation to report on the corporate social
responsibility policies or initiatives. However, many listed companies now publish
voluntary annual reports on CSR. They may be called social and environmental
reports or CSR reports, and are usually published each year at the same time as
the annual report and accounts but in a separate document or booklet. These
reports set out their ethical values and commitment to CSR principles, and
describe what they have done in this area during the financial year.
A CSR report might be largely descriptive, providing narrative descriptions of how
the company has contributed to reductions in waste or pollution, promoting
sustainable business or engaging in charitable activities and community
development activities.
There is now growing recognition of the need to provide social and environmental
information as quantified performance measurements, so that actual
achievements can be assessed better against targets or benchmarks.
Sustainability reports provide quantified measurements of performance in three
areas of achievement: financial performance, social performance and
environmental performance. Since these reports provide quantified performance
measurements or results, sustainability reports are also described as triple
bottom line reporting.
Scope of CSR
CSR covers the following areas:
 ethical behaviour by a company and its employees (business ethics)
 the treatment of employees by the entity (employer)
 the treatment of human beings generally (for example, respect for human
rights, refusing to use suppliers who employ slave labour or child labour,
and so on)
 the entity’s relationship with society at large, and the communities in which
it operates
 environmental issues, such as the responsibility of companies to protect
and sustain the natural environment.

Possible approaches
CSR issues are not the same for each company, because companies operate in
different environments. However, for most companies there are some CSR
issues, which they might deal with in any of the following ways:
 they might ignore the issues, regardless of the effect of any bad publicity on
their reputation and public image.
 they might comply with legislation and regulations on CSR issues, but do
very little of a voluntary nature.
 they might seek to promote active CSR initiatives, which will probably
involve communicating information about these initiatives both to
shareholders and the general public.
1.3 Reporting requirements

There are no international accounting standards on social and environmental
reporting.
In some countries, large companies are required to present social and
environmental information on an annual basis.
USA
In the US the Securities and Exchange Commission, which regulates the stock
markets, requires listed companies to quantify their environmental expenditure.
They are also required to discuss the effects that compliance may have on their
profits and any lawsuits against them relating to environmental issues.
European Union
Denmark and the Netherlands require mandatory environmental reporting and
other countries such as Sweden and France require environmental information to
be published alongside the financial information in the annual report.
In the European Union, quoted companies are now required to present certain
information in the annual directors’ report, as a narrative business review. This
review should contain information about the main trends and factors likely to
affect the future development, performance and position of the company’s
business, and information about:
 environmental matters (including the impact of the company’s business on
its environment)
 the company’s employees
 social and community issues.
The review should also include:
 analysis using financial key performance indicators, and
 where appropriate, analysis using other key performance indicators,
including information relating to environmental matters and employee
matters.
In the UK, for example, the government has issued guidance on key
environmental performance indicators, including 22 quantifiable performance
measures relating to emissions into the air, emissions into the water, emissions
into the earth and the use of non-renewable resources.

Corporate reporting
Since the business review is a part of the annual directors’ report, the external
auditors are required to give an opinion on whether the information in the report
is consistent with the financial statements.
However, this requirement for a business review applies only in the EU, not
internationally.
1.4 Voluntary CSR reporting

Because of the potential importance of CSR issues for their reputation and public
image, many large companies voluntarily publish an annual CSR report. This is
often called an Environmental Report, or a Social and Environmental Report. The
intended users of social and environmental reports, or environmental, social and
governance (ESG) reports, include other stakeholders in addition to
shareholders.
The IASB is happy for companies to present such information, but does not
prescribe the content or the format of reports. As a result, the length and style of
such reports differs significantly between companies, and the content can vary
substantially for companies in different industries.
Some companies include their report on social and environmental issues as part
of their financial statements (normally in the directors’ report), whereas other
companies publish a report as a separate document. Preparing the information
as a separate document helps to distinguish between the readers; the annual
report is designed for the shareholders, whereas the corporate social
responsibility report is prepared for the other stakeholders in addition to the
shareholders.
Contents of an environmental report

Typically, an environmental report will include an outline of:
 the entity’s policies towards environmental issues
 any improvements since previous years
 an assessment of the key risks faced and how the company intends to
respond
 government legislation on environmental matters and how the entity
ensures compliance with the legislation
 significant initiatives taken by the company to improve environmental
issues
 key environmental performance indicators: targets of the industry and the
relative performance of the entity.
 financial information relating to environmental costs, including the entity’s
accounting policy.
Contents of a social report
A social report (which may be combined with the environmental report) may refer
to:
 employee numbers and employee involvement;
 employee sick leave, health and safety issues, accidents at work,
recruitment of ethnic minorities and the disabled;
 involvement with local charities and local communities;
 working groups to communicate with stakeholders;

Voluntary guidelines for the content of social and environmental reports

The information provided does not have to be audited, but most organisations will
request some kind of audit on the information before it is published to enhance its
credibility.
Even so, since the content of these voluntary reports is not regulated and not
audited, companies can include whatever they choose (the ‘good news’) and omit
whatever they do not want in the report (the bad news). For this reason, voluntary
environmental reports have been treated with some caution by readers.
Although there are no international standards on CSR reporting, there is a strong
trend towards the provision of more information, on a statutory or a voluntary
basis, and this trend in corporate reporting can be expected to continue in the
future.
UN Global Compact
There has been a significant increase in the demand by major institutional
investors for companies in which they invest to pursue social and environmental
policies. One such initiative was launched by the United Nations, with the support
of 32 major international institutional investors.
The UN Global Compact issued the Principles for Responsible Investment. The
ten principles are intended to encourage institutional investors to give attention to
environmental, social and corporate governance issues when making their
investment decisions.
The UN Global Compact states that companies should be encouraged by their
shareholders to provide disclosures on environmental, social and corporate
governance issues – in other words, to report on these issues.
The ten principles are that businesses should:
 support and respect the protection of international proclaimed human rights
within their sphere of influence;
 make sure that they are not compliant in human rights abuses;
 uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition to the right
of collective bargaining;
 uphold the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour;
 uphold the effective abolition of child labour;
 eliminate discrimination in respect of employment and occupation;
 support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges;
 undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility;
 encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally-friendly
technologies;
 work against all forms of corruption, including extortion and bribery.

Corporate reporting
1.5 Consequences of poor track record on CSR issues

It is important to understand how a company might suffer financially from a poor
track record on CSR issues:
 Bad publicity about social and environmental issues could damage the
public image of the company and its brands (‘brand reputation risk’).
 Companies may be affected by preferences of stakeholders, for companies
with positive policy objectives on social and environmental issues. There
are some investment organisations that focus on these issues. More
significantly, perhaps, high-quality employees may prefer to work for
‘ethical’ companies.
Companies also need to understand the growing significance of CSR for many
institutional investors. For example, the UNEP Finance Initiative (UNEP is the
United Nations Environment Programme) has over 200 members from the
financial services sector, such as banks and investment institutions. The aim of
this initiative is to promote a set of principles that define best practice for
responsible investment by institutional investors that have the full support of the
UN and also of leading institutional investors worldwide.
A view underlying the initiative is that institutional investors should make
sustainable development an issue when making decisions on investment in
companies. The UN Global Compact, which launched the UNEP Financial
Initiative, has stated: ‘Institutional investors with clear information on company
behaviour can take action, via proxy voting and other means, to pressure
companies not to focus on short-term gains at the expense of long-term
performance particularly in developing and developed nations.’
In the UK, the Association of British Insurers updated its guidelines and issued
‘Responsible Investment Disclosure Guidelines’. These are directed at listed
companies, and specify information about environmental, social and governance
issues that they should be expected (as a minimum) to disclose.

2 SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING
Section overview
 Introduction
 Sustainability
 Sustainability reporting
 Global Reporting Initiative
 The Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB)
 Other bodies
2.1 Introduction
CSR is also associated with the concept of sustainable business development,
which is the view that businesses should seek to develop in a way that can be
sustained into the future, without depleting the earth’s natural resources or
causing irrecoverable environmental damage.
Companies that are seen to cause damage to the environment may suffer from a
loss of reputation among customers, suppliers and government. This can have
implications for fines and other penalties, civil legal action, lost contracts, clean-
up costs and possibly falling sales.
The impact on oil group BP of the explosion at a drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico
in 2010, and the subsequent environmental damage it caused, is a clear example
of the potential risks and the need for companies to consider social and
environmental issues, particularly in industries such as oil extraction, mining and
energy production.
Interest in sustainable development has come from several sources:
 governments, concerned about the implications for society of environmental
damage and loss of natural resources;
 investors, many of whom now consider the ethical, social and
environmental implications of the investments they make (‘socially
responsible investment’ or SRI);
 companies themselves, who may identify business opportunities –
developing new products or reducing costs – in environmentally-friendly
initiatives.
For example in 2009, Mars announced a strategy for producing its entire cocoa
supply in a sustainable manner by 2010.
Pharmaceuticals group GlaxoSmithKline announced targets to cut waste in
medicine production at its factories by two-thirds by 2015.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Sustainability
The concept of sustainability is that organisations and individuals should meet
their own needs today without compromising the needs of future generations. It
requires organisations and individuals to preserve the environment and better
serve society at large.
More and more companies have are recognizing the need to make their
operations more sustainable. Over the past twenty years or so the number of
organisations that have made sustainability a key strategic focus has increased
significantly.
This increase is due to a number of factors, including:
 a broader understanding and acceptance of the links between economic
activity and global sustainability issues;
 a recognition of the risk-management and economic benefits that
organisations can gain from integrating sustainability into their strategies;
and
 a growing demand from stakeholders, including investors, customers,
employees and NGOs, for organisations to manage their operations in a
more sustainable manner.
Also some governments and regulators have required companies to report on
their environmental and social impacts.
Companies can enhance their value by developing an understanding about the
connections between sustainability and business and communicating this to their
stakeholders. This also allows companies to drive improvement and innovation.
2.3 Sustainability reporting

Organisations tend to communicate their sustainability activities through
sustainability reports. Many companies worldwide (over 3,000) issue annual
reports on sustainability and corporate responsibility. These companies represent
all sectors and industries across the globe.
Sustainability reporting is largely voluntary although a few governments have
introduced mandatory sustainability reporting. For example:
 French law requires the annual reports of companies to include information
on their environmental and social performance.
 All state-owned companies in Sweden must present a sustainability report
using Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines on a ‘comply or explain’
basis.
Furthermore some stock exchanges have sustainability reporting as a listing
requirement. One such stock exchange is the Johannesburg Stock Exchange in
South Africa, which has been a leading light in this area.
Greater transparency on sustainability and the consequent attention to
sustainability issues is of benefit to both companies and their stakeholders.
Experience has shown that the process of sustainability reporting can add value
in a number of ways, including:
 increased efficiency;
 higher levels of employee retention; and
 lower cost of capital.

A number of organisations have produced codes of practice and guidelines for

companies to follow, but to date these are non-mandatory. This can lead to
problems in comparability of the content of these reports, although having the
information in the annual report is better than not disclosing at all.
Two such organisations are The Global Reporting Initiative and The
Sustainability Accounting Standards Board.
2.4 Global Reporting Initiative

The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) promotes the use of sustainability reporting
as a way for companies and organisations to become more sustainable and
contribute to a sustainable global economy.
GRI is an international not-for-profit organization whose mission is to make
sustainability reporting standard practice.
GRI publish one of the most influential set of guidelines , the Sustainability
Reporting Guidelines
These guidelines were originally published in 1999 have been revised to become
the G4 (fourth generation) guidelines. Many large international companies have
registered to use these guidelines and links to their reports can be found on the
GRI website (www.globalreporting.org). G4 is designed to be universally
applicable to all businesses of all types, across the world.
G4 states that “A sustainability report conveys disclosures on an organization’s
most critical impacts on the environment, society and the economy. By using the
Guidelines, reporting organizations can generate reliable, relevant and
standardized information with which to assess opportunities and risks, and
enable more informed decision-making – both within the business and among its
stakeholders”.
G4 is a consolidated framework for reporting performance against different codes
and norms for sustainability and includes references to other global frameworks
including:
 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises;
 the UN Global Compact Principles; and
 the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.
G4 is issued in two parts. The first of these sets out the reporting guidelines and
the second provides implementation guidance. In order to adopt the guidelines
an organisation must:
 identify its material aspects, based on impacts and the expectations of
stakeholders;
 indicate clearly where impacts occur (boundaries)
 decide between one of two “in accordance” levels;
 describe its approach to managing each of its material aspects;
 report indicators for each material aspect according to the chosen “in
accordance” option.
Each of these will be dealt with in turn.

Corporate reporting
Aspects and boundaries

The preparation of a G4 report starts with the process of defining material
aspects and boundaries.
Subjects covered by the guidelines are called “aspects”. Aspects are described
across the following categories:
 economic;
 environmental;
 social – sub-divided into:
 labour practices and decent work;
 human rights;
 society; and
 product responsibility
The following table shows some examples of aspects for three of the categories
identified.
Environmental Labour practices etc. Human rights

Materials Health and safety Non-discrimination
Energy training and education Child labour
Water diversity and equal Forced labour
opportunity
Emissions Equal pay for men and Security practices
women
Effluents and waste
Transport
Material aspects are issues that are significant to a business’s economic,

environmental and social impacts and that substantively influence the
assessments and decisions of its stakeholders.
Once an organisation has identified its material aspects, it must assess whether
the impact of each one lies inside or outside the organization. This is the
“boundary”.

“In accordance”
An organisation must declare how the guidelines have been applied in their
sustainability report.
G4 allows organisations to choose between two ‘in accordance’ options;
 core; or
 this option contains the essential elements of a sustainability report
and provides the background against which an organisation
communicates its economic, environmental, social, and governance
performance and impacts.
 Reporting on the management approach related to its material
aspects is an essential requirement.
 An organization must report at least one Indicator for all identified
material aspects.
 comprehensive
 This requires the core disclosures with additional disclosures about
strategy, governance, ethics and integrity.
 All Indicators for all identified material aspects must be reported.
This choice is based on which best meets their reporting needs and those of their
stakeholders.
The options reflect the degree to which the guidelines are applied.
Disclosures
There are two kinds of disclosures in G4:
 General standard disclosures:
 these set the overall context for the report, providing a description of
the organisation and its reporting process.
 There are seven types of general standard disclosures, including
 the organization’s strategic perspective on addressing
sustainability issues;
 how it involves stakeholders in this process; and
 how it approaches key issues such as governance and ethics
and integrity.
 Specific standard disclosures which are divided into two areas:
 The disclosures on management approach (DMA) explain how
material aspects (economic, environmental or social impacts) are
managed, thus providing an overview of its approach to sustainability
issues. The DMA focus on three things:
 describing why an aspect is material,
 how its impacts are being managed; and
 how the approach to managing this aspect is being evaluated.
 Indicators which allow companies to provide comparable information
on their economic, environmental and social impacts and
performance.

Corporate reporting
Example: Indicators
Aspect: Water
a. Report the total volume of water withdrawn from the following sources:
surface water including water from wetlands, rivers, lakes and oceans
ground water
rainwater collected directly and stored by the organisation
waste water from another organisation
municipal water supplies or other water utilities
b. Report standards, methodologies and assumptions used
2.5 The Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB)

SASB is an independent non-profit organization. SASB publishes sustainability
accounting standards which provide disclosure guidance on sustainability for
mandatory filings to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).
SASB produces standards for different industries. Each standard is comprised of:
 disclosure guidance; and
 accounting standards on sustainability topics for use by U.S. and foreign
public companies in their annual filings with the U.S. Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC).
The disclosure guidance identifies sustainability topics at an industry level, which
may be material to a company within that industry, depending on that company’s
specific operating context.
Example: Sustainability topics – Oil and gas exploration and production

SASB has identified the following material industry-level material sustainability
topics for the oil and gas - exploration and production industry
Greenhouse gas emissions Community relations
Air quality Health, safety, and emergency
management
Water management Business ethics & payments
transparency
Biodiversity impacts Reserves valuation & capital
expenditures
Security, human rights, and rights Management of the legal &
of indigenous peoples regulatory environment
Each company is ultimately responsible for determining those sustainability

topics that are material to it.
Activity metrics
SASB’s accounting standards provide companies with standardised activity
metrics to account for performance on industry-level sustainability topics. The aim
is to help ensure that disclosure is standardised and therefore useful, relevant,
comparable and auditable.

Activity metrics disclosed should:

 Convey contextual information that would not otherwise be apparent from
SASB accounting metrics.
 Be deemed useful for users in performing their own calculations and
creating their own ratios.
 Be explained and consistently disclosed from period to period to the extent
they continue to be relevant.
The following table shows activity metrics for the sustainability topic “water
management” in the oil and gas (exploration and production) industry.
Accounting metric Unit of measure

Total fresh water withdrawn, percentage recycled, Cubic meters (m3),
percentage in regions with high or extremely high Percentage (%)
baseline water stress.
Volume of produced water and flowback generated Cubic meters (m3),
percentage (1) discharged, (2) injected, (3) Percentage (%)
recycled hydrocarbon content in discharged water
Metric tons (t)
Percentage of hydraulically fractured wells for Percentage (%)

which there is public disclosure of all fracturing fluid
chemicals used
Percentage of hydraulic fracturing sites where Percentage (%)
ground or surface water quality deteriorated
compared to a baseline
2.6 Other bodies
The Sustainable Stock Exchanges

This is an initiative aimed at exploring how exchanges can work together with
investors, regulators, and companies to enhance corporate transparency, and
ultimately performance, on ESG (environmental, social and corporate
governance) issues and encourage responsible long-term approaches to
investment.
Partner exchanges to the SSE initiative include the following:
 the Nigerian Stock Exchange;
 Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE);
 London Stock Exchange Group (LSE);
 the NYSE;
 the NASDAQ OMX; and
 Deutsche Börse.
The Institute of Social and Ethical Accountability

The Institute of Social and Ethical Accountability (ISEA) has developed a series
of principles-based standards that are intended to provide the basis for improving
the sustainability performance of organisations. These standards (which are

Corporate reporting
called Accountability standards or the AA1000 Series) include standards on

sustainability and social reporting. On the GRI website, individual company
sustainability reports are noted as complying with the GRI guidelines and the
AA1000 series if that is the case.
Some sustainability reports are referred to as ‘triple bottom line reporting’
because they report on performance and targets in three major areas: economic
(financial), social and environmental.

3 INTEGRATED REPORTING
Section overview
 Introduction
 IIRC Framework
3.1 Introduction
There has been a growing acceptance that using traditional financial reporting as
the sole measure of a company’s performance and financial standing is a flawed
approach. Financial reports are historical in nature, providing little information on
the future potential of a company. Corporate sustainability reports help to fill this
gap, but are not often linked to a company’s strategy or financial performance,
and provide insufficient information on value creation.
Businesses need a reporting environment that allows them to explain how their
strategy drives performance and leads to the creation of value over time. This
should make it easier to attract financial capital for investment.
Integrated reporting is a new approach to reporting which tries to do this.
Definition
An integrated report is a concise communication about how an organisation’s
strategy, governance, performance and prospects, in the context of its external
environment, lead to the creation of value in the short, medium and long term.
International Integrated Reporting Council
The Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) has mandated integrated reporting

through its listing requirements. This is the first national attempt to enforce
integrated reporting across all listed companies.
International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC)

The International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC) is an influential global
coalition of regulators, investors, companies, standard setters, the accounting
profession and NGOs who share the view that communication about value
creation should be the next step in the evolution of corporate reporting.
The aims of the IIRC are as follows:
 to improve the quality of information available to providers of financial
capital;
 to promote a more cohesive and efficient approach to corporate reporting;
 to enhance accountability and stewardship; and
 to support integrated thinking, decision-making and actions that focus on
the creation of value over the short, medium and long term

Corporate reporting
3.2 IIRC Framework

The IIRC has developed and published The International <IR> Framework to
provide a foundation for the development of integrated reports. Note that the
symbol <IR> is used by the IIRC as a designation for integrated reports and
reporting.
The international framework (like IFRS) contains principles based requirements
set out in bold paragraphs. Paragraphs which are not bold provide guidance to
assist in applying the requirements.
(Much of the following is extracted from The International <IR> Framework.
Copyright © December 2013 by the International Integrated Reporting Council
(‘the IIRC’). All rights reserved. Used with permission of the IIRC.)
Using the framework

An integrated report should be a designated, identifiable communication.
Any communication claiming to be an integrated report and referencing the
Framework should apply all the requirements identified in bold unless:
 the unavailability of reliable information or specific legal prohibitions results
in an inability to disclose material information; or
 disclosure of material information would cause significant competitive harm.
In the case of the unavailability of reliable information or specific legal
prohibitions, an integrated report should:
 indicate the nature of the information that has been omitted;;
 explain the reason why it has been omitted; and
 in the case of the unavailability of data, identify the steps being taken to
obtain the information and the expected time frame for doing so.
An integrated report should include a statement from those charged with
governance that includes:
 an acknowledgement of their responsibility to ensure the integrity of the
integrated report;
 an acknowledgement that they have applied their collective mind to the
preparation and presentation of the integrated report;
 their opinion or conclusion about whether the integrated report is presented
in accordance with this Framework;
An integrated report that does not include such a statement, should explain:
 the role those charged with governance played in its preparation and
presentation;
 the steps being taken to include such a statement in future reports; and
 the time frame for doing so, which should be no later than the
organisation's third integrated report that references this Framework.

Guiding principles
Area Guiding principle

Strategic focus An integrated report should provide insight into the
and future organisation's strategy, and how that relates to its ability to
orientation create value in the short, medium and long term and to its
use of and effects on the capitals.
Connectivity of An integrated report should show a holistic picture of the
information combination, interrelatedness and dependencies between
the factors that affect the organisation's ability to create
value over time.
Stakeholder An integrated report should provide insight into the nature
relationships and quality of the organisation's relationships with its key
stakeholders, including how and to what extent the
organisation understands, takes into account and
responds to their legitimate needs and interests.
Materiality An integrated report should disclose information about
matters that substantively affect the organisation's ability
to create value over the short, medium and long term.
Conciseness An integrated report should be concise.
Reliability and An integrated report should include all material matters,
completeness both positive and negative, in a balanced way and without
material error
Consistency and The information in an integrated report should be
comparability presented on a basis that is consistent over time and in a
way that enables comparison with other organisations to
the extent it is material to the organisation's own ability to
create value over time.
Content elements
An integrated report should answer the following questions
 What does the organisation do and what are the circumstances under
which it operates?
 How does the organisation's governance structure support its ability to
create value in the short, medium and long term?
 What is the organisation's business model?
 What are the specific risks and opportunities that affect the organisation's
ability to create value over the short, medium and long term, and how is the
organisation dealing with them?
 Where does the organisation want to go and how does it intend to get
there?
 To what extent has the organisation achieved its strategic objective: for the
period and what are its outcomes in terms of effects on the capitals?
 What challenges and uncertainties is the organisation likely to encounter in
pursuing its strategy, and what are the potential implications for its business
model and future performance?
 How does the organisation determine what matters to include in the
integrated report and how are such matters quantified or evaluated?

Corporate reporting
4 THE UK STRATEGIC REPORT
Section overview
 Introduction
 Content of the UK Strategic Report – Statutory requirements
 Commentary
4.1 Introduction
This section is provided as a practical demonstration of a move towards
integrated reporting in a specific jurisdiction, the UK.
The government in the UK has published regulations which require the
publication of a “strategic report” by all quoted companies (and specified other
entities) as a component of their annual reports.
The annual report

The purpose of the annual report is to provide shareholders with relevant
information that is useful for making resource allocation decisions and assessing
the directors’ stewardship.
The annual report as a whole should be fair, balanced and understandable and
should provide the information necessary for shareholders to assess the entity’s
performance, business model and strategy.
Annual reports published by entities within the scope of the regulations referred
to above, are comprised of the following five components (sections):
 a strategic report;
 a corporate governance report;
 a directors’ remuneration report;
 a financial statements; and
 a directors’ report
Each component of the annual report should focus on the communication of the
information relevant to meeting the objectives of that component.
However, the components of an annual report are not drafted independently. An
integrated approach to drafting the annual report is needed so that relevant
relationships and interdependencies between items of information disclosed are
properly identified and appropriately highlighted.

4.2 Content of the UK Strategic Report – Statutory requirements

A strategic report must contain a fair review of the company’s business.
 The review required is a balanced and comprehensive analysis of the
development and performance of the company’s business during the
financial year, and the position of the company’s business at the end of that
year, consistent with the size and complexity of the business.
 The review must, to the extent necessary for an understanding of the
development, performance or position of the company’s business, include:
 analysis using financial key performance indicators; and
 where appropriate, analysis using other key performance indicators,
including information relating to environmental matters and employee
matters.
The strategic report must contain a description of the principal risks and
uncertainties facing the company.
The strategic report must, to the extent necessary for an understanding of the
development, performance or position of the company’s business, include:
 the main trends and factors likely to affect future development, performance
and position.
 include information about:
 environmental matters (including the impact of the company’s
business on the environment);
 the company’s employees; and
 social, community and human rights issues, including information
about any policies of the company in relation to those matters and the
effectiveness of those policies.
The strategic report must include a description of the company’s strategy and its
business model.
4.3 Commentary
The Financial Reporting Council (FRC) is the UK’s independent regulator
responsible for promoting high quality corporate governance and reporting.
The FRC has produced guidance on the requirements to produce strategic
reports at the request of the UK government. The following comments are based
on that guidance.
The strategic report should provide shareholders of the company with information
that will enable them to assess how the directors have performed their duty to
promote the success of the company.
The strategic report complements the financial statements, providing information
about the business and its development, performance or position that is not
reported in the financial statements but which might be relevant to the
shareholders’ evaluation of past results and assessment of future prospects.

Corporate reporting
It achieves this (in part) by:

 providing additional explanations of amounts recognised in the financial
statements; and
 explaining the conditions and events that shaped the information contained
in the financial statements.
This enables the annual report to be a more cohesive document.
The strategic report provides context for the related financial statements and
insight into the entity’s business model and its main objectives and strategy.
Content
The content of the strategic reports can be analysed into three broad categories:
 Business environment:
 the internal and external environment in which the entity operates;
 trends and factors;
 principal risks and uncertainties;
 environmental, employee, social, community and human rights
matters;
 strategy and objectives; and
 business model.
 Strategic management:
 how the entity intends to generate and preserve value;
 analysis of performance and position;
 key performance indicators (KPIs); and
 employee gender diversity.
 Business performance – How the entity has developed and performed and
its position at the year-end.
Closing comment
Quoted companies in the UK have been allowed to send summary financial
statements to shareholders instead of the full annual report for several years.
The regulations requiring companies to produce a strategic report modified this.
Companies may now send the strategic report with supplementary information
instead of the full annual report. This is a measure how important the government
believes this report to be.

5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain the meaning of corporate social responsibility
 Describe the content of corporate responsibility reports
 Explain the meaning of sustainability and sustainability reporting

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
6
IAS 8: Accounting policies,
changes in accounting
estimates and errors
Contents
1 Accounting policies
2 Accounting estimates
3 Errors
4 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 8 is an examinable standard.
This chapter explains the IAS 8 rules on the selection of accounting policies, accounting for
change in accounting policies and the use of accounting estimates and the correction of
errors.
This standard was examinable in a previous paper. It is covered here again in detail for your
convenience

 Define accounting policy
 Explain the guidance on the selection of accounting policies
 Account for changes in accounting policy
 Distinguish between accounting policy and accounting estimate
 Account for changes in accounting estimates
 Correct errors

Chapter 6: IAS 8: Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and errors
1 ACCOUNTING POLICIES
Section overview
 Introduction to IAS 8
 Accounting policies
 Selection of accounting policies
 Changes in accounting policies
 Retrospective application of a change in accounting policy
 Limitation on retrospective application
 Disclosure of a change in accounting policy
 Judgements- IAS8
1.1 Introduction to IAS 8

The aim of IAS 8: Accounting policies, changes in accounting estimates and
errors is to enhance comparability of the entity’s financial statements to previous
periods and to the financial statements of other entities.
It does this by prescribing:
 the criteria for selecting accounting policies; and,
 the accounting treatment and disclosure of:
 changes in accounting policies;
 changes in accounting estimates; and
 errors.
Much of IAS 8 is concerned with how changes or corrections should be reported
in the financial statements.
1.2 Accounting policies
Definition: Accounting policies

Accounting policies are the specific principles, bases, conventions, rules and
practices applied by an entity in preparing and presenting financial statements.
IFRSs set out accounting policies that result in financial statements containing
relevant and reliable information about the transactions, other events and
conditions to which they apply. Those policies need not be applied when the
effect of applying them is immaterial.
Definition: Material
Omissions or misstatements of items are material if they could, individually or
collectively, influence the economic decisions that users make on the basis of the
financial statements. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or
misstatement judged in the surrounding circumstances. The size or nature of the
item, or a combination of both, could be the determining factor.

Corporate reporting
1.3 Selection of accounting policies
Selection of accounting policies – Areas covered by IFRS

If an IFRS (or an Interpretation) applies to an item in the financial statements, the
accounting policy or policies applied to that item must be determined by applying
the Standard or Interpretation and any relevant implementation guidance issued.
Selection of accounting policies – Area not covered by IFRS

If there is no rule in IFRS that specifically applies to an item in the financial
statements, management must use its judgement to develop and apply an
accounting policy that results in information that is:
 relevant to the decision-making needs of users; and
 reliable in that the financial statements:
 represent faithfully the results and financial position of the entity;
 reflect the economic substance of transactions and other events, and not
merely the legal form;
 are neutral, i.e. free from bias;
 are prudent; and
 are complete in all material respects.
In making the judgement management must consider the following sources in
descending order:
 the requirements and guidance in IFRS dealing with similar and related
issues;
 the definitions, recognition criteria and measurement concepts for assets,
liabilities, income and expenses set out in the “Framework”.
Management may also consider the most recent pronouncements of other
standard-setting bodies that use a similar conceptual framework to the extent that
these do not conflict with the above sources.
Consistency of accounting policies

An entity must apply consistent accounting policies in a period to deal with similar
transactions, and other events and circumstances, unless IFRS specifically
requires or permits categorisation of items for which different policies may be
appropriate.
Illustration: Consistency
IAS 16: Property, plant and equipment allows the use of the cost model or the
revaluation model for measurement after recognition.
This is an example of where IFRS permits categorisation of items for which
different policies may be appropriate.
If chosen, each model must be applied to an entire class of assets. Each model
must be applied consistently within each class that has been identified.

1.4 Changes in accounting policies

Users of financial statements need to be able to compare financial statements of
an entity over time, so that they can identify trends in its financial performance or
financial position. Frequent changes in accounting policies are therefore
undesirable because they make comparisons with previous periods more difficult.
The same accounting policies must be applied within each period and from one
period to the next unless a change in accounting policy meets one of the
following criteria. A change in accounting policy is permitted only if the change is:
 required by IFRS; or
 results in the financial statements providing reliable and more relevant
financial information.
A new or revised standard usually include specific transitional provisions’ to
explain how the change required by the new rules should be introduced.
In the absence of specific transitional provisions, a change in policy should be
applied retrospectively. This is explained shortly.
Determining when there is a change in accounting policy

A change in accounting policy can be established as follows. The accounting
policies chosen by an entity should reflect transactions and events through:
 recognition (e.g. capitalising or writing off certain types of expenditure)
 measurement (e.g. measuring non-current assets at cost or valuation)
 presentation (e.g. classification of costs as cost of sales or administrative
expenses)
If at least one of these criteria is changed, then there is a change in accounting
policy.
Illustration: Determining when there is a change in accounting policy

IAS 23 requires the capitalisation of borrowing costs directly attributable to the
acquisition, construction or production of a qualifying asset.
Previously, IAS 23 allowed companies to expense or capitalise borrowing costs.
The revision to IAS 23 led to a change in accounting policy for some companies as
it affected:
 recognition – the interest cost previously recognised as an expense had to be
recognised as an asset; and
 presentation – the interest cost previously presented in the statement of
comprehensive income had to be presented in the statement of financial
position.
IAS 8 specifies that the application of a new accounting policy to transactions or

events that did not occur previously or differ in substance from those that
occurred previously, is not a change of accounting policy. It is simply the
application of a suitable accounting policy to a new type of transaction.
The initial application of a policy to revalue assets in accordance with IAS 16
Property, Plant and Equipment or IAS 38 Intangible Assets is a change in an
accounting policy. However, it is accounted for in accordance guidance in those
standards rather than in accordance with IAS 8.

Corporate reporting
1.5 Retrospective application of a change in accounting policy

When a change in accounting policy is required, and there are no transitional
provisions relating to the introduction of a new accounting standard, the change
in policy should be applied retrospectively.
Definition: Retrospective application

Retrospective application is applying a new accounting policy to transactions, other
events and conditions as if that policy had always been applied.
The entity should adjust the opening balance for each item of equity affected by
the change, for the earliest prior period presented, and the other comparative
amounts for each prior period presented, as if the new accounting policy had
always been applied.
IAS 1: Presentation of Financial Statements requires a statement of financial
position at the beginning of the earliest comparative period when a new
accounting policy is applied retrospectively.
Illustration: Retrospective application

A company presents comparatives for the previous year only.
During the year ended 31 December 2015 it changes an accounting policy and this
change must be applied retrospectively.
If there were no change in accounting policy the company would present
statements of financial position as at December 2015 and December 2014 only.
However, because there is a change in policy the company must also present a
statement of financial position as at 1 January 2014 (the beginning of the earliest
comparative period).
The change in accounting policy is applied retrospectively. This means that the
change should be applied to the balances at as at 1 January 2014 as if the new
policy had always been applied.
Similarly, any other comparative amounts in previous periods should be adjusted
as if the new accounting policy had always been applied.
If this is impracticable, retrospective application should be applied from the

earliest date that is practicable.

1.6 Limitation on retrospective application

It might be impracticable to retrospectively apply an accounting policy. This could
be because the information necessary for the application of the policy to earlier
periods is not available because it had not been collected then.
Definition: Impracticable
Applying a requirement is impracticable when the entity cannot apply it after
making every reasonable effort to do so. For a particular prior period, it is
impracticable to apply a change in an accounting policy retrospectively or to make
a retrospective restatement to correct an error if:
(a) the effects of the retrospective application or retrospective restatement are
not determinable;
(b) the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires
assumptions about what management's intent would have been in that
period; or
(c) the retrospective application or retrospective restatement requires
significant estimates of amounts and it is impossible to distinguish
objectively information about those estimates that:
(i) provides evidence of circumstances that existed on the date(s) as at
which those amounts are to be recognised, measured or disclosed; and
(ii) would have been available when the financial statements for that prior
period were authorised for issue from other information.
There are different degrees of impracticability.
Period specific effect

It might be impracticable to determine the effect of changing an accounting policy
on comparative information for one or more prior periods presented. For
example, it might be impracticable to determine the impact on profit for the prior
year.
In this case a company must apply the new accounting policy to the carrying
amounts of assets and liabilities (and therefore equity) as at the beginning of the
earliest period for which retrospective application is practicable. This may be the
current period.
Cumulative effect
It might be impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of
the current period, of applying a new accounting policy to all prior periods,
In this case a company must adjust the comparative information to apply the new
accounting policy prospectively from the earliest date practicable.
When the cumulative effect of applying the policy to all prior periods cannot be
determined, a company must apply the new policy prospectively from the start of
the earliest period practicable. This means that it would disregard the portion of
the cumulative adjustment to assets, liabilities and equity arising before that date.

Corporate reporting
Definition: Prospective application

Prospective application of a change in accounting policy and of recognising the
effect of a change in an accounting estimate, respectively, are:
(a) applying the new accounting policy to transactions, other events and
conditions occurring after the date as at which the policy is changed; and
(b) recognising the effect of the change in the accounting estimate in the
current and future periods affected by the change.
1.7 Disclosure of a change in accounting policy

When a change in accounting policy has an effect on the current period or any
prior period (or would have an affected that period except that it is impracticable
to determine the amount of the adjustment) or might have an effect on future
periods the following must be disclosed:
Disclosure: Change due Voluntary

to IFRS change
The title of the Standard or Interpretation 
The nature of the change in accounting policy  
A description of any transitional provisions 
The reason why the new accounting policy

provides reliable and more relevant information
For the current and previous period(s), to the
extent practicable, the amount of the adjustment  
to each item in the financial statements.
To the extent practicable, the adjustment
relating to accounting periods before those  
presented in the financial statements
If retrospective application is impracticable, an
explanation of how the accounting policy change  
has been applied
1.8 Judgements – IAS 8
IAS 8: Areas of judgement and estimate
 Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to

be made which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial
statements.
 These include the following:
 Development of an accounting policy for events, transactions or balances
that are not specifically covered by an IFRS
 Categorising items for the purpose of applying policies consistently to like
items
 Whether or not a voluntary change in accounting policy provides reliable
and more relevant information
 Impracticability arguments

2 ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES
Section overview
 Accounting estimates
 Changes in accounting estimates
 Disclosures
2.1 Accounting estimates

An accounting estimate is made for an item in the financial statements when the
item cannot be measured with precision, and there is some uncertainty about it.
An estimate is therefore based, to some extent, on management’s judgement.
Management estimates might be required, for example, for the following items:
 bad debts;
 inventory obsolescence;
 the fair value of financial assets or liabilities;
 the useful lives of non-current assets;
 the most appropriate depreciation pattern (depreciation method, for
example straight line or reducing balance) for a category of non-current
assets;
 measurement of warranty provisions.
The use of reasonable estimates is an essential part of the preparation of
financial statements and does not undermine their reliability.
Accounting policy vs accounting estimate

It is important to distinguish between an accounting policy and an accounting
estimate.
Sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish between changes in accounting policy
from changes in accounting estimate. In such cases any change is treated as a
change in accounting estimate.
Illustration: Accounting policy vs accounting estimate

Accounting policy: Depreciating plant and equipment over its useful life
Accounting estimate: How to apply the policy. For example whether to use the
straight line method of depreciation or the reducing balance method is a choice of
accounting estimate.
A change in the measurement basis applied is a change in an accounting policy,

and is not a change in an accounting estimate.
Illustration: Accounting policy vs accounting estimate

IAS 16: Property, plant and equipment allows the use of the cost model or the
revaluation model for measurement after recognition.
This is a choice of accounting policy.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Changes in accounting estimates
Definition: Change in accounting estimate

A change in accounting estimate is an adjustment of the carrying amount of an
asset or a liability, or the amount of the periodic consumption of an asset, that
results from the assessment of the present status of, and expected future benefits
and obligations associated with, assets and liabilities. Changes in accounting
estimates result from new information or new developments and, accordingly, are
not corrections of errors.
A change in accounting estimate may be needed if changes occur in the

circumstances on which the estimate was based, or if new information becomes
available. A change in estimate is not the result of discovering an error in the
way an item has been accounted for in the past and it is not a correction of an
error.
IAS 8 requires a change in an accounting policy to be accounted for
retrospectively whereas a change in an accounting estimate is normally
recognised from the current period.
The effect of a change in accounting estimate should be recognised
prospectively, by including it:
 in profit or loss for the period in which the change is made, if the change
affects that period only, or
 in profit or loss for the period of change and future periods, if the change
affects both.
To the extent that a change in estimate results in a change in assets and
liabilities, it should be recognised by adjusting the carrying amount of the affected
assets or liabilities in the period of change.
Example: Change in accounting estimate

A non-current asset was purchased for ₦200,000 two years ago, when its expected
economic life was ten years and its expected residual value was nil. The asset is
being depreciated by the straight-line method.
A review of the non-current assets at the end of year 2 revealed that due to
technological change, the useful life of the asset is only six years in total, and the
asset therefore has a remaining useful life of four years.
The original depreciation charge was ₦20,000 per year (₦200,000/10 years) and at the
beginning of Year 2, its carrying value was ₦180,000 (₦200,000 - ₦20,000).
The change in the estimate occurs in Year 2. The change in estimate should be
applied prospectively, for years 2 onwards (years 2 – 6). From the beginning of year
2, the asset has a revised useful remaining life of five years.
The annual charge for depreciation for year 2 (the current year) and for the future
years 3 – 6 will be changed from ₦20,000 to ₦36,000 ( ₦180,000/5 years).

2.3 Disclosures
The following information must be disclosed:
 The nature and amount of a change in an accounting estimate that has an
effect in the current period or is expected to have an effect in future
periods, except for the effect on future periods when it is impracticable to
estimate that effect.
 The fact that the effect in future periods is not disclosed because estimating
it is impracticable (if this is the case).

Corporate reporting
3 ERRORS
Section overview
 Errors
 The correction of prior period errors
 Limitation on retrospective restatement
 Disclosure of prior period errors
3.1 Errors
Errors might happen in preparing financial statements. If they are discovered
quickly, they are corrected before the finalised financial statements are
published. When this happens, the correction of the error is of no significance for
the purpose of financial reporting.
A problem arises, however, when an error is discovered that relates to a prior
accounting period. For example, in preparing the financial statements for Year 3,
an error may be discovered affecting the financial statements for Year 2, or even
Year 1.
Definition: Prior period errors

Prior period errors are omissions from, and misstatements in, the entity's financial
statements for one or more prior periods arising from a failure to use, or misuse of,
reliable information that:
(a) was available when financial statements for those periods were authorised
for issue; and
(b) could reasonably be expected to have been obtained and taken into account
in the preparation and presentation of those financial statements.
Such errors include the effects of mathematical mistakes, mistakes in applying
accounting policies, oversights or misinterpretations of facts, and fraud.
3.2 Correction of prior period errors

All material prior period errors should be corrected retrospectively in the first set
of financial statements following the discovery of the error.
Comparative amounts for the previous period should be re-stated at their
corrected amount.
If the error occurred before the previous year, the opening balances of assets,
liabilities and equity for the previous period should be re-stated at their corrected
amount unless that is impracticable.
The correction of a prior period error is excluded from profit or loss in the period
when the error was discovered.

Illustration: Correction of prior period errors

In preparing its financial statements for 31 December 2014 Company A discovers
an error affecting the 31 December 2013 financial statements.
The error should be corrected in the 31 December 2014 financial statements by re-
stating the comparative figures for 31 December 2013 at their correct amount.
If the error had occurred in 31 December 2012, the comparative opening balances
for the beginning of 31 December 2013 should be re-stated at their correct
amount.
The reported profit for 31 December 2014 is not affected.

Corporate reporting
Example: Correction of prior period errors

Kano Transport Company (KTC) is preparing its financial statements for 2014.
The draft statement of changes in equity is as follows:
Share Share Retained
capital premium earnings Total
₦000 ₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Balance at 31/12/11 500 50 90 640
Profit for the year - - 150 150
Balance at 31/12/12 500 50 240 790
2014
Dividends (100) (100)
Balance at 31/12/13 500 50 525 1,075
KTC has now discovered an error in its inventory valuation. Inventory was
overstated by ₦70,000 at 31 December 2014 and by ₦60,000 at 31 December
2013. The rate of tax on profits was 30% in both 2013 and 2014.
The error in 2014 is corrected against the current year profit.

The error in 2013 is corrected against the prior year profit. (Note that the 2013
closing inventory is the opening inventory in 2014 so the 2013 adjustment will
impact both periods statements comprehensive income.
Profit adjustments: 2014 2013
₦000 ₦000
Profit (2014 draft and 2013 actual) 385 150
Deduct error in closing inventory (70) (60)
Add error in opening inventory 60
(10) (60)
Tax at 30% 3 18
(7) (42)
Adjusted profit 378 108
The statement of changes in equity as published in 2014 becomes:
Share Share Retained
capital premium earnings Total
₦000 ₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Balance at 31/12/11 500 50 90 640
Profit for the year (restated) - - 108 108
Balance at 31/12/12 500 50 198 748
2014
Dividends (100) (100)
Balance at 31/12/13 500 50 476 1,026

3.3 Limitation on retrospective restatement

A prior period error must be corrected by retrospective restatement except to the
extent that it is impracticable to determine either the period-specific effects or the
cumulative effect of the error.
Period specific effect

It might be impracticable to determine the effect of correcting an error in
comparative information for one or more prior periods presented. For example, it
might be impracticable to determine the impact on profit for the prior year.
In this case a company must restate the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities
(and therefore equity) as at the beginning of the earliest period for which
retrospective restatement is practicable. This may be the current period.
Cumulative effect
It might be impracticable to determine the cumulative effect, at the beginning of
the current period, of correcting an error in all prior periods,
In this case a company must correct the error prospectively from the earliest date
practicable.
3.4 Disclosure of prior period errors

The following information must be disclosed:
 the nature of the prior period error;
 for each period presented in the financial statements, and to the extent
practicable, the amount of the correction for each financial statement item
and the change to basic and fully diluted earnings per share;
 the amount of the correction at the beginning of the earliest prior period in
the statements (typically, a the start of the previous year);
 if retrospective re-statement is not practicable for a prior period, an
explanation of how and when the error has been corrected.
IAS 8 therefore requires that a note to the financial statements should disclose
details of the prior year error, and the effect that the correction has had on ‘line
items’ in the prior year.
Example: Disclosure of prior period errors

Returning to the above example the following note would be needed to the
financial statements for the year to 31 December 2014 to explain the adjustments
made to figures previously published for the year to 31 December 2013.
Note about statement of comprehensive income. ₦000
(Increase) in cost of goods sold (60)
Decrease in tax 18
(Decrease) in profit (42)
Note about statement of financial position ₦000
(Decrease) in closing inventory (60)
Decrease in tax payable 18
(Decrease) in equity (42)

Corporate reporting
4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define accounting policy
 Explain the guidance on the selection of accounting policies
 Account for changes in accounting policy
 Distinguish between accounting policy and accounting estimate
 Account for changes in accounting estimates
 Correct errors

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
7
Impact of differences in
accounting policies
Contents
1 Introduction to the issues
2 Creative accounting and earnings management
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
The introduction to the syllabus includes the following sentence.
Students may be assessed on their understanding of earnings management, creative
accounting and aggressive earnings management.
This is further reflected in the competencies.
Competencies
1(b) Evaluate and advise upon how alternative choices of revenue recognition,
asset and liability recognition and measurement can affect the understanding
of the performance, position and prospects of an entity in the private sector or
when presenting consolidated or single entity financial statements.
Exam context
This chapter explains the meaning of creative accounting and earnings management with
examples.
 Explain creative accounting and earnings management
 Provide examples of creative accounting
 Provide examples of earnings management
 Identify the impact that different accounting policies have on reported position and
performance

Chapter 7: Impact of differences in accounting policies
1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ISSUES
Section overview
 What is fair presentation?

 Mechanisms to reduce the problem
1.1 What is fair presentation?

Directors are required to issue financial statements that present fairly the
financial position, financial performance and cash flows of an entity.
This means that the financial statements must be a faithful representation of the
effects of transactions and other events in accordance with the definitions and
recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in IFRS.
The application of IFRSs, with additional disclosure when necessary, is
presumed to result in financial statements that achieve a fair presentation.
A component of this involves the selection and application of accounting policies
in accordance with IAS 8, Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting
Estimates and Errors;
Auditors are required to give an independent opinion on whether financial
statements are presented fairly. If in the opinion of the auditor fair presentation is
not achieved the auditor will issue a qualified audit report.
These requirements do not result in a statement of financial position that is
correct in the sense that there is only one possible answer to different accounting
questions.
In reality, a fair presentation can encompass a range of different figures.
This is due to the fact that:
 alternative accounting policies can produce different results: and
 the application of accounting policies in accordance with IAS 8 is often
based on estimates and judgements. Indeed valuation and estimation are
key factors in drafting financial information.

Corporate reporting
Example: Different accounting policy

This example explains the impact of revalution of a depreciable asset.
Year 1
A company buys plant for ₦100,000 on the first day of the accounting period.
The company’s depreciation policy is to write the asset off on a straight line basis
over its useful life which is estimated to be 10 years.
Carrying amount at the year-end is ₦90,000.
The example no compares the figures at the end of the following year on two
bases:
a. The company continues to account for the asset on a cost basis;
b. The company revalues the asset to ₦135,000 on the first day of year 2
(leading to a surplus of ₦135,000 - ₦90,000 = ₦45,000)
Further information is introduced.
a b
Statement of financial position ₦000 ₦000
200 240
Equity (1) 100 140

Loan (2) 100 100
200 240
Statement of profit or loss

Profit before depreciation 50 50
Depreciation (10) (15)
Profit for the year (3) 40 35
Statement of changes in equity

Brought forward 60 60
Revaluation surplus 45
Ratios
ROCE (3/1+2) 20.0% 14.6%
Gearing (2/1+2) 50.0% 41.7%
Working
W1: The year 2 depreciation of the revalue asset = 135,000/9 years (the
remaining useful life = ₦15,000)

In the above example, there has been no underlying change in the business but
figures would look very different were the asset to be revalued.
The gearing would be improved by the revaluation (falling from 50% to 41.7%)
but ROCE would fall. Also note that the smaller profit would cause EPS to fall.
Example: Differing estimates when applying an accounting policy

Two companies each buy identical plant for ₦100,000 on the first day of the
accounting period.
Company A estimates that the useful life of the plant is 10 years and that it will
have a residual value of ₦20,000.
Company B estimates that the useful life of the plant is 8 years and that it will
have zero residual value.
Company Company
A B
Annual depreciation charge ₦000 ₦000
Non-current assets (cost) 100.0 100.0
Accumulated depreciation (8.0) 12.5
102.0 87.5
Annual depreciation charge 8.0 12.5
Differences such as those above might arise in the normal course of events with
no attempt to engineer the figures. This can lead to loss of comparability.
Also, the situations described and others like them allow for accountants to
manipulate figures to achieve a certain result. This is called creative accounting
and is covered later in this chapter.
The problem is exacerbated by the fact that some transactions are not covered
by IFRS. Also, some transactions might be very complex making it very difficult to
devise an accounting approach. Different accountants might arrive at different
figures for such transactions.
1.2 Mechanisms to reduce the problem

IFRS has tried to reduce the impact of the above in a number of ways including:
 Removing choices of accounting policy – there are fewer areas of choice
now than there were 10 years ago.
 Providing rules on the selection of accounting policies (IAS 8);
 Requiring disclosure of judgements, estimates and key sources of
measurement uncertainty (IAS 1);
 Requiring disclosure of significant accounting policies (IAS 1);
 Including firmer guidance on fair values (IFRS 13).
The IAS 1 disclosure requirements in respect of accounting policies do not
ensure comparability but they do allow a user to understand the potential impact
of any differences in approach.

Corporate reporting
2 CREATIVE ACCOUNTING AND EARNINGS MANAGEMENT
Section overview
 Creative accounting
 Earnings management
 Revenue recognition
 Asset recognition
 Liability recognition
 Reducing current year profit
2.1 Creative accounting
Definition
Creative accounting: Accounting practices that follow required laws and
regulations, but deviate from what those standards intend to accomplish.
Creative accounting: The use of aggressive and/or questionable accounting
techniques in order to produce a desired accounting result.
Management may use various forms of creative accounting to manipulate the

view given by the financial statements while complying with all applicable
accounting standards and regulations.
Creative accounting is not necessarily illegal but the practice might cross the line
into fraudulent reporting.
Creative accounting techniques include the following:
 Window dressing: an entity enters into a transaction just before the year
end and reverses the transaction just after the year end. For example,
goods are sold on the understanding that they will be returned immediately
after the year end; this appears to improve profits and liquidity. The only
reason for the transaction is to artificially improve the view given by the
 ‘Off balance sheet’ finance: transactions are deliberately arranged so as
to enable an entity to keep significant assets and particularly liabilities out
of the statement of financial position (‘off balance sheet’). This improves
gearing and return on capital employed. Examples include sale and
repurchase agreements and some forms of leasing.
 Changes to accounting policies or accounting estimates: for example,
an entity can revalue assets (change from the cost model to the revaluation
model) to improve gearing or change the way in which it depreciates assets
to improve profits.
 Capitalising expenses: recognising ‘assets’ which do not meet the
definition in the IASB Conceptual Framework or the recognition criteria.
Examples include: human resources, advertising expenditure and internally
generated brand names.
 Profit smoothing: manipulating reported profits by recognising (usually)
artificial assets or liabilities and releasing them to profit or loss as required.

 Aggressive earnings management: artificially improving earnings and

profits by recognising sales revenue before it has been earned.
2.2 Earnings management

Earnings management is a type of creative accounting.
Definition
Earnings management: An attempt by management to influence or manipulate
reported earnings by using specific accounting methods or changing the methods
used.
Earnings management techniques include deferring or accelerating expense or

revenue transactions, or using other methods designed to influence short-term
earnings.
Aggressive earnings management results in stakeholders being misled to some
extent about an entity's performance and profitability. At the extreme, aggressive
earnings management can involve acts that may constitute a criminal offence.
Commercial pressures
The strength of a regulatory framework may be undermined by commercial
pressures on those responsible for preparing financial statements.
Examples of these commercial pressures are:
 Adverse market reactions to the share price of a listed entity when results
fail to meet the market's expectations (which directors and management
may have encouraged), whether or not the expectations were reasonable;
 Directors and management's incomes being highly geared to results and/or
heavily supplemented by stock options;
 The importance of meeting targets to ensure protection of the jobs of
directors, management and other employees:
 The desire to understate profits to reduce taxation liabilities;
 Legal and regulatory requirements to meet specific financial thresholds or
ratios; and
 The need to ensure compliance with loan covenants or to pacify bankers.
Syllabus
The syllabus includes a requirement that candidates be able to evaluate and
advise upon how alternative choices of revenue recognition, asset and liability
recognition and measurement can affect the understanding of the performance,
position and prospects of an entity.
This chapter will proceed to illustrate generic examples of each of these.

Corporate reporting
2.3 Revenue recognition
Example: Revenue recognition

The before column represents the draft financial statements.
The after column shows the figures after the inclusion of an extra sale for
₦100,000 (cost ₦50,000). This would increase current assets by ₦50,000 (being
an extra ₦100,000 receivables less ₦50,000 inventory).
Before After
₦000 ₦000
800 850
Share capital 50 50
Retained earnings 360 410
410 460
500 550
800 850
Revenue 650 750

Cost of sales (350) (400)
Gross profit 300 350
Operating expenses (200) (200)
100 150
Interest (20) (20)
ROCE 20.0% 27.3%

GP% 46.2% 46.7%
EPS 16 26
Gearing 18.0% 16.4%
Note the impact this has on the ratios. A common creative accounting technique
is to book a sale just before the year end and then reverse it in the next year.
This is called window dressing.

2.4 Asset recognition
Example: Asset recognition

The after column shows the figures after capitalising an expense that was initially
recognised in profit or loss.
Before After
₦000 ₦000
800 820
Share capital 50 50
410 430
500 520
800 820
Revenue 650 650

100 100
Interest (20)
ROCE 20.0% 19.2%

GP% 46.2% 46.2%
EPS 16 20
Gearing 18.0% 17.3%
Asset measurement
The impact of asset measurement was illustrated by the examples in section 1.1
of this chapter.

Corporate reporting
2.5 Liability recognition
Example: x
The after column shows the figures after they have been adjusted to remove a
liability of ₦50,000. This also reduces expenses in the statement of profit or loss.
Before After
₦000 ₦000
800 800
Share capital 50 50
410 460
500 550
800 800
Revenue 650 650

100 150
Interest (20) (20)
ROCE 20.0% 27.3%

GP% 46.2% 46.2%
EPS 16 26
Gearing 18.0% 16.4%
If the adjustment had been made against an expense related to cost of sales the
gross profit margin would have improved.
Liability measurement
A similar picture would be obtained by remeasuring a liability by ₦50,000.

2.6 Reducing current year profit.

Creative accountants do not always work to increase profit. Sometimes they want
to decrease the current year profit.
The reason for this is that it might allow them to increase profits in the future. For
example, if an asset is written off this year but used in the future there will be no
future expense to set against the future revenue.
Similarly, if a liability were to be set up this year it would reduce profit. If the
liability was found to be unnecessary in the future it could be reversed back to the
statement of profit or loss.
Big bath accounting

This refers to recognising all the bad news in one year so that later years can
look stronger. If a company expects disappointing results it might decide to make
them even worse by writing down assets and recognising liabilities. In future
years the assets could be used without any corresponding cost and a decision
made that the liabilities are no longer required. They would then be reversed
back through the statement of profit or loss.
IFRS of course has rules to prevent or limit such flagrant abuses.
IAS 37: Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent

Before the publication of IAS 37 the absence of accounting rules for provisions
allowed entities to ‘manipulate’ their financial statements, especially their
reported profit or loss in each year, by making provisions, increasing provisions
or reducing provisions to suit management’s reporting requirements.
Companies made provisions based simply on ‘management intent’ and used the
argument of prudence to support their accounting treatment of provisions.
Creating a provision would reduce profit in the current year.
However, by creating a provision for expenses that would otherwise be charged
in future years, a company was able to improve reported profits in future years.
Quite often management would ‘change their mind’ about the intention that had
led to the creation of the provision, and the provision would be ‘released back’ to
increase profit in a subsequent year.
Provisions might contain a mixture of items such as provisions for future
reorganisation costs, redundancy costs, closure costs, warranty claims and staff
re-training costs. It was apparent that companies were exploiting the absence of
rules and using provisions to move profit from one year to the next.
Alternatively, provisions might be created in a year of poor performance so as to
report the ‘bad news’ in the current year so that future profits could be made to
seem much better.

Corporate reporting
Example: Provisions
A company had a disappointing year in 20X1.
As a result, the chief executive officer (CEO) resigned and a replacement CEO was
appointed two months before the year-end. The CEO introduced several initiatives
and performance is expected to slowly recover over the coming two years.
In order to make his appointment appear highly successful, the new CEO might
want to create provisions to report a very bad year in 20X1 and blame this on his
predecessor, and use the provisions to improve results in later years.
For example, this might be achieved by the creation in 20X1 of a ₦1 million
provision for the cost of future restructuring plans.
In 20X2 the company might then decide to abandon the restructuring plans and
so reduce the provision to zero, thereby increasing profit in 20X2.
Using the illustrative figures below, this would allow the company to show a
breakeven position in 20X2 under the management of the CEO following losses in
20X1, and then to report even better results in 20X3.
20X1 20X2 20X3
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Original result (2,000) (1,000) 1,000
Provision (1,000)
Release of provision 1,000
Reported results (3,000) 0 1,000
IAS 37 includes rules which try to prevent situations like this from happening. For
example it prohibits the recognition of a restructuring provision until that point in
time where the company has no realistic alternative but to proceed with the
restructuring.
However, IAS 37 is a standard that requires use of estimates and
remeasurement of the provisions at each reporting date. There is still potential to
use provisions to transfer profit form one period to the next.
Closing comment
Any rule where a different amount might be recognised or recognition could be
delayed or accelerated could be used in creative accounting.
The syllabus expects you to be able to identify the impact of different accounting
policies (which would include the estimates inherent in their application).
It is recommended that whenever you study a standard that you try to think of
areas in which judgements and estimates are required. Try to consider the
impact of different judgements and estimates on the figures presented. It would
also be useful if you were to think in terms of the impact on key ratios (for
example, ROCE, gearing and EPS).
Sections covering such areas are included in many later chapters.

3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain creative accounting and earnings management
 Provide examples of creative accounting
 Provide examples of earnings management
 Identify the impact that different accounting policies have on reported position
and performance

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
8
Revenue standards
Contents
1 IAS 18: Revenue
2 Revenue based interpretations
3 IAS 11: Construction contracts
4 IFRS 15: Revenue from contracts with customers
5 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 18 and IAS 11 are examinable standards.
Exam context
This chapter explains the rules on revenue recognition as set out in IAS 18 for sale of goods,
rendering of services and for allowing others to use owned assets and those set out in IAS
11 on revenue from construction contracts.
 Describe revenue
 Describe and demonstrate the accounting treatment (measurement and recognition) for
revenue arising from sale of goods;
revenue arising from rendering of services
revenue arising from use by others of entity assets yielding interest, royalties and
dividends.
revenue arising from construction contracts including the application of cost based and
revenue based methods for measuring the stage of completion of contracts
 Measure amounts to be included in the statement of financial position for construction
contracts.

Chapter 8: Revenue standards
1 IAS 18: REVENUE
Section overview
 The purpose of IAS 18

 Measurement of revenue
 Exchange of goods or services
 Revenue recognition from the sale of goods
 Revenue recognition from providing a service
 Revenue recognition from sales of goods with service agreements
 Other revenue recognition: interest, royalties and dividends
 Judgements – IAS 18
1.1 The purpose of IAS 18

Revenue is recognised in the statement of comprehensive income when:
 there is an increase in future economic benefits related to an increase in an
asset or a decrease in a liability, and
 this increase in economic benefits can be reliably measured.
Revenue is income that arises in the ordinary course of activities and it is referred
to by a variety of different names including sales, fees, interest, dividends and
royalties.
IAS 18 Revenue defines revenue as ‘the gross inflow of economic benefits
during the period in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity, when those
inflows result in increases in equity, other than increases relating to contributions
from equity participants.’
It adds that revenue relates only to economic benefits receivable by the entity for
its own account. Amounts collected on behalf of a third party, such as sales tax
collected on behalf of the government, must be excluded from revenue because
they do not result in an increase in equity.
1.2 Measurement of revenue

IAS 18 states that revenue must be measured at ‘the fair value of the
consideration received or receivable’. Broadly speaking, this is the fair market
price less any volume rebates (discount allowed for buying in large quantities) or
‘trade discount allowed’.
 If a sale is a cash sale, the revenue is the immediate proceeds of the sale.
 If a sale is a normal credit sale, the revenue is the expected future receipt.
However, in some cases when the payment is deferred, the fair value might be
less than the amount of cash that will eventually be received.
The difference between the nominal sale value and the fair value of the
consideration is recognised as interest income.

Corporate reporting
Example: Deferred consideration

An enterprise sells a machine on 1 January 2012. The terms of sale are that the
enterprise will receive ₦5 million on 31 December 2014 (2 years later).
An appropriate discount rate is 6%
1 January 2012 – Initial recognition

Initial measurement of the 1
consideration ₦5m  = ₦4,449,982
(1  0.06) 2
Debit Credit
Receivables 4,449,982
Revenue 4,449,982
31 December 2013
Recognition of interest revenue ₦4,449,982 @ 6% = 266,999
Debit Credit
Receivables 266,999
Revenue – interest 266,999
Balance on the receivable ₦

Balance brought forward 4,449,982
Interest revenue recognised in the period 266,999
Carried forward 4,716,981
31December 2014
Recognition of interest revenue ₦4,716,981 @ 6% = 283,019
Debit Credit
Receivables 283,019
Revenue – interest 283,019
Balance on the receivable ₦

Interest revenue recognised in the period 283,019
Consideration received (5,000,000)
Carried forward 

1.3 Exchange of goods or services (“barter transactions”)

Sometimes an entity enters into a transaction where it exchanges (swaps) goods
or services. The accounting treatment of such transactions depends on whether
the goods (or services) exchanged are similar or dissimilar.
Similar
When similar goods (or services) are exchanged the transaction does not
generate revenue.
Illustration: Exchange of similar goods or services

Suppliers of commodities (e.g. oil or milk) might exchange or swap inventories in
various locations to fulfil demand on a timely basis in a particular location.
Dissimilar
When dissimilar goods (or services) are exchanged the transaction does
generate revenue.
In these cases the revenue is measured at the fair value of the goods or services
received, (adjusted by the amount of any cash or cash equivalents transferred).
However if fair value of the goods or services received cannot be measured
reliably, the revenue is measured at the fair value of the goods or services given
up, (adjusted by the amount of any cash or cash equivalents transferred).
1.4 Revenue recognition from the sale of goods

IAS 18 says that an entity may recognise revenue from the sale of goods only
when all of the following conditions have been met:
 The entity has transferred to the buyer the ‘significant risks and rewards of
ownership of the goods’. This normally occurs when legal title to the goods
or possession of the goods passes to the buyer.
 The entity does not retain effective control over the goods sold, or retain a
continuing management involvement to the degree usually associated with
ownership.
 The amount of revenue can be measured reliably.
 It is probable that economic benefits associated with the transaction will
flow to the entity.
 The costs incurred (or to be incurred) for the transaction can be measured
reliably.

Corporate reporting
Risks and rewards of ownership

Transfer of risks and rewards of ownership is critical to revenue recognition.
Usually risks and rewards are transferred at the same time as legal title or
possession passes to the buyer. However this is not always the case.
If legal title passes but risk and rewards are retained, a sale is not recognised.
 an entity may retain obligations for unsatisfactory performance not covered
by normal warranty provisions;
 the receipt of revenue may be contingent on the buyer selling the goods on;
 goods are to be installed and the installation is a significant part of the
contract and remains uncompleted; or,
 the buyer has the right to rescind and the seller is uncertain about the
outcome.
If legal title does not pass but the risks and rewards do, a sale is recognised.
 A seller may retain the legal title to the goods to protect the collectability of
the amount due but if the entity has transferred the significant risks and
rewards of ownership, the transaction is a sale and revenue is recognised.
 A seller may offer a refund if the customer is not satisfied.
 revenue is recognised at the time of sale provided the seller can
reliably estimate future returns;
 the seller recognises a liability for returns based on previous
experience and other relevant factors.
Cost recognition
Revenue and expenses must be recognised simultaneously.
Expenses can normally be measured reliably when other conditions for revenue
recognition have been satisfied.
Revenue cannot be measured when the related expenses cannot be measured
reliably. In such cases proceeds should be recognised as a liability not a sale.
Illustrations
The implementation guidance to IAS 18 includes specific guidance on how the
rules in the standard would be applied to revenue recognition in a series of
circumstances.
The following examples are based on this guidance.
Example: Simple transaction

X Plc has received an order for a “grade 1” widget machine under the following
terms for a sale price of ₦100,000 with delivery on 30 September.
When should X Plc recognise revenue from this sale?
Analysis:
Assuming that there are no significant risks or rewards remaining with X Plc; and
that X Plc will have no continuing involvement with the units, the risks and
rewards of ownership pass to the customer when the machine is delivered.
Revenue should be recognised on delivery being 30 September.

Example: Sale with right of inspection

X Plc has received an order for a “grade 1” widget machine under the following
terms for a sale price of ₦100,000 with delivery on 30 September.
The customer has the right to inspect and test the delivery before accepting the
goods.
When should X Plc recognise revenue from this sale?
Analysis:
Assuming that there are no significant risks or rewards remaining with X Plc; and
that X Plc will have no continuing involvement with the units the risks and
rewards of ownership pass to the customer upon completion of inspection and
testing and acceptance by the customer.
Example: Goods supplied on sale or return basis

Goods are sold by a manufacturer to a retailer.
The retailer has the right to return the goods if he is unable to sell them. (The
goods are supplied on a ‘sale or return’ basis.)
Analysis:
The manufacturer retains significant risks of ownership until the retailer sells the
goods.
Revenue should be recognised when the customer sells the goods, and not
before.

Corporate reporting
Subscriptions to publications
Where a series of publications is subscribed to and each publication is of a
similar value revenue is recognised on a straight-line basis over the period in
which the publications are despatched
If the value of each publication varies revenue is recognised on the basis of the
sales value in relation to the estimated sales value of all items covered by the
subscription
Example: Subscriptions to publications

A publisher of a monthly magazine has received ₦480,000 in annual
subscriptions in advance and has produced four issues by the year end 31 March
2013.
The advance payments are non-refundable.
What revenue should be recognised for the year ended 31 March 2013?
Analysis:
Revenue for the magazines should be recognised in the periods in which they are
despatched.
The revenue recognised in the year ended 31 March 2013 = ₦120,000
(₦480,000 × 3/12).
The fact that the amount received is non-refundable does not affect how revenue
is recognised.

Revenue recognition and substance

Financial statements must present fairly the effects of the transactions entered
into by an entity. This means that preparers must observe the principle of
‘substance over form’ by recognising the economic substance of transactions
where this is different from their legal form.
Sale and repurchase agreement

This is an agreement whereby the seller agrees to repurchase the same goods at
a later date.
Such a transaction may or may not be a sale depending on the substance of the
agreement.
If it is not a sale it is treated as a secured loan.
Example: Sale and repurchase agreement

X Plc is in the forestry business. It cuts wood and seasons it for 3 to 4 years before
selling it to furniture manufacturers.
X Plc sells 1,000 tonnes of wood to a bank for ₦10,000 per tonne (which is below
cost).
X Plc has a contract under which it will buy the wood back from the bank in two
years’ time for ₦10,000,000 plus interest.
The wood will never leave X Plc’s premises.
When should X Plc recognise the revenue from this transaction?
Analysis:
Never because this is not a real sale.
There are a series of features which indicate that this is not a real sale. The facts
that the sale is for less than cost, it is to an unusual customer for this type of
transaction and that the wood never leaves the premises are all indicative that
this is not a real sale transaction. However, the most important feature in the fact
pattern is that X Plc has a contract under which it will buy the wood back at the
sale proceeds plus a lender’s return.
X Plc has borrowed cash using its inventory as security.
X Plc must recognise the “sale proceeds” as a liability (Dr Cash / Cr Liability).

Corporate reporting
1.5 Revenue recognition from providing a service

When an entity provides a service to a customer, and the outcome of the
transaction can be estimated reliably, revenue should be recognised by reference
to the stage of completion of the transaction at the reporting date.
The recognition of revenue by reference to the stage of completion of a
transaction may be referred to as the ‘percentage of completion method’.
IAS 18 states that the outcome of a service transaction can be estimated reliably
when all the following conditions apply.
 The amount of revenue can be measured reliably.
 It is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will
flow to the service provider.
 The stage of completion of the transaction at the reporting date can be
measured reliably.
 The costs already incurred for the transaction and the costs that will be
incurred to complete the transaction can be measured reliably.
Example: Providing a service

X Plc is engaged on a contract to develop new computer software for a customer.
The contract has not been completed by the reporting date (31 December 2013).
X Plc is reasonably certain of the outcome to this contract.
The total revenue from the contract will be ₦700,000 and total costs are
expected to be ₦400,000. Costs of ₦150,000 have been incurred to date.
A plc measure percentage completion by comparing costs incurred to date
against total expected costs.
What revenue should be recognised for the year ended 31 December 2013?
Analysis:
Revenue in the current period should be ₦262,500 (₦700,000  150,000/400,000).
Costs of ₦150,000 should also be recognised as cost of sales.

Outcome cannot be measured reliably

If the outcome cannot be measured reliably, an entity should recognise the
revenue only to the extent of the expenses recognised that are recoverable.
This is often the case in the early stages of a contract.
Example: Providing a service

X Plc is engaged on a contract to develop new computer software for a customer.
The contract has not been completed by the reporting date (31 December 2013).
The total revenue from the contract will be ₦700,000.
Costs of ₦120,000 have been incurred to date. It is not yet certain what stage of
completion has been reached, or what the further costs to completion will be.
What revenue should be recognised for the year ended 31 December 2013?
Analysis:
Revenue in the current period should be ₦120,000 and matching costs should be
₦120,000, so that there is neither a profit nor a loss in the current financial
period
When it is not probable that the costs incurred will be recovered, revenue is not
recognised. The costs incurred are recognised as an expense.
Tuition fees
Revenue should be recognised over a period of time (the period of instruction), in
line with the way the services are provided over that period of time
Example: Tuition providers

A firm of accountants pay a tuition provider in advance to provide training for 10
trainees over a 3 year period.
The fee is structured at ₦1,000 per day.
The advance payment is non-refundable if any of the trainees leave the
accountant’s employment
When should the tuition provider recognise the fee?
Analysis:
Fees should be recognised at ₦1,000 per training day given.
If a trainee leaves his job the tuition provider should recognise the balance of the
fee for that person immediately.
Any amount unrecognised should be shown as a liability.
Advertising commissions
Media commissions (e.g. payment for a series of adverts) should be recognised
when the related advertisement or commercial appears before the public

Corporate reporting
Agency
A person or company might act for another company. In this case the first
company is said to be an agent of the second company and the second company
is described as the principal.
An agent might sell goods for a principal and collect the cash from the sale. The
agent then hands the cash to the principal after deducting an agency fee.
The agent is providing a selling service to the principal. The agent should not
recognise the whole sale price of the goods but only the fee for selling them.
An entity acts as principal only where it is exposed to the significant risks and
rewards associated with the sale of goods. If this is not the case the entity is
acting as agent. The risks and rewards to be considered include responsibility for
fulfilling the order, inventory risk, ability to set the selling price and credit risk.
Example: Agency
Lokoja Sales Factors (LSF) distributes goods for Makurdi Manufacturing (MM) under
an agreement with the following terms.
1. LSF is given legal title to the goods by MM and sells them to the retailers.
2. MM sets the selling price and LSF is given a fixed margin on all sales.
3. MM retains all product liability and is responsible for any manufacturing
defects.
4. LSF has the right to return inventory to MM without penalty.
5. LSF is not responsible for credit risk on sales made.
During the year ended 31 December 2013 MM transferred legal title of goods to
LSF which cost MM ₦1,000,000. These are to be sold at a mark-up of 20%. LSF is
entitled to 5% of the selling price of all goods sold.
As at 31 December LSF had sold 90% of the goods and held the balance of the
inventory in its warehouse. All amounts had been collected by LSF but the company
has not yet remitted any cash to MM.
Analysis:
In substance LSF is acting as an agent for MM. MM retains all significant risks and
rewards of ownership of the goods transferred to LSF.
LSF would recognise: Dr Cr

Cash (90%  (₦1,000,000  120%)) 1,080,000
Revenue (5%  90%  (₦1,000,000  120%)) 54,000
Liability 1,026,000
MM would recognise: Dr Cr
Receivable 1,026,000
Revenue 1,026,000
MM would also recognise the unsold inventory in as part of its closing

inventory.

Franchising
Definition: Franchise
Franchising is a form of business by which the owner (franchisor) of a product,
service or method obtains distribution through affiliated dealers (franchisees).
The franchisor provides the franchises with a licensed right to carry out a
business activity under the franchisor’s name. The franchisee owns a business
which from the outside looks as if it is part of a much larger entity.
The franchisor provides services such as training and marketing and supplies
inventory to the franchisee. The franchisee pays a fee for the services.
Example: Franchise
Chicken Republic is a large franchise with many outlets in Nigeria.
Each outlet is owned by an investor and operated under the Chicken Republic
umbrella.
The franchisor must recognise franchise fees in a way that reflects the purpose
for which the fee is charged.
Example: Franchising
Juicy Kebab of Lamb (JKL) is a successful food retailing business.
It has expanded greatly by offering people the opportunity to open JKL outlets
across Nigeria and in other countries.
Any person setting up a franchise must pay JKL an initial fee of ₦2,000,000 and a
quarterly fee of 15% of gross revenue.
The initial fee covers:
1. Training (₦100,000)
2. Supply and installation of assets (cookers, shop fittings, signage, etc. –
₦500,000);
3. Management assistance over first year of the business (₦10,000 per month);
4. Advertising costs (covering local advertising for the launch of the business
(₦200,000) and a contribution to JKL national advertising over the first two
years of the business (₦45,000 per month).
Analysis:
JKL would recognise revenue as follows:
Training – as the training is delivered (reflecting the pattern of delivery)
Supply and installation of assets – On completion of installation of each
asset.
Management service – On a monthly basis.
Adverting costs:
Local advertising – as the advertising is delivered
National advertising – On a monthly basis or to reflect advertising activity.
Quarterly fee – As earned in relation to sales made.

Corporate reporting
1.6 Revenue recognition from sales of goods with service agreements

Sometimes it is necessary to apply the recognition criteria to the separately
identifiable components of a single transaction in order to reflect the substance of
the transaction.
When the selling price of a product includes an identifiable amount for
subsequent servicing, that amount is deferred and recognised as revenue over
the period during which the service is performed.
The amount deferred should be sufficient to cover both the cost of servicing and
a reasonable profit.
Example: Servicing in selling price

X Plc sells a new system to a client and invoices ₦800,000.
This price includes after-sales support for the next 2 years with an estimated cost
₦35,000 each year.
The normal gross profit margin for such support is 17.5%. (This means that the
cost associated with the service should be 82.5% of the revenue from that
service. This can be used to gross up the cost).
How should the revenue be recognised?
Analysis:
The ₦800,000 must be split between the amount received for the system and the
amount received for providing the service.
The amount for the system would be recognised in the usual way (on delivery or
acceptance by the client). The revenue for providing the service is deferred and
recognised over the period of service.
The revenue for providing the service is calculated to cover the costs and provide
a margin of 17.5%.
₦
Revenue deferred (after sales support)
2 years  ₦35,000/0.825 84,848
Revenue for sale of system 715,152
Total revenue 800,000

1.7 Other revenue recognition: interest, royalties and dividends

Revenue from interest, royalties and dividends should be recognised when it is
probable that the benefits will flow to the entity and the amount of the revenue
can be measured reliably.
IAS 18 contains the following guidance.
Interest
Interest income should be recognised on a time proportion basis that takes into
account the effective yield on the interest-earning asset.
Example: Interest
X Plc has made a loan of ₦1,000,000.
It will receive interest at 5% in the first 2 years and then interest at 7% in the third
and fourth year. All interest is received at the year ends.
The loan (₦1,000,000) will be repaid at the end of the fourth year.
The effective yield on the loan is 5.9424%.
Interest income is recognised as follows:
Year b/f Interest Cash c/f
1 1,000,000 59,424 (50,000) 1,009,424
2 1,009,424 59,983 (50,000) 1,019,407
3 1,019,407 60,577 (70,000) 1,009,984
4 1,009,984 60,017 (1,070,000) 0
The journals in year 1 would be: Debit Credit

Cash 1,000,000
Being: initial recognition of loan receivable
Cash (interest received) 50,000

Receivables 50,000
Being: Nominal interest received.
Receivables 59,424
Statement of comprehensive income 59,424
Being: Interest income recognised at the effective rate.

Corporate reporting
Royalties
Revenue from royalties should be recognised on an accruals basis, in
accordance with the terms of the royalty agreement.
Example: Royalties
Lafia Software Design (LSD) has developed a strategy game that is played on
mobile phones. LSD has a 31 December year end.
Pineapple Inc. a major multi-national manufacturer pre-installs the game on the
smart phones which they manufacture and pays LSD a royalty of ₦50 per smart
phone sold.
The payment is made based on Pineapple Inc.’s monthly sales. Cash is received
two weeks after the end of each month.
In December Pineapple’s monthly sales were 1,800,000 units.
LSD would recognise revenue of ₦90,000,000 (1,800,000  ₦50) in December.
Revenue 90,000,000
Dividends
Revenue from dividends should be recognised when the right to receive the
dividend is established.
Example: Dividends
Lagos International Investments (LII) owns shares in two foreign companies.
It owns 5% of the ordinary shares of Overseas Inc. and 10% of shares in Foreign
Ltd. These companies operate in different jurisdictions.
The directors of Foreign Ltd declared a dividend that would translate into
₦2,000,000 on 15 November 2013. Foreign Ltd operates in a jurisdiction where
the declaration of a dividend must be approved by the shareholders in a general
meeting. Foreign Ltd will hold the next shareholders’ meeting in February.
The directors of Overseas Inc. declared a dividend that would translate into
₦1,000,000 on 21 December 2013. Overseas Inc. operates in a jurisdiction where
there is no requirement for further approval before a dividend is paid.
What amount of dividend income should Lagos International Investments
recognise in its 13 December 2013 financial statements?
₦
Dividend from Foreign Ltd nil
LII’s right to receive dividend from Foreign Ltd will only be
established if it is approved in the February meeting. If this is
the case LII will recognise its share of the dividend in 2014.
Dividend from Overseas Inc. (₦1,000,000  5%) 50,000
LII’s right to receive the dividend is established by the
declaration of the directors
50,000

 Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to

be made which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial
statements.
 Whether the circumstances for the recognition of revenue are met
 Whether an entity is acting as agent or principal
 When barter is involved, whether the assets exchanged are dissimilar,
giving rise to revenue
 The division of revenue into component elements when the transaction
involves multiple deliverables
 Stage of completion when the sale involves the rendering of service over
more than one accounting period

Corporate reporting
2 REVENUE BASED INTERPRETATIONS
Section overview
 SIC 31 Revenue – Barter transactions involving advertising services

 IFRIC 13: Customer loyalty programmes
 IFRIC 15: Agreements for the construction of real estate
 IFRIC 18: Transfers of assets from customers
2.1 SIC 31 Revenue – Barter transactions involving advertising services
Issue
IAS 18 states that
 when services are exchanged for services of a similar nature and value the
exchange does not generate revenue.
 when services are exchanged for dissimilar services the exchange does
generate revenue.
IAS 18 requires that the revenue must be measured at the fair value of services
received (adjusted by the amount of any cash or cash equivalent transferred).
When the fair value of services received cannot be measured reliably the
revenue is measured as the fair value of the services provided.
An entity (seller) may enter into a barter transaction to provide advertising
services in exchange for receiving advertising services from its customer
(customer).
SIC 31 only applies to an exchange of dissimilar advertising services. An
exchange of similar advertising services is not a transaction that generates
revenue under IAS 18.
The issue is under what circumstances a seller can reliably measure revenue at
the fair value of advertising services received or provided in a barter transaction.
Consensus
Revenue from a barter transaction involving advertising cannot be measured
reliably at the fair value of advertising services received.
A seller can reliably measure revenue at the fair value of the advertising services
it provides in a barter transaction. It does this by reference to non-barter
transactions. These non-barter transactions must:
 involve advertising similar to the advertising in the barter transaction;
 occur frequently;
 represent a predominant number of transactions and amount (compared to
all transactions that provide advertising similar to the bartered advertising),
 involve cash and/or another form of consideration that has a reliably
measurable fair value; and
 do not involve the same counterparty as in the barter transaction.

2.2 IFRIC 13: Customer loyalty programmes
Background
Many companies offer incentives to customers to buy goods or services.
An entity might award credits (“points”) to a customer which the customer can
redeem against future purchases
Scope
IFRIC 13 applies to all customer loyalty award credits that:
 an entity grants to its customers; and
 can be redeemed in the future for free (or discounted) goods (may be
subject to the customer meeting further conditions)
The issues
Whether an obligation to provide free or discounted goods should be recognised
and measured by:
 allocating some of the sales transaction to credits awarded and deferring
this amount of revenue; or
 providing for the future costs of providing the awards; and
If consideration is allocated to award credits:
 how much should be allocated;
 when should revenue be recognised; and
 how should revenue be measured when a third party supplies the awards?
Consensus: Allocation of consideration

Award credits are a separately identifiable component of the sales transactions in
which they are granted (the `initial sale').
The fair value of the consideration in respect of the initial sale must be allocated
between the award credits and the other components of the sale.
Consideration allocated to the award credits must be measured by reference to
their fair value. This is the amount for which the award credits could be sold
separately.
The fair value must be estimated if not directly observable.
Estimation could be by reference to the fair value of the awards for which they
could be redeemed reduced to take into account:
 the fair value of awards that would be offered to customers who have not
earned award credits from an initial sale; and
 the proportion of award credits that are not expected to be redeemed.
Estimation should reflect the fair values of the range of available awards
weighted in proportion to expected selection.
Consensus: Recognition of revenue in respect of the award credits

Where the entity supplies the awards itself any consideration allocated to award
credits is recognised as revenue when award credits are redeemed and the entity
fulfils its obligations to supply awards. The amount of revenue recognised must

Corporate reporting
be based on the number of award credits that have been redeemed relative to
the total number expected to be redeemed.
Example: Recognition
X Plc is a retailer that operates a customer loyalty programme where it grants
one point for every ₦100 spent.
These points can be used to make future purchases.
Year 1
Total sales = ₦10,000 (X Plc grants 100 points) and X Plc expected 80 points to
be redeemed. The fair value of each point is ₦1
40 points were redeemed in the year.
The year 1 double entries are as follows:
Debit Credit
Cash 10,000
Revenue 9,900
Deferred revenue (100  ₦1) 100
Deferred revenue (40/80  ₦100) 50

Revenue 50
Year 2
A further 41 points are redeemed
Management revises its expectations of total points to be redeemed to 90
Debit Credit
Deferred revenue 50
Revenue (81/90  ₦100 =90  50) 50
Year 3
9 points are redeemed
Management still expects only 90 points to be redeemed in total.
Debit Credit
Deferred revenue 10
Revenue (90/90  ₦100 = 100  90) 10
Where a third party supplies the awards it must assess whether it is collecting the
consideration allocated to the award credits on its own account or on behalf of
the third party (i.e. whether it is the principal or agent).
If collection is on an entity’s own account:
 revenue is measured as the gross consideration allocated to the award
credits; and
 recognised as award obligations are fulfilled.

If collection is on behalf of a third party:

 revenue is measured as the difference between the consideration allocated
to the award credits and the amount payable to the third party; and
 this net amount is recognised as revenue when the third party becomes
obliged to supply the awards and entitled to receive consideration for doing
so (could be as soon as the award credits are granted or later).
Example: Recognition
X Plc is a retailer that participates in an air miles scheme.
One air mile is granted for every ₦1 spent.
The fair value of one point is ₦0.01
X plc pays the airline ₦0.009 for each point.
X Plc grants 1,000,000 points in the period under review.
Analysis
Airline supplies the awards and receives consideration for doing so
X Plc fulfils its obligation when it grants the points
X Plc recognises revenue from the points when it makes the original sale
If X Plc collects consideration on its own behalf the double entries are as follows:
Debit Credit
Cash 1,000,000
Revenue 990,000
Deferred revenue 10,000
Expense 9,000
Cash 9,000
If X Plc collects consideration on behalf the airline the double entry is as follows:
Cash 1,000,000
Revenue 991,000
Liability 9,000
An onerous contract exists if the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations to

supply the awards are expected to exceed the consideration for the awards. In
this case, a liability is recognised in accordance with IAS 37.

Corporate reporting
2.3 IFRIC 15: Agreements for the construction of real estate
Background
Property developers may enter into agreements to sell real estate before
completion of construction. For example, “off plan” sales of residential property
are widespread.
IFRIC 15 sets out guidance on when the selling entity should recognise revenue
from the sale of real estate. It clarifies whether IAS 11 or IAS 18 applies to sale
agreements entered into before construction is complete and it revises guidance
on applying IAS 18 to real estate sales.
Scope
The accounting for revenue and associated expenses by entities that undertake
the construction of real estate directly or through subcontractors
Agreements for the construction of real estate that include delivery of other goods
or services (e.g. sale of land, provision of property management services) are
within the scope of the IFRIC.
The issues
IFRIC 15 addresses:
 whether the agreement is within scope of IAS 11 or IAS 18; and
 when should revenue from the construction of real estate be recognised?
Consensus – Which standard – IAS 11 or IAS 18?

This depends upon the terms of the agreement and all the surrounding facts and
circumstances.
IAS 11 applies if the agreement meets the definition of a construction contract
which it defines as “a contract specifically negotiated for the construction of an
asset or a combination of assets”.
An agreement meets this definition when the buyer is able to specify the major
structural elements before construction commences (or changes after
commencement, regardless of exercise of this right).
IAS 18 applies to any other agreement for example, when the buyer can only
influence minor structural elements, or choose from a range of options.
When IAS 18 applies the entity must determine whether the agreement is for
rendering of services or sale of goods.
If no construction materials are to be supplied the sales is the rendering of a
service and the percentage of completion method is used subject to normal
recognition criteria.
If construction materials and services are involved the agreement is for a sale of
goods. In this case, revenue is recognised:
 using a percentage completion where there is a continuous transfer of
significant risks/rewards; or
 at a point in time if the significant risks/rewards is transferred in its entirety
at that single time (e.g. on completion/delivery).

Consensus – Sundry points

The IAS 18 revenue recognition criteria may be met before an entity has
performed all of its contractual obligations to the buyer.
Obligations to perform further work on an asset already delivered is recognised
as an expense measured in accordance with IAS 37
Obligations to deliver further goods or services that are separately identifiable
from that already delivered are treated as a separate component of the original
sale. In this case:
 The fair value of the total consideration must be allocated between the
components already delivered and those not yet delivered;
 Consideration allocated to components not yet delivered is recognised as
revenue only when the applicable revenue recognition conditions have
been met

Corporate reporting
2.4 IFRIC 18: Transfers of assets from customers
Introduction
IFRIC 18 is of particular relevance to the utility sector.
It clarifies the IFRS requirements for agreements in which an entity receives an
item of property, plant and equipment used from its customer and uses it:
 to connect that customer to a network; or
 to supply goods or services to that customer (gas, electricity etc.).
It also covers situations where, rather than transferring an asset to a supplier the
customer might pay cash to a supplier to build the asset.
Illustration: Context
House Builder Plc constructs a number of residential units on a site and installs a
pipeline that joins the units to the water company’s supply system.
House Builder Plc transfers ownership of the pipe to the water company who will
thereafter maintain the pipe and use it to transfer water to the residents of the
site.
Alternatively, House Builder Plc might have paid the water company to install the
pipeline.
Issues
The interpretation addresses the following issues:
Issue addressed Illustration

Is the definition of an asset being met Does the water company have an
and, if so, how should the transferred asset and if so how should it
asset be measured on initial measure that asset on initial
recognition? recognition?
How should the resulting credit be If the water company recognises an

accounted for? asset what is the double entry?
How should an entity account for a If House Builder Plc paid the water
transfer of cash from its customer? company to install the pipeline how
would the water company account
for the transfer of cash?
Scope
IFRIC 18 applies to all entities that receive from customers an item of property,
plant and equipment, or cash for the acquisition or construction of such items.
These assets must then be used by the entity to
 connect the customer to a network; or
 provide ongoing access to a supply of goods or services; or
 both connect and supply.
Scoped out of this interpretation are agreements in which the transfer is either:
 a government grant; or
 infrastructure used in a service concession arrangement

Consensus: Is the definition of an asset met?

The Conceptual Framework defines an asset as:
 a resource controlled by the entity;
 as a result of past events; and
 from which future economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity.
In most circumstances, the entity obtains the right of ownership of the transferred
item of property, plant and equipment and the transferee would conclude that the
definition of an asset has been met. However, if the customer continues to
control the transferred item, the asset definition would not be met despite a
transfer of ownership.
It might seem that an entity does not control the asset. Usually, an entity that
controls an asset can use that asset as it pleases. For example it could exchange
that asset for other assets, employ it to produce goods or services, charge a
price for others to use it, use it to settle liabilities and so on. When an entity
receives an asset from a customer it might appear that it cannot do these things
because it must use the transferred asset to provide one or more services to the
customer. However, the entity may have the ability to decide how the transferred
asset is operated and maintained and when it is replaced. In this case, the entity
would normally conclude that it controls the transferred item of property, plant
and equipment.
Consensus: Initial measurement of the asset

If the entity concludes that an asset should be recognised, IAS 16 requires
property, plant and equipment should be recognised at its cost.
IAS 16 explains that in cases where an item of property, plant and equipment is
acquired in exchange for a non-monetary asset or a combination of monetary
and non-monetary assets, the cost of the non-monetary asset is its fair value.
Consensus: How should the credit be accounted for?

IAS 18 states that ‘When goods are sold or services are rendered in exchange
for dissimilar goods or services, the exchange is regarded as a transaction which
generates revenue.’
A transfer of an item of property, plant and equipment within the scope of this
interpretation would be an exchange for dissimilar goods or services. Therefore,
the entity should recognise revenue in accordance with IAS 18.
Under the rules in IAS 18, revenue is recognised as goods and services are
provided. An entity would have to identify the goods and services it is providing in
exchange for the asset and recognise revenue accordingly.
 If the entity delivers the goods or services immediately, revenue is
recognised in the statement of profit or loss at the same time as the initial
recognition of the asset, for example where the service is connection to a
network.
 If the entity delivers the goods or services over a future period revenue is at
first recognised as a deferred credit in the statement of financial position. It
is then transferred to the statement of profit or loss as the entity delivers the
goods or services in the future, for example, where the service is to provide
an ongoing supply in the future.

Corporate reporting
 If the entity delivers the goods or services immediately and some in the
future revenue, part of the revenue is recognised in the statement of profit
or loss immediately and some is deferred for later recognition, for example,
where the service is to connect a customer to the network and to provide
an ongoing supply in the future.
Consensus: Transfer of cash

When an entity receives cash which must be used only to acquire/construct an
asset within the scope of this interpretation it must assess whether the item
acquired/constructed meets the definition of an asset (as before). If this is the
case the entity must:
 recognise an asset at cost under IAS 16:
 recognise revenue in accordance with this interpretation at the amount of
cash received.

3 IAS 11: CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS
Section overview
 Introduction to accounting for construction contracts

 Application of the rules in IAS 11
 Measurement and recognition of contract revenue and contract costs
 Measuring revenue, costs and profit or loss for a contract
 Double entry
 Presentation and disclosure
3.1 Introduction to accounting for construction contracts

IAS 11: Construction contracts sets out the rules on how a contractor should
account for construction contracts.
Definition
A construction contract is a contract specifically negotiated for the construction of
an asset or a combination of assets that are closely interrelated or
interdependent in terms of their design, technology and function or their ultimate
purpose or use.
A fixed price contract is a construction contract in which the contractor agrees to
a fixed contract price, or a fixed rate per unit of output, which in some cases is
subject to cost escalation clauses.
A cost plus contract is a construction contract in which the contractor is
reimbursed for allowable or otherwise defined costs, plus a percentage of these
costs or a fixed fee.
Construction contracts include:

 contracts for the rendering of services which are directly related to the
construction of the asset, for example, those for the services of project
managers and architects; and,
 contracts for the destruction or restoration of assets, and the restoration of
the environment following the demolition of assets.
In practice, a construction contract is usually a contract specifically negotiated
with a client for the construction of a single asset such as a bridge, building,
pipeline or road, or a number of related assets. For example, an oil refinery might
be made up of several assets, such as buildings, pipelines, oil tanks and so on.
Contract revenue
Contract revenue is:
 the initial amount of revenue agreed in the contract; plus
 variations in contract work, claims and incentive payments (provided that
these will probably result in revenue and can be reliably measured).

Corporate reporting
Contract costs
Contract costs are:
 the direct costs of the contract (such as labour costs, costs of materials,
depreciation of plant used in the construction work), and
 a reasonable proportion of indirect costs (such as insurance costs, general
design costs that are not attributable to specific contracts, and other
general overheads)
 any other costs that are specifically chargeable to the customer under the
terms of the contract.
Contract costs are recognised as an expense in the accounting period in which
the work to which they relate is performed.
3.2 Application of the rules in IAS 11

Usually the rules in IAS 11 are applied separately to each construction contract.
However, sometimes it is necessary sub-divide a contract, or to account for a
group of contracts as a single contract in order to reflect the substance of the
transaction(s).
Accounting for a single contract as a series of separate contracts

The construction of each individual asset should be treated as a separate
contract where:
 separate proposals have been submitted for each asset;
 each asset has been subject to separate negotiation and the contractor and
customer have been able to accept or reject that part of the contract
relating to each asset; and
 the costs and revenues of each asset can be identified.
Accounting for a series of separate contracts as a single contract

The group of contracts should be treated as a single contract where:
 the group of contracts is negotiated as a single package;
 the contracts are so closely interrelated that they are, in effect, part of a
single project with an overall profit margin; and,
 the contracts are performed concurrently or in a continuous sequence.
Key issue
Construction contracts often span several accounting periods.
If contract revenue and contract costs were only recognised on completion of a
contract the intervening financial statements would not fairly present the efforts of
the contractor over the life of the project.
IAS 11 requires that contract revenue and contract costs must be recognised
over the life of the contract. In this way the financial statements will fairly present
the efforts of the contractor in each period.

3.3 Measurement and recognition of contract revenue and contract costs

The following rules apply to the recognition of the revenue and costs for a
construction contract in the financial statements of the contractor.
Provided that the outcome of the contract can be estimated reliably, contract
revenue is recognised in the statement of profit or loss as the contract
progresses. This is known as the percentage (or stage) of completion method.
This results in a fair presentation of the underlying situation, which is that profits
are earned over the life of the construction contract, not on the date that the
contract is finally completed.
However, IAS 11 also applies the following requirements.
 Revenue and costs can only be recognised when the outcome of a contract
can be estimated reliably.
 If a contract is expected to make a loss, the whole of the loss must be
recognised immediately.
 When the outcome of a contract cannot be estimated reliably:
 revenue should be recognised only to the extent of contract costs
incurred that are expected to be recoverable
 contract costs should be recognised as an expense in the period in
Estimating the stage of completion

IAS 11 does not specify a method of estimating the stage of completion of a
contract. Possible methods include:
 The cost basis: This estimates the stage of completion by comparing the
contract costs incurred to date to the total contract costs expected to be
incurred over the life of the contract. This involves estimating the future
costs that will be necessary to complete the contract.
 Sales basis (work certified basis): This estimates the stage of completion
by comparing the sales value of the work performed to date to the total
contract revenue. As a contract progresses, at periodic intervals, an
independent expert such as a surveyor may inspect the work, and issue a
certificate stating the amount or value of the work done so far. The most
recent certificate issued by the independent expert provides a basis for
judging the proportion of the contract work that has been completed.
 Use the physical proportion of the contract work that has been completed.
Reliable estimate of outcome

In the case of a fixed price contract, the outcome of a construction contract can
be estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied:
 total contract revenue can be measured reliably;
 it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the contract will
flow to the entity;
 both the contract costs to complete the contract and the stage of contract
completion at the balance sheet date can be measured reliably; and,

Corporate reporting
 the contract costs attributable to the contract can be clearly identified and
measured reliably so that actual contract costs incurred can be compared
with prior estimates.
In the case of a cost plus contract, the outcome of a construction contract can be
estimated reliably when all the following conditions are satisfied:
 it is probable that the economic benefits associated with the contract will
flow to the entity; and,
 the contract costs attributable to the contract, whether or not specifically
reimbursable, can be clearly identified and measured reliably.
3.4 Measuring revenue, costs and profit or loss for a contract

To calculate the figures for contract revenue and contract costs that should be
recognised as income or expense in a period, the following steps should be
taken.
Step 1: Calculate the total profit (loss) expected on the contract.
Illustration: Total expected profit (loss) on construction contract

₦
Contract price X
Minus costs to date (X)
Estimated future costs (X)
Total expected profit/(foreseeable loss) X/(X)
This step is necessary in order to identify whether the contract is loss making or
not, as this would have an impact on the measurement of costs recognition. It
also calculates totals that will be used later in the process
Step 2: Calculate the proportion of the work completed. An examination question
will indicate which basis to use.
Step 3: Calculate cumulative contract revenue that should be recognised by the
reporting date and compare this to the contract revenue recognised by the start
of the period to find the contract revenue to be recognised in the period.
If the outcome of the contract is uncertain, possibly because it is too early in the
life of the contract to make a reasonable estimate, there should be no profit and
no loss for the contract. In Step 3 below, a nil profit is obtained by making
revenue equal to the costs for the contract so far.
Step 4: Calculate cumulative contract costs that should be recognised by the
reporting date and compare this to the contract costs recognised by the start of
the period to find the contract costs to be recognised in the period.
If step 1 reveals that the contract is expected to make a loss, the cumulative
contract costs is measured as a balancing figure equal to the loss plus the
cumulative contract revenue measured at step 3.

Example: Profit making contract using cost basis measurement of stage of

completion
Example: Measurement of contract revenue and contract costs (cost basis)

The following are figures in relation to a construction contract undertaken by
Entity D. The figures are for the year ended 31 December Year 2.
₦000
Contract price 1,500
Costs to date 1,000
Expected future costs 200
Costs recognised in earlier years 650
Revenue recognised in earlier years 750
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on the cost basis for the year
ended 31 December Year 2 are calculated as follows:
₦000
Minus costs to date 1,000
Estimated future costs 200
Total expected costs for the contract (1,200)
Total expected profit 300
Step 2: Calculate the proportion of work completed to date.
Percentage completion = Costs to date/Total costs = 1,000/1,200 = 83.3%.
Step 3: Calculate the contract revenue to be recognised in the period
Revenue ₦000
Cumulative to year end (1,500 × 83.3%) 1,250
Less: revenue recognised in previous years (750)
Revenue this year (balancing figure) 500
Step 4: Calculate the contract cost to be recognised in the period
Costs ₦000
Costs this year 350
This results in the recognition of profit of ₦150 (500 – 350) in this period.

Corporate reporting
Example: Profit making contract using sales basis measurement of stage of

completion
Example: Measurement of contract revenue and contract costs (sales basis)

₦000
Costs to date 1,000
Work certified to date 1,100
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on a sales basis for the year
₦000
Percentage completion
= Work certified to date/Total sales value = 1,100/1,500 = 73.3%.
Revenue ₦000
Costs ₦000
Cumulative to year end (1,200 × 73.3%) 880
Costs this year 230
This results in the recognition of profit of ₦120 (350 – 230) in this period.

Practice question 1
Company X entered into a construction contract this year. It is proceeding
well and Company X is reasonably certain of the outcome of the contract.
The following are figures are relevant as at the year end.
₦000
Costs to date 1,800
Costs recognised in earlier years xxx
Revenue recognised in earlier years xxx
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on the cost basis.

Calculate the amounts that should be recognised as contract revenue and
contract costs for the year.
Practice question 2
Company X entered into a construction contract last year. It is proceeding
well and Company X is reasonably certain of the outcome of the contract.
₦000
Costs to date 1,800
Work certified 2,380
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on the sales basis.


Corporate reporting
Example: Loss making contract using cost basis measurement of stage of

completion
Example: Measurement of contract revenue and contract costs (expected loss)

₦000
Costs to date 1,000
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on the cost basis for the year
₦000
Total expected loss (100)
Revenue ₦000
Cumulative to year end (1,500 × 62.5%) 938
The total cost that must be recognised by this year end to ensure
recognition of a loss of ₦100,000 is ₦1,038,000 (₦938,000 +
₦100,000).
Costs ₦000
Cumulative to year end 1,038
Costs this year (balancing figure) 388
This results in the recognition of a loss of ₦200 (188 – 388) in this period.
A profit of ₦100,000 had been recognised by the start of the period.
Recognition of the loss of ₦200,000 in this period results in the recognition of
an overall loss of ₦100,000.

Practice question 3
Company X entered into a construction contract last year. There are
problems on the contract.
₦000
Costs to date 1,800
Costs recognised in earlier years 1,000
Contract revenue and contract costs recognised on the cost basis.


Corporate reporting
3.5 Double entry

A single contract account is used to record the balances of each contract. (This is
known as amount due to (from) customer account).
Incurring contract costs
Illustration: Double entry: Incurring contract costs

Debit Credit
Contract account X
Cash/receivables/accumulated depreciation X
Recognising contract revenue and contract costs (as measured in the previous
section)
Illustration: Double entry: Recognising contract revenue and contract costs

Debit Credit
Revenue X
Cost of sale X
Contract account X
Both contract revenue and contract costs are recognised in the statement of
profit or loss with the difference recognised in the contract account. This
difference is either a profit or loss in any one period.
This is different to revenue recognition for sale of goods (for example). When
goods are sold the double entry is between revenue and trade receivables but
this is not the case for construction contracts.
Invoicing (billings)
Illustration: Double entry: Invoicing (billings)

Debit Credit
Trade receivables X
Contract account X
Invoices for construction contracts will be raised according to some formula

contained in the contract. Periodically the contractor will be able to issue an
invoice to the customer.
This is different to raising an invoice for sale of goods (for example). As stated
above, when goods are sold the double entry is between revenue and trade
receivables but this is not the case for construction contracts.

Example: Double entry
Example: Double entry

Entity D.
This is the second year of the contract.
Year 1 Year 2 Cumulative
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Costs incurred in period 400 600 1,000
Revenue recognised 750 500 1,250
Costs recognised in P and L 650 350 1,000
Double entries are as follows::
Double entry in year 1 Dr Cr
₦000 ₦000
Contract account 400
Cash 400
Revenue 750
Cost of sales 650
Balance on contract account ₦000

Costs incurred 500
Profit recognised in the year (750 – 650) 100
Double entry in year 2 Dr Cr

₦000 ₦000
Cash 600
Revenue 500
Cost of sales 350

Balance b/f 600
Costs incurred 500
Profit recognised in the year (750 – 650) 150
Amount due from customer 1,250
The balance on the contract account has a meaning. The company has spent
1,000,000 on this contract and it expects to recover this from its customer. In
addition the company expects to recover an extra 250,000. The balance is
described as being the gross amount due from a customer.
The gross amount due from the customer could have been calculated in
cumulative terms (indeed this is how IAS 11 explains this balance.

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Amount due from customer (using cumulative amounts

₦000 ₦000 ₦000

Total costs incurred to date 1,000
Total profit recognised to date (100 + 150) 250
Amount due from customer 1,250
Any billings would reduce the amount due from the customer.
Example (continued): Amount due from customer (using cumulative amounts

₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Billings (520) (520)

Total profit recognised to date (100 + 150) 250
Billings (520)
Amount due from customer 730
Trade receivables ₦000

Would include: 520

The balance on the contract account could be negative. This might be because
billings are higher than the other amounts recognised on the account or perhaps
because a loss has been recognised.
Example (continued): Amount due from customer

₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Revenue recognised 750 188 938
Billings (950) (950)

Less loss recognised to date (988 – 1,038) (100)
Billings (950)
Amount due to customer (50)
Trade receivables ₦000

Would include: 950

Corporate reporting
3.6 Presentation and disclosure
Presentation
The gross amount due from customers or the gross amount due to customers for
contract work. This was shown in examples in the previous section. A pro-forma
is repeated here for your convenience.
Illustration:
₦
Costs incurred X
Plus recognised profits to date/(or minus recognised losses) X/(X)
Minus progress billings (X)
Amounts due from customers (if positive) or amounts due to
customers (if negative) X/(X)
Disclosure
IAS 11 requires disclosure of the following information about construction
contracts:
 The amount of contract revenue recognised as revenue in the period
 The methods used to determine the amount of revenue and the stage of
completion of contracts in progress (for example, the costs basis)
 For each contract in progress at the end of the reporting period, the total
costs incurred and profits recognised (net of any losses recognised) to
date.
In relation to the statement of financial position, IAS 11 requires disclosure of the
following items:
 The amount of advances received (amounts received from customers
before the related work has been carried out)
 The amount of retentions (amounts not paid by the customer until the
contract is completed to his satisfaction)

 The timing of recognition of contract revenue and contract costs usually has
a significant effect on a contractors profit or loss
 Whether costs that are attributable to contract activity in general can be
allocated to a contract
 Whether the outcome from a contract can be estimated reliably
 How to measure the stage of completion of a contract
 Expected losses are recognised immediately such circumstances become
apparent. Judgement is required as to when this happens.
 Whether to combine several contracts into one, or to segment a single
contract into several separate contracts
 Whether revenue from claims is subject to such uncertainties and
remaining negotiations that it should not be included in contract revenue
until such uncertainties and negotiations have been resolved so that the
customer will accept the claim
 Whether incentive payments should be included in revenue

Corporate reporting
4 IFRS 15: REVENUE FROM CONTRACTS WITH CUSTOMERS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Core principle and the five step model
 Step 1: Identify the contract(s) with a customer
 Step 2: Identify the separate performance obligations in the contract
 Step 3: Determine the transaction price
 Step 4: Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations
 Step 5: Recognise revenue when or as an entity satisfies performance
obligations
4.1 Introduction
The IASB issued IFRS 15: Revenue from contracts with customers in May 2014.
IFRS 15 is the end product of a major joint project between the IASB and the US
Financial Accounting Standards Board and replaces IAS 18, IAS 11, IFRIC 13,
IFRIC 15, IFRIC 18 and SIC 31.
IFRS 15 will have an impact on all entities that enter into contracts with
customers with few exceptions. Entities will need to reassess their revenue
recognition policies and may need to revise them. The timing and amount of
revenue recognised may not change for simple contracts for a single deliverable
but will change for more complex arrangements involving more than one
deliverable.
This standard is effective for annual accounting periods beginning on or after 1
January 2017 but earlier application is allowed.
Summary
IFRS 15:
 establishes a new control-based revenue recognition model;
 changes the basis for deciding whether revenue is recognised at a point in
time or over time;
 provides new and more detailed guidance on specific topics; and
 expands and improves disclosures about revenue.

4.2 Core principle and the five step model

IFRS 15 is based on a core principle that requires an entity to recognise revenue:
 in a manner that depicts the transfer of goods or services to customers
 at an amount that reflects the consideration the entity expects to be entitled
to in exchange for those goods or services.
Applying this core principle involves following a five step model as follows:
 Step 1: Identify the contract(s) with the customer
 Step 2: Identify the separate performance obligations
 Step 3: Determine the transaction price
 Step 4: Allocate the transaction price
 Step 5: Recognise revenue when or as an entity satisfies performance
obligations
Definitions
Revenue is income arising in the course of an entity’s ordinary activities.
A customer is a party that has contracted with an entity to obtain goods or
services that are an output of the entity’s ordinary activities.
4.3 Step 1: Identify the contract(s) with a customer

The first step in IFRS 15 is to identify the contract. This may be written, oral, or
implied by an entity’s customary business practices.
Definition
A contract is an agreement between two or more parties that creates enforceable
rights and obligations.
The general IFRS 15 model applies only when or if:

 the parties have approved the contract;
 the entity can identify each party’s rights;
 the entity can identify the payment terms for the goods and services to be
transferred; and
 the contract has commercial substance (i.e. the risk, timing or amount of
the entity’s future cash flows is expected to change as a result of the
contract); and
 it is probable the entity will collect the consideration.
If a customer contract does not meet these criteria, revenue is recognised only
when either:
 the entity’s performance is complete and substantially all of the
consideration in the arrangement has been collected and is non-refundable;
 the contract has been terminated and the consideration received is non-
refundable.
A contract does not exist if each party has an enforceable right to terminate a
wholly unperformed contract without compensating the other party.

Corporate reporting
Combination of contracts
An entity must combine two or more contracts entered into at or near the same
time with the same customer (or related parties) and treat them as a single
contract if one or more of the following conditions are present:
 the contracts are negotiated as a package with a single commercial
objective;
 the amount of consideration to be paid in one contract depends on the price
or performance of the other contract; or
 the goods or services promised in the contracts (or some goods or services
promised in the contracts) are a single performance obligation
Contract modifications
A contract modification is any change in the scope and/or price of a contract
approved by both parties for example changes in design, quantity, timing or
method of performance).
If a scope change is approved but the corresponding price change is not yet
determined, these requirements are applied when the entity has an expectation
that the price modification will be approved.
This requirement interacts with the guidance on determining the transaction
price.
A contract modification must be accounted for as a separate contract when:
 the scope of the contract increases because of the addition of promised
goods or services that are distinct; and
 the price of the contract increases by an amount of consideration that
reflects the entity’s stand-alone selling prices of the additional promised
goods or services and any appropriate adjustments to that price to reflect
the circumstances of the particular contract.
4.4 Step 2: Identify the separate performance obligations in the contract

Performance obligations are normally specified in the contract but could also
include promises implied by an entity’s customary business practices, published
policies or specific statements that create a valid customer expectation that
goods or services will be transferred under the contract.
Definition
A performance obligation is a promise in a contract with a customer to transfer to
the customer either:
a. a good or service (or a bundle of goods or services) that is distinct; or
b. a series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and
that have the same pattern of transfer to the customer.

At the inception of a contract the entity must assess the goods or services
promised in a contract with a customer and must identify as a performance
obligation each promise to transfer to the customer either:
 a good or service (or a bundle of goods or services) that is distinct; or
 a series of distinct goods or services that are substantially the same and
that have the same pattern of transfer to the customer (described by
reference to promises satisfied over time, and progress to completion
assessment)
A good or service is distinct if both of the following criteria are met:
 the customer can benefit from the good or service either on its own or
together with other resources that are readily available to the customer; and
 the entity’s promise to transfer the good or service is separately identifiable
from other promises in the contract.
If a good or service is regularly sold separately, this would indicate that
customers generally can benefit from the good/service on its own or in
conjunction with other available resources.
If a promised good or service is not distinct, an entity must combine that good or
service with other promised goods or services until it identifies a bundle of goods
or services that is distinct. In some cases, this would result in the entity
accounting for all the goods or services promised in a contract as a single
performance obligation
Example: Promised goods and services

Goods produced by an entity for sale
Resale of goods purchased by an entity
Resale of rights to goods or services purchased by an entity
Performing a contractually agreed-upon task for a customer
Standing ready to provide goods or services
Providing a service of arranging for another party to transfer goods or services to
the customer
Granting rights to goods or services to be provided in the future that a customer
can resell
Constructing, manufacturing or developing an asset on behalf of a customer
Granting licences
Granting options to purchase additional goods/services
An aside
When (or as) a performance obligation is satisfied, an entity will recognise as
revenue the amount of the transaction price (excluding estimates of variable
consideration that are constrained) allocated to that performance obligation (step
5)).
There are two issues to address:
 The amount of the transaction price, including any constraints (step 3))
 The allocation of that price to POs (step 4))

Corporate reporting
4.5 Step 3: Determine the transaction price
Definition
The transaction price is the amount of consideration an entity expects to be
entitled to in exchange for the goods or services promised under a contract,
excluding any amounts collected on behalf of third parties (for example, sales
taxes).
An entity must consider the terms of the contract and its customary practices in
determining the transaction price
The transaction price assumes transfers to the customer as promised in
accordance with the existing contract and that the contract will not be cancelled,
renewed or modified.
The transaction price is not adjusted for effects of the customer’s credit risk, but
is adjusted if the entity (e.g. based on its customary business practices) has
created a valid expectation that it will enforce its rights for only a portion of the
contract price.
An entity must consider the effects of all the following factors when determining
the transaction price:
 variable consideration;
 the constraint on variable consideration;
 time value of money;
 non-cash consideration;
 consideration payable to the customer.
4.6 Step 4: Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations

The entity allocates a contract’s transaction price to each separate performance
obligation within that contract on a relative stand-alone selling price basis at
contract inception.
Definition
A stand-alone selling price is the price at which an entity would sell a promised
good or service separately to a customer.
IFRS 15 suggests, but does not require, the following three methods as suitable
for estimating the stand-alone selling price:
 adjusted market assessment approach
 expected cost plus margin approach
 residual approach.

4.7 Step 5: Recognise revenue when or as an entity satisfies performance

obligations
Revenue is recognised when or as the promised goods or services are
transferred to a customer.
 A transfer occurs when the customer obtains control of the good or service.
 A customer obtains control of an asset (good or service) when it can direct
the use of and obtain substantially all the remaining benefits from it. Control
includes the ability to prevent other entities from directing the use of and
obtaining the benefits from an asset. Indicators of control include:
 The entity has a present right to payment for the asset
 The customer has legal title
 The customer has physical possession (exceptions for bill and hold,
consignment sales and repos)
 The customer has the significant risks and rewards of ownership of
the asset
 The customer has accepted the asset
 The benefits of an asset are the potential cash flows that can be obtained
directly or indirectly from the asset in many ways.
When goods or services are transferred continuously, a revenue recognition

method that best depicts the entity’s performance should be applied (updated as
circumstances change).
Acceptable methods include:
 Output methods: units produced, units delivered, contract milestones or
surveys of work performed; or
 Input methods: costs incurred, labour hours expended, machine hours
used.

Corporate reporting
5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Describe revenue
 Describe and demonstrate the accounting treatment (measurement and
recognition) for revenue arising from sale of goods;
recognition) for revenue arising from rendering of services
recognition) for revenue arising from use by others of entity assets yielding
interest, royalties and dividends.
recognition) for revenue arising from construction contracts including the
application of cost based and revenue based methods for measuring the stage
of completion of contracts
 Measure amounts to be included in the statement of financial position for
construction contracts.

SOLUTIONS TO PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Solution 1
Step 1: Calculate the total profit expected on the contract.
₦000
Revenue ₦000
Less: revenue recognised in previous years 
Revenue this year (balancing figure) 2,291
Costs ₦000
Less: revenue recognised in previous years 
Costs this year 1,800
This results in the recognition of profit of ₦491 (2,291– 1,800) in this period.

Corporate reporting
Solution 2
Step 1: Calculate the total profit expected on the contract.
₦000
Percentage completion = Work certified/Contract price = 2,380/2,800 = 85%.
Revenue ₦000
Cumulative to year end (2,800 × 85%) 2,380
Revenue this year (balancing figure) 1,580
Costs ₦000
Costs this year 1,320
This results in the recognition of profit of ₦260 (1,580– 1,320) in this period.

Solution 3
₦000
Total expected loss 500
Percentage completion = Costs to date/Total costs = 1,800/2,500 = 72%.
Revenue ₦000
The total cost that must be recognised by this year end to ensure
recognition of a loss of ₦500,000 is ₦1,940,000 (₦1,440,000 +
₦500,000).
Costs ₦000
Less: revenue recognised in previous years (1,000)
Costs this year (balancing figure) 940
This results in the recognition of loss of ₦420 (520 – 940) in this period.
A loss of ₦80,000 had been recognised by the start of the period. Recognition of the
loss of ₦420,000 in this period results in the recognition of an overall loss of
₦500,000.

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
9
IAS 2: Inventories
Contents
1 Inventory
2 Measurement of inventory
3 Judgements – IAS 2
4 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 2 is an examinable document.
Exam context
This chapter explains the IAS 2 requirements on accounting for inventories.
convenience
 Define inventory
 Measure inventory at the lower of cost and net realisable value
 Use cost formulas to arrive at an approximation to the cost of inventory

Chapter 9: IAS 2: Inventories
1 INVENTORY
Section overview
 Definition of inventory
 Disclosure requirements for inventory
1.1 Definition of inventory

The nature of inventories varies with the type of business. Inventories are:
 Assets held for sale. For a retailer, these are items that the business sells –
its stock-in trade. For a manufacturer, assets held for sale are usually
referred to as ‘finished goods’
 Assets in the process of production for sale (‘work-in-progress’ for a
manufacturer)
 Assets in the form of materials or supplies to be used in the production
process (‘raw materials’ in the case of a manufacturer).
IAS 2: Inventories sets out the requirements to be followed when accounting for
inventory.
1.2 Disclosure requirements for inventory

IAS 2 requires the following disclosures in notes to the financial statements.
 The accounting policy adopted for measuring inventories, including the cost
measurement method used.
 The total carrying amount of inventories, classified appropriately. (For a
manufacturer, appropriate classifications will be raw materials, work-in-
progress and finished goods.)
 The amount of inventories carried at net realisable value or NRV.
 The amount of inventories written down in value, and so recognised as an
expense during the period.
 Details of any circumstances that have led to the write-down of inventories
to NRV.
 The amount of any reversal of any write-down that is recognized as a
reduction in the amount of inventories recognized as expense in the period.
 The circumstances or events that led to the reversal of a write-down of
inventories.

Corporate reporting
2 MEASUREMENT OF INVENTORY
Section overview
 Introduction
 Cost of inventories
 Cost formulas
 Net realisable value
 Accounting for a write down
2.1 Introduction
The measurement of inventory can be extremely important for financial reporting,
because the measurements affect both the cost of sales (and profit) and also
total asset values in the statement of financial position.
There are several aspects of inventory measurement to consider:
 Should the inventory be valued at cost, or might a different measurement
be more appropriate?
 Which items of expense can be included in the cost of inventory?
 What measurement method should be used when it is not practicable to
identify the actual cost of inventory?
IAS 2 gives guidance on each of these areas.
Measurement rule
IAS 2 requires that inventory must be measured in the financial statements at the
lower of:
 cost, or
 net realisable value (NRV).
The standard gives guidance on the meaning of each of these terms.
2.2 Cost of inventories

IAS2 states that ‘the cost of inventories shall comprise all costs of purchase,
costs of conversion and other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their
present location and condition.
Purchase cost
The purchase cost of inventory will consist of the following:
 the purchase price
 plus import duties and other non-recoverable taxes (but excluding
recoverable sales tax)
 plus transport, handling and other costs directly attributable to the purchase
(carriage inwards), if these costs are additional to the purchase price.
The purchase price excludes any settlement discounts, and is the cost after
deduction of trade discount.

Example: Purchase cost

Kaduna Consumer Electrics (KCE) buys goods from an overseas supplier.
It has recently taken delivery of 1,000 units of component X.
The quoted price of component X was ₦1,200 per unit but KCE has negotiated a
trade discount of 5% due to the size of the order.
The supplier offers an early settlement discount of 2% for payment within 30 days
and KCE intends to achieve this.
Import duties of ₦60 per unit must be paid before the goods are released through
custom.
Once the goods are released through customs KCE must pay a delivery cost of
₦5,000 to have the components taken to its warehouse.
₦
Purchase price (1,000  ₦1,200  95%) 1,140,000
Import duties (1,000  ₦60) 60,000
Delivery cost 5,000
Cost of inventory 1,205,000
The intention to take settlement discount is irrelevant.
Conversion costs
When materials purchased from suppliers are converted into another product in a
manufacturing or assembly operation, there are also conversion costs to add to
the purchase costs of the materials. Conversion costs must be included in the
cost of finished goods and unfinished work in progress.
Conversion costs consist of:
 costs directly related to units of production, such as costs of direct labour
(i.e. the cost of the labour employed to perform the conversion work)
 fixed and variable production overheads, which must be allocated to costs
of items produced and closing inventories. (Fixed production overheads
must be allocated to costs of finished output and closing inventories on the
basis of the normal production capacity in the period)
 other costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and
condition.
Production overheads include:
 costs of indirect labour, including the salaries of the factory manager and
factory supervisors
 depreciation costs of non-current assets used in production
 costs of carriage inwards, if these are not included in the purchase costs of
the materials
Only production overheads are included in costs of finished goods inventories
and work-in-progress. Administrative costs and selling and distribution costs must
not be included in the cost of inventory.
Note that the process of allocating costs to units of production is usually called
absorption. This is usually done by linking the total production overhead to some

Corporate reporting
production variable, for example, time, wages, materials or simply the number of
units expected to be made.
Example: Conversion costs

Kaduna Consumer Electrics (KCE) manufactures control units for air conditioning
systems.
The following information is relevant:
Each control unit requires the following:
1 component X at a cost of ₦ 1,205 each
1 component Y at a cost of ₦ 800 each
Sundry raw materials at a cost of ₦150.
The company faces the following monthly expenses: ₦

Factory rent 16,500
Energy cost 7,500
Selling and administrative costs 10,000
Each unit takes two hours to assemble. Production workers are paid
₦300 per hour.
Production overheads are absorbed into units of production using an
hourly rate. The normal level of production per month is 1,000 hours.
The cost of a single control unit is as follows: ₦

Materials:
Component X 1,205
Component Y 800
Sundry raw materials 150
2,155
Labour (2 hours  ₦300) 600
Production overhead (₦16,500 + 7,500/1,000 hours  2 hours 48
2,803
The selling and administrative costs are not part of the cost of inventory

Normal production capacity

Production overheads must be absorbed based on normal production capacity
even if this is not achieved in a period.
If production capacity is unusual in a particular period the overhead might be
under or over absorbed.
Example: Normal production capacity

A business plans for production overheads of ₦1,000,000 per annum.
The normal level of production is 100,000 units per annum.
Due to supply difficulties the business was only able to make 75,000 units in the
current year.
Other costs per unit were ₦126.
The cost per unit is: ₦

Other costs 126
Production overhead (₦1,000,000/100,000 units) 10
Unit cost 136
Note: ₦
The amount absorbed into inventory is (75,000  ₦10) 750,000
Total production overhead 1,000,000
The amount not absorbed into inventory 250,000
The ₦250,000 that has not been included in inventory is expensed (i.e.
recognised in the statement of comprehensive income).

Corporate reporting
2.3 Cost formulas

With some inventory items, particularly large and expensive items, it might be
possible to recognise the actual cost of each item.
In practice, however, this is unusual because the task of identifying the actual
cost for all inventory items is impossible because of the large numbers of such
items.
A system is therefore needed for measuring the cost of inventory.
The historical cost of inventory is usually measured by one of the following
methods:
 First in, first out (FIFO)
 Weighted average cost (AVCO)
First-in, first-out method of measurement (FIFO)

With the first-in, first-out method of inventory measurement, it is assumed that
inventory is consumed in the strict order in which it was purchased or
manufactured. The first items that are received into inventory are the first items
that go out.
To establish the cost of inventory using FIFO, it is necessary to keep a record of:
 The date that units of inventory are received into inventory, the number of
units received and their purchase price (or manufacturing cost)
 the date that units are issued from inventory and the number of units
issued.
With this information, it is possible to put a cost to the inventory that is issued
(sold or used) and to identify the cost of the items still remaining in inventory.
Since it is assumed that the first items received into inventory are the first units
that are used, it follows that the value of inventory at any time should be the cost
of the most recently-acquired units of inventory.
Weighted average cost (AVCO) method

With the weighted average cost (AVCO) method of inventory measurement it is
assumed that all units are issued at the current weighted average cost per unit.
A new average cost is calculated whenever more items are purchased and
received into store. The weighted average cost is calculated as follows:
Formula: Calculation of new weighted average after each purchase

Cost of inventory currently in store +
Cost of new items received
= New weighted average
Number of units currently in store +
Number of new units received
Items ‘currently in store’ are the items in store immediately before the new
delivery is received.

2.4 Net realisable value
Definition
Net realisable value is the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of
business less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs
necessary to make the sale.
Net realisable value is the amount that can be obtained from selling the inventory
in the normal course of business, less any further costs that will be incurred in
getting it ready for sale or disposal.
 Net realisable value is usually higher than cost. Inventory is therefore
usually valued at cost.
 However, when inventory loses value, perhaps because it has been
damaged or is now obsolete, net realisable value will be lower than cost.
The cost and net realisable value should be compared for each separately-
identifiable item of inventory, or group of similar inventories, rather than for
inventory in total.
Example:
A business has four items of inventory. A count of the inventory has established
that the amounts of inventory currently held, at cost, are as follows:
₦
Cost Sales price Selling costs
Inventory item A1 8,000 7,800 500
Inventory item A2 14,000 18,000 200
Inventory item B1 16,000 17,000 200
Inventory item C1 6,000 7,500 150
The value of closing inventory in the financial statements:

Lower of: ₦
A1 8,000 or (7,800 – 500) 7,300
A2 14,000 or (18,000 – 200) 14,000
B1 16,000 or (17,800 – 500) 16,000
C1 6,000 or (7,000 – 200) 6,000
Inventory measurement 43,300
Net realisable value might be lower than cost so that the cost of inventories may
not be recoverable in the following circumstances:
 inventories are damaged;
 inventories have become wholly or partially obsolete; or,
 selling prices have declined.

Corporate reporting
2.5 Accounting for a write down

When the cost of an item of inventory is less than its net realisable value the cost
must be written down to that amount.
Component A1 in the previous example was carried at a cost of ₦8,000 but its
NRV was estimated to be ₦7,300.The item must be written down to this amount.
How this is achieved depends on circumstance and the type of inventory
accounting system.
Perpetual inventory systems

The situation here is similar to that for inventory loss.
The inventory must be written down in the system by the following journal:
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Cost of sales X
Inventory X
Period end system / Periodic inventory system

If the necessity for the write down is discovered during an accounting period then
no special treatment is needed. The inventory is simply measured at the NRV
when it is included in the year-end financial statements. This automatically
includes the write down in cost of sales.
If the problem is discovered after the financial statements have been drafted (and
before they are finalised) the closing inventory must be adjusted as follows:
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Statement of comprehensive income closing
inventory (cost of sales) X
Inventory in the statement of financial position X

3 JUDGEMENTS – IAS 2
 Inventory valuation has a direct effect on profit measurement.

 Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to be
made which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial statements.
 Which costs to be capitalised?
 What is the normal level of activity for the inclusion of overheads?
 Which cost formula should be used?
 The identification of estimated selling prices in the ordinary course of business
 Estimation of costs to complete and selling costs
 NRV estimates.
 The grouping of different items of inventory when applying the lower of cost and
NRV rule.
 The same cost formula must be used for all inventories having a similar nature
and use. Judgement has to be sued to decide what this means.

Corporate reporting
4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define inventory
 Measure inventory at the lower of cost and net realisable value
 Use cost formulas to arrive at an approximation to the cost of inventory

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
10
IAS 16: Property, plant
and equipment
Contents
1 Initial measurement of property, plant and equipment
2 Depreciation and carrying amount
3 Revaluation of property, plant and equipment
4 Derecognition of property, plant and equipment
5 Disclosure requirements of IAS 16
6 Interpretations involving accounting for non-current
assets
7 Question problems
9 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Exam context
This chapter explains rules on accounting for property plant and equipment.
convenience.
 Measure property, plant and equipment on initial recognition
 Measure property, plant and equipment after initial recognition using the cost model
and the revaluation model
 Account for disposals of property plant and equipment
 Construct basic notes to the financial statements in respect of property plant and
equipment

Chapter 10: IAS 16: Property, plant and equipment
1 INITIAL MEASUREMENT OF PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
Section overview
 Introduction
 Bearer plants
 Initial measurement
 Exchange transactions
 Elements of cost
 Exchange of assets
 Subsequent expenditure
 Measurement after initial recognition
1.1 Introduction
Rules on accounting for property, plant and equipment are contained in IAS 16:
Property, plant and equipment.
Definition
Definition: Property, plant and equipment

Property, plant and equipment are tangible items that:
(a) are held for use in the production or supply of goods or services, for rental
to others, or for administrative purposes; and
(b) are expected to be used during more than one period.
Items such as spare parts, stand-by equipment and servicing equipment are
recognised as property, plant and equipment when they meet the above
definition. If this is not the case they are recognised as inventory.
Initial recognition
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment must be recognised as an
asset if, and only if:
 it is probable that future economic benefits associated with the item will flow
to the entity; and
 the cost of the item can be measured reliably.
Items of property, plant and equipment may be acquired for safety or
environmental reasons. At first sight it looks as if such items would not be
recognised as property, plant and equipment according to the recognition criteria
because they do not directly increase future economic benefits. However, they
may be necessary in order that a company obtain the future economic benefits
from its other assets so they do qualify for recognition.

Corporate reporting
Illustration:
A chemical manufacturer may install new chemical handling processes to comply
with environmental requirements for the production and storage of dangerous
chemicals.
This would be recognised as an asset because without them the company cannot
make and sell chemicals.
1.2 Bearer plants
Definitions
A bearer plant is a living plant that:
a. is used in the production or supply of agricultural produce;
b. is expected to bear produce for more than one period; and
c. has a remote likelihood of being sold as agricultural produce, except for
incidental scrap sales.
All living plants used to be accounted for according to the guidance set out in IAS
41 Agriculture.
An amendment to IAS 16 and IAS 41 was issued in June 2014 to change this.
Bearer plants are used solely to grow produce. The only significant future
economic benefits from bearer plants arise from selling the agricultural produce
that they create. Therefore, bearer plants meet the definition of property, plant
and equipment in IAS 16 and their operation is similar to that of manufacturing.
Accordingly, the amendments require bearer plants to be accounted for as
property, plant and equipment and included within the scope of IAS 16, instead of
IAS 41.
Produce growing on bearer plants remains within the scope of IAS 41.

1.3 Initial measurement

Property, plant and equipment are initially recorded in the accounts of a business
at their cost.
Definition: Property, plant and equipment

Cost is the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value of the other
consideration given to acquire an asset at the time of its acquisition or construction
or, where applicable, the amount attributed to that asset when initially recognised
in accordance with the specific requirements of other IFRSs. (For example assets
held under finance leases – see chapter 12).
The cost of an item of property, plant and equipment is the cash price equivalent
at the recognition date. If payment is deferred beyond normal credit terms, the
difference between the cash price equivalent and the total payment is recognised
as interest over the period of credit unless it is capitalised in accordance with IAS
23: Borrowing costs (covered later).

A company buys a machine on 1 January 2014.
The terms of the purchase are that the company will pay ₦5 million for the
machine on 31 December 2014 (1 year later).
An appropriate discount rate is 6%
1 January 2014 – Initial recognition

Initial measurement of the 1
purchase price ₦5m  = ₦4,716,981
(1  0.06 )
Debit Credit
Property, plant and equipment 4,716,981
Liability 4,716,981
31 December 2014 – Date of payment

Recognition of interest expense ₦4,716,981 @ 6% = 283,019
Debit Credit
Liability 283,019
Balance on the liability ₦

Interest expense recognised in the period 283,019
5,000,000
Cash/bank (5,000,000)


Corporate reporting
1.4 Exchange transactions

An asset may be acquired in exchange for another asset. The cost of such asset
is measured at its fair value unless:
 the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance; or
 the fair value of neither the asset received nor the asset given up is reliably
measurable.
If the new asset is measured at fair value, the fair value of the asset given up is
used to measure the cost of the asset received unless the fair value of the asset
received is more clearly evident.
If the new asset is not measured at fair value, its cost is measured at the carrying
amount of the asset given in exchange for it. This would be the case when the
exchange lacked commercial substance or when the fair value of either asset
cannot be measured.
Lack of commercial substance
The determination of whether an exchange transaction has commercial
substance depends on the extent to which future cash flows are expected to
change as a result of the transaction. If there is minimal impact on future cash
flows then the exchange lacks commercial substance.
1.5 Elements of cost

The definition of ‘cost’ for property, plant and equipment has close similarities
with the cost of inventories, although property, plant and equipment will often
include more items of ‘other expense’ within cost.
The cost of an item of property, plant and machinery consists of:
 its purchase price after any trade discount has been deducted, plus any
import taxes or non-refundable sales tax; plus
 the directly attributable costs of bringing the asset to the location and
condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended
by management. These directly attributable costs may include:
 employee costs arising directly from the installation or construction of
the asset;
 the cost of site preparation;
 delivery costs (‘carriage inwards’);
 installation and assembly costs;
 testing costs to assess whether the asset is functioning properly (net
of sale proceeds of items produced during the testing phase).
 professional fees directly attributable to the purchase.
 When the entity has an obligation to dismantle and remove the asset at the
end of its life, its initial cost should also include an estimate of the costs of
dismantling and removing the asset and restoring the site where it is
located. This will be explained in more detail in chapter 13 which covers
IAS 37: Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets.

Example: Cost
A company has purchased a large item of plant.
The following costs were incurred.
List price of the machine 1,000,000

Trade discount given 50,000
Delivery cost 100,000
Installation cost 125,000
Cost of site preparation 200,000
Architect’s fees 15,000
Administration expense 150,000
Test run cost 75,000
The test run cost was to ensure that the asset was installed and working
correctly. Items of inventory were produced during the test run. These
had a sale value of ₦10,000.
Local government officials have granted the company a license to
operate the asset on condition that the company will remove the asset
and return the site to its former condition at the end of the asset’s life.
The company has recognised a liability of ₦250,000 in respect of the
expected clearance cost.
The cost of the asset is as follows:
₦
Purchase price of the machine (1,000,000 – 50,000) 950,000
Delivery cost 100,000
Installation cost 125,000
Cost of site preparation 200,000
Architect’s fees 15,000
Decommissioning cost 250,000
Test run cost (75,000  10,000) 65,000
1,705,000
The recognition of costs ceases when the asset is ready for use. This is when it
is in the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the
manner intended by management.

Corporate reporting
Cost of self-constructed assets

The cost of a self-constructed asset is determined using the same principles as
for an acquired asset.
A company might make similar assets for sale in the normal course of business.
The cost of an asset for the company to use itself would normally be the same as
the cost of an asset for sale as measured according to IAS 2: Inventories.
IAS23: Borrowing costs, deals with whether interest costs on borrowing to
finance the construction of a non-current asset should be included in the cost of
the asset. This is covered in the next chapter.
Bearer plants are accounted for in the same way as self-constructed assets
(where constructed is taken to mean cultivated).
Not part of cost
Only those costs necessary to bring an asset to a condition and location where it
is capable of operating in the manner intended by management are recognised.
IAS 16 provides the following list of costs that are not costs of an item of
property, plant and equipment:
 costs of opening a new facility;
 costs of introducing a new product or service (including costs of advertising
and promotional activities);
 costs of conducting business in a new location or with a new class of
customer (including costs of staff training); and
 administration and other general overhead costs.
1.6 Exchange of assets

When an item of property, plant or equipment is purchased for cash, the cash
paid is the cost of the asset. However, an item of property, plant and equipment
may be paid for using an asset other than cash (e.g. another item of property,
plant and equipment or inventories).
The cost of such items is measured at fair value unless:
 the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance; or,
measurable.
If the acquired item is not measured at fair value it is measured at the carrying
amount of the asset given up.
Fair value
The fair value of the asset given up is used to measure the cost of the asset
received unless the fair value of the asset received is more clearly evident.
Fair value may be determinable with reference to comparable market
transactions.
If there are no comparable market transactions fair value is reliably measurable if:
 the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates is not
significant for that asset; or
 the probabilities of the various estimates within the range can be
reasonably assessed and used in estimating fair value.

Commercial substance
An exchange transaction has commercial substance if:
 the configuration (risk, timing and amount) of the cash flows of the asset
received differs from the configuration of the cash flows of the asset
transferred; or
 the entity-specific value of the portion of the entity's operations affected by
the transaction changes as a result of the exchange; and
 either of the above differences are significant relative to the fair value of the
assets exchanged.
Definition
Entity-specific value is the present value of the cash flows an entity expects to
arise from the continuing use of an asset and from its disposal at the end of its
useful life or expects to incur when settling a liability.
Example: Acquisition of PP and E in exchange for a non-monetary asset

X Plc acquired a sugar processing line from Y Plc.
The sugar processing line had a fair value of 1,500,000.
Both parties agreed that the sugar processing line would be paid for with a plot of
land owned by X Plc but not currently being used. This plot of land had a fair value
had a carrying value of 1,000,000. The land was recently valued at 1,400,000.
Analysis
The exchange has commercial substance. Either of the following points would
lead to this conclusion:
a) The configuration (risk, timing and amount) of the cash flows of a sugar
processing line differs from that of an unused plot of land.
b) Currently the land is not generating a return. This means that the entity-
specific value of the portion of the entity's operations affected by the
transaction will change as a result of the exchange.
X Plc must recognise the new asset at 1,400,000 (the fair value of the asset given
up to pay for the asset).
X Plc would recognise a profit on disposal of the land in the amount of 400,000
(1,400,000  1,00,000)
The double entry made by X Plc is as follows:
Debit Credit
Property, plant and equipment 1,400,000
Sugar processing line 1,000,000
Land
Statement of profit or loss 400.000

Corporate reporting
1.7 Subsequent expenditure

Expenditure relating to non-current assets, after their initial acquisition, should be
capitalised if it meets the criteria for recognising an asset.
In practice, this means that expenditure is capitalised if it:
 improves the asset (for example, by enhancing its performance or
extending its useful life); or
 is for a replacement part (provided that the part that it replaces is treated as
an item that has been disposed of).
Repairs and maintenance expenditure is revenue expenditure. It is recognised as
an expense as it is incurred, because no additional future economic benefits will
arise from the expenditure.
A basic rule is that improvements are capitalised but repairs are expensed. You
may have to correct situations when an amount spent has not been treated
correctly. This is covered in section 6 of this chapter.
Major inspections
A company might only be allowed to operate some assets if those assets are
subject to regular major inspections for faults.
The cost of such major inspections is recognised in the carrying amount of the
asset as a replacement if the recognition criteria are satisfied.
When a major inspection is carried out any remaining carrying amount of the cost
of the previous inspection is derecognised.
Example: Major overhaul

A shipping company is required to put its ships into dry dock every three years for
an overhaul, at a cost of ₦3,000,000. The ships have a useful life of 20 years. A
ship is purchased from a shipbuilder at a cost of ₦200 million.
Initial recognition
₦3,000,000 of the asset cost should be treated as a separate component and
depreciated over three years.
The rest of the cost of the ship (₦297 million) should be depreciated over 20 years.
End of year 3
An overhaul is required.
The cost of the overhaul is capitalised and added to the asset’s cost.
The cost (₦300,000) and accumulated depreciation of the depreciated component
is removed from the accounts.

1.8 Measurement after initial recognition

IAS 16 allows a choice of accounting treatments after initial recognition.
All items of property, plant and equipment in a class can be accounted for using
one of two models:
 Cost model - Property, plant and equipment is carried at cost less any
accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment losses.
 Revaluation model - Property, plant and equipment is carried at a revalued
amount. This is the fair value at the date of the revaluation less any
subsequent accumulated depreciation and any accumulated impairment
losses.
The above choice must be applied consistently. A business cannot carry one
item of property, plant & equipment at cost and revalue a similar item. However, a
business can use different models for different classes of property, plant &
equipment. For example, companies might use the cost model for plant and
equipment but use the revaluation model for property.
Depreciation is an important component of both models.

Corporate reporting
2 DEPRECIATION AND CARRYING AMOUNT
Section overview
 Depreciation
 Depreciable amount and depreciation period
 Reviews of the remaining useful life and expected residual value
 Depreciation method
 Review of depreciation method
You should be familiar with the measurement and recognition of depreciation from your
previous studies. This section provides a reminder of the key concepts.
2.1 Depreciation
Depreciation is an expense that matches the cost of a non-current asset to the
benefit earned from its ownership. It is calculated so that a business recognises
the full cost associated with a non-current asset over the entire period that the
asset is used.
Definitions
Depreciation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset
over its useful life.
Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost,
less its residual value.
The residual value of an asset is the estimated amount that an entity would
currently obtain from disposal of the asset, after deducting the estimated costs of
disposal, if the asset were already of the age and in the condition expected at the
end of its useful life.
Useful life is:
(a) the period over which an asset is expected to be available for use by an
entity; or
(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the
asset by an entity.
Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any
accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses. (Net book value
(NBV) is a term that is often used instead of carrying amount).

Parts of an asset
Each part of an asset that has a cost that is significant in relation to the total cost
of the item must be depreciated separately. This means that the cost of an asset
might be split into several different assets and each depreciated separately.
Illustration: Cost
A company has purchased a new Gulf Stream jet for ₦5,500 million.
The company has identified the following cost components and useful lives in
respect of this jet.
₦million Useful lives
Engines 2,000 3 years
Airframe 1,500 10 years
Fuselage 1,500 20 years
Fittings 500 5 years
5,500
Depreciation is charged as an expense in the statement of comprehensive

income each year over the life of the asset unless it relates to an asset being
used to construct another asset. In this case the depreciation is capitalised as
part of the cost of that other asset in accordance with the relevant standard (For
example: IAS 2: Inventories; IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment; IAS 38;
Intangible assets).
Accounting for depreciation
The double entry for depreciation should be familiar to you from your earlier
studies. This section gives a brief recap.
Illustration: Depreciation double entry

Debit Credit
Depreciation expense X
Accumulated depreciation X
The balance on the depreciation expense account is taken to the statement of

comprehensive income as an expense for the period.
The non-current asset figure in the statement of financial position is made up of
two figures, the cost less accumulated depreciation.
Illustration: Carrying amount of a non-current asset

₦
Non-current asset at cost X
Less accumulated depreciation (X)
This figure appears on the
face of the statement of
Carrying amount (net book value) X financial position

Corporate reporting
2.2 Depreciable amount and depreciation period

The depreciable amount of an asset must be allocated on a systematic basis
over its useful life.
Commencement of depreciation
Depreciation of an asset begins when that asset is available for use. This means
when the asset is in the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of
operating in the manner intended by management. This might be before the
asset is actually used.
Cessation of depreciation
Depreciation ends at the earlier of when an asset is classified as held for sale in
accordance with IFRS 5: Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued
operations and when it is derecognised.
Depreciation does not cease when an asset becomes idle or is withdrawn or
retired from active use.
Residual value
In practice, the residual value of an asset is often insignificant and therefore
immaterial in the calculation of the depreciable amount.
However, in some cases, the residual value may be equal to or greater than the
asset's carrying amount. In this case the depreciation charge would be zero.
Land and buildings
Land and buildings are separable assets and are dealt with separately for
accounting purposes, even when they are acquired together.
Land normally has an unlimited life and is therefore not depreciated. However,
there are exceptions to this. If land has a physical attribute that is used over a
period then the land should be depreciated over this period.
Example: Land
Okene Quarries has purchased a site from which they will extract gravel for sale to
the construction industry.
The site cost ₦50,000,000.
It is estimated that gravel will be extracted from the site over the next 20 years.
The land must be depreciated over 20 years.
Buildings normally have a limited life and are therefore depreciable assets.

2.3 Reviews of the remaining useful life and expected residual value
Review of useful life
IAS 16 requires useful lives and residual values to be reviewed at each year-end.
Any change is a change in accounting estimate. The carrying amount (cost minus
accumulated depreciation) of the asset at the date of change is written off over
the (revised) remaining useful life of the asset.
Example:
Benin City Engineering owns a machine which originally cost ₦60,000 on 1
January 2010.
The machine was being depreciated over its useful life of 10 years on a straight-
line basis and has no residual value.
On 31 December 2013 Benin City Engineering revised the total useful life for the
machine to eight years (down from the previous 10).
Required
Calculate the depreciation charge for 2013 and subsequent years.
Answer
The change in accounting estimate is made at the end of 2013 but may be
applied to the financial statements from 2013 onwards.
₦
Cost on 1 January 2010 60,000
Depreciation for 2010 to 2012 (60,000 × 3/10) (18,000)
–––––––
Carrying amount at end of 2012 42,000
–––––––
Remaining useful life at the end of 2012 = 8 – 3 years = 5 years.

Depreciation for 2013 and subsequent years = ₦42,000 ÷ 5 years = ₦8,400.
Residual value
The residual value of an item of property, plant and equipment must be reviewed
at least at each financial year end and if expectations differ from previous
estimates the depreciation rate for the current and future periods is adjusted.
A change in the asset’s residual value is accounted for prospectively as an
adjustment to future depreciation.
Practice question 1
A machine was purchased three years ago on 1 January Year 2. It cost
₦150,000 and its expected life was 10 years with an expected residual
value of ₦30,000.
Due to technological changes, the estimated life of the asset was re-
assessed during Year 5. The total useful life of the asset is now expected to
be 7 years and the machine is now considered to have no residual value.
The financial year of the entity ends on 31 December.
What is the depreciation charge for the year ending 31 December Year 5?

Corporate reporting
2.4 Depreciation method

The depreciation method used should reflect the way in which the economic
benefits of the asset are consumed by the business over time.
A variety of depreciation methods can be used to allocate the depreciable
amount of an asset on a systematic basis over its useful life. These methods
include:
 the straight-line method which results in a constant charge over the useful
life if the asset’s residual value does not change;
 the diminishing balance method which results in a decreasing charge over
the useful life; and
 the units of production method which results in a charge based on the
expected use or output.
The depreciation method used should reflect the way in which the economic
benefits of the asset are consumed by the business over time.
That method should be applied consistently from period to period unless there is
a change in the expected pattern of consumption of those future economic
benefits.
IAS 16 has been amended to clarify that a depreciation method based on
revenue generated by an activity that includes the use of an asset is not
appropriate. This is because revenue would usually reflect factors other than the
consumption of the economic benefits of an asset.
2.5 Review of depreciation method

The depreciation method applied to property, plant and equipment must be
reviewed periodically and, if there has been a significant change in the expected
pattern of economic benefits from those assets, the method is changed to reflect
the changed pattern.
Where there is a change in the depreciation method used, this is a change in
accounting estimate. A change of accounting estimate is applied from the time of
the change, and is not applied retrospectively. The carrying amount (cost minus
accumulated depreciation) of the asset at the date of the change is written off
over the remaining useful life of the asset.

3 REVALUATION OF PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
Section overview
 Revaluation and the entity’s accounting policy

 Accounting for revaluation
 Changing the carrying amount of a revalued asset
 Depreciation of a re-valued asset
 Realisation of the revaluation surplus
 Revaluation model: the frequency of revaluations
3.1 Revaluation and the entity’s accounting policy

Property, plant and equipment is recognised at cost when it is first acquired.
IAS 16allows a business to choose one of two measurement models as its
accounting policy for property, plant and equipment after acquisition. The same
model should be applied to all assets in the same class.
The two measurement models for property, plant and equipment after acquisition
are:
 cost model (i.e. cost less accumulated depreciation); and
 revaluation model (i.e. revalued amount less accumulated depreciation
since the most recent revaluation).
For example, a company’s policy might be to value all its motor vehicles at cost,
but to apply the revaluation model to all its land and buildings.
Revaluation model – Issues
The following accounting issues have to be addressed when using the
revaluation model:
Issue
1 What happens to the other side of the entry when the carrying amount of
an asset is changed as a result of a revaluation adjustment?
An asset value may increase or decrease.
What happens in each case?
2 How is the carrying amount of the asset being revalued changed?. The
carrying amount is located in two accounts (cost and accumulated
depreciation) and it is the net amount that must be changed so how is this
done?
3 How often should the revaluation take place?

Corporate reporting
3.2 Accounting for revaluation

When a non-current asset is revalued, its ‘carrying amount’ in the statement of
financial position is adjusted from carrying amount to its fair value (normally
current market value) at the date of the revaluation.
How the carrying amount is changed will be addressed later. This section
concentrates on the other side of the entry.
Asset carried at cost revalued upwards
An increase in value is credited to other comprehensive income and accumulated
in equity under the heading of revaluation surplus.
Example: Upward revaluation

Land was purchased for 100 on the first day of the 2013 accounting period.
The business revalues land as permitted by the IAS 16.
The land was revalued to 130 at the end of the first year of ownership.
Double entry: IAS 16 Debit Credit

Land 30
Other comprehensive income (an accumulated in a
revaluation surplus). 30
Extract from the statement of financial position as at 31/12/13

IFRS
Property, plant and equipment 130
Equity (revaluation surplus) 30
Asset carried at cost revalued downwards

A decrease in value is debited as an expense to the statement of comprehensive
income.
Example: Downward revaluation

Land was purchased for 100 on the first day of the 2013 accounting period.
The business revalues land as permitted by the IAS 16.
The land was revalued to 90 at the end of the first year of ownership.
Debit Credit
Statement of comprehensive income 10
Land 10

Asset carried at a revaluation deficit is revalued upwards

An asset might be carried at an amount lower than its original cost as a result of
being revalued downwards.
If the asset is later revalued upwards, the revaluation increase is recognised in
the statement of comprehensive income to the extent of the previously
recognised expense. That part of any increase above the previously recognised
expense is recognised in the usual way, in other comprehensive income (IAS
16).
Asset carried at a revaluation surplus revalued downwards
An asset might be carried at an amount higher than its original cost as a result of
being revalued upwards.
If the asset is later revalued downwards, the revaluation decrease is recognised
in other comprehensive income to the extent of the previously recognised
surplus. That part of any decrease above the previously recognised surplus is
recognised in the statement of comprehensive income the usual way.

Corporate reporting
Example: Downward revaluation – Accounted for under IAS 16

A business purchased a plot of land on the first day of the 2013 accounting period.
The business applies the IAS 16 revaluation model to the measurement of land
after initial recognition. The business has a policy of revaluing land annually.
The initial amount recognised and the year end values are shown below:
₦
Measurement on initial recognition 100
Valuation as at:
31 December 2013 130
31 December 2015 95
The double entries are as follows:

31 December 2013 Debit Credit
Land (130 – 100) 30
Other comprehensive income 30

Land (110 – 130) 20
The fall in value reverses a previously recognised surplus. It is recognised in
OCI to the extent that it is covered by the surplus.
Land (95 – 110) 15
The fall in value in part reverses a previously recognised surplus. It is
recognised in OCI to the extent that it is covered by the surplus. This
reduces the revaluation surplus to zero.
Any amount not covered by the surplus is recognised as an expense in the
statement of comprehensive income.

Land (116 – 95) 21
A rise in value that reverses a previously recognised expense is recognised

in the statement of comprehensive income to the extent that it reverses the
expense. Any amount above this is recognised in other comprehensive
income.

Example (continued) – Overview
Other Statement of
comprehensive comprehensive
Land income income
At start 100  
Double entry 30 30Cr
31/12/13 130
b/f 130
Adjustment (20) 20Dr 
31/12/14 110
b/f 110
Adjustment (15) 10Dr 5Dr
31/12/15 95
b/f 95
Adjustment 21 16Cr 5Cr
31/12/16 116
3.3 Changing the carrying amount of a revalued asset.

In the previous example land was revalued. Land is not depreciated so the
carrying amount of land is represented in a single account. This made it easy to
change:
The carrying amount of depreciable assets is the net of balances on two separate
accounts. The double entry to revalue the asset must take this into account.
IAS 16 allows a choice of two approaches which differ in the treatment of the
accumulated depreciation account.
When an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, any accumulated
depreciation at the date of the revaluation is treated in one of the following ways:
Method 1
Restate accumulated depreciation proportionately with the change in the gross
carrying amount of the asset so that the carrying amount of the asset after
revaluation equals its revalued amount.
Method 2
Step 1: Transfer the accumulated depreciation to the asset account. The result of
this is that the balance on the asset account is now the carrying amount of the
asset and the accumulated depreciation account in respect of this asset is zero.
Step 2: Change the balance on the asset account to the revalued amount.

Corporate reporting
Example: Method 1
A building owned by a company is carried at ₦20 million (Cost of ₦25 million less
accumulated depreciation of ₦5 million. The company’s policy is to apply the
revaluation model to all of its land and buildings.
A current valuation of this building is now ₦26 million.
Before After
Cost 25  26/20 32.5
Accumulated depreciation (5)  26/20 (6.5)
Carrying amount 20  26/20 26
Journals ₦m ₦m
Asset 7.5
Accumulated depreciation 1.5
Example: Method 2
A building owned by a company is carried at ₦20 million (Cost of ₦25 million less
accumulated depreciation of ₦5 million. The company’s policy is to apply the
revaluation model to all of its land and buildings.
A current valuation of this building is now ₦26 million.
Step 1 ₦m ₦m
Accumulated depreciation 5
Asset 5
Step 2
Asset (₦26 – ₦20m) 6
Alternatively this could be done with a single journal:

Asset (₦26 – ₦25m) 1
Before 1 2 After
Cost 25 (5) 6 26
Accumulated depreciation (5) 5 
Carrying amount 20 26

3.4 Depreciation of a revalued asset

After a non-current asset has been revalued, depreciation charges are based on
the new valuation.
Example:
An asset was purchased three years ago, at the beginning of Year 1, for ₦100,000.
Its expected useful life was six years and its expected residual value was ₦10,000.
It has now been re-valued to ₦120,000. Its remaining useful life is now estimated
to be three years and its estimated residual value is now ₦15,000.
The straight-line method of depreciation is used.
Required
(a) What amount is recognised in other comprehensive income at the end of
Year 3?
(b) What is the annual depreciation charge in Year 4?
(c) What is the carrying amount of the asset at the end of Year 4?
Answer
Original annual depreciation (for Years 1 – 3) = ₦(100,000 – 10,000)/6 years = ₦15,000.
₦
Cost 100,000
Less: Accumulated depreciation at the time of
revaluation (= 3 years x ₦15,000) (45,000)
Carrying amount at the time of the revaluation 55,000
Revalued amount of the asset 120,000
Recognised in other comprehensive income (and
accumulated in a revaluation surplus in equity) 65,000
Revised annual depreciation = ₦(120,000 – 15,000)/3 years = ₦35,000.

The annual depreciation charge in Year 4 will therefore be ₦35,000.
₦
Revalued amount 120,000
Less: depreciation charge in Year 4 (35,000)
Carrying amount at the end of Year 4 85,000

Corporate reporting
3.5 Realisation of the revaluation surplus

All assets eventually disappear from the statement of financial position either by
becoming fully depreciated or because the company sells them.
If nothing were done this would mean that there was a revaluation surplus on the
face of the statement of financial position that related to an asset that was no
longer owned.
IAS 16 allows (but does not require) the transfer of a revaluation surplus to
retained earnings when the asset to which it relates is derecognised (realised).
This might happen over several years as the asset is depreciated or at a point in
time when the asset is sold.
Revalued assets being depreciated
Revaluation of an asset causes an increase in the annual depreciation charge.
The difference is known as excess depreciation (or incremental depreciation):
Excess depreciation is the difference between:
 the depreciation charge on the re-valued amount of the asset, and
 the depreciation that would have been charged on historical cost.
Each year a business might make a transfer from the revaluation surplus to the
retained profits equal to the amount of the excess depreciation.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Revaluation surplus X
Retained earnings X
Revalued assets being sold

When a revalued asset is sold the business might transfer the balance on the
revaluation surplus in respect of the asset into retained earnings. The journal
entry would be the same as above.

Example:
An asset was purchased two years ago at the beginning of Year 1 for ₦600,000. It
had an expected life of 10 years and nil residual value.
Annual depreciation is ₦60,000 (₦600,000/10 years) in the first two years.
At the end of Year 2 the carrying value of the asset -₦480,000.
After two years it is re-valued to ₦640,000.
Double entry: Revaluation
Debit Credit
Asset (₦640,000 – ₦600,000) 40
Each year the business is allowed to make a transfer between the revaluation
surplus and retained profits:
Double entry: Transfer
Debit Credit
Revaluation surplus (160/8) 20
Retained profits 20
3.6 Revaluation model: the frequency of revaluations

When the revaluation model is applied to the measurement of property, plant and
equipment, revaluations must be made with sufficient regularity to ensure that the
carrying amount does not differ materially from that which would be determined
using fair value at the end of the reporting period.
The frequency of revaluations should depend on the volatility in the value of the
assets concerned. When the value of assets is subject to significant changes
(high volatility), annual revaluations may be necessary.
However, such frequent revaluations are unnecessary for items subject to only
insignificant changes in fair value. In such cases it may be necessary to revalue
the item only every three or five years.

Corporate reporting
4 DERECOGNITION OF PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
Section overview
 Gain or loss on disposal of a non-current asset
4.1 Gain or loss on disposal of a non-current asset

Property, plant and equipment are eventually disposed of:
 by sale, or
 if they have no sale value, through disposal as scrap.
Disposal can occur at any time, and need not be at the end of the asset’s
expected useful life.
There is a gain or loss on disposal of the asset, as follows:
Illustration: Gain or loss on disposal

₦
Sale proceeds on disposal X
Less disposal costs (X)
Net disposal value X
Asset at cost X
Less: Accumulated depreciation (X)
Carrying amount at date of disposal (X)
Gain /loss on disposal X
Practice question 2
A non-current asset was purchased on 1 June Year 1 for ₦216,000. Its
expected life was 8 years and its expected residual value was ₦24,000. The
asset is depreciated by the straight-line method. The financial year is from
1 January to 31 December.
The asset was sold on 1 September Year 4 for ₦163,000. Disposal costs
were ₦1,000.
It is the company policy to charge a proportionate amount of depreciation
in the year of acquisition and in the year of disposal, in accordance with the
number of months for which the asset was held.
What was the gain or loss on disposal?

5 DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS OF IAS 16
Section overview
 Disclosure requirements of IAS 16

5.1 Disclosure requirements of IAS 16

IAS 16 requires the following disclosures in the notes to the financial statements,
for each major class of property, plant and equipment.
 The measurement bases used (cost or revaluation model);
 The depreciation methods used;
 The useful lives or depreciation rates used;
 Gross carrying amounts and the accumulated depreciation at the beginning
and at the end of the period;
 A reconciliation between the opening and closing values for gross carrying
amounts and accumulated depreciation, showing:
 Additions during the year;
 Disposals during the year;
 Depreciation charge for the year;
 Assets classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5;
 Acquisitions of assets through business combinations;
 Impairment losses;
 The effect of revaluations.
The following is an example of how a simple table for tangible non-current assets
may be presented in a note to the financial statements.

Corporate reporting
Illustration:
Plant and
Property equipment Total
Cost ₦m ₦m ₦m
At the start of the year 7,200 2,100 9,300
Additions 920 340 1,260
Disposals (260) (170) (430)
At the end of the year 7,860 2,270 10,130
Accumulated depreciation
At the start of the year 800 1,100 1,900
Depreciation expense 120 250 370
Accumulated depreciation on
disposals (55) (130) (185)
At the end of the year 865 1,220 2,085
Carrying amount
At the start of the year 6,400 1,000 7,400
At the end of the year 6,995 1,050 8,045


IAS 1 requires the disclosure of accounting policies used that are relevant to an
understanding of the financial statements. Property, plant and equipment often
includes the largest numbers in the statement of financial position and results in
significant expense in the statement of comprehensive income.
One of the learning outcomes in this area is that you be able to formulate
accounting policies for property, plant and equipment.
There are many aspects of accounting policy for property plant and equipment.
Below is a typical note which covers many of the possible areas.
Illustration: Accounting policy – Property, plant and equipment

Property, plant and equipment comprises freehold and lease hold land and
buildings, plant and machinery, fixtures and fittings, vehicles, office equipment and
capital work in progress.
Land and buildings
Land and buildings comprise mainly factories, warehousing and offices.
Freehold land and buildings are shown at their fair value less accumulated
depreciation. Valuations are performed with sufficient regularity to ensure that the
fair value of a revalued asset does not differ materially from its carrying amount.
Increases in the carrying amount arising on revaluation of land and buildings are
recognised in other comprehensive income and accumulated as a revaluation
surplus in equity.
Decreases that offset previous increases of the same asset are charged directly to
the revaluation surplus. Any amounts not so covered are recognised in profit or loss
for the period.
Depreciation is based on the carrying amount of the asset after the revaluation.
The incremental depreciation is the difference between the depreciation based on
historical cost and depreciation based on fair value. Each year this amount is
transferred from the revaluation surplus to accumulated profits.
Any accumulated depreciation at the date of revaluation is eliminated against the
gross carrying amount of the asset, and the net amount is restated to the revalued
amount of the asset.
When revalued assets are sold, the amounts included revaluation surplus in
respect of that asset is transferred to accumulated profits.
Freehold land has an indefinite useful life and is not depreciated. Freehold
buildings are depreciated on a straight-line basis over their useful economic lives
over as shown below.
Leasehold land and buildings are all depreciated on a straight-line basis over the
lease term.
Other tangible non-current assets
All other property, plant and equipment is carried at historical cost less
accumulated depreciation and accumulated impairment losses.
Historical cost includes expenditure that is directly attributable to the acquisition of
the items, the cost of replacing parts of the plant and equipment and borrowing
costs capitalised in accordance with IAS 23; Borrowing costs.

Corporate reporting
Illustration (continued): Accounting policy – Property, plant and equipment

Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method to allocate their cost or
revalued amounts to their residual values over their estimated useful lives, as
follows:
Buildings 35-50 years
Machinery 5 to15 years
Vehicles 3 years
Furniture, fittings and equipment 5 to 10 years
The residual values and useful lives of assets are reviewed on an annual basis and
adjusted as appropriate.
Note from the above that there are two important areas where policies should be
explained to users of financial statements. These are:
 the depreciation policy; and
 the policy for subsequent measurement of property, plant and equipment.
Depreciation policy
The depreciable amount of an asset must be written off over its useful life.
Formulating a policy in this area involves:
 estimating the useful lives of different categories of assets;
 estimating residual values; and
 choosing a method.
Policy for subsequent measurement
Formulating a policy in this area involves:
 deciding whether to fair value any assets
 identifying classes of assets so that the policy can be applied to all assets
in that class;
 deciding on how to apply the IAS 16 guidance on frequency of revaluation;
and
 deciding how to change the carrying amount of the asset.
Illustration: Accounting policy

Property, plant and equipment, except freehold land, are stated at cost less
accumulated depreciation and any identified impairment loss.
Freehold land is stated at cost less any identified impairment loss.
Cost in relation to self-constructed assets includes direct cost of material, labour
and applicable manufacturing overheads and borrowing costs on qualifying asset.
Depreciation is charged to income, unless it is included in the carrying amount of
another asset, on straight line method whereby cost of an asset is written off over
its estimated useful life at the rates given in note XX.
Residual value and the useful life of an asset are reviewed at least at each
financial year-end.
Depreciation on additions is charged from the month in which an asset is acquired,
while no depreciation is charged for the month in which the asset is disposed of.

6 INTERPRETATIONS INVOLVING ACCOUNTING FOR NON-CURRENT

ASSETS
Section overview
 IFRIC 1: Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar liabilities

 IFRIC 20: Stripping costs in the production phase of a surface mine
 Core inventories
6.1 IFRIC 1: Changes in existing decommissioning, restoration and similar

liabilities
Scope
IFRIC 1 applies to changes in the measurement of an existing decommissioning
cost that is recognised both as:
 part of the cost of an item of property plant and equipment in accordance
with IAS 16; and
 a liability in accordance with IAS 37
The issue
Decommissioning costs are recognised as part of the initial cost of PPE if an
obligation has been recognised for these costs. This will be the case when the
costs satisfy the IAS 37 recognition criteria.
The provision is measured in accordance with IAS 37 rules. IAS 37 requires that
provisions are reviewed at each reporting date and adjusted to reflect the best
estimate of the expected outcome.
The carrying amount of a provision might need to change in order to reflect:
 unwinding of the discount; and
 change in estimates including:
 timing of the cash flows;
 size of the cash flows; or
 discount rate.
IFRIC 1 gives guidance on the location of the other side of the entry when a
provision is adjusted.
Consensus: Unwinding of a discount
A movement on a provision due to the unwinding of a discount is a finance cost
and must be recognised in the statement of profit or loss. Capitalisation in
accordance with the rules in IAS 23 is not permitted.

Corporate reporting
Consensus: Other causes of a movement

The accounting treatment for an increase or decrease in a provision due to other
causes depends how the related asset is measured.
Related asset carried at cost less accumulated depreciation
A change in the liability is added to/deducted from the carrying amount of the
related asset if it is measured using the cost model:
 A decrease in the provision (Dr Provision) reduces the carrying amount of
the related asset (Cr Asset). Once the carrying amount of the related asset
is reduced to zero any further decrease is recognised as an expense in the
statement of profit or loss
 An increase in the provision (Cr Provision) increases the carrying amount of
the related asset (Dr Asset). However, an increase in a provision might
indicate that the related asset might not be fully recoverable. If this is the
case the asset must be tested for impairment by estimating its recoverable
amount. Any impairment loss must be recognised in accordance with IAS
36.
Example: Accounting for movements on a provision related to an asset accounted

for using the cost model
1 January 2014
X plc purchased and installed an asset on 1st January 2014 at a cost of ₦10m.
X Plc made the following estimates with respect to the asset and future
decommissioning costs to which it was committed at this date:
Useful life 40 Years
Decommission cost at end of useful life ₦2,000,000
Discount rate 5%
1 January 2014
Amount recognised for the provision
1
₦2,000,000 × = ₦284,091
1.05
The double entry is as follows:

Debit Credit
Asset ₦284,091
Provision ₦284,091
Thus the carrying amount of the asset on initial recognition is:

₦
Cash cost 10,000,000
Initial estimate of decommission costs 284,091
Initial estimate of decommission costs 10,284,091

Example (continued): Accounting for movements on a provision related to an

asset accounted for using the cost model
31 December 2014
The asset must be depreciated over its estimated useful life.
In addition the company must recognise the unwinding of the discount
inherent in initial measurement of the provision.
Debit Credit
Depreciation expense (10,284,091 ÷ 40) ₦257,102
Provision ₦257,102
The company must recognise the unwinding of the discount inherent in

initial measurement of the provision.
Debit Credit
Provision (5%  14,205) ₦14,205
Provision ₦14,205
The company must review the provision in accordance with IAS 37.
The provision was reviewed in accordance with IAS 37 and the following revised
estimates made:
Useful life (from this date) 41 years
Decommission cost at end of useful life ₦2,200,000
Discount rate 6%
Provision must be remeasured at:

1
₦2,200,000 × = ₦201,782
1.06
The provision is remeasured as follows:

₦
Provision as at 1 January 2014 284,091
Unwinding of the discount 14,205
Provision as at 31 December 2014 before
adjustment to reflect change in estimates 298,296
Change due to change in estimates (balancing
figure) 96,514
Provision as at 31 December 2014 201,782

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Accounting for movements on a provision related to an

asset accounted for using the cost model
31 December 2014 (continued)
Debit Credit
Provision ₦96,514
Asset ₦96,514
Thus the carrying amount of the asset on initial recognition is:

₦
Cash cost 2,000,000
Initial estimate of decommission costs 284,091
2,284,091
The double entries during 2014 can be summarised as follows:

Debit/(credit)
Asset Provision P&L
₦ ₦ ₦
1 January 2014
Cash 10,000,000
Decommissioning cost 284,091 (284,091)
10,284,091
31st December 2014

Depreciation (257,102) 257,102
Unwinding of the discount (14,205) 14,205
Change due to review of
provision (96,514) 96,514
9,930,475 201,782

6.2 IFRIC 20: Stripping costs in the production phase of a surface mine
Background
A company involved in surface mining operations may find it necessary to
remove mine waste materials (‘overburden’) to gain access to mineral ore
deposits. This waste removal activity is known as ‘stripping’.
The interpretation describes the period before production begins as the
development phase of the mine. Stripping costs incurred in the development
phase are usually capitalised as part of the depreciable cost of building,
developing and constructing the mine. Those capitalised costs are depreciated or
amortised on a systematic basis, usually by using the units of production method,
once production begins.
Once production begins, a mining company may continue to remove overburden
and to incur stripping costs. The material removed in the production phase will
not necessarily be all waste but will often be a combination of ore and waste.
Therefore, there might be two benefits accruing to the company from the
stripping activity:
 usable ore that can be used to produce inventory; and
 improved access to ore that will be mined in future periods.
IFRIC 20 applies to waste removal costs that are incurred in surface mining
activity during the production phase of the mine. It explains how to account for
these two benefits and how to measure them both initially and subsequently.
Issues
IFRIC 20 addresses the following issues:
 recognition of production stripping costs as an asset;
 initial measurement of the stripping activity asset; and
 subsequent measurement of the stripping activity asset.
Consensus: Recognition of production stripping costs as an asset

A company must account for stripping costs as inventory to the extent that a
benefit from the stripping activity is realised in the form of inventory produced
A company must account for stripping costs as a non-current asset (a stripping
activity asset) to the extent that the benefit is improved access to ore as long as
the following criteria are met:
 it is probable that the future economic benefit (improved access to the ore
body) associated with the stripping activity will flow to the company
 the company can identify the component of the ore body for which access
has been improved; and
 the costs relating to the stripping activity associated with that component
can be measured reliably.
The stripping activity asset must be accounted for as part of an existing asset
either as an addition to, or as an enhancement of, that asset. Therefore, the
nature of this existing asset will determine whether the stripping activity asset is
classified as tangible or intangible.

Corporate reporting
Consensus: Initial measurement of the stripping activity asset

The stripping activity asset is initially measured at cost.
Cost is those costs directly incurred that improves access to the identified
component of ore, plus an allocation of directly attributable overhead costs.
If the costs of the stripping activity asset and the inventory produced are not
separately identifiable, the company must allocate the production stripping costs
between the inventory produced and the stripping activity asset by using an
allocation basis that is based on a relevant production measure for example,
volume of waste extracted compared with expected volume, for a given volume
of ore production.
Consensus: Subsequent measurement of the stripping activity asset
After initial recognition, the stripping activity asset is measured in the same way
as the existing asset of which it is a part. This could be either at cost or revalued
amount less depreciation or amortisation and less impairment losses.
The stripping activity asset must be depreciated on a systematic basis, over the
expected useful life of the identified component of the ore body that becomes
more accessible as a result of the stripping activity. The units of production
method must be applied unless another method is more appropriate.
The expected useful life of the identified component of the ore body that is used
to depreciate or amortise the stripping activity asset will differ from the expected
useful life that is used to depreciate or amortise the mine itself and the related
life-of-mine assets.
The exception to this are those limited circumstances when the stripping activity
provides improved access to the whole of the remaining ore body. For example,
this might occur towards the end of a mine’s useful life when the identified
component represents the final part of the ore body to be extracted.
6.3 Core inventories

The subject matter of this section was a question submitted to IFRSIC to see if
they would include it on their agenda with a view to issuing an interpretation on
the topic.
When IFRSIC receive such a submission they consider in detail, whether it
should become part of their agenda. When they decide not to include a topic that
has been submitted for consideration, they issue a paper to explain their
decision. They declined to include this topic.
The following discussion is a summary of their explanation.
The issue
Some production facilities require the presence of a minimum amount of
inventory in order to function. This means that a minimum amount of inventory
must be present at all times. This is described as core inventory. Examples
include oil or gas in a pipeline (line fill) or an amount of gas in cavern storage
facilities (cushion gas).
Core inventories are a minimum amount of material that:
 is necessary to permit a production facility to start operating and to maintain
subsequent production;
 cannot be physically separated from other inventories; and

 can be removed only when the production facility is finally

decommissioned.
The question is whether core inventory held in an entity’s own facilities are
accounted for as inventories or as property, plant and equipment.
Analysis
Arguments supporting the rational for classification as inventory:
 Core inventories meet the definition of inventories as assets:
 held for sale in the ordinary course of business;
 in the process of production for such sale; or
 in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the production
process or in the rendering of services.
 Core inventories are ordinarily interchangeable with other inventories, and
thus core inventories held at a particular reporting date will be either
consumed or sold in the next period.
 Core inventories do not meet the definition of PP&E in IAS 16 because they
are not “expected to be used during more than one period”.
Arguments supporting the rational for classification as an element of property,

plant and equipment:
 Core inventories are not held for sale or consumption; instead their
intended use is to ensure that a production facility is operating. Even
though core inventories are ordinarily interchangeable with other
inventories, the characteristics and intended use of a particular part of the
inventories remain the same at each individual reporting date. Thus these
core inventories need to be accounted for separately.
 Core inventories are necessary to bring a PP&E asset to its required
operating condition.
 IAS 16 (paragraph 16b) states that the cost of an item of property, plant
and equipment comprises any costs directly attributable to bringing the
asset to the location and condition necessary for it to be capable of
operating in the manner intended by management.
 IAS 2 (paragraph 35) states that “Some inventories may be allocated to
other asset accounts, for example, inventory used as a component of self-
constructed property, plant or equipment. Inventories allocated to another
asset in this way are recognised as an expense during the useful life of that
asset”.
Conclusion
The classification of core inventories should be based on their primary intended
use rather than on their physical form.
Core inventories as described above are primarily held for making a production
facility operational. Thus, they would normally be classified as an element of the
cost of property, plant and equipment.

Corporate reporting
7 QUESTION PROBLEMS
Section overview
 Multiple assets
 Correcting errors
7.1 Multiple assets

Exam questions on property, plant and equipment usually involve multiple assets
with the need to keep track of additions and disposals in a period.
In any one year the charge for depreciation will be made up as follows:
Illustration: Make-up of depreciation charge
₦
Depreciation of assets held for the whole year (these are
assets held at the start less disposals) X
Depreciation of assets sold in the year (up to the date of sale) X
Depreciation of assets bought in year (from the date of
purchase) X
Depreciation charge for the year X
It is often useful to construct a working to calculate the depreciation charge for

different components of the asset base.

Example: Depreciation of several assets (straight line)

A business has entered into the following transactions involving plant and
equipment over the last three years.
1 January 2011 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦800,000.
30 June 2012 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦500,000.
28 February 2013 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦240,000.
31 March 2013 Sold some of the items which it had purchased on
1 January 2011. These items had cost ₦300,000.
The company depreciates assets on a straight line basis at 10% per

annum.
The depreciation in 2011, 2012 and 2013 can be calculated as follows:
Depreciation:
2011 2012 2013
2011 purchase (₦800,000)
800,000  10% (2011 and 2012) 80,000 80,000
In 2013 this must be split:
Assets retained:
500,000  10% 50,000
Assets sold:
300,000  10%  3/12 7,500
57,500
2012 purchase (₦500,000)

500,000  10%  6/12 25,000
500,000  10% 50,000
2013 purchase (₦200,000)

240,000  10%  10/12 20,000
Depreciation charge 80,000 105,000 127,500
Depreciation on the assets sold:

300,000  10%  2.25 (2 + 3/12) = ₦67,500
Examples are more complicated when depreciation is calculated using the

reducing balance method.

Corporate reporting
Example: Depreciation of several assets (reducing balance)

A business has entered into the following transactions involving plant and
equipment over the last three years.
1 January 2011 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦800,000.
30 June 2012 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦500,000.
28 February 2013 Bought several items of plant and equipment for
₦240,000.
31 March 2013 Sold some of the items which it had purchased on
1 January 2011. These items had cost ₦300,000.
The company depreciates assets using 20% reducing balance.

The depreciation in 2011, 2012 and 2013 can be calculated as follows:
Depreciation:
2011 2012 2013
2011 purchase (₦800,000)
800,000  20% 160,000
(800,000 – 160,000)  20% 128,000
In 2013 the carrying amount of the
asset (800,000 – 160,000 -128,000
= 512,000) must be split:
Assets retained (512,000  500/800):
320,000  20% 64,000
Assets sold: (512,000  300/800):
192,000  20%  3/12 9,600
73,600
2012 purchase (₦500,000)

500,000  20%  6/12 50,000
(500,000 – 50,000)  20% 90,000
2013 purchase (₦200,000)

240,000  20%  10/12 40,000
Depreciation charge 160,000 178,000 203.600
Depreciation on the assets sold: ₦

300,000  20% 60,000
(300,000 – 60,000)  20% 48,000
(300,000 – 60,000 – 48,000)  20%  3/12 9,600
117,600

7.2 Correcting errors

Questions might feature mistakes made in terms of a transaction incorrectly
classified as capital or as repair.
Example: Error: Repair incorrectly capitalised

The balance on a business’s plant account as at 31 December is as follows.
₦
Cost 1,200,000
Accumulated depreciation (500,000)
Carrying amount 700,000
The company has discovered that a repair which cost ₦200,000 was
incorrectly capitalised on 31 July.
Depreciation is charged at 15% reducing balance.
Correction of the error:
The amount capitalised would have been depreciated so the amount
must be removed from cost and the depreciation incorrectly charged
must be removed.
The correcting journals are: Dr Cr
Statement of comprehensive income:
line item to which repairs are charged 200,000
Plant – cost 200,000
and
(200,000  15%  5/12) 12,500
Depreciation expense 12,500
The impact on the carrying amount of the plant is as follows:

Before (₦) After (₦)
Cost 1,200,000 (200,000) 1,000,000
Accumulated depreciation (500,000) 12,500 (487,500)
Carrying amount 700,000 512,500

Corporate reporting
Example: Errors: Asset incorrectly expensed

The balance on a business’s plant account as at 31 December is as follows.
₦
Cost 1,200,000
The company has discovered that on 31 July an amount of ₦200,000

was charged to the statement of comprehensive income but it should
have been capitalised.
Depreciation is charged at 15% reducing balance.
Correction of the error:
The amount must be capitalised and depreciated.
The correcting journals are: Dr Cr
Plant – cost 200,000
line item to which repairs are charged 200,000
and
Depreciation expense 12,500
(200,000  15%  5/12) 12,500
The impact on the carrying amount of the plant is as follows:

Before (₦) After (₦)
Cost 1,200,000 200,000 1,400,000
Accumulated depreciation (500,000) (12,500) (512,500)
Carrying amount 700,000 887,500


 Which costs should be capitalised
 Whether subsequent expenditure is satisfies the recognition criteria or should be
expensed
 How to split assets into components for depreciation purposes
 Depreciation methods
 Estimates of useful lives and residual values
 Accounting policy (cost or revaluation)
 Allocation of assets into classes

Corporate reporting
9 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Measure property, plant and equipment on initial recognition
 Measure property, plant and equipment on initial recognition using the cost
model and the revaluation model
 Account for disposals of property plant and equipment
 Construct basic notes to the financial statements in respect of property plant
and equipment

Solution 1
Original depreciation=(150,000 – 30,000) /10 = ₦12,000 per annum
Carrying amount at start of year 5 = 150,000 – (12,000  3) =
₦114,000
If the total useful life is anticipated to be 7 years then there are four
years remaining.
Depreciation charge for year 5 =₦114,000/4 = ₦28,500
Solutions 2
₦(216,000 – 24,000)
Annual depreciation = /8 years = ₦24,000.
₦ ₦
Disposal value 163,000
Less disposal costs (1,000)
162,000
Accumulated depreciation at the time of
disposal
Year to 31 December Year 1: (₦24,000  7/12) 14,000
Years 2 and 3: (₦24,000  2 years) 48,000
Year to 31 December Year 4: (₦24,000  8/12) 16,000
78,000
Cost of the asset 216,000
Carrying amount at the date of disposal 138,000
Gain on disposal 24,000

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
11
Non-current assets: sundry standards
Contents
1 IAS 23: Borrowing costs
2 IAS 20: Accounting for government grants and
disclosure of government assistance
3 IAS 40: Investment property
4 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 23, IAS 20 and IAS 40 are examinable standards.
Exam context
This chapter explains further accounting rules on non-current assets.

 Identify borrowing costs
 Measure borrowing costs
 Capitalise borrowing costs that relate to the production of qualifying assets
 Account for government grants related to income
 Account for government grants related to assets
 Define investment property
 Account for investment property using one of the two permitted methods

Chapter 11: Non-current assets: sundry standards
1 IAS 23: BORROWING COSTS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation
 Period of capitalisation
1.1 Introduction
A company might incur significant interest costs if it has to raise a loan to finance
the purchase or construction of an asset. IAS 23: Borrowing costs defines
borrowing costs and sets guidance on the circumstances under which are to be
capitalised as part of the cost of qualifying assets.
Definition: Borrowing costs

Borrowing costs are interest and other costs that an entity incurs in connection with
the borrowing of funds.
Definition: Qualifying asset

A qualifying asset is an asset that necessarily takes a substantial period of time to
get ready for its intended use or sale.
Any of the following may be qualifying assets depending on circumstances:

 inventories;
 items of property, plant and equipment;
 intangible assets.
The following are not qualifying assets:

 inventories that are manufactured, or otherwise produced, over a short
period of time, are not qualifying assets
 assets that are ready for their intended use or sale when acquired.
Qualifying assets are usually self-constructed non-current assets.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Borrowing costs eligible for capitalisation

Borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or
production of a qualifying asset must be capitalised as part of the cost of that
asset. All other borrowing costs are recognised as an expense in the period in
Borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction or
production of a qualifying asset are those that would have been avoided if the
expenditure on the qualifying asset had not been made.
This includes the costs associated with specific loans taken to fund the
production or purchase of an asset and general borrowings. General borrowings
are included because if an asset were not being constructed it stands to reason
that there would have been a lower need for cash.
Funds specifically borrowed to obtain a qualifying asset

When a specific loan is taken in order to obtain a qualifying asset the borrowing
costs eligible for capitalisation are the actual borrowing costs incurred on that
borrowing during the period less any investment income on the temporary
investment of those borrowings.
Example: Specific borrowings

On 1 January 2014 Owerri Engineering issued a bond to raise ₦25,000,000 to fund
a capital project which will take three years to complete.
Amounts not yet needed for the project are invested on a temporary basis.
During the year to 31 December 2014, Owerri Engineering spent ₦9,000,000 on
the project.
The cost of servicing the bond was ₦1,250,000 during this period and the company
was able to earn ₦780,000 through the temporary reinvestment of the amount
borrowed.
The amounts recognised as capital work in progress in the period was:
₦
Costs incurred (labour, material, overhead etc.) 9,000,000
Interest capitalised:
Actual interest cost 1,250,000
Less: return on temporary investment (780,000)
470,000
Additions to capital work in progress 9,470,000
General funds used for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset.

When general borrowings are used the amount of borrowing costs eligible for
capitalisation is obtained by applying a capitalisation rate to the expenditures on
that asset.
The capitalisation rate is the weighted average of the borrowing costs applicable
to the borrowings that are outstanding during the period except for borrowings
made specifically for the purpose of obtaining a qualifying asset.
The amount of borrowing costs capitalised cannot exceed the amount of
borrowing costs it incurred during a period.

Example: General borrowings: Capitalisation rate

Shaki Construction has three sources of borrowing:
Average loan in the Interest expense incurred
year (₦) in the year (₦)
7 year loan 8,000,000 800,000
10 year loan 10,000,000 900,000
Bank overdraft 5,000,000 900,000
The 7 year loan has been specifically raised to fund the building of a
qualifying asset.
A suitable capitalisation rate for other projects is found as follows:
Average loan in the Interest expense incurred
year (₦) in the year (₦)
10 year loan 10,000,000 900,000
Bank overdraft 5,000,000 900,000
15,000,000 1,800,000
Capitalisation rate = 1,800,000/15,000,000  100 = 12%
Alternatively:
Rate on 10 year loan = 900,000/10,000,000  100 = 9%
Rate on bank overdraft = 900,000/5,000,000  100 = 18%
Weighted average: 9%  10,000,000/15,000,000 + 18%  5,000,000/15,000,000
6% + 6% = 12%

Corporate reporting
The capitalisation rate is applied from the time expenditure on the asset is
incurred.
Example: General borrowings: Capitalisation rate

Continuing the example above, Shaki Construction has incurred the following
expenditure on a project funded from general borrowings for year ended 31
December 2014.
Date incurred: Amount (₦)
31st March 1,000,000
31st July 1,200,000
30th October 800,000
The amount capitalised in respect of capital work in progress during

2014 is as follows:
₦
31st March  Expenditure 1,000,000
Interest (1,000,000  10%  9/12) 75,000
31st July  Expenditure 1,200,000

Interest (1,200,000  10%  5/12) 50,000
30th October  Expenditure 800,000

Interest (800,000  10%  2/12) 13,333
3,138,333
1.3 Period of capitalisation
Commencement of capitalisation
Capitalisation of borrowing costs should start only when:
 expenditures for the asset are being incurred; and
 borrowing costs are being incurred, and
 activities necessary to prepare the asset have started.
Suspension of capitalisation
Capitalisation of borrowing costs should be suspended if development of the
asset is suspended for an extended period of time.
Cessation of capitalisation
Capitalisation of borrowing costs should cease when the asset is substantially
complete. The costs that have already been capitalised remain as a part of the
asset’s cost, but no additional borrowing costs may be capitalised.

Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to be

made which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial
statements.
These include the following:
 Whether assets are qualifying assets.
 Whether borrowing costs are eligible for capitalisation.
 When cease capitalisation of borrowing costs depends on judging whether
substantially all activities necessary are complete.
 Whether capitalisation should be suspended during periods of inactivity.

Corporate reporting
2 IAS 20: ACCOUNTING FOR GOVERNMENT GRANTS AND DISCLOSURE

OF GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE
Section overview
 Introduction and definitions

 Accounting treatment of government grants
 SIC 10 Government assistance – no specific relation to operating activities
2.1 Introduction and definitions

In many countries the government provides financial assistance to industry. The
most common form of such assistance is a grant of cash from local or national
government.
Definitions
Government assistance is action by government designed to provide an economic
benefit specific to an entity or range of entities qualifying under certain criteria.
Government assistance does not include benefits provided only indirectly through
action affecting general trading conditions, such as the provision of infrastructure
in development areas or the imposition of trading constraints on competitors.
Government grants are assistance by government in the form of transfers of
resources to an entity in return for past or future compliance with certain
conditions relating to the operating activities of the entity. They exclude those
forms of government assistance which cannot reasonably have a value placed
upon them and transactions with government which cannot be distinguished
from the normal trading transactions of the entity.
IAS 20 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government

Assistance identifies two types of government grants:
 grants related to assets, or
 grants related to income.
Definitions
Grants related to assets are government grants whose primary condition is that
an entity qualifying for them should purchase, construct or otherwise acquire
long-term assets. Subsidiary conditions may also be attached restricting the type
or location of the assets or the periods during which they are to be acquired or
held.
Grants related to income are government grants other than those related to
assets.
Government grants are sometimes called by other names such as subsidies,

subventions, or premiums.

Forgivable loans
Definition
Forgivable loans are loans which the lender undertakes to waive repayment of
under certain prescribed conditions.
A forgivable loan from government is treated as a government grant when there

is reasonable assurance that the entity will meet the terms for forgiveness of the
loan.
Loans at below market rates of interest

The benefit of a government loan at a below-market rate of interest is treated as
a government grant.
The benefit of the below-market rate of interest is measured as the difference
between the initial carrying value of the loan determined in accordance with IAS
39 (IFRS 9) and the proceeds received.
The benefit is accounted for in accordance with IAS 20.
2.2 Accounting treatment of government grants

IAS 20 states that grants should not be recognised until there is reasonable
assurance that:
 the entity will comply with any conditions attaching to the grant, and
 the grant will be received.
Once these recognition criteria are met, the grants should be recognised in profit
or loss over the periods necessary to match them with their related costs.
Neither type of grant should be credited directly to shareholders’ interests in the
statement of financial position. They must be reported on a systematic basis
through the statement of profit or loss (profit or loss).
Grants related to income

For grants related to income, IAS 20 states that an ‘income approach’ should be
used, and the grant should be taken to income over the periods necessary to
match the grant with the costs that the grant is intended to compensate.
IAS 20 allows two methods of doing this:
 Method 1. Include the grant for the period as ‘other income’ for inclusion on
profit or loss for the period
 Method 2. Deduct the grant for the period from the related expense.

Corporate reporting
Example: Grant related to income

A company receives a cash grant of ₦30,000 on 31 December Year 0.
The grant is towards the cost of training young apprentices, and the training
programme is expected to last for 18 months from 1 January Year 1.
Actual costs of the training were ₦50,000 in Year 1 and ₦25,000 in Year 2.
The grant would be accounted for as follows:

At 31 December Year 0 the grant would be recognised as a liability and
presented in the statement of financial position split between current and non-
current amounts. ₦20,000 (12 months/18 months  ₦30,000) is current and
would be recognised in profit for Year 1.The balance is non-current.
At the end of year 1 there would be a current balance of ₦10,000 (being the non-
current balance at the end of Year 0 reclassified as current) in the statement of
financial position. This would be recognised in profit in Year 2.
Extracts from the financial statements are as follows:
Statement of financial position (extracts)
31 31 31
December December December
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2
Current liabilities
Deferred income 20,000 10,000 
Non-current liabilities
Deferred income 10,000  
Statement of profit or loss (extracts)

31 31
December December
Year 1 Year 2
Method 1
Training costs (50,000) (25,000)
Government grant received 20,000 10,000
Method 2
Training costs (50,000 – 20,000) 30,000
Training costs (25,000 – 10,000) 15,000
Grants related to assets

For grants related to assets, IAS 20 allows two methods of doing this:
 Method 1. Deduct the grant from the cost of the related asset. The asset is
included in the statement of financial position at cost minus the grant.
Depreciate the net amount over the useful life of the asset.
 Method 2. Treat the grant as deferred income and recognise it as income
on a systematic basis over the useful life of the asset.

Both methods achieve the same effective result.
Example: Grant related to an asset

A company receives a government grant of ₦400,000 towards the cost of an
asset with a cost of ₦1,000,000.
The asset has an estimated useful life of 10 years and no residual value.
The amounts could be reflected in the financial statements prepared at the end
of Year 1 in accordance with IAS 20 in the following ways:
Method 1:
Statement of financial position (extract)
Property, plant and equipment ₦
Cost (1,000,000 – 400,000) 600,000
Included in statement of profit or loss (extract) ₦

Depreciation charge (₦600,000/10 years) 60,000
Method 2:
Statement of financial position (extract)
Cost 1,000,000
Current liabilities
Deferred income 40,000
At the end of year 1 there would be ₦360,000 of the grant left to
recognise in profit in the future at ₦40,000 per annum. ₦40,000 would
be recognised in the next year and is therefore current. The balance is no-
current
Included in statement of profit or loss (extract) ₦

Expense: Depreciation charge (₦1,000,000/10 years) (100,000)
Income: Government grant (₦400,000/10 years) 40,000

Corporate reporting
Practice questions 1
On January Year 1 Entity O purchased a non-current asset with a cost of
₦500,000 and received a grant of ₦100,000 in relation to that asset.
The asset is being depreciated on a straight-line basis over five years.
Show how the asset and the grant would be reflected in the financial
statements at the end of the first year under both methods of accounting
for the grant allowed by IAS 20.

IAS 20 requires the following disclosures in the notes to the financial statements:
 the accounting policy adopted for government grants, including the method
of presentation in the financial statements
 the nature and extent of government grants recognised in the financial
statements and an indication of other forms of government assistance from
which the entity has directly benefitted.
 unfulfilled conditions and other contingencies attaching to government
assistance (if this assistance has been recognised in the financial
statements).
Government assistance may be significant so that disclosure of the nature, extent
and duration of the assistance is necessary in order that the financial statements
may not be misleading.
2.4 SIC 10 Government assistance – no specific relation to operating activities

A company might receive a grant or other assistance that is not linked to
operating activities.
Issue
The issue is whether such government assistance is "a government grant" within
the scope of IAS 20 and should therefore be accounted for in accordance with
this Standard.
Consensus
Such assistance meets the definition of government grants in IAS 20. Such
grants should therefore not be credited directly to shareholders' interests.


statements.
 Whether or not the entity will comply with the conditions attaching to a grant
 There is a choice of accounting treatment, either as deferred income or as
a deduction from the carrying amount of the asset.
 Whether the government assistance is significant enough to warrant
disclosure.

Corporate reporting
3 IAS 40: INVESTMENT PROPERTY
Section overview
 Definitions
 Accounting treatment of investment property
 Why investment properties are treated differently from other properties
 Transfers and disposals of investment property
3.1 Definitions
IAS 40: Investment Property, defines and sets out the rules on accounting for
investment properties.
an investment property as a property held to earn rentals or for capital
appreciation or both.
Definition
An investment property is property (land or a building, part of a building or both)
held to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both.
Investment property differs from other property, which is:

 used in the production or supply of goods, or for administrative purposes; or
 held for sale in the ordinary course of business.
Investment property includes the building whilst it is under construction for
eventual use as an investment property.
The property could be held by:
 the owner; or
 the lessee under a finance lease or an operating lease.
The following are examples of items that are not investment property:
 property intended for sale in the ordinary course of business;
 property being constructed or developed on behalf of third parties;
 owner-occupied property including (among other things) property held for
future use as owner-occupied property, property held for future
development and subsequent use as owner-occupied property, property
occupied by employees (whether or not the employees pay rent at market
rates) and owner-occupied property awaiting disposal;
 property being leased to another entity under a finance lease.

Property held under an operating lease

A property interest that is held by a lessee under an operating lease may be
classified and accounted for as investment property if, and only if, the property
would otherwise meet the definition of an investment property and the lessee
accounts for it using the IAS 40 fair value model.
This classification alternative is available on a property-by-property basis.
This means that a company might lease two properties from another under
operating leases.
Example: Property held under an operating lease

A Plc rents a property from B Plc under an operating lease.
A Plc sublets this property and it satisfies the IAS 40 definition of investment
properties from A’s view.
A Plc has a choice of accounting treatment:
1. A Plc could apply IAS 17 accounting for it as a lessee from B Plc and a
lessor to other parties.
2. A Plc could account for its interest in the property as an investment
property as alternative to the IAS 17 treatment as a lessee from B Plc. It
would still use IAS 17 as a lessor to the third parties.
Example: Property held under an operating lease

A Plc rents two properties from B Plc under operating leases.
A Plc sublets these properties and they satisfy the IAS 40 definition of investment
properties from A’s view.
A Plc has a choice of accounting treatment for its interests in these properties:
1. A Plc could use IAS 17 operating lessee accounting for both properties.
2. A Plc could use IAS 40 investment property accounting for both
properties.
3. A Plc could use IAS 17 operating lessee accounting for one property and
IAS 40 investment property accounting for the other.
If it applies IAS 40 it must apply the IAS 40 fair value model to the property and
to all other investment properties that it might hold.

Corporate reporting
Property leased within a group

In some cases, an entity owns property that is leased to, and occupied by, its
parent or another subsidiary.
 The property could qualify as investment property from the perspective of
the entity that owns it (if it meets the IAS 40 definition). In that case the
lessor must account for the property as investment property in its individual
 The property does not qualify as investment property in the consolidated
financial statements, because the property is owner-occupied from the
perspective of the group.
Partly occupied buildings

An entity might use part of a property for the production or supply of goods or
services or for administrative purposes and hold another part of the same
property to earn rentals or for capital appreciation. In other words, part of a
property might be owner occupied and part held as an investment.
The two parts are accounted for separately if they could be sold separately (or
leased out separately under a finance lease).
If this is not the case the property is investment property only if an insignificant
portion is owner occupied.
3.2 Accounting treatment of investment property
The recognition criteria for investment property are the same as for property,
plant and equipment under IAS 16. An investment property should be recognised
as an asset only when:
 it is probable that future economic benefits associated with the property will
flow to the entity; and
 the cost of the property can be measured reliably.
Measurement at recognition
Investment property should be measured initially at cost plus the transaction
costs incurred to acquire the property.
A property held under an operating lease may be classified as an investment
property. The initial cost of such a property is found by capitalising the operating
lease as if it were a finance lease according to IAS 17 Leases.
Measurement after recognition

After initial recognition an entity may choose as its accounting policy:
 the fair value model; or
 the cost model.
The chosen policy must be applied to all the investment property of the entity.
Once a policy has been chosen it cannot be changed unless the change will
result in a more appropriate presentation. IAS 40 states that a change from the
fair value model to the cost model is unlikely to result in a more appropriate
presentation.

Fair value model for investment property

Under the fair value model the entity should:
 revalue all its investment property to ‘fair value’ (open market value) at the
end of each financial year; and
 recognise any resulting gain or loss in profit or loss for the period.
The property would not be depreciated.
This is different to the revaluation model of IAS 16, where gains are reported as
other comprehensive income and accumulated as a revaluation surplus.
Fair value is defined as “the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid
to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the
measurement date”.
If it is not possible to arrive at a reliable fair value figure then the cost model
should be adopted for that property. This is an exception to the rule that all
investment property must be valued under either one model or the other.
Cost model for investment property

The cost model follows the provisions of IAS 16. The property is valued at cost
and the non-land element is depreciated.

Corporate reporting
Example: Accounting for investment property

On 1 January Year 1 Entity P purchased a building for its investment potential.
The building cost ₦1 million with transaction costs of ₦10,000.
The depreciable amount of the building component of the property at this date
was ₦300,000.
The property has a useful life of 50 years.
At the end of Year 1 the property’s fair value had risen to ₦1.3 million.
The amounts which would be included in the financial statements of Entity P at

31 December Year 1, under the cost model are as follows:
31 December Year 1, under the fair value model are as follows:
Cost model
The property will be included in the statement of financial position as follows:
₦
Cost (1,000,000 + 10,000) 1,010,000
Accumulated depreciation (300,000 ÷ 50 years) (6,000)
Carrying amount 1,004,000
The statement of profit or loss will include depreciation of ₦6,000.

31 December Year 1, under the fair value model are as follows:
Fair value model
The property will be included in the statement of financial position at its fair value
of ₦1,300,000.
The statement of profit or loss will include a gain of ₦290,000 (₦1,300,000 –
₦1,010,000) in respect of the fair value adjustment.

3.3 Why investment properties are treated differently from other properties
Most properties are held to be used directly or indirectly in the entity’s business.
For example, a factory houses plant and equipment which is used to produce
goods for sale. The property is being consumed and it is appropriate to
depreciate it over its useful life.
An investment property is held primarily because it is expected to increase in
value. It generates economic benefits for the entity because it will eventually be
sold at a profit. An investment property also differs from other properties because
it generates revenue and cash flows largely independently of other assets held
by an entity.
The most relevant information about an investment property is its fair value (the
amount for which it could be sold). Depreciation is largely irrelevant. Therefore it
is appropriate to re-measure an investment property to fair value each year and
to recognise gains and losses in profit or loss for the period.
3.4 Transfers and disposals of investment property

If a property is transferred into or out of this category it must be reclassified as an
investment property or as no longer being an investment property. A transfer of
investment property can only be made where there is a change of use as
illustrated below.
Circumstance Transfer to/from Deemed transfer value

Commencement Transfer from Fair value at the date of change of
of owner- investment use becomes the deemed cost for
occupation property to future accounting purposes
owner-occupied
property
End of owner- Transfer from Where investment properties are
occupation owner-occupied measured at fair value, revalue in
property to accordance with IAS 16 prior to the
investment transfer
property
Commencement Transfer from Fair value at the date of change of
of development investment use becomes the deemed cost for
with a view to property to future accounting purposes
sale inventories
Commencement Transfer from Fair value at the date of the transfer,
of an operating inventories to and any difference compared to
lease to another investment previous carrying amount is
party property recognised in profit or loss

Corporate reporting
Gain or loss on disposal
Gains or losses on disposals of investment properties are included in profit or

loss in the period in which the disposal occurs.
Example: Disposal of investment property

The investment property in the previous example was sold early in Year 2 for
₦1,550,000,
Selling costs were ₦50,000.
Required
The amount that would be included in the statement of profit or loss for Year 2 in
respect of this disposal under the cost model is as follows:
Cost model ₦
Sale value 1,550,000
Selling costs (50,000)
Net disposal proceeds 1,500,000
Minus: Carrying amount (1,004,000)
The amount that would be included in the statement of profit or loss for Year 2 in
respect of this disposal under the fair value model is as follows:
(Fair value model ₦
Sale value 1,550,000
Selling costs (50,000)
Net disposal proceeds 1,500,000
Minus: Carrying amount (1,300,000)


The following disclosures are required by IAS 40 in the notes to the accounts.
Disclosure requirements applicable to both the fair value model and the cost model
 whether the fair value model or the cost model is used
 the methods and assumptions applied in arriving at fair values
 the extent to which the fair value of investment property was based on a
valuation by a qualified, independent valuer with relevant, recent
experience
 amounts recognised in income or expense in the statement of profit or loss
for:
 rental income from investment property
 operating expenses in relation to investment property
 details of any restrictions on the ability to realise investment property or any
restrictions on the remittance of income or disposal proceeds
 the existence of any contractual obligation to purchase, construct or
develop investment property or for repairs, maintenance or enhancements.
Disclosure requirements applicable to the fair value model only

There must be a reconciliation, in a note to the financial statements, between
opening and closing values for investment property, showing:
 additions during the year
 assets classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5
 net gains or losses from fair value adjustments
 acquisitions through business combinations
This reconciliation should show separately any amounts in respect of investment
properties included at cost because their fair values cannot be estimated reliably.
For investment properties included at cost because fair values cannot be
estimated reliably, the following should also be disclosed:
 a description of the property
 an explanation as to why fair values cannot be determined reliably
 if possible, the range within which the property’s fair value is likely to lie.
Disclosure requirements applicable to the cost model only

 the depreciation methods used
 the useful lives or depreciation rates used
 gross carrying amounts and accumulated depreciation at the beginning and
at the end of the period
 A reconciliation between opening and closing values showing:
 additions
 depreciation
 assets classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5

Corporate reporting
 acquisitions through business combinations

 impairment losses
 transfers.
When the cost model is used, the fair value of investment property should also be
disclosed. If the fair value cannot be estimated reliably, the same additional
disclosures should be made as under the fair value model.
The basic accounting policy choice will affect the recognition of profits and
losses, and could introduce extreme volatility to the statement of profit or loss.
statements.
 Identification of investment property.
 Issues arise in respect of the assets that “come with” the property (consider
a vineyard).
 Choosing the appropriate accounting policy.
 It is ‘highly unlikely’ that a change from fair value to the cost model would
provide a more appropriate presentation.
 Obtaining reliable measures of fair value.

4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Identify borrowing costs
 Measure borrowing costs
 Capitalise borrowing costs that relate to the production of qualifying assets
 Account for government grants related to income
 Account for government grants related to assets
 Define investment property
 Account for investment property using one of the two permitted methods

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
The amounts could be reflected in the financial statements prepared at the end of Year
1 in accordance with IAS 20 in the following ways:
Method 1:
Statement of financial position
Cost (500,000 – 100,000) 400,000
Included in statement of profit or loss ₦

Depreciation charge (₦400,000/5 years) 80,000
Method 2:
Cost 500,000
Current liabilities
At the end of year 1 there would be ₦80,000 of the grant left to recognise in
profit in the future at ₦20,000 per annum. ₦20,000 would be recognised in
the next year and is therefore current. The balance is no-current
Included in statement of profit or loss ₦
Expense: Depreciation charge (₦500,000/5 years) (100,000)
Income: Government grant (₦100,000/5 years) 20,000

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
12
IAS 38: Intangible assets
Contents
1 IAS 38: Intangible assets – Introduction
2 Internally-generated intangible assets
3 Intangible assets acquired in a business combination
4 Measurement after initial recognition
5 Disclosure requirements
7 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the rules on accounting for intangible assets.
convenience.
 Explain and apply the recognition rules to intangible assets acquired in different ways
 Measure intangible assets on initial recognition
 Measure intangible assets after initial recognition using the cost model and the
revaluation model

Chapter 12: IAS 38: Intangible assets
1 IAS 38: INTANGIBLE ASSETS - INTRODUCTION
Section overview
 Introduction
 Definition of an intangible asset
 Recognition criteria for intangible assets
 Separate acquisition
 Exchange transactions
 Granted by government
 Subsequent expenditure on intangible assets
1.1 Introduction
IAS 38: Intangible assets sets out rules on the recognition, measurement and
disclosure of intangible assets.
IAS 38 establishes similar rules for intangible assets to those set out elsewhere
(mainly in IAS 16) for tangible assets. It was developed from the viewpoint that
an asset is an asset so there should be no real difference in how tangible and
intangible assets are accounted for. However, there is an acknowledgement that
it can be more difficult to identify the existence of an intangible asset so IAS 38
gives broader guidance on how to do this when an intangible asset is acquired
through a variety of means.
IAS 38:
 requires intangible assets to be recognised in the financial statements if,
and only if, specified criteria are met and explains how these are applied
however an intangible asset is acquired.
 A key issue with expenditure on ‘intangible items’ is whether it should
be treated as an expense and included in full in profit or loss for the
period in which incurred, or whether it should be capitalised and
treated as a long-term asset.
 IAS 38 sets out criteria to determine which of these treatments is
appropriate in given circumstances.
 explains how to measure the carrying amount of intangibles assets when
they are first recognised and how to measure them at subsequent reporting
dates;
 Most types of long-term intangible asset are ‘amortised’ over their
expected useful life. (Amortisation of intangible assets is the
equivalent of depreciation of tangible non-current assets.)
 sets out disclosure requirements for intangible assets in the financial
statements.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Definition of an intangible asset
Definitions
An asset: A resource controlled by the company as a result of past events and from
which future economic benefits are expected to flow.
Intangible asset: An identifiable, non-monetary asset without physical substance’
An intangible asset is a type of asset. Therefore expenditure on an intangible

item must satisfy both definitions before it can be considered to be an asset.
Commentary on the definitions

Control
The existence of control is useful in deciding whether an intangible item meets
the criteria for treatment as an asset.
Control means that a company has the power to obtain the future economic
benefits flowing from the underlying resource and also can restrict the access of
others to those benefits.
Control would usually arise where there are legal rights, for example legal rights
over the use of patents or copyrights. Ownership of legal rights would indicate
control over them. However, legal enforceability is not a necessary condition for
control.
For tangible assets such as property, plant and equipment the asset physically
exists and the company controls it. However, in the case of an intangible asset,
control may be harder to achieve or prove.
Some companies have tried to capitalise intangibles such as the costs of staff
training or customer lists on the basis that they provide access to future
economic benefits. However, these would not be assets as they are not
controlled.
 Staff training: Staff training creates skills that could be seen as an asset for
the employer. However, staff could leave their employment at any time,
taking with them the skills they have acquired through training.
 Customer lists: Similarly, control is not achieved by the acquisition of a
customer list, since most customers have no obligation to make future
purchases. They could take their business elsewhere.
Future economic benefits

These may include revenues and/or cost savings.
Evidence of the probability that economic benefits will flow to the company may
come from:
 market research;
 feasibility studies; and,
 a business plan showing the technical, financial and other resources
needed and how the company will obtain them.

Need to be identifiable
An intangible asset must also be ‘identifiable’. Intangibles, by their very nature,
do not physically exist. It is therefore important that this ‘identifiability test’ is
satisfied.
IAS 38 states that to be identifiable an intangible asset:
 must be separable; or
 must arise from contractual or other legal rights.
To be separable, the intangible must be capable of being separated or divided
from the company, and sold, transferred, licensed, rented or exchanged.
Many typical intangibles such as patent rights, copyrights and purchased brands
would meet this test, (although they might fail other recognition criteria for an
intangible asset).
Without physical substance

Non-physical form increases the difficulty of identifying the asset.
Certain intangible assets may be contained in or upon an article which has
physical substance (e.g. floppy disc). Whether such assets are treated as
tangible or intangible requires. This judgement is based on which element is the
most significant.
 Computer software for a computer controlled machine tool that cannot
operate without that specific software is an integral part of the related
hardware and it is treated as property, plant and equipment. The same
applies to the operating system of a computer.
 Computer software, other than the operating system, is an intangible asset.
The same applies to licences, patents or motion picture films acquired or
internally generated by the reporting company.
Identifiable assets that result from research and development activities are
intangible assets because any physical element of those assets (for example, a
prototype) is secondary to the knowledge that is the primary outcome of those
activities.

Corporate reporting
1.3 Recognition criteria for intangible assets
Introduction
If an intangible item satisfies the definitions it is not necessarily recognised in the
financial statements. In order to be recognised it must satisfy the recognition
criteria for intangible assets.
If an item meets the definitions of being an asset, and being intangible, certain
recognition criteria must be applied to decide whether the item should be
recognised as an intangible asset.
Recognition
An intangible asset is recognised when it:
 complies with the definition of an intangible asset; and,
 meets the recognition criteria set out in the standard.
Recognition criteria
An intangible asset must be recognised if (and only if):
 it is probable that future economic benefits specifically attributable to the
asset will flow to the company; and,
 the cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
The probability of future economic benefits must be assessed using reasonable
and supportable assumptions that represent management’s best estimate of the
set of economic conditions that will exist over the useful life of the asset.
These recognition criteria are broadly the same as those specified in IAS 16 for
tangible non-current assets.
Measurement
An intangible asset must be measure at cost when first recognised.
Means of acquiring intangible assets

A company might obtain control over an intangible resource in a number of ways.
Intangible assets might be:
 purchased separately;
 acquired in exchange for another asset;
 given to a company by way of a government grant.
 internally generated; or
 acquired in a business combination;
IAS 38 provides extra guidance on how the recognition criteria are to be applied
and/or how the asset is to be measured in each circumstance.

1.4 Separate acquisition
Recognition guidance
The probability recognition criterion is always satisfied for separately acquired
intangible assets.
The price paid to acquire separately an intangible asset normally reflects
expectations about the probability that the future economic benefits embodied in
the asset will flow to the company. The effect of the probability is reflected in the
cost of the asset.
Also the cost of a separately acquired intangible asset can usually be measured
reliably especially when the purchase consideration is in the form of cash or other
monetary assets.
Cost guidance
Cost is determined according to the same principles applied in accounting for
other assets.
The cost of a separately acquired intangible asset comprises:
 its purchase price, including any import duties and non-refundable
purchase taxes, after deducting any trade discounts and rebates; and
 any directly attributable expenditure on preparing the asset for its intended
use. For example:
 costs of employee benefits (as defined in IAS 19, Employee Benefits)
arising directly from bringing the asset to its working condition;
 professional fees for legal services; and
 costs of testing whether the asset is functioning properly.
The recognition of costs ceases when the intangible asset is in the condition
necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by
management.
Deferred payments are included at the cash price equivalent and the difference
between this amount and the payments made are treated as interest.
1.5 Exchange transactions

An intangible asset may be acquired in exchange or part exchange for another
intangible asset or another asset.
The cost of such items is measured at fair value unless:
 the exchange transaction lacks commercial substance; or,
measurable.
If the acquired item is not measured at fair value it is measured at the carrying
amount of the asset given up.
Note, that these rules are the same as those described for tangible assets in an
earlier chapter.

Corporate reporting
1.6 Granted by government

A government transfers or allocates intangible assets such as airport landing
rights, licences to operate radio or television stations, import licences or quotas
or rights to access other restricted resources.
An intangible asset may be acquired free of charge, or for nominal consideration,
by way of a government grant.
IAS 20: Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government
Assistance, allows the intangible asset and the grant to be recorded at fair value
initially or at a nominal amount plus any expenditure that is directly attributable to
preparing the asset for its intended use.
1.7 Subsequent expenditure on intangible assets

Subsequent expenditure is only capitalised if it can be measured and attributed to
an asset and enhances the value of the asset. This would rarely be the case:
 The nature of intangible assets is such that, in many cases, there are no
additions to such an asset or replacements of part of it.
 Most subsequent expenditure is likely to maintain the expected future
economic benefits embodied in an existing intangible asset rather than
meet the definition of an intangible asset and the recognition criteria.
 Also it is often difficult to attribute subsequent expenditure directly to a
particular intangible asset rather than to the business as a whole.
Maintenance expenditure is expensed.

2 INTERNALLY GENERATED INTANGIBLE ASSETS
Section overview
 Internally-generated intangible items

 Research and development
 Accounting treatment of development costs
 SIC 32: Intangible assets – Web site costs
2.1 Internally-generated intangible items

An internally-generated intangible asset is an asset created by a company
through its own efforts. (An internally-generated asset differs from an acquired
asset that has been purchased from an external seller.) For example, a
publishing company may build up legal copyrights by publishing books.
It can sometimes be difficult for a company to assess whether an internally-
generated asset qualifies for recognition as an asset in the financial statements
because:
 it is not identifiable: or
 its cost cannot be determined reliably.
Recognition prohibited
IAS 38 prohibits the recognition of the following internally-generated intangible
items:
 goodwill;
 brands;
 mastheads (Note: a masthead is a recognisable title, usually in a distinctive
typographical form, appearing at the top of an item. An example is a
newspaper masthead on the front page of a daily newspaper);
 publishing titles; and
 customer lists.
Recognition of these items as intangible assets when they are generated
internally is prohibited because the internal costs of producing these items cannot
be distinguished separately from the costs of developing and operating the
business as a whole.
Note that any of these items would be recognised if they were purchased
separately.
Other internally generated intangibles

IAS 38 provides further guidance on how to assess whether other internally
generated intangibles assets meet the criteria for recognition.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Research and development

The term ‘research and development’ is commonly used to describe work on the
innovation, design, development and testing of new products, processes and
systems.
Assessment of whether an internally generated intangible asset meets the criteria
for recognition requires a company to classify the generation of the asset into:
 a research phase; and
 a development phase.
If the research phase cannot be distinguished from the development phase the
expenditure on the project is all treated as that incurred on the research phase.
Research phase
Definition: Research
Research is original and planned investigation undertaken with the prospect of
gaining new scientific or technical knowledge and understanding.
Examples of research activities include:

 Activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge.
 The search for and evaluation of applications of knowledge obtained from
research.
 The search for alternative materials, products or processes.
 The formulation and testing of possible alternatives for new materials,
products or processes.
Research costs cannot be an intangible asset. Expenditure on research should
be recognised as an expense as it is incurred and included in profit or loss for the
period.
Development phase
Definition: Development
Development is the application of research findings or other knowledge to a plan or
design for the production of new or substantially improved materials, devices,
products, processes, systems or services before the start of commercial production
or use.
Examples of development activities include:

 The design, construction and testing of pre-production prototypes and
models.
 The design of tolls involving new technology.
 The construction and operation of a pilot plant that is not large enough for
economic commercial production.
 The design, construction and testing of new materials, products or
processes.

2.3 Accounting treatment of development costs

Development costs are capitalised when they meet certain further criteria. (These
comprise more detailed guidance on whether it is probable that future economic
benefits from the asset will flow to the entity and whether the cost can be
measured reliably).
Development costs must be recognised as an intangible asset, but only if all the
following conditions can be demonstrated.
 It is technically feasible to complete the development project.
 The company intends to complete the development of the asset and then
use or sell it.
 The asset that is being developed is capable of being used or sold.
 Future economic benefits can be generated. This might be proved by the
existence of a market for the asset’s output or the usefulness of the asset
within the company itself.
 Resources are available to complete the development project.
 The development expenditure can be measured reliably (for example, via
costing records).
If any one of these conditions is not met, the development expenditure must be
treated in the same way as research costs and recognised in full as an expense
when it is incurred.
Only expenditure incurred after all the conditions have been met can be
capitalised.
Once such expenditure has been written off as an expense, it cannot
subsequently be reinstated as an intangible asset.
Example: Accounting treatment of development costs

Company Q has undertaken the development of a new product. Total costs to date
have been ₦800,000. All of the conditions for recognising the development costs
as an intangible asset have now been met.
However, ₦200,000 of the ₦800,000 was spent before it became clear that the
project was technically feasible, could be resourced and the developed product
would be saleable and profitable.
Development costs.
The ₦200,000 incurred before all of the conditions for recognising the
development costs as an intangible asset were met must be written off as an
expense.
The remaining ₦600,000 should be capitalised and recognised as an intangible
asset (development costs).

Corporate reporting
Initial measurement
The cost of an internally generated intangible asset is the sum of expenditure
incurred from the date when the intangible asset first meets the recognition
criteria for such assets.
Expenditure recognised as an expense in previous annual financial statements or
interim financial reports may not be capitalised.
The cost of an internally generated intangible asset comprises all expenditure
that can be directly attributed, and is necessary to creating, producing, and
preparing the asset for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by
management.
Where applicable cost includes:
 expenditure on materials and services used or consumed;
 the salaries, wages and other employment related costs of personnel
directly engaged in generating the asset; and
 any expenditure that is directly attributable to generating the asset.
In addition, IAS 23 specifies criteria for the recognition of interest as an element

of the cost of an internally generated intangible asset. The IAS 23 guidance was
covered in the previous chapter.
Costs that are not components of cost of an internally generated intangible asset
include:
 selling and administration overhead costs;
 initial operating losses incurred;
 costs that have previously been expensed, (e.g., during a research phase)
must not be reinstated; and,
 training expenditure.

2.4 SIC 32: Intangible assets – Web site costs
Issue
An entity may incur expenditure on the development and operation of its own
web site for internal or external access.
The issues are:
 whether the web site is an internally generated intangible asset that is
subject to the requirements of IAS 38; and
 the appropriate accounting treatment of such expenditure.
SIC 32 does not apply to expenditure on
 purchasing, developing, and operating hardware (e.g. web servers, staging
servers, production servers and internet connections). IAS 16 applies.
 an internet service provider hosting the entity’s web site. (This expenditure
is recognised as an expense the services are received).
 the development or operation of a web site for sale to another entity.
SIC 32 must be applied by the:
 lessor of web site when it is leased under an operating lease, and
 lessee of the web site when it is leased under a finance lease.
The operating stage begins once development of a web site has been completed.
During this stage, an entity maintains and enhances the applications,
infrastructure, graphical design and content of the web site.
Consensus
An entity’s own web site is an internally generated intangible asset that is subject
to the requirements of IAS 38. It should be recognised as an intangible asset if it
satisfies the IAS 38 recognition criteria.
If a web site is developed solely (or primarily) for promoting and advertising its
own products and services then an entity will not be able to demonstrate how it
will generate probable future economic benefits. All expenditure on developing
such a web site should be recognised as an expense when incurred.
The nature of each activity for which expenditure is incurred (e.g. training
employees and maintaining the web site) and the web site’s stage of
development or post development should be evaluated to determine the
appropriate accounting treatment
The best estimate of a web site’s useful life should be short.
SIC 32 identifies several stages in the development of a website and provides
guidance on the accounting treatment that is appropriate for each stage.

Corporate reporting
Stage Activities Accounting treatment

Planning Feasibility studies Expense when incurred
(This stage is
similar in nature Defining hardware and software
to the research specifications
phase) Evaluating alternative products
and suppliers
Selecting preferences
Application Obtaining a domain name Expense when incurred,
and Developing operating software unless the expenditure
infrastructure (e.g. operating system and meets the IAS 38
development server software) recognition criteria.
(This stage is
similar in nature Developing code for the
to the application
development Installing developed applications
phase) on the web server
Stress testing
Graphical Designing the appearance of See above
design web pages
development
Content Creating, purchasing, preparing See above
development and uploading information on the
web site before the completion of
the web site’s development.
Operating Updating graphics and revising Expense when incurred,
content unless it meets the IAS
Adding new functions, features 38 criteria for the
and content capitalisation of
subsequent expenditure
Registering the web site with (this will only occur in
search engines rare circumstances).
Backing up data
Reviewing security access
Analysing usage of the web site
Other Selling, administrative and other Expense when incurred
general overhead expenditure
unless it can be directly
attributed to preparing the web
site for use
Inefficiencies and initial
operating losses incurred
Training employees to operate
the web site

3 INTANGIBLE ASSETS ACQUIRED IN A BUSINESS COMBINATION
Section overview
 Recognition guidance
 Cost guidance
 In-process research and development
This section relates to intangible assets acquired when a company (the acquirer)
buys a controlling interest in another company (the acquiree). The section largely
relates to the recognition of intangibles in the consolidated financial statements of
the parent.
3.1 Recognition guidance

Any intangible asset identified in a business combination will be recognised as
both recognition criteria are deemed to be recognised.
The probability recognition criterion always considered to be satisfied for
intangible assets acquired in business combinations. This is because the fair
value of an intangible asset reflects expectations about the probability that the
expected future economic benefits embodied in the asset will flow to the
company. In other words, the entity expects there to be an inflow of economic
benefits.
The reliable measurement criterion is always considered to be satisfied for
intangible assets acquired in business combinations. If an asset acquired in a
business combination is separable or arises from contractual or other legal rights,
sufficient information exists to measure reliably the fair value of the asset.
Commentary
This means that an intangible asset that was not recognised in the financial
statements of the new subsidiary might be recognised in the consolidated
Illustration: Recognition
Company X buys 100% of Company Y.
Company Y owns a famous brand that it launched several years ago.
Analysis
The brand is not recognised in Company Y’s financial statements (IAS 38 prohibits
the recognition of internally generated brands).
From the Company X group viewpoint the brand is a purchased asset. Part of the
consideration paid by Company X to buy Company Y was to buy the brand and it
should be recognised in the consolidated financial statements.

Corporate reporting
Examples of intangible assets

The following are all items that would meet the definition of an intangible asset if
acquired in a business combination.
 Market related intangibles
 Trademarks, trade names, service marks, collective marks and
certification marks;
 Internet domain names;
 Newspaper mastheads; and
 Non-competition agreements
 Customer related intangibles
 Customer lists;
 Order or production backlog;
 Customer contracts and the related customer relationships; and
 Artistic related intangibles
 Plays, operas and ballets;
 Books, magazines, newspapers and other literary works;
 Musical works (compositions, song lyrics and advertising jingles);
 Pictures and photographs; and
 Video and audio visual material:
 Music videos; and
 Television programmes
 Contract based intangibles
 Licensing and royalty agreements;
 Construction permits;
 Franchise agreements
 Operating and broadcasting rights;
 Use rights such as drilling, water, air, mineral, timber-cutting and
route authorities;
 Technology based intangibles
 Patented and unpatented technology;
 Computer software and databases; and
 Trade secrets (secret formulas, processes, recipes)
3.2 Cost guidance

If an intangible asset is acquired in a business combination, its cost is the fair
value at the acquisition date.
If cost cannot be measured reliably then the asset will be subsumed within
goodwill.

3.3 In-process research and development

Another similar example involves in-process research and development
The acquiree might have a research and development project in process.
Furthermore, it might not recognise an asset for the project because the
recognition criteria for internally generated intangible assets have not been met.
However, the acquirer would recognise the in-process research and development
as an asset in the consolidated financial statements as long as it:
 meets the definition of an asset; and
 is identifiable, i.e. is separable or arises from contractual or other legal
rights.
Illustration: In-process research and development

Company X buys 100% of Company Y.
Company Y has spent ₦600,000 on a research and development project. This
amount has all been expensed as the IAS 38 criteria for capitalising costs incurred
in the development phase of a project have not been met. Company Y has
knowhow as the result of the project.
Company X estimates the fair value of Company Y’s knowhow which has arisen as
a result of this project to be ₦500,000.
Analysis
The in-process research and development is not recognised in Company Y’s
financial statements because the recognition criteria have not been met.
From the Company X group viewpoint the in-process research and development is
a purchased asset. Part of the consideration paid by Company X to buy Company Y
was to buy the knowhow resulting from the project and it should be recognised in
the consolidated financial statements at its fair value of ₦500,000.
Subsequent expenditure on an acquired in-process research and development

project
Expenditure incurred on an in-process research or development project acquired
separately or in a business combination and recognised as an intangible asset is
accounted for in the usual way by applying the IAS 38 recognition criteria.
This means that further expenditure on such a project would not be capitalised
unless the criteria for the recognition of internally generated intangible assets
were met.

Corporate reporting
Illustration: Subsequent expenditure on acquired in-process R and D

Continuing the previous example.
Company X owns 100% of Company Y and has recognised an intangible asset of
₦500,000 as a result of the acquisition of the company.
Company Y has spent a further ₦150,000 on the research and development
project since the date of acquisition. This amount has all been expensed as the IAS
38 criteria for capitalising costs incurred in the development phase of a project
have not been met.
Analysis
The ₦150,000 expenditure is not recognised in Company Y’s financial statements
(IAS 38 prohibits the recognition of internally generated brands).
From the Company X group viewpoint, further work on the in-process research and
development project is research and the expenditure of ₦150,000 must be
expensed.

4 MEASUREMENT AFTER INITIAL RECOGNITION
Section overview
 Choice of policy
 Revaluation model
 Amortisation of intangible assets
 Disposals of intangible assets
4.1 Choice of policy

Intangible assets are recognised at cost when first acquired.
IAS 38 allows a business to choose one of two measurement models as its
accounting policy for property, intangible assets after acquisition. The same
model should be applied to all assets in the same class.
The two measurement models for intangible assets after acquisition are:
 cost model (i.e. cost less accumulated depreciation); and
 revaluation model (i.e. revalued amount less accumulated depreciation
since the most recent revaluation).
Class of assets
The same model should be applied to all assets in the same class. A class of
intangible assets is a grouping of assets of a similar nature and use in an entity’s
operations. Examples of separate classes may include:
 brand names;
 mastheads and publishing titles;
 computer software;
 licences and franchises;
 copyrights, patents and other industrial property rights, service and
operating rights;
 recipes, formulae, models, designs and prototypes; and
 intangible assets under development.
Cost model
An intangible asset is carried at its cost less any accumulated amortisation and
any accumulated impairment losses after initial recognition.

Corporate reporting
4.2 Revaluation model

Intangible assets can be revalued according to the same rules as those applied
to the revaluation of property, plant and equipment. These were explained in
detail in the previous chapter so will be covered in less detail here.
An intangible asset is carried at a revalued amount, (its fair value at the date of
the revaluation less any subsequent accumulated amortisation and any
accumulated impairment losses).
This is only allowed if the fair value can be determined by reference to an active
market in that type of intangible asset.
Definition: Active market

An active market is a market in which all the following conditions exist:
(a) the items traded in the market are homogeneous;
(b) willing buyers and sellers can normally be found at any time; and
(c) prices are available to the public.
Active markets for intangible assets are rare. Very few companies revalue
intangible assets in practice.
The requirement that intangible assets can only be revalued with reference to an
active market is a key difference between the IAS 16 revaluation rules for
property, plant and equipment and the IAS 38 revaluation rules for intangible
assets.
An active market for an intangible asset might disappear. If the fair value of a
revalued intangible asset can no longer be measured by reference to an active
market the carrying amount of the asset going forward is its revalued amount at
the date of the last revaluation less any subsequent accumulated amortisation
and impairment losses.
Frequency of revaluations
Revaluations must be made with sufficient regularity so that the carrying amount
does not differ materially from its fair value at the reporting date.
The frequency of revaluations should depend on the volatility in the value of the
assets concerned. When the value of assets is subject to significant changes
(high volatility), annual revaluations may be necessary.
However, such frequent revaluations are unnecessary for items subject to only
insignificant changes in fair value. In such cases it may be necessary to revalue
the item only every three or five years.

Changing the carrying amount of the asset

When an item of property, plant and equipment is revalued, any accumulated
depreciation at the date of the revaluation is treated in one of the following ways:
Method 1: Restate accumulated depreciation proportionately with the change in
the gross carrying amount of the asset so that the carrying amount of the asset
after revaluation equals its revalued amount.
Method 2:
 Step 1: Transfer the accumulated depreciation to the asset account. The
result of this is that the balance on the asset account is now the carrying
amount of the asset and the accumulated depreciation account in respect
of this asset is zero.
 Step 2: Change the balance on the asset account to the revalued amount.
Accounting for the revaluation

The revaluation is carried out according to the same principles applied in
accounting for other assets.
IAS 38
Upwards Recognised in other comprehensive income and accumulated in
revaluations equity under the heading of revaluation surplus.
However: an increase is recognised in profit or loss to the extent that it
reverses a revaluation decrease of the same asset previously
Downward Recognised in profit or loss.
revaluations
However: A decrease is recognised in other comprehensive income to the
extent of any credit balance in the revaluation surplus in respect
of that asset thus reducing the amount accumulated in equity
under the heading of revaluation surplus.
Realisation of the revaluation surplus
Most intangible assets eventually disappear from the statement of financial
position either by becoming fully amortised or because the company sells them.
If nothing were done this would mean that there was a revaluation surplus on the
face of the statement of financial position that related to an asset that was no
longer owned.
IAS 38 allows (but does not require) the transfer of a revaluation surplus to
retained earnings when the asset to which it relates is derecognised (realised).
This might happen over several years as the asset is depreciated or at a point in
time when the asset is sold.
Revaluation of an asset causes an increase in the annual depreciation charge.
The difference is known as excess depreciation (or incremental depreciation):
Excess depreciation is the difference between:
 the depreciation charge on the re-valued amount of the asset, and
 the depreciation that would have been charged on historical cost.
Each year a business might make a transfer from the revaluation surplus to the
retained profits equal to the amount of the excess depreciation.

Corporate reporting
4.3 Amortisation of intangible assets

A company must assess whether the useful life of an intangible asset is:
 finite: or
 indefinite.
If the useful life of an intangible asset is assessed as being finite the company
must assess its useful life.
An intangible asset is assessed as having an indefinite useful life when (based
on an analysis of all of the relevant factors) there is no foreseeable limit to the
period over which the asset is expected to generate net cash inflows.
Intangibles with a finite useful life

The depreciable amount of an intangible asset with a finite useful life is allocated
on a systematic basis over its useful life.
Amortisation begins when the asset is available for use, i.e. when it is in the
location and condition necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner
intended by management.
Amortisation ends at the earlier of the date that the asset is classified as held for
sale in accordance with IFRS 5 and the date that the asset is derecognised.
The amortisation method used must reflect the pattern in which the asset's future
economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity. If that pattern
cannot be determined reliably, the straight-line method must be used.
There is a rebuttable presumption that an amortisation method based on revenue
generated by an activity that includes the use of an intangible asset is
inappropriate.
The residual value of an intangible asset must be assumed to be zero unless:
 there is a commitment by a third party to purchase the asset at the end of
its useful life; or
 there is an active market for the asset and:
 residual value can be determined by reference to that market; and
 it is probable that such a market will exist at the end of the asset's
useful life.
The amortisation period and the amortisation method must be reviewed at least
at each financial year-end.
 Where there is a change in the useful life, the carrying amount (cost minus
accumulated depreciation) of the asset at the date of change is written off
over the (revised) remaining useful life of the asset.
 Where there is a change in the depreciation method used, this is a change
in accounting estimate. A change of accounting estimate is applied from the
time of the change, and is not applied retrospectively. The carrying amount
(cost minus accumulated depreciation) of the asset at the date of the
change is written off over the remaining useful life of the asset.

Intangibles with an indefinite useful life

Where the useful life is assessed as indefinite:
 the intangible asset should not be amortised; but
 impairment reviews should be carried out annually (and even more
frequently if there are any indications of impairment).
The useful life of an intangible asset that is not being amortised must be
reviewed each period to determine whether events and circumstances continue
to support an indefinite useful life assessment for that asset.
If they do not, the change in the useful life assessment from indefinite to finite is
accounted for as a change in an accounting estimate in accordance with IAS 8.
This means that the carrying amount at the date of the change is amortised over
the estimated useful life from that date.
4.4 Disposals of intangible assets

The rules for de-recognition of intangible assets (accounting for their ‘disposal’)
are the same as for property, plant and equipment under IAS 16. There is a gain
or loss on disposal equal to the difference between the net disposal proceeds
and the carrying value of the asset at the time of disposal.

Corporate reporting
5 DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS
Section overview

In the financial statements, disclosures should be made separately for each class
of intangible asset. (Within each class, disclosures must also be made by
internally-generated intangibles and other intangibles, where both are
recognised.)
Most of the disclosure requirements are the same as for tangible non-current
assets in IAS 16. The only additional disclosure requirements are set out below.
 Whether the useful lives of the assets are finite or indefinite.
 If the useful lives are finite, the useful lives or amortisation rates used.
 If the useful lives are indefinite, the carrying amount of the asset and the
reasons supporting the assessment that the asset has an indefinite useful
life.
Example:
An example is shown below of a note to the financial statement with disclosures
about intangible assets
Internally-
generated Software
development licences Goodwill Total
costs
₦m ₦m ₦m ₦m
Cost
At the start of the year 290 64 900 1,254
Additions 60 14 - 74
Additions through business - - 20 20
combinations
Disposals (30) (4) - (34)
––– ––– ––– –––––
At the end of the year 320 74 920 1,314
––– ––– ––– –––––
and impairment losses
At the start of the year 140 31 120 291
Amortisation expense 25 10 - 35
Impairment losses - - 15 15
Accumulated amortisation on 10 2 - 12
disposals
––– ––– –––– ––––
At the end of the year 175 43 135 353
––– ––– –––– ––––
Net carrying amount
At the start of the year 150 33 780 963
––– ––– –––– ––––
At the end of the year 145 31 785 961
––– ––– –––– ––––

 For any intangible asset that is individually material to the financial

statements, the following disclosure is required:
 a description
 its carrying amount
 the remaining amortisation period.
 The total amount of research and development expenditure written off (as
an expense) during the period must also be disclosed.

IAS 1 requires the disclosure of accounting policies used that are relevant to an
understanding of the financial statements. Property, plant and equipment is often
includes the largest numbers in the statement of financial position and the results
in significant expense in the statement of comprehensive income.
One of the learning outcomes in this area is that you be able to formulate
accounting policies for property, plant and equipment.
There are several areas that are important to explain to users of financial
statements.
Amortisation policy
The depreciable amount of an intangible asset must be written off over its useful
life.
Formulating a policy in this area involves estimating the useful lives of different
categories of intangible assets.
Under the guidance in IAS 38 the estimated residual values of an asset would
usually be zero and the straight line method would usually be used.
Other explanations:
This is not so much about choosing a policy as explaining situations to users:
 Development expenditure: Does the company have any?
 Intangible assets acquired in business combinations in the period.
 Whether the company has intangible assets assessed as having an
indefinite useful life.

Corporate reporting
Below is a typical note which covers many of the possible areas of accounting
policy for intangible assets.
Illustration: Accounting policy – Intangible assets

The intangible assets of the group comprise patents, licences and computer
software.
The group accounts for all intangible assets at historical cost less accumulated
amortisation and accumulated impairment losses.
Computer software
Development costs that are directly attributable to the design and testing of
identifiable and unique software products controlled by the group are recognised
as intangible assets when the following criteria are met:
a. it is technically feasible to complete the software product so that it will be
available for use;
b. management intends to complete the software product and use or sell it;
c. there is an ability to use or sell the software product;
d. it can be demonstrated how the software product will generate probable
future economic benefits;
e. adequate technical, financial and other resources to complete the
development and to use or sell the software product are available; and
f. the expenditure attributable to the software product during its development
can be reliably measured.
Directly attributable costs that are capitalised as part of the software product
include the software development employee costs and an appropriate portion of
relevant overheads.
Development expenditures that do not meet these criteria are recognised as an
expense as incurred. Costs associated with maintaining computer software
programmes are recognised as an expense as incurred.
Useful lives
Depreciation is calculated using the straight-line method to allocate their cost or
revalued amounts to their residual values over their estimated useful lives, as
follows:
Patents: 25 30 years
Licenses 5 to15 years
Computer software 3 years
All intangible assets are estimated as having a zero residual value.


 Whether an internally generated asset meets the recognition criteria
 Allocation of consideration in a business combination (i.e. the recognition of
intangibles acquired)
 Future cash flows and discount rates for impairment tests
 Amortisation periods

Corporate reporting
7 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain and apply the recognition rules to intangible assets acquired in different
ways
 Measure intangible assets on initial recognition
 Measure intangible assets after initial recognition using the cost model and the
revaluation model

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
13
IAS 36: Impairment of assets
Contents
1 Impairment of assets
2 Cash generating units
3 Other issues
5 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains rules on impairment set out in IAS 36. Note that the rules on
accounting for impairment of goodwill are covered in more detail in a later chapter (Chapter
23).
convenience
 Explain the objective of IAS 36
 Explain the IAS 36 impairment review process
 Estimate recoverable amount and hence impairment loss (if any)
 Account for impairment loss on assets carried under a cost model
 Account for impairment loss on re-valued assets
 Define a cash generating unit
 Allocate impairment loss to assets within a cash generating unit
 Describe when reversal of impairment loss is permitted

Chapter 13: Impairment of assets
1 IMPAIRMENT OF ASSETS
Section overview
 Objective and scope of IAS 36

 Identifying impairment or possible impairment
 Measuring recoverable amount
 Accounting for impairment
 Summary of approach
1.1 Objective and scope of IAS 36

An asset is said to be impaired when its recoverable amount is less than its
carrying amount in the statement of financial position.
From time to time an asset may have a carrying value that is greater than its fair
value but this is not necessarily impairment as the situation might change in the
future. Impairment means that the asset has suffered a permanent loss in value.
The objective of IAS 36 Impairment of assets is to ensure that assets are
‘carried’ (valued) in the financial statements at no more than their recoverable
amount.
Scope of IAS 36
IAS 36 applies to all assets, with the following exceptions that are covered by
other accounting standards:
 inventories (IAS 2);
 construction contracts (IAS 11);
 deferred tax assets (IAS 12);
 financial assets (IAS 39);
 investment property held at fair value (IAS 40);
 non-current assets classified as held for sale (IFRS 5).
Recoverable amount of assets
Definition
The recoverable amount of an asset is defined as the higher of its fair value
minus costs of disposal, and its value in use.
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the
measurement date.
Value in use is the present value of future cash flows from using an asset,
including its eventual disposal.
Impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset (or a
cash-generating unit) exceeds its recoverable amount.
Cash-generating units will be explained later.

Corporate reporting
Stages in accounting for an impairment loss

There are various stages in accounting for an impairment loss:
Stage 1: Establish whether there is an indication of impairment.
Stage 2: If so, assess the recoverable amount.
Stage 3: Write down the affected asset (by the amount of the impairment) to its
recoverable amount.
Each of these stages will be considered in turn.
1.2 Identifying impairment or possible impairment

An entity must carry out an impairment review when there is evidence or an
indication that impairment may have occurred. At the end of each reporting
period, an entity should assess whether there is any indication that impairment
might have occurred. If such an indication exists, the entity must estimate the
recoverable amount of the asset, in order to establish whether impairment has
occurred and if so, the amount of the impairment.
Indicators of impairment
The following are given by IAS 36 as possible indicators of impairment. These
may be indicators outside the entity itself (external indicators), such as market
factors and changes in the market. Alternatively, they may be internal indicators
relating to the actual condition of the asset or the conditions of the entity’s
business operations.
When assessing whether there is an indication of impairment, IAS 36 requires
that, as a minimum, the following sources are considered:
External sources Internal sources

An unexpected decline in the asset’s Evidence that the asset is damaged or
market value. no longer of use to the entity.
Significant changes in technology, There are plans to discontinue or
markets, economic factors or laws restructure the operation for which the
and regulations that have an adverse asset is currently used.
effect on the company.
An increase in interest rates, affecting There is a reduction in the asset’s
the value in use of the asset. expected remaining useful life.
The company’s net assets have a There is evidence that the entity’s
higher carrying value than the expected performance is worse than
company’s market capitalisation expected.
(which suggests that the assets are
over-valued in the statement of
financial position).
If there is an indication that an asset (or cash-generating unit) is impaired then it

is tested for impairment. This involves the calculating the recoverable amount of
the item in question and comparing this to its carrying amount.

Additional requirements for testing for impairment

The following assets must be reviewed for impairment at least annually, even
when there is no evidence of impairment:
 an intangible asset with an indefinite useful life; and
 goodwill acquired in a business combination.
1.3 Measuring recoverable amount

It has been explained that recoverable amount is the higher of an asset’s:
 fair value less costs of disposal; and
 its value in use.
If either of these amounts is higher than the carrying value of the asset, there has
been no impairment.
IAS 36 sets out the requirements for measuring ‘fair value less costs of disposal’
and ‘value in use’.
Measuring fair value less costs of disposal

Fair value is normally market value. If no active market exists, it may be possible
to estimate the amount that the entity could obtain from the disposal.
Direct selling costs normally include legal costs, taxes and costs necessary to
bring the asset into a condition to be sold. However, redundancy and similar
costs (for example, where a business is reorganised following the disposal of an
asset) are not direct selling costs.
Calculating value in use

Value in use is a value that represents the present value of the expected future
cash flows from use of the asset, discounted at a suitable discount rate or cost of
capital. Value in use is therefore calculated by:
 estimating future cash flows from the use of the asset (including those from
ultimate disposal)
 discounting them to present value.
Estimates of future cash flows should be based on reasonable and supportable
assumptions that represent management’s best estimate of the economic
conditions that will exist over the remaining useful life of the asset.
The discount rate used should be the rate of return that the market would expect
from an equally risky investment.
However, both the expected future cash flows and the discount rate might be
adjusted to allow for uncertainty about the future – such as the business risk
associated with the asset and expectations of possible variations in the amount
or timing of expected future cash benefits from using the asset.

Corporate reporting
Example: Measurement of recoverable amount

A company has a machine in its statement of financial position at a carrying
amount of ₦300,000.
The machine is used to manufacture the company’s best-selling product range,
but the entry of a new competitor to the market has severely affected sales.
As a result, the company believes that the future sales of the product over the
next three years will be only ₦150,000, ₦100,000 and ₦50,000. The asset will
then be sold for ₦25,000.
An offer has been received to buy the machine immediately for ₦240,000, but
the company would have to pay shipping costs of ₦5,000.The risk-free market
rate of interest is 10%.
Market changes indicate that the asset may be impaired and so the recoverable
amount for the asset must be calculated.
Fair value less costs of disposal ₦000
Fair value 240,000
Costs of disposal (5,000)
235,000
Year Cash flow (₦000) Discount factor Present

value
1 150,000 1/1.1 136,364
2 100,000 1/1.12 82,645
3 50,000 + 25,000 1/1.13 56,349
275,358
The recoverable amount is the higher of ₦235,000 and ₦275,358, i.e.

₦275,358.
The asset must be valued at the lower of carrying value and recoverable
amount.
The asset has a carrying value of ₦300,000, which is higher than the
recoverable amount from using the asset.
It must therefore be written down to the recoverable amount, and an
impairment of ₦24,642 (₦300,000 – ₦275,358) must be recognised.

1.4 Accounting for impairment

The impairment loss is normally recognised immediately in profit or loss.

amount of ₦300,000.
The machine has been tested for impairment and found to have recoverable
amount of ₦275,358 meaning that the company must recognise an impairment
loss of ₦24,642.
This is accounted for as follows:
Debit Credit
Statement of profit or loss 24,642
Property, plant and equipment 24,642
Practice question 1
On 1 January Year 1 Entity Q purchased for ₦240,000 a machine with an
estimated useful life of 20 years and an estimated zero residual value.
Depreciation is on a straight-line basis.
On 1 January Year 4 an impairment review showed the machine’s
recoverable amount to be ₦100,000 and its remaining useful life to be 10
years.
Calculate:
a) The carrying amount of the machine on 31 December Year 3
(immediately before the impairment).
b) The impairment loss recognised in the year to 31 December Year 4.
c) The depreciation charge in the year to 31 December Year 4.c)

Corporate reporting
However, an impairment loss recognised in respect of an asset carried at a

previously recognised revaluation surplus is recognised in other comprehensive
income to the extent that it is covered by that surplus. Thus it is treated in the
same way as a downward revaluation, reducing the revaluation reserve balance
relating to that asset in the statement of changes in equity.
Impairment not covered by a previously recognised surplus on the same asset is

amount of ₦300,000 including a previously recognised surplus of ₦20,000.
The machine has been tested for impairment and found to have recoverable
amount of ₦275,358 meaning that the company must recognise an impairment
loss of ₦24,642.
This is accounted for as follows:
Debit Credit
Property, plant and equipment 24,642
Following the recognition of the impairment, the future depreciation of the asset
must be based on the revised carrying amount, minus the residual value, over
the remaining useful life.
Practice question 2
On 1 January Year 1 Entity Q purchased for ₦240,000 a machine with an
estimated useful life of 20 years and an estimated zero residual value.
Depreciation is on a straight-line basis.
The asset had been re-valued on 1 January Year 3 to ₦250,000, but with no
change in useful life at that date.
On 1 January Year 4 an impairment review showed the machine’s
recoverable amount to be ₦100,000 and its remaining useful life to be 10
years.
Calculate:
a) The carrying amount of the machine on 31 December Year 2 and
hence the revaluation surplus arising on 1 January Year 3.
b) The carrying amount of the machine on 31 December Year 3
(immediately before the impairment).
c) The impairment loss recognised in the year to 31 December Year 4.
d) The depreciation charge in the year to 31 December Year 4.

1.5 Summary of the approach

Impairment of an asset should be identified and accounted for as follows:
(1) At the end of each reporting period, the entity should assess whether there
are any indications that an asset may be impaired.
(2) If there are such indications, the entity should estimate the asset’s
recoverable amount.
(3) When the recoverable amount is less than the carrying value of the asset,
the entity should reduce the asset’s carrying value to its recoverable
amount. The amount by which the value of the asset is written down is an
impairment loss.
(4) This impairment loss is recognised as a loss for the period.
(5) However, if the impairment loss relates to an asset that has previously
been re-valued upwards, it is first offset against any remaining revaluation
surplus for that asset. When this happens it is reported as other
comprehensive income for the period (a negative value) and not charged
against profit.
(6) Depreciation charges for the impaired asset in future periods should be
adjusted to allocate the asset’s revised carrying amount, minus any
residual value, over its remaining useful life (revised if necessary).

Corporate reporting
2 CASH GENERATING UNITS
Section overview
 Cash-generating units
 Allocating an impairment loss to the assets of a cash generating unit
2.1 Cash-generating units

It is not always possible to calculate the recoverable amount of individual assets.
Value in use often has to be calculated for groups of assets, because assets may
not generate cash flows in isolation from each other. An asset that is potentially
impaired may be part of a larger group of assets which form a cash-generating
unit.
IAS 36 defines a cash-generating unit (CGU) as the smallest identifiable group of
assets that generates cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash
inflows from other assets or groups of assets.
Goodwill
The existence of cash-generating units may be particularly relevant to goodwill
acquired in a business combination. Purchased goodwill must be reviewed for
impairment annually, and the value of goodwill cannot be estimated in isolation.
Often, goodwill relates to a whole business.
It may be possible to allocate purchased goodwill across several cash-generating
units. If allocation is not possible, the impairment review is carried out in two
stages:
1 Carry out an impairment review on each of the cash-generating units
(excluding the goodwill) and recognise any impairment losses that have
arisen.
2 Then carry out an impairment review for the entity as a whole, including the
goodwill.
This is explained in more detail in a later chapter (Chapter 23).
2.2 Allocating an impairment loss to the assets of a cash generating unit

When an impairment loss arises on a cash-generating unit, the impairment loss is
allocated across the assets of the cash-generating unit in the following order:
 first, to the goodwill allocated to the cash-generating unit
 next, to the other assets in the cash-generating unit, on a pro-rata basis
(i.e. in proportion to the carrying amount of the assets of the cash-
generating unit).
However, the carrying amount of an asset cannot be reduced below the highest
of:
 its fair value less costs of disposal (if determinable);
 its value in use (if determinable); and
 zero.

Example: Allocation of impairment loss in cash-generating unit

A cash-generating unit is made up of the following assets.
₦m
Goodwill 10
Other assets 60
160
The recoverable amount of the cash-generating unit has been assessed as ₦140
million.
The impairment loss would be allocated across the assets of the cash-generating
unit as follows:
There is a total impairment loss of ₦20 million (= ₦160m – ₦140m). Of this,
₦10 million is allocated to goodwill, to write down the goodwill to ₦0. The
remaining ₦10 million is then allocated to the other assets pro-rata.
Therefore:
₦6 million (= ₦10m × 90/150) of the impairment loss is allocated to
property, plant and equipment, and
₦4 million (= ₦10m × 60/150) of the loss is allocated to the other assets in
the unit.
The allocation has the following result:
Before Impairment After
loss loss loss
₦m ₦m ₦m
Property, plant and equipment 90 (6) 84
Goodwill 10 (10) 
Other assets 60 (4) 56
160 (20) 140

Corporate reporting
3 OTHER ISSUES
Section overview
 Reversal of an impairment loss

 IFRIC 10: Interim financial reporting and impairment
 IAS 36 disclosure requirements for the impairment of assets
 ED/2013/1: Recoverable amount disclosures for non-financial assets
3.1 Reversal of an impairment loss

A company must make an assessment at the end of each reporting period as to
whether a previously recognised impairment should be increased or may no
longer exist. If the loss no longer exists it is reversed subject to the following
guidance.
Any reversal:
 must be justifiable, by reference to an improvement in the indicators of
impairment; and
 should not lead to a carrying amount in excess of what the carrying amount
of the asset would have been without the recognition of the original
impairment loss.
A reversal should be:
 recognised immediately in profit or loss; unless
 the original impairment was charged to the revaluation reserve, in which
case the reversal should be credited to the revaluation reserve (and
reported in the same way as a revaluation in ‘other comprehensive income’
for the period).
Depreciation charges for future periods should be adjusted to allocate the asset’s
revised carrying amount, minus any residual value, over its remaining useful life.
An impairment loss that has arisen on purchased goodwill cannot be reversed.
This is because any reversal of an impairment loss to goodwill is likely to be
caused by an increase in internally-generated goodwill rather than a reversal of
the impairment of purchased goodwill. Internally-generated goodwill must not be
reported as an asset.

3.2 IFRIC 10: Interim financial reporting and impairment
Background
IAS 34 requires application of the same accounting policies in interim financial
statements as are applied in annual financial statements and states that “the
frequency of an entity’s reporting (annual, half-yearly, or quarterly) shall not affect
the measurement of its annual results”.
It also requires that measurement for interim reporting purposes must be made
on a year-to-date basis.
IAS 36 – prohibits reversal of impairment loss for goodwill
IAS 39 – prohibits reversal of impairment loss recognised in P&L for AFS equity
instruments and for financial assets carried at cost.
This leads to an apparent conflict
An impairment loss on goodwill recognised in the interim financial statements
might not have been recognised at the next year end (due to change in
circumstances).
 IAS 34 would seem to require reversal; but
 IAS 36 prohibits reversal.
The issue
Should an impairment loss on goodwill (and certain investments) recognised in
an interim period, be reversed if a loss would not have been recognised (or a
smaller loss would have been recognised) if the assessment had been made only
at a later reporting date?
Consensus
The impairment principle overrides the interim measurement rule
An impairment loss recognised in a previous interim period in respect of goodwill
(or certain investments) must not be reversed when circumstances change by a
later reporting date

Corporate reporting
3.3 IAS 36 disclosure requirements for the impairment of assets

For all impairments, the following disclosures should be made for each class of
assets:
 The amount of impairment losses recognised in profit or loss for the period
and the line item in which those items are included.
 Similar information about reversals of impairment losses recognised in
profit or loss for the period.
 The amount of impairment losses on revalued assets that have been
recognised (or reversed) in other comprehensive income for the period
(and in the revaluation reserve).
 If the recognition or reversal of an individual impairment loss is material to
the financial statements, there should be additional disclosure of:
 the events that led to the recognition or reversal of the impairment
loss
 the amount of the impairment loss recognised or reversed
 the nature of the asset
 whether the recoverable amount is fair value less costs of disposal or
value in use, and how the figure for the recoverable amount was
calculated.
 There are additional disclosures in aggregate for impairment losses
(reversals) that are not individually material, and extensive disclosures for
CGUs that include goodwill or intangible assets with an indefinite useful life,
including estimated sensitivities for changes in assumptions used to derive
a value in use or fair value less costs of disposal (“headroom” disclosures)
3.4 ED/2013/1: Recoverable amount disclosures for non-financial assets

When the IASB were developing IFRS 13, they amended IAS 36 to require the
disclosure of information about the recoverable amount of impaired assets,
particularly if that amount is based on fair value less costs of disposal.
The intention was to require an entity to disclose the recoverable amount of an
asset (including goodwill) for which an impairment loss was recognised or
reversed during the reporting period.
However, the amendment resulted in an entity being required to disclose the
recoverable amount of each cash-generating unit for which the carrying amount
of goodwill (or intangible assets with indefinite useful lives) allocated to that unit
is significant when compared to the entity’s total carrying amount of goodwill (or
intangible assets with indefinite useful lives).
The ED proposes amendments to IAS 36 that would make the disclosures less
onerous and restore the IASB’s original intention.

Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to be made

which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial statements.
 Whether indicators suggest that an impairment review is required.
 The determination of fair value when there is no binding sale agreement or active
market
 The input variables to a value in use estimation (expected future cash flows and
discount rate)
 The identification of CGUs
 How to allocate goodwill to CGUs

Corporate reporting
5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain the objective of IAS 36
 Explain the IAS 36 impairment review process
 Estimate recoverable amount and hence impairment loss (if any)
 Account for impairment loss on assets carried under a cost model
 Account for impairment loss on revalued assets
 Define a cash generating unit
 Allocate impairment loss to assets within a cash generating unit
 Describe when reversal of impairment loss is permitted


Solution 1
On 31 December Year 3 the machine was stated at the following amount
a) Carrying amount of the machine on 31 December Year 3
Cost 240,000
Accumulated depreciation (3 × (240,000 ÷ 20 years)) (36,000)
b) Impairment loss at the beginning of Year 4 of ₦104,000 (₦204,000 –

₦100,000). This is charged to profit or loss.
c) Depreciation charge in Year 4 of ₦10,000 (= ₦100,000 ÷ 10). The

depreciation charge is based on the recoverable amount of the asset.
Solution 2
a) Carrying amount on ₦
Cost 240,000
Accumulated depreciation at 1 January Year 3 (2 years × (240,000
÷ 20)) (24,000)
Valuation at 1 January Year 3 250,000
Revaluation surplus 34,000
b) When the asset is revalued on 1 January Year 3, depreciation is charged on the

revalued amount over its remaining expected useful life.
On 31 December Year 3 the machine was therefore stated at:
₦
Valuation at 1 January (re-valued amount) 250,000
Accumulated depreciation in Year 3 (= ₦250,000 ÷ 18)) (13,889)
c) On 1 January Year 4 the impairment review shows an impairment loss of

₦136,111 (₦236,111 – ₦100,000).
An impairment loss of ₦34,000 will be taken to other comprehensive income
(reducing the revaluation surplus for the asset to zero).
The remaining impairment loss of ₦102,111 (₦136,111 – ₦34,000) is
recognised in the statement of profit or loss for Year 4.
d) Year 4 depreciation charge is ₦10,000 (₦100,000 ÷ 10 years).

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
14
IFRS 5: Non-current assets held for
sale and discontinued operations
Contents
1 Sale of non-current assets
2 Introduction to IFRS 5
3 Classification of non-current assets (or disposal
groups) as held for sale
4 Measurement of non-current assets (or disposal
groups) classified as held for sale
5 Presentation and disclosure
6 Discontinued operations
7 Judgements – IFRS 5
8 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IFRS 5 is an examinable document
Exam context
This chapter explains the IFRS 5 rules on the measurement and presentation of non-current
assets held for sale and discontinued operations.
convenience. Note that disposal of an interest in a subsidiary is a new topic at this level.
IFRS 5 could be examined in that context.

 Apply the held for sale criteria and identify if an assets is held for sale
 Measure assets classified as held for sale at the lower of carrying amount and fair
value less costs to sell
 Account for any loss arising on classification of an asset as held for sale
 Allocated any loss arising to assets within a disposal group classified as held for sale
 Explain and apply the presentation rules on assets held for sale
 Explain and apply the presentation rules on disposal groups held for sale
 Define and explain the accounting treatment for discontinued operations

Chapter 14: IFRS 5: Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations
1 SALE OF NON-CURRENT ASSETS
Section overview
 General rules on derecognition

 Assets that are held for sale
1.1 General rules on derecognition

When an asset is derecognised, its carrying amount is removed from the
statement of financial position. IAS 16 states that the carrying amount of an item
of property, plant and equipment should be derecognised in the following
circumstances:
 on disposal of the asset; or
 when no future economic benefits are expected to arise from its use or from
its disposal.
If a non-current asset is disposed of, the gain or loss on the disposal should be
included in profit or loss in the period in which the disposal occurs. The gain or
loss should not be included in sales revenue.
The gain or loss on the disposal is calculated as:
Illustration: Gain or loss on disposal

₦
Sale proceeds on disposal X
Less disposal costs (X)
Net disposal value X
Asset at cost/revalued amount X
Less: Accumulated depreciation (X)
Carrying amount at date of disposal (X)
Gain /loss on disposal X

Corporate reporting
1.2 Assets that are held for sale

Sometimes, a company might hold an asset at the year-end that it has the
intention of selling.
IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations
contain rules which impact the measurement and presentation of such assets.
In summary:
Non-current assets (and groups of non-current assets) that meet certain strict
criteria are classified as being held for sale.
Non-current assets that are held for sale are:
 subject to an impairment test;
 presented on a separate category on the face of the statement of financial
position; and
 are no longer depreciated.
Any loss recognised on a non-current asset carried at cost as a result of the
impairment test at the date of its classification as ‘held for sale’ is recognised in
the statement of profit or loss.
Any loss recognised on a non-current asset carried at a revalued amount as a
result of the impairment test at the date of its classification as ‘held for sale’ is
recognised in other comprehensive income (to the extent that it is covered by the
previously recognised surplus on the same asset) with the balance recognised in
The above rules will be explained in more detail in the following sections.

2 INTRODUCTION TO IFRS 5
Section overview
 Objective of IFRS 5
 Scope of IFRS 5
2.1 Objective of IFRS 5

IFRS 5 sets out requirements that specify the accounting treatment for assets
held for sale, and the presentation and disclosure of discontinued operations.
IFRS 5 requires assets that meet the criteria to be classified as held for sale are:
 measured at the lower of carrying amount and fair value less costs to sell;
 not depreciated; and
 presented separately on the face of the statement of financial position.
Additionally the results of discontinued operations must be presented separately
in the statement of profit or loss.
IFRS 5 identifies three classes of item that might be described as held for sale.
These classes are of an increasing level of sophistication:
 non-current assets;
 disposal groups; and
 discontinued operations.
Disposal group
Definition
Disposal group – a group of assets to be disposed of in a single transaction, and
any liabilities directly associated with those assets that will be transferred in the
transaction.
A disposal group may be a group of cash-generating units, a single cash-

generating unit, or part of a cash-generating unit.
Some disposal groups might fall into the definition of a discontinued operation.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Scope of IFRS 5
Classification and presentation

The classification and presentation requirements of IFRS 5 apply to all
recognised non-current assets and to all disposal groups.
Measurement
The measurement requirements of IFRS 5 apply to all recognised non-current
assets and disposal groups except for:
 deferred tax assets (IAS 12 Income Taxes).
 assets arising from employee benefits (IAS 19 Employee Benefits).
 financial assets within the scope of IAS 39 Financial Instruments:
Recognition and Measurement.
 non-current assets that are accounted for in accordance with the fair value
model in IAS 40 Investment Property.
 non-current assets that are measured at fair value less estimated point-of-
sale costs in accordance with IAS 41 Agriculture.
 contractual rights under insurance contracts as defined in IFRS 4 Insurance
Contracts.
Comment on the scope of IFRS 5

The scope of IFRS 5 is a little complicated.
A non-current asset that is scoped out of IFRS 5 for measurement purposes may
fall within the classification and presentation rules.
Such a non-current asset might be part of a disposal group. In this case the
measurement rules of IFRS 5 apply to the disposal group as a whole but not to
the scoped out assets within the group which are measured individually
according to the rules set out in their own standards.
Abandonment of non-current assets

Non-current assets (or disposal groups) to be abandoned include non-current
assets (or disposal groups) that are to be:
 used to the end of their economic life; or
 closed rather than sold.
A non-current asset (or disposal group) that is to be abandoned must not be
classified as held for sale.

3 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-CURRENT ASSETS (OR DISPOSAL GROUPS)

AS HELD FOR SALE
Section overview
 Rule
 Criteria
 Sale expected in over 1 year
3.1 Rule
A non-current asset (or disposal group) must be classified as held for sale when
its carrying amount will be recovered principally through a sale transaction rather
than through continuing use.
3.2 Criteria
The following conditions must apply at the reporting date for an asset (or disposal
group) to be classified as held for sale:
 it must be available for immediate sale in its present condition subject only
to terms that are usual and customary for sales of such assets (or disposal
groups);
 the sale must be highly probable, i.e.:
 the appropriate level of management must be committed to a plan to
sell the asset (or disposal group);
 an active programme to locate a buyer and complete the plan must
have been initiated; and
 the asset (or disposal group) must be actively marketed for sale at a
price that is reasonable in relation to its current fair value;
 the sale must be expected to be completed within one year from the date of
classification (except in limited circumstances) and actions required to
complete the plan should indicate that it is unlikely that significant changes
to the plan will be made or that the plan will be withdrawn.
If the criteria are met for a non-current asset (or disposal group) after the
reporting date but before the authorisation of the financial statements for issue,
that asset must not be classified as held for sale as at the reporting date.
However the entity is required to make certain disclosures in respect of the non-
current asset (or disposal group).

Corporate reporting
Example: Classification of asset as held for sale

Entity R had the following asset at 31 March Year 4.
A property that it offered for sale for ₦5 million during June Year 3.
The market for this type of property has deteriorated and at 31 March Year 4 a
buyer had not yet been found.
Management does not wish to reduce the price because it hopes that the market
will improve.
Shortly after the year end (after 31 March Year 4) the entity received an offer of
₦4 million and the property was eventually sold for ₦3.5 million during May Year
4, before the financial statements were authorised for issue.
Analysis as at 31 March Year 4

The property cannot be classified as ‘held for sale’.
A non-current asset qualifies as ‘held for sale’ if it is available for immediate sale
in its present condition and actively marketed for sale at a price that is
reasonable in relation to its current fair value.
The property had not been sold at the year-end although it had been on the
market for some time. It appears that the reason for this was that management
were asking too high a price; therefore the price is not reasonable in relation to
its current fair value.
Example: Classification of asset as held for sale

Entity R had the following asset at 31 March Year 4.
Plant with a carrying value of ₦2.5 million.
At 31 March Year 4 the entity had ceased to use the plant but was still
maintaining it in working condition so that it could still be used if needed.
Entity R sold the plant on 14 May Year 4.
Analysis as at 31 March Year 4
The plant cannot be classified as ‘held for sale’.
At the year-end management had not made a firm commitment to sell the plant.
Even though the plant was sold just after the year-end, IFRS 5 prohibits the
classification of non-current assets as ‘held for sale’ if the criteria are met after
the end of the reporting period and before the financial statements are signed.

3.3 Sale expected in over 1 year

Sometimes circumstances might extend the period to complete the sale beyond a
year. This does not preclude an asset (or disposal group) from being classified as
held for sale as long as:
 the delay is caused by events or circumstances beyond the entity’s control;
and
 there is sufficient evidence that the entity remains committed to its plan to
sell the asset (or disposal group).
IFRS 5 sets out detailed guidance on when this is deemed to be the case.

Corporate reporting
4 MEASUREMENT OF NON-CURRENT ASSETS (OR DISPOSAL GROUPS)

CLASSIFIED AS HELD FOR SALE
Section overview
 Measurement of non-current assets and disposal groups held for sale

 Allocation of an impairment loss on a disposal group
 Subsequent remeasurement
 Changes to a plan of sale
4.1 Measurement of non-current assets and disposal groups held for sale
Assets held for sale and disposal groups should be measured at the lower of:
 their carrying amount (i.e. current values in the statement of financial
position, as established in accordance with accounting standards and
principles), and
 fair value less costs to sell.
If the value of the ‘held for sale’ asset is adjusted from carrying amount to fair
value less costs to sell, any impairment should be recognised as a loss in the
statement of profit or loss for the period unless the asset to which it relates is
carried at a previously recognised revaluation surplus. In this case the loss is
taken to other comprehensive income to the extent that it is covered by the
previously recognised surplus on that asset. Any amount not covered is
recognised in the statement of profit or loss.
A non-current asset must not be depreciated (or amortised) while it is classified
as ‘held for sale’ or while it is part of a disposal group that is held for sale.
Example: Impact of classification as held for sale

An asset is reclassified as ‘held for sale’, when its carrying amount is ₦20 million.
Its fair value less estimated costs to sell is ₦17 million.
The asset should be revalued at ₦17 million and a loss of ₦3 million should be
reported in the period.
If the carrying amount is less than the fair value less costs to sell there is no
impairment. In this case there is no adjustment to the carrying amount of the
asset. (A gain is not recognised on reclassification as held for sale).
Example: Impact of classification as held for sale

An asset is reclassified as ‘held for sale’, when its carrying amount is ₦20 million.
Its fair value less estimated costs to sell is ₦24 million.
The asset ‘held for sale’ should not be remeasured and should continue to be
carried at ₦20 million.
A gain on disposal will be included in profit for the period when the disposal
actually occurs.

Example: Accounting on reclassification and subsequent disposal

A machine was purchased on 1 January Year 1 for ₦80,000. It had a useful life of
8 years and no residual value.
On 31 December Year 4 the machine was classified as held for sale. On this date
the machine’s fair value was estimated at ₦50,000 and the costs to sell were
estimated at ₦1,000
The machine was sold for ₦48,000 on 30 June Year 5.
The entries in the statement of profit or loss for Year 4 and Year 5 are as follows:
Year 4
The asset held for sales is carried at the lower of:
Carrying amount: ₦
Cost 80,000
Depreciation up to the point of reclassification
80,000  4 years/8years (40,000)
40,000
Fair value less costs to sell (₦50,000  ₦1,000) 49,000
The machine therefore remains at its carrying value of ₦40,000.
Year 5
The asset is sold to give the following profit on disposal:
₦
Proceeds 48,000
Carrying amount (40,000)
8,000

Corporate reporting
Example: Accounting on reclassification and subsequent disposal

A machine was purchased on 1 January Year 1 for ₦80,000. It had a useful life of
8 years and no residual value.
On 31 December Year 4 the machine was classified as held for sale. On this date
the machine’s fair value was estimated at ₦41,000 and the costs to sell were
estimated at ₦2,000
The machine was sold for ₦37,500 on 30 June Year 5.
The entries in the statement of profit or loss for Year 4 and Year 5 are as follows:
Year 4
The asset held for sales is carried at the lower of:
Carrying amount: ₦
Cost 80,000
Depreciation up to the point of reclassification
80,000  4 years/8years (40,000)
40,000
Fair value less costs to sell (₦41,000  ₦2,000) 39,000
The machine is therefore written down to ₦39,000.

The statement of profit or loss for Year 4 will include an impairment loss
of ₦1,000 (₦40,000 – ₦39,000).
Year 5
The asset is sold to give the following loss on disposal:
₦
Proceeds 37,500
Carrying amount (39,000)
1,500

4.2 Allocation of an impairment loss on a disposal group

IFRS 5 requires that if an impairment loss is recognised for a disposal group, the
loss should be allocated to reduce the carrying amounts of those non-current
assets in the disposal group (that are within the scope of the IFRS 5
measurement rules) in the following order:
 goodwill; then
 other non-current assets pro-rated on the basis of their carrying values.
Example: Allocation of impairment loss in a disposal group

An entity has decided to dispose of a group of its assets.
The carrying amount of the assets immediately before the classification as held
to sale were as follows:
₦
Goodwill 20,000
Property, plant and equipment (carried at re-valued
amounts) 52,000
Property, plant and equipment (carried at cost) 80,000
Inventory 21,000
Financial assets 17,000
Total 190,000
The entity estimates that the ‘fair value less costs to sell’ of the disposal group is
₦160,000.
This means that the entity must recognise an impairment loss of ₦30,000
(₦190,000 - ₦160,000).
Allocation of the impairment loss:
The first ₦20,000 of the impairment loss reduces the goodwill to zero.
The remaining ₦10,000 of the impairment loss should be allocated to the non-
current assets in the disposal group pro rata to their carrying value.
Carrying Carrying
amount before Impairment amount after
allocation loss allocation
₦ ₦ ₦
Goodwill 20,000 20,000 
Property, plant and
equipment (carried at re-
valued amounts) 52,000 3,939 48,061
Property, plant and
equipment (carried at
cost) 80,000 6,061 73,939
Inventory 21,000  21,000
Financial assets 17,000  17,000
Total 190,000 30,000 160,000
This impairment loss of ₦30,000 will be included in the reported profit or loss
from discontinued operations.

Corporate reporting
4.3 Subsequent remeasurement

Subsequent remeasurement of the non-current asset (or disposal group) might
lead to:
 a further impairment loss - which must be recognised; or
 a gain - which is recognised but only to the extent that it is covered by a
previously recognised impairment loss.
4.4 Changes to a plan of sale

If an asset (or disposal group) has been classified as held for sale, but the criteria
are no longer met, it must be removed from this classification.
Such an asset is measured at the lower of:
 the amount at which it would have been carried if it had never been
classified as held for sale (i.e.: its carrying amount before it was classified
as held for sale as adjusted for any depreciation, amortisation or
revaluations that would have been recognised if it had not been so
classified); and
 its recoverable amount at the date of the subsequent decision not to sell.*
Any necessary adjustment to the carrying amount is recognised in income from
continuing operations, in the same statement of profit or loss caption used to
present a gain or loss on assets held for sale.

5 PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURE
Section overview
 Assets (or disposal groups) held for sale
5.1 Assets (or disposal groups) held for sale
Statement of financial position presentation

Non-current assets classified as held for sale are presented separately from
other assets in the statement of financial position.
The assets and liabilities of a disposal group classified as held for sale are
presented separately from other assets and liabilities in the statement of financial
position. These assets and liabilities must not be offset and presented as a single
amount.
The major classes of assets and liabilities classified as held for sale must be
separately disclosed either on the face of the statement of financial position or in
the notes.
This disclosure is not required for disposal groups that are newly acquired
subsidiaries that are classified as held for sale on acquisition.
Comparatives are not restated to reflect the classification in the statement of
financial position for the latest period presented.
Gains or losses
Any gain or loss on the remeasurement of a non-current asset (or disposal
group) classified as held for sale that does not meet the definition of a
discontinued operation is included in profit or loss from continuing operations.
The gain or loss recognised on measuring or remeasuring a non-current asset (or
disposal group) classified as held for sale is disclosed. If it is not presented
separately on the face of the statement of profit or loss, the caption that includes
that gain or loss must also be disclosed.
Other disclosures
The following information must be disclosed in the notes in the period in which a
non-current asset (or disposal group) has been either classified as held for sale
or sold:
 a description of the non-current asset (or disposal group);
 a description of the facts and circumstances of the sale, or leading to the
expected disposal, and the expected manner and timing of that disposal;
 if applicable, the segment in which the non-current asset (or disposal
group) is presented in accordance with IFRS 8 Operating segments.
Changes to a plan of sale

When this occurs the following must be disclosed:
 a description of the facts and circumstances leading to the decision; and
 the effect of the decision on the results of operations for the period and any
prior periods presented.

Corporate reporting
6 DISCONTINUED OPERATIONS
Section overview
 Discontinued operation
 Definition of discontinued operations
 Presentation and disclosure of discontinued operations
 Other disclosures
6.1 Discontinued operation

IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations sets
out requirements for disclosure of financial information relating to discontinued
operations.
The reason for requiring disclosure of information about discontinued operations
is as follows:
 Closing down some operations will affect the future financial prospects of
the entity.
 It is therefore appropriate that users of the financial statements should be
provided with relevant information about the discontinuation. This will help
them to make a more reliable prediction of the future performance of the
entity.
This information can be produced by providing information about discontinued
operations separately from information about continuing operations.
6.2 Definition of discontinued operations

A discontinued operation is a disposal group that satisfies extra criteria. (IFRS 5
does not say as much but this is a helpful way to think of it).
Definition
Discontinued operation - A component of an entity that either has been disposed
of or is classified as held for sale and:
1. represents a separate major line of business or geographical area of
operations,
2. is part of a single co-ordinated plan to dispose of a separate major line of
business or geographical area of operations or
3. is a subsidiary acquired exclusively with a view to resale.
A component of an entity comprises operations and cash flows that can be

clearly distinguished, operationally and for financial reporting purposes, from the
rest of the entity.
If an entity disposes of an individual non-current asset, or plans to dispose of an
individual asset in the immediate future, this is not classified as a discontinued
operation unless the asset meets the definition of a ‘component of an entity’. The
asset disposal should simply be accounted for in the ‘normal’ way, with the gain
or loss on disposal included in the operating profit for the year.

An operation cannot be classified as discontinued in the statement of financial

position if the criteria for classifying it as discontinued are met after the end of the
reporting period.
For example, suppose that an entity with a financial year ending 30 June shuts
down a major line of business in July and puts another major line of business up
for sale. It cannot classify these as discontinued operations in the financial
statements of the year just ended in June, even though the financial statements
for this year have not yet been approved and issued.
A disposal group might be, for example, a major business division of a company.
For example a company that operates in both shipbuilding and travel and tourism
might decide to put its shipbuilding division up for sale. If the circumstances meet
the definition of ‘held for sale’ in IFRS 5, the shipbuilding division would be a
disposal group held for sale.
6.3 Presentation and disclosure of discontinued operations
Presentation in the statement of profit or loss

The following must be disclosed for discontinued operations:
 a single amount on the face of the statement of profit or loss comprising the
total of:
 the post-tax profit or loss of discontinued operations; and
 the post-tax gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value
less costs to sell or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s)
constituting the discontinued operation.
 an analysis of this single amount:
 the revenue, expenses and pre-tax profit or loss of discontinued
operations;
 the related income tax expense;
 the gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value less
costs to sell or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s)
constituting the discontinued operation; and
 the related income tax expense.
 The analysis may be presented in the notes or on the face of the statement
of profit or loss. (If presented on the face of the statement of profit or loss it
must be presented in a section identified as relating to discontinued
operations).
The analysis is not required for disposal groups that are newly acquired
 the net cash flows attributable to the operating, investing and financing
activities of discontinued operations.
These disclosures may be presented in the notes or on the face of the financial
statements.
These disclosures are not required for disposal groups that are newly acquired

Corporate reporting
Comparatives
Comparatives must be restated for these disclosures so that the disclosures
relate to all operations that have been discontinued by the reporting date for the
latest period presented.
Example: Presentation of discontinued operations in the statement of financial

position
Information relating to discontinued operations might be presented as follows.
X Limited: Statement of profit or loss for the year ended 31 December
20X9
20X9 20X8
₦000 ₦000
Continuing operations
Revenue 9,000 8,500
Cost of sales (5,100) (4,700)
Gross profit 3,900 3,800
Other income 50 100
Distribution costs (1,200) (1,000)
Administrative expenses (1,400) (1,200)
Other expenses (150) (200)
Finance costs (300) (300)
Profit before tax 900 1,200
Income tax expense (300) (400)
Profit for the period from continuing operations 600 800
Discontinued operations
Profit for the period from discontinued operations 250 180
Profit for the period 850 980
Note
The single figure of ₦250,000 for after-tax profit or loss from discontinued
operations should be analysed in a note to the accounts. Alternatively, the
analysis could be given on the face of the statement of profit or loss.

Presentation in the statement of financial position

Non-current assets classified as held for sale must be disclosed separately from
other assets in the statement of financial position.
Similarly, assets and liabilities that are part of a disposal group held for sale
must be disclosed separately from other assets and liabilities in the statement of
financial position.
This also applies to the assets and liabilities of a discontinued operation.
Example: Presentation of discontinued operations in the statement of financial

position
An entity has two disposal groups held for sale:
Disposal group
Group 1 Group 2 Total
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Property, plant and equipment 600 300 900
Liabilities (50) (20) (70)
Information relating to discontinued operations might be presented as follows.

₦000
Assets
Non-current assets 2,000
Current assets 720
Non-current assets classified as held for sale (see above) 900
Total assets 3,620
Equity and liabilities

Share capital 1,000
Reserves 1,950
Total equity 2,950
Non-current liabilities 400
Current liabilities 200
Liabilities directly associated with non-current assets
classified as held for sale (see above) 70
Total liabilities 670
Total equity and liabilities 3,620
Note: In this summarised statement of financial position, the non-current assets
classified as ‘held for sale’ are the sum of the non-current assets of disposal
groups 1 and 2 (₦600,000 + ₦300,000).
Similarly the ‘liabilities directly associated with non-current assets classified as

held for sale’ are the sum of the liabilities for disposal groups 1 and 2.
In the statement of financial position, the comparative figures for the previous
year are not restated. The amount for discontinued operations in the previous
year does not include discontinued items for the current year. The presentation in
the statement of financial position therefore differs from the presentation in the

Corporate reporting
6.4 Other disclosures
Adjustments to carrying amounts of discontinued operations

Sometimes there is a need to adjust amounts previously presented in
discontinued operations that are directly related to the disposal of a discontinued
operation in a prior period.
For example, circumstances in which these adjustments may arise include the
resolution of uncertainties relating to:
 the disposal (e.g. purchase price adjustments; or
 obligations retained by the seller (e.g. environmental and product warranty
obligations).
Such adjustments are classified separately in discontinued operations and the
nature and amount of the adjustments are disclosed.
Note on discontinued operations and the statement of cash flows

IFRS 5 states that in the statement of cash flows, there should be separate
disclosure of the net cash flows in the period attributable to operating activities,
investing activities and financing activities of the discontinued operations.
These disclosures may be presented either on the face of the statement of cash
flows or in the notes to the financial statements.
Additional disclosures
Additional disclosures about discontinued operations must be included in the
notes to the financial statements. These include:
 a description of the non-current asset or disposal group
 a description of the facts and circumstances of the sale
 in the case of operations and non-current assets ‘held for sale’, a
description of the facts and circumstances leading to the expected disposal
and the expected manner and timing of the disposal.

7 JUDGEMENTS – IFRS 5
IFRS 5: Areas of judgement and estimate
Disclosure about assets held for sale and discontinued operations, is intended to
help users understand the implications for future results and cash flows. The
classification is based on actions taken by management at or before the reporting
date and expectation that a sale will be achieved
Application of this standard requires different judgements and estimates to be made
which would have an impact on figures reported in the financial statements.
 Whether the held for sale criteria are satisfied (several judgements)
 Whether a disposal is a discontinued operation.

Corporate reporting
8 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Apply the held for sale criteria and identify if an assets is held for sale
 Measure assets classified as held for sale at the lower of carrying amount and fair
value less costs to sell
 Account for any loss arising on classification of an asset as held for sale
 Allocated any loss arising to assets within a disposal group classified as held for
sale
 Explain and apply the presentation rules on assets held for sale
 Explain and apply the presentation rules on disposal groups held for sale
 Define and explain the accounting treatment for discontinued operations

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
15
IAS 17: Leases
Contents
1 Introduction and definitions
2 Interpretations on the existence of a lease
3 Lease classification
4 Accounting for a finance lease: Lessee accounting
5 Accounting for a finance lease: Lessor accounting
6 Accounting for an operating lease
7 Sale and leaseback transactions
8 Impact on presentation
9 ED/2013/6: Leases
11 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 17 is an examinable document
Exam context
This chapter explains the accounting treatment for leases from the point of view of the lessee
and the lessor.
convenience.
Section 7 of the chapter illustrates the impact on the financial statements of the classification
of leases as operating or financing. A key aspect of this syllabus is to understand the impact
of different accounting treatments. In practice, a company may classify a lease incorrectly,
either by mistake or intentionally. In any event this would have an impact on the view
presented by the financial statements.

 Define and identify different types of lease
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of lessee accounting
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of lessor accounting
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of sale and lease back
arrangements.
 Analyse the effect of different leasing transactions on the presentation of financial
statements

Chapter 15: IAS 17: Leases
1 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
Section overview
 Leases
 Types of lessor
 Inception and commencement
 Defined periods
 Residual values
 Minimum lease payments
 Interest rate implicit in the lease
 Other definitions
1.1 Leases
IAS 17 prescribes the accounting treatment of leased assets in the financial
statements of lessees and lessors.
Definition: Lease
Lease: An agreement whereby the lessor conveys to the lessee in return for a
payment or series of payments the right to use an asset for an agreed period of
time.
A lease is a way of obtaining a use of an asset, such as a machine, without

purchasing it outright. The company that owns the asset (the lessor) allows
another party (the lessee) to use the asset for a specified period of time in return
for a series of rental payments.
Types of lease
IAS 17 identifies two types of lease.
Definitions
A finance lease is a lease that transfers substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not eventually be transferred.
An operating lease is a lease other than a finance lease.
The identification of a lease as a finance lease or an operating lease is crucial as

it determines how a lease is accounted for by the lessor and the lessee.
This is explained in more detail in later sections.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Types of lessors

Companies might be lessors as a result of a variety of business models.
Finance companies (often banks and their subsidiaries)

Finance companies provide finance for the purchase of assets. In addition they
might finance the use of assets through leases.
Illustration:
A manufacturing company might need a new major asset.
The manufacturing company would approach the finance company who, would buy
the asset and then lease it out to the manufacturing company.
Finance companies are often associated with finance leases but they also fund
large operating leases. Many airlines have use of aircraft through operating
leases through finance companies.
Hire companies
These companies own a stock of capital assets which they will lease out for
varying periods.
They include:
 tool hire companies;
 plant hire companies; and
 car hire companies
Hire companies are usually involved in operating leases.
Manufacturer/dealer lessors
Some companies make or buy assets to sell. They may offer to lease the asset
out as an alternative to outright sale.
Many motor vehicle manufacturers and dealers do this. Such leases would
usually be finance leases (but not necessarily).
Property companies
Many companies own properties which they lease out to others. These
companies might apply IAS 40: Investment Properties to these assets.

1.3 Inception and commencement
Definitions: Inception of the lease

The inception of the lease is the earlier of the date of the lease agreement and the
date of commitment by the parties to the principal provisions of the lease.
As at this date:
(a) a lease is classified as either an operating or a finance lease; and
(b) in the case of a finance lease, the amounts to be recognised at the
commencement of the lease term are determined.
The type of lease in a contract (finance or operating) is identified at the date of

inception. This is where the parties to the lease contract commit to the terms of
the contract.
Definition: Commencement of a lease

The commencement of the lease term is the date from which the lessee is entitled
to exercise its right to use the leased asset. It is the date of initial recognition of the
lease (i.e. the recognition of the assets, liabilities, income or expenses resulting
from the lease, as appropriate).
The accounting treatment required is applied to a lease at the date of

commencement. This is the date that a lessee starts to use the asset or, at least,
is entitled to start to use the asset.
Illustration:
The Lokoja Railway Company has entered a contract to lease new rolling stock
from Siemens AG.
The contract was signed on 31 December 2013.
The rolling stock will be delivered late in 2014 and be available for use on 1
January 2015.
31 December 2013 is the date of inception – At this point the parties to the
contract are able to identify the type of lease.
1 January 2015 is the date of commencement – The IAS 17 accounting treatment
is applied from this point.
A lease agreement may allow for an adjustment to the terms of the lease contract
during the period between the inception of the lease and the commencement of
the lease term. Such adjustments might be to take account of unexpected
changes in costs (for example the lessor’s costs of making the asset that is the
subject of the lease).
In such cases the effect of any such changes is deemed to have taken place at
the inception of the lease.

Corporate reporting
1.4 Defined periods

IAS 17 refers to different periods when describing its rules.
Definition: Lease term

The lease term is the non-cancellable period for which the lessee has contracted to
lease the asset together with any further terms for which the lessee has the option
to continue to lease the asset, with or without further payment, when at the
inception of the lease it is reasonably certain that the lessee will exercise the
option.
A lease may be split into a primary period followed by an option to extend the
lease for a further period.
In some cases, the lessee might be able to exercise such an option with a small
rental or even for no rental at all. If such an option exists and it is reasonably
certain that the lessee will exercise the option, the second period is part of the
lease term.
Illustration:
Ilorin Construction (IC) are about to lease an earth digging machine from another
company.
Machines of this type usually last for 20 years.
The lease is for an initial period of 10 years at a rental of ₦1,000,000 per annum.
The contract allows IC to extend the lease for a further 10 years after the initial
period at a cost of ₦10 per annum.
Analysis
It would seem very likely that IC would continue to lease the asset beyond the
initial lease term. The term of this lease is 20 years.
At first sight it seems very strange that a lessor would be willing to lease its asset
out for the second 10 year period at so low a rent. However, the payments have
been set with this in mind. The payment of ₦1,000,000 per annum over the first
10 years compensates the lessor for the cash price of the asset and provides the
lessor with a mark-up.
Definitions: Economic and useful life

Economic life is either:
(a) the period over which an asset is expected to be economically usable by one
or more users; or
(b) the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the
asset by one or more users.
Useful life is the estimated remaining period, from the commencement of the
lease term, without limitation by the lease term, over which the economic benefits
embodied in the asset are expected to be consumed by the entity.
Economic life relates to the life of the asset whereas useful life relates to the
period that a party will obtain benefits from that asset.

Illustration:
On 1 January 2014 the Tin Can Island Port Authority leased a dredger for 6
months.
The dredger is 5 years old on that date. Ships of this kind are usually able to
provide 50 years’ service.
The dredger has an economic life of 45 years.
On the 1 January 2014 the dredger will have a useful life of 6 month’s for the Tin
Can Island Port Authority.
1.5 Residual values

When a company that owns an asset leases it to another party they have two
interests in that asset:
 It gives them a right to receive a series of rentals over the lease term; and
 They own the asset at the end of the lease.
The value of the asset at the end of the lease is called its residual value. This
figure might be guaranteed by the lessee. This means that if the asset is not
worth the amount guaranteed the lessee must pay the lessor the shortfall.
On the other hand the residual value might not be guaranteed.
Definitions: Guaranteed and unguaranteed residual value

Guaranteed residual value is:
(a) for a lessee, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee
or by a party related to the lessee (the amount of the guarantee being the
maximum amount that could, in any event, become payable); and
(b) for a lessor, that part of the residual value that is guaranteed by the lessee
or by a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of
discharging the obligations under the guarantee.
Unguaranteed residual value is that portion of the residual value of the leased
asset, the realisation of which by the lessor is not assured or is guaranteed solely
by a party related to the lessor.
The guaranteed and unguaranteed residual values might influence the

classification of a lease and its measurement.

Corporate reporting
1.6 Minimum lease payments

The definitions in this section are not easy to understand. You will need to work
through them carefully.
In essence, the term minimum lease payments refers to the payments that a
lessee expects to make over a lease term or to the receipts that a lessor expects
over the economic life of the asset.
In a straight forward example the minimum lease payments from the lessee’s
point of view will be the same as the minimum lease payments from the lessor’s
point of view.
Illustration:
Company A has an asset with an economic life of 10 years.
Company A leases the asset to Company B for 10 years at ₦100,000 per annum.
There is no expected residual value.
The minimum lease payments from the lessor’s view (Company A) are 10 receipts
of ₦100,000 per annum.
The minimum lease payments from the lessee’s view (Company B) are 10
payments of ₦100,000 per annum.
Many leases in practice are like the lease in the above illustration. However,
there are other leases where this is not the case. The definition of minimum lease
payments takes that into account.
Definition: Minimum lease payments

Minimum lease payments are the payments over the lease term that the lessee is
or can be required to make, excluding contingent rent, costs for services and taxes
to be paid by and reimbursed to the lessor, together with:
(a) for a lessee, any amounts guaranteed by the lessee or by a party related to
the lessee; or
(b) for a lessor, any residual value guaranteed to the lessor by:
(i) the lessee;
(ii) a party related to the lessee; or
(iii) a third party unrelated to the lessor that is financially capable of
discharging the obligations under the guarantee.
However, if the lessee has an option to purchase the asset at a price that is
expected to be sufficiently lower than fair value at the date the option becomes
exercisable for it to be reasonably certain, at the inception of the lease, that the
option will be exercised, the minimum lease payments comprise the minimum
payments payable over the lease term to the expected date of exercise of this
purchase option and the payment required to exercise it.

Example: Minimum lease payments

A finance company has purchased an asset and will lease it out in a series of
leases as follows:
The first lease is to Company A for a period of 5 years at an annual rental of
₦10,000.
After the end of the lease to Company A the asset will be leased to Company B for
1 year at a rental of ₦10,000. Company B is a party related to Company A.
After the end of the lease to Company B the asset will be leased to Company C for
1 year at a rental of ₦10,000. Company C is not related to Companies A and B.
Minimum lease payments

The minimum lease payments from the point of view of Company A and from the
point of view of the lessor are as follows:
Years Company A’s MLPs Lessor’s MLPs
1 to 5 10,000 10,000
6 10,000 10,000
7 10,000
As you will see later the minimum lease payments can be important in deciding
whether a lease is a finance lease or an operating lease and they enter into the
measurement of finance leases.
Minimum lease payments are also important in calculating the interest rate
implicit in a lease.

Corporate reporting
1.7 Interest rate implicit in the lease
Definition: Interest rate implicit in the lease

The interest rate implicit in the lease is the discount rate that, at the inception of
the lease, causes the aggregate present value of (a) the minimum lease payments
and (b) the unguaranteed residual value to be equal to the sum of (i) the fair value
of the leased asset and (ii) any initial direct costs of the lessor.
The interest rate implicit in the lease is the IRR of the cash flows from the lessor’s
viewpoint. It is the rate that equates the future cash inflows for the lessor to the
amount that the lessor invested in the asset.
Example: Interest rate implicit in the lease

A finance company has purchased an asset for ₦50,000 and will lease it out in a
series of leases as follows:
₦10,000.
1 year at a rental of ₦10,000. Company B is a party related to Company A.
After the end of the lease to Company B the asset will be leased to Company C for
1 year at a rental of ₦10,000. Company C is not related to Companies A and B.
At the end of this lease the asset is expected to have an unguaranteed residual
value of ₦2,573.
The interest rate implicit in the lease is 10%.
Proof
Lessor’s cash Discount Present
Time Narrative flows factor (10%) value
Fair value of
0 the asset (50,000) 1 (50,000)
1 to 7 Lessor’s MLPs 10,000 4.868 48,680

Unguaranteed
7 residual value 2,573 0.513 1,320
50,000
nil
The interest rate implicit in the lease (its IRR) was given in the above example. In
an exam question you might have to calculate it in the usual way.

Initial direct costs

The definition of interest rate implicit in the lease makes reference to incremental
initial direct costs.
Definition: Initial direct costs

Initial direct costs are incremental costs that are directly attributable to negotiating
and arranging a lease, except for such costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer
lessors.
The accounting treatment for initial direct costs will be explained later.
Lessee's incremental borrowing rate of interest

The interest rate implicit in the lease might be important in deciding whether a
lease is a finance lease or an operating lease.
It is calculated from the lessor’s viewpoint. Sometimes the lessee might not be
able to ascertain the interest rate implicit in the lease. In that case it would use
the lessee’s incremental borrowing cost instead.
Definition: Lessee's incremental borrowing rate of interest

The lessee's incremental borrowing rate of interest is the rate of interest the lessee
would have to pay on a similar lease or, if that is not determinable, the rate that, at
the inception of the lease, the lessee would incur to borrow over a similar term,
and with a similar security, the funds necessary to purchase the asset.
1.8 Other definitions
Definition: Non-cancellable lease

A non-cancellable lease is a lease that is cancellable only:
(a) upon the occurrence of some remote contingency;
(b) with the permission of the lessor;
(c) if the lessee enters into a new lease for the same or an equivalent asset
with the same lessor; or
(d) upon payment by the lessee of such an additional amount that, at inception
of the lease, continuation of the lease is reasonably certain.
Further definitions important to finance lessor accounting will be provided in that

section.

Corporate reporting
2 INTERPRETATIONS ON THE EXISTENCE OF A LEASE
Section overview
 Introduction
 SIC 27: Evaluating the substance of transactions involving the legal form of a
lease
 IFRIC 4: Determining whether an arrangement contains a lease
2.1 Introduction
There are two interpretations to give guidance as to whether a transaction is a
lease.
 SIC 27 gives guidance on transactions described as leases but which might
not actually contain a lease.
 IFRIC 4 gives guidance on transactions which do not look like leases but
which might contain a lease.
These interpretations are only about the existence of a lease. They do not talk
about the classification of a lease found in an agreement. That is left to IAS 17.
2.2 SIC 27: Evaluating the substance of transactions involving the legal form of a
lease
Background
An entity may enter into a transaction (or a series of structured transactions) with
a third party (an investor) that involves the legal form of a lease, but is not a lease
in substance.
The form of each arrangement and its terms and conditions can vary significantly.
One such example is a lease and leaseback arrangement where an entity leases
an asset to an investor and leases the same asset back.
 The arrangement may be designed to achieve a tax advantage for the
investor:
 The entity receives a fee to represent a share of the tax advantage and not
for the use of the asset.
The issue
The issues in accounting for transactions involving the legal form of a lease are:
 how to determine whether a series of transactions is linked and should be
accounted for as one transaction;
 whether the arrangement meets the definition of a lease; and
 how to account for it if it is not a lease.
Consensus
A series of transactions is linked and accounted for as one transaction when the
overall economic effect cannot be understood without reference to the series of
transactions as a whole.

This is the case when the series of transactions are:

 closely interrelated;
 negotiated as a single transaction; and
 take place concurrently or in a continuous sequence
Consensus: Introduction
The accounting treatment must reflect the substance of the arrangement.
Understanding the substance of the arrangement would require an examination
of all aspects and implications of that arrangement.
Consensus: Whether the arrangement contains a lease

IAS 17 applies when the substance of an arrangement includes the conveyance
of the right to use an asset for an agreed period of time.
Any of the following indicate that an arrangement may not involve a lease in
substance:
 an entity retains all the risks and rewards incident to ownership of an
underlying asset and enjoys substantially the same rights to its use as
before the arrangement;
 the primary reason for the arrangement is to achieve a particular tax result
and not to convey the right to use an asset; and
 an option is included on terms that make its exercise almost certain
Consensus: Other guidance

 When the arrangement is not a lease the Conceptual Framework gives
guidance on whether the entity should recognise assets or liability.
 IAS 37, IAS 39 (IFRS 9) and IFRS 4 might provide guidance on accounting
for any other obligations.
 IAS 18 might provide guidance on accounting for any fee received.
Disclosure
An entity must disclose the following (in each period that an arrangement exists):
 a description of the arrangement including:
 the underlying asset and any restrictions on its use;
 life and other significant terms of the arrangement;
 transactions that are linked together, including any options; and
 the accounting treatment applied to any fee received;
 the amount recognised as income in the period; and
 the line item of the income statement in which it is included
These disclosures are provided individually for each arrangement or in aggregate
for each class of arrangement.

Corporate reporting
2.3 IFRIC 4: Determining whether an arrangement contains a lease
Background
An arrangement might not have the legal form of a lease might still convey a right
to use an asset in return for a payment or series of payments.
Examples include:
 certain outsourcing arrangements; and
 arrangements in the telecommunications industry where suppliers of
network capacity sell rights to capacity.
IFRIC 4 gives guidance to determine whether such arrangements should be
accounted for in accordance with IAS 17.
Issue
The issues addressed by IFRIC 4 are as follows:
 how to determine whether an arrangement is (or contains) a lease as
defined in IAS 17; and
 if an arrangement is (or contains) a lease, how the payments for the lease
should be separated from payments for any other elements in the
arrangement.
Consensus – Is there a lease?

The determination of whether an arrangement is (or contains) is based on the
substance of the arrangement. This requires an assessment of whether:
 fulfilment of the arrangement depends on the use of a specific asset(s); and
 if a specific asset is explicitly identified in a contract but the supplier could
use another asset to fulfil his obligation the arrangement does not contain a
lease
The arrangement conveys a right to use the asset when the purchaser can:
 operate the asset as it wishes and obtains / controls more than an
insignificant amount of the asset’s output (utility); or
 control physical access to the asset while obtaining (controlling) more than
an insignificant amount of the asset’s output (utility); or
 there is little chance that any other party will take more than an insignificant
amount of the output
Consensus – Separating payments

Payments under the arrangement are split at inception (using relative fair values)
into:
 those for the lease; and
 those for other elements

3 LEASE CLASSIFICATION
Section overview
 Finance leases and operating leases

 Identifying a finance lease
 Commentary on finance lease indicators
 Leases of land and buildings
3.1 Finance leases and operating leases

IAS 17 describes two types of lease (with each type being accounted for in a
different way):
 finance leases; and
 operating leases.
The definitions of each type are repeated here for convenience.
Definitions
A finance lease is a lease that transfers substantially all the risks and rewards
incidental to ownership of an asset. Title may or may not eventually be transferred.
An operating lease is a lease other than a finance lease.
A lease is classified as a finance lease if it transfers substantially all the risks and
rewards incidental to ownership. A lease is classified as an operating lease if it
does not transfer substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to ownership.
Risks may be represented by the possibility of losses from:
 idle capacity;
 technological obsolescence;
 variations in return caused by changes in economic conditions.
Rewards may be represented by the expectation of;
 profitable use of the asset over its economic life;
 gains from increases in value or profits on disposal.
Substance over form

Whether a lease is a finance lease or an operating lease depends on the
substance of the transaction rather than the form of the contract.
The legal form of a finance lease is that the lessor is the legal owner of the
leased asset.
The economic substance of a finance lease is that the lessee has all the benefits
and costs associated with ownership of the asset. The finance lessee is in the
same position as it would have been if it had borrowed money to buy the asset
itself. That is why such leases are called finance leases; they provide finance for
the use of an asset.

Corporate reporting
3.2 Identifying a finance lease

The following situations (individually or in combination) would normally lead to a
lease being classified as a finance lease:
 At the end of the term of the lease, the legal ownership of the asset will be
transferred from the lessor to the lessee, under the terms of the lease
agreement;
 The lessee has the option, at a future date, to purchase the asset from the
lessor, and the agreed purchase price is substantially lower than the
expected fair value of the asset at the date the option to buy can be
exercised. (In this situation, it is therefore probable that the lessee will
exercise the option to buy the asset);
 The term of the lease is for a major part of the expected economic life of
the asset;
 At the inception of the lease, the present value of all the future lease
payments amounts to substantially all of the fair value of the leased asset,
or more;
 The leased asset is of such a specialised nature that it can only be used by
the lessee (without the need for a major modification);
 If the lessee can cancel the lease, the lessor's losses associated with the
cancellation are borne by the lessee;
 Gains or losses from the fluctuation in the fair value of the residual accrue
to the lessee (for example, in the form of a rent rebate equalling most of the
sales proceeds at the end of the lease); and
 The lessee has the ability to continue the lease for a secondary period at a
rent that is substantially lower than market rent.
In all these situations, it can normally be concluded that substantially all the risks
and rewards incidental to ownership are transferred to the lessee.
These indicators are not always conclusive. Classification should always be
based on the substance of the agreement taking account of all information.
Leases are classified at the inception of the lease. Sometimes a lessee and
lessor agree to change the provisions of a lease and the changes might be of a
sort that would have changed the lease classification if the new terms had been
in effect at the inception of the lease. In these cases the revised agreement is
regarded as a new agreement over its term.
However, changes in estimates (for example, changes in estimates of the
economic life or of the residual value of the leased property), or changes in
circumstances (for example, default by the lessee), do not give rise to a new
classification of a lease for accounting purposes.

3.3 Commentary on finance lease indicators

It is not always obvious why the above circumstances indicate that a lease is a
finance lease. This section provides an explanation on some of these.
To understand these it is useful to think of the terms from the lessor’s viewpoint.
Bargain purchase option

If a lease includes a term whereby the lessee can buy the leased asset at a
bargain price at the end of the lease that lease is a finance lease.
If the lessor includes this term in the lease the lessor would expect the lessor to
take advantage of it. Therefore the lessor knows that it needs to make sure to
recover the cost of the asset together with any related interest during the lease
term. The rentals and final sale price are set at a level which allows it to do this.
Therefore, the lessee will pay the full cash price of the asset together with related
finance expense over the lease term.
 The lessee would only do this if it had access to the risks and benefits of
ownership.
 In substance, this is just like borrowing the cash and buying the asset.
Therefore, the lease is a finance lease.
Lease is for a major part of the expected economic life of the asset.
If the lessor includes this term in the lease the lessor knows that when the asset
is given back to it at the end of the lease, the asset will only have a small value.
Therefore the lessor knows that it needs to make sure to recover the cost of the
asset together with any related interest during the lease term. The rentals are set
at a level which allows it to do this.
ownership.
Specialised nature of the asset

If the lessor includes this term in the lease the lessor knows that when the lease
comes to an end it will be unable to lease the asset on to another party.
Therefore the lessor knows that it needs to make sure to recover the cost of the
asset together with any related interest during the lease term. The rentals are set
at a level which allows it to do this.
ownership.

Corporate reporting
PV of future lease payments amounts to substantially all of the fair value of the
leased asset
A lease is a finance lease if at the inception of the lease, the present value of all
the future lease payments amounts to substantially all of the fair value of the
leased asset, or more. (The discount rate to be used in calculating the present
value of the minimum lease payments is the interest rate implicit in the lease).
In this case the lessee is paying the full cash price of the asset together with
related finance expense over the lease term.
Example: PV of future lease payments

A finance company has purchased an asset to lease out to a manufacturing
company.
The asset cost for ₦500,000 and has an economic life of 10 years.
The lease is for 9 years at an annual rental (in arrears) of ₦87,000 per annum.
Analysis: Lessor’s view

Discount Present
Time Narrative Cash flows factor (10%) value
1 to 9 Lessor’s MLPs 87,000 5.759 501,033
This is more than the fair value of the asset. This lease is a finance lease
(also note that the lease is for the major part of the expected economic
life of the asset which is another finance lease indicator).
Analysis: Lessee’s view

Discount Present
1 to 9 Lessee’s MLPs 87,000 5.759 501,033
This is more than the fair value of the asset. This lease is a finance lease
(also note that the lease is for the major part of the expected economic
life of the asset which is another finance lease indicator).

In the above example the lessee and the lessor have the same view of the lease.
This is not necessarily the case.
Example: PV of future lease payments

A finance company has purchased an asset for ₦50,000 and will lease it out in a
series of leases as follows:
₦10,000.
3 years at a rental of ₦10,000. Company B is not related to Company A.
At the end of this lease the asset is expected to have an unguaranteed residual
value of ₦2,573.
The Interest rate implicit in the lease is 10%.
Analysis: Lessor’s view

Discount Present
1 to 7 Lessor’s MLPs 10,000 4.868 48,680
This is 97.4% (48,680/50,000  100) of the fair value of the asset.

Most would agree that this was substantially all of the fair value of the
asset (though IAS 17 does not give a numerical benchmark).
This lease is a finance lease.
Analysis: Company A’s view

Discount Present
1 to 4 Lessor’s MLPs 10,000 3.170 31,700
This is 63.4% (31,700/50,000  100) of the fair value of the asset.

Most would agree that this is not substantially all of the fair value of the
asset (though IAS 17 does not give a numerical benchmark).
This lease is an operating lease.
Practice question 1
Ibadan Construction has leased a cement lorry.
The cash price of the lorry would be ₦3,000,000.
The lease is for 6 years at an annual rental (in arrears) of ₦600,000. The
asset is believed to have an economic life of 7 years.
Ibadan Construction is responsible for maintaining and insuring the asset.
State with reasons the kind of lease Ibadan has entered into.

Corporate reporting
3.4 Leases of land and buildings

A property lease usually includes both land and buildings. Each element should
be classified separately. In other words, a property lease is viewed as a lease of
land and a different lease of the building.
Leases of land and buildings are classified as operating or finance leases in the
same way as leases of other assets.
Land element
An important consideration is that land normally has an indefinite economic life.
This means that the lease term will not normally be for a major part of the life of
the asset and the asset will have a significant value at the end of the lease. This
implies that the land element of the lease will usually be an operating lease.
This is not always the case. In some parts of the world a property lease might be
very long (say 999 years). In a case like this the unguaranteed residual value
might be very large but in present value terms is negligible, leading the present
value of the minimum lease payments to be substantially all of the fair value of
the asset at the inception of the lease. Such a lease could be a finance lease.
Building element
The building is classified as a finance lease or as an operating lease according to
the guidance set out and explained in sections 2.2 and 2.3 above.
Splitting the payments

It is necessary to split the rental payments for the land and building into the rental
for the land and the rental for the building.
The minimum lease payments are allocated between the land and the buildings
elements in proportion to the relative fair values of the leasehold interests in the
land element and buildings element of the lease at the inception of the lease.
The relative fair value of the leasehold interests is from the point of view of the
lessee. This means that the relative fair value of the leasehold interests is not the
same as the relative fair value of the land and the building.
Illustration:
A company leases a property for ₦450,000 per annum (in arrears).
The lease is for 10 years and the useful life of the building is 5 years.
Land (₦) Building (₦)
Fair value 2,000,000 500,000
Fair value of leasehold interest 1,000,000 500,000
The rentals are allocated between the land and buildings in the ratio of
1,000,000 to 500,000 or 2 t0 1
₦
Rental for land (2/3  450,000) 300,000
Rental for building (1/3  450,000) 150,000

If this cannot be done the entire lease must be classified as a finance lease
unless it is clear that both elements are operating leases, in which case the entire
lease is classified as an operating lease.
If the land element is immaterial, the land and buildings may be treated as a
single unit for the purpose of lease classification. In such a case, the economic
life of the building is regarded as the economic life of the entire leased asset.

Corporate reporting
4 ACCOUNTING FOR A FINANCE LEASE: LESSEE ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 Substance over form

 Finance lease accounting: Initial recognition
 Finance lease accounting: Subsequent measurement of the asset
 Finance lease accounting: Subsequent measurement of the liability
 Calculating and allocating finance charges (interest)
 Current and non-current elements of the finance lease liability
 Lease payments made in advance
 Disclosure
4.1 Substance over form

An earlier section explained that whether a lease is a finance lease or an
operating lease depends on the substance of the contract rather than its form.
The economic substance of a finance lease is that the lessee in effect has all the
benefits and costs associated with ownership of the asset. In substance it is as if
the lessee borrowed money to buy the asset.
This is the basis of the accounting treatment required for finance leases in the
books of the lessee.
Similarly, the lessor no longer has the benefits and costs associated with
ownership. The lessor should not account for the asset in its books. In substance,
the lessor has lent money to another party to enable them to buy the asset. The
lessor accounts for a receivable in its books being the right to receive a future
flow of rentals.
4.2 Finance lease accounting: Initial recognition

A finance lease is capitalised at the commencement of the lease term. This
involves the recognition of the asset that is subject to the lease and a liability for
the future lease payments.
The asset and liability are recognised at the commencement of the lease at the
lower of:
 the fair value of the asset (the cash price if purchased outright); and
 the present value of the minimum lease payments.
The present value of the minimum lease payments is discounted using the
interest rate implicit in the lease. If it is not practicable to determine this, the
lessee's incremental borrowing rate must be used.
The liability is the capital amount (the principal) that the lessee will have to pay
back to the lessor over the term of the lease.

Illustration: Double entry on initial recognition of a finance lease

(Assumes that the leased asset is an item of property, plant and equipment)
Debit Credit
Property, plant and machinery – (at cost) X
Liabilities: finance lease obligations X
Initial direct costs are often incurred in connection with specific leasing activities,
such as negotiating and securing leasing arrangements.
Any initial direct costs of the lessee are added to the amount recognised as an
asset.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Property, plant and machinery – (at cost) X
Cash/bank X
Example:
Ibadan Construction enters into a 6 year finance lease of a machine on 1 January
Year 1.
The fair value of the machine at the commencement of the lease was ₦80,000
and Ibadan Construction incurred initial direct costs of ₦2,000 when arranging the
lease.
Double entry:
Debit Credit
Property, plant and machinery – (at cost) 80,000
Liabilities: finance lease obligations 80,000
Property, plant and machinery – (at cost) 2,000

Cash/bank 2,000

Corporate reporting
4.3 Finance lease accounting: Subsequent measurement of the asset

A finance lease gives rise to depreciation expense for depreciable assets as well
as finance expense for each accounting period.
The depreciation policy for depreciable leased assets must be consistent with
that for similar owned assets and is calculated in accordance with IAS 16:
Property, Plant and Equipment and IAS 38: Intangible Assets.
If there is no reasonable certainty that the lessee will obtain ownership by the end
of the lease, the asset is depreciated over the shorter of:
 its expected useful life; and
 the term of the lease.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Statement of comprehensive income (depreciation
expense) X
Accumulated depreciation X
Example:
Year 1.
lease.
The estimated residual value of the asset at the end of the lease is ₦8,000.
The estimated useful life of the asset is 5 years.
Ibadan Construction has incurred initial direct costs of ₦2,000.
The accounting policy for similar owned machines is to depreciate them over their
useful life on a straight line basis.
Annual depreciation charge:
Initial cost: ₦
Fair value of the machine 80,000
Initial direct costs 2,000
82,000
Residual value (8,000)
Depreciable amount 74,000
Useful life (shorter of the lease term and the useful life) 5 years
Annual depreciation charge 14,800

The leased asset is included in the statement of financial position at its carrying
amount (cost less accumulated depreciation) in the same way as similar assets.
Example:
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

₦ ₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
Cost 82,000 82,000 82,000 82,000 82,000
Accumulated
depreciation:
Brought forward nil 14,800 29,600 44,400 59,200
Charge for the
year 14,800 14,800 14,800 14,800 14,800
Carried forward 14,800 29,600 44,400 59,200 74,000
Carrying amount 67,200 52,400 37,600 22,800 8,000
The asset is depreciated down to a carrying amount at the end of the asset’s
useful life that is the estimated residual value

Corporate reporting
4.4 Finance lease accounting: Subsequent measurement of the liability
During each year, the lessee makes one or more lease payments. The payment
is recorded in the ledger account as follows.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Liabilities: Finance lease obligations X
Cash/bank X
A finance lease liability is measured in the same way as any other liability. The
balance at any point in time is as follows:
Illustration:
₦
Amount borrowed at the start of the lease (the amount X
recognised on initial recognition of the lease)
Plus: Interest accrued X
Minus: Repayments (lease payments or rentals) (X)
Repayment of loan principal (X)
Amount owed now. X
In effect, each lease payment consists of two elements:

 a finance charge (interest charge) on the liability to the lessor, and
 a partial repayment of the liability (the finance lease obligation).
The finance charge is treated as a finance cost in profit or loss for the period. The
partial repayment of the lease obligation reduces the amount of the liability that
remains unpaid.
Finance charge
The total rental payments over the life of the lease will be more than the amount
initially recognised as a liability. The difference is finance charge.
The total finance charge that arises over the life of the lease is the difference
between the amount borrowed and the sum of all payments.
Illustration: Total finance charge

₦
Lessee’s minimum lease payments (sum of all payments made
by the lessee to the lessor) X
Amount on initial recognition (X)
Total finance charge X

Example: Total finance charge

Year 1.
lease.
The annual lease payments are ₦18,000, payable at the end of each year.
The estimated residual value of the asset at the end of the lease is ₦8,000 and
Ibadan Construction has guaranteed this amount.
The interest rate implicit in the lease is 11.176751%.
Total finance charge

Lessee’s minimum lease payments: ₦
Annual rentals (6  18,000) 108,000
Guaranteed residual value 8,000
116,000
Amount on initial recognition (80,000)
Total finance charge (interest) 36,000
The finance charge (interest) is recognised over the life of the lease by adding a
periodic charge to the liability for the finance lease obligation with the other side
of the entry as an expense in profit or loss for the year.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Statement of comprehensive income: interest
expense X
Liabilities: Finance lease obligations X

Corporate reporting
4.5 Calculating and allocating finance charges (interest)

The total finance charge for a leased asset is allocated “so as to provide a
constant rate of charge on the outstanding obligation”.
This means that as the lease liability decreases at each year-end, the interest
charge for the next year will be lower than it was for the previous year.
The method implied by the IAS 17 guidance is to use an interest rate to allocate
the interest. This method is called the actuarial method. (The sum of digits
method usually gives an acceptable approximation to the actuarial method).
Questions in your exam are likely to require the use of an interest rate (which you
may have to calculate as the interest rate implicit in the lease).
Actuarial method
The actuarial method uses discounting arithmetic to establish the interest rate
that is implicit in the lease. This interest rate is then applied to the opening
balance of the lease liability at the start of each period, in order to calculate the
finance charge.
Example: Allocation of the finance charge

Year 1.
lease.
The annual lease payments are ₦18,000, payable at the end of each year.
Finance lease liability:

Opening Interest Lease Closing
Year liability (11.176751%) payments liability
1 80,000 8,941 (18,000) 70,941
2 70,941 7,929 (18,000) 60,870
3 60,870 6,803 (18,000) 49,674
4 49,674 5,552 (18,000) 37,226
5 37,226 4,161 (18,000) 23,386
6 23,386 2,614 (26,000) 0
36,000
The interest expense is calculated by multiplying the opening liability by

11.176751% in each year (so as to provide a constant rate of charge on
the outstanding obligation).

The finance lease obligation consists of the capital balance outstanding. This can
be shown as follows:
Example:
Opening Lease Capital Closing

Year balance payments Interest repayments balance
1 80,000 (18,000) 8,941 (9,059) 70,941
2 70,941 (18,000) 7,929 (10,071) 60,870
3 60,870 (18,000) 6,803 (11,197) 49,674
4 49,674 (18,000) 5,552 (12,448) 37,226
5 37,226 (18,000) 4,161 (13,839) 23,386
6 23,386 (26,000) 2,614 (23,386) 0
The final payment

In the above example the final payment by the lessee is ₦26,000. This is in fact
made up of two amounts, the final rental of ₦18,000 and the guaranteed residual
value of ₦8,000.
It is worth considering the payment in respect of the guaranteed residual value in
a little more detail.
At the end of the lease the asset that is the subject of the lease is transferred
back to the lessor. It has been depreciated down to its estimated residual value
of ₦8,000.
The transfer is recorded as follows:
Example: Final payment in respect of the guaranteed residual value

Debit Credit
Liabilities: Finance lease obligations 8,000
Asset held under finance lease 8,000
In other words the ₦8,000 part of the final year payment to the lessor of ₦26,000
is not cash but the transfer of the asset.
If the asset is worth less that ₦8,000 the lessee must make good any shortfall. In
this case the asset is written down to its value at the date of the transfer (as
agreed between the lessee and the lessor) and the lessee will pay cash to the
lessor to compensate for any difference.

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Final payment in respect of the guaranteed residual value

The asset has a carrying amount of ₦8,000 at the end of the lease but is only
worth ₦5,000.
The lessee would make the following double entries.
Write down the asset Debit Credit
Pay the lessor the guaranteed residual value

Liabilities: Finance lease obligations 8,000
Cash/bank 3,000
4.6 Current and non-current elements of the finance lease liability

The total liability must be divided between:
 the current liability (amount payable within the next 12 months), and
 the non-current liability.
The easy way to do it is to use the tables to identify the current liability or the
non-current liability and then find the other as a balancing figure.
Example: Split of current and non-current liability at the end of year 1

1 80,000 (18,000) 8,941 (9,059) 70,941
2 70,941 (18,000) 7,929 (10,071) 60,870
 
This is the This is the
current non-current
liability liability
Liability: ₦
Current liability 10,071
Non-current liability 60,870
Total liability (for proof) 70,941

4.7 Lease payments made in advance

When the lease payments for a finance lease are made at the start of each
period instead of the end of the period, the total finance charge is the same
(because neither the amount borrowed nor the total rentals have changed) but
the interest must be recognised over a shorter period. This is because the liability
is paid off one period earlier.
This means that the interest rate used for payments in advance will be bigger
than that used for the same payments in arrears.
Also note that when the lease payments for a finance lease are made at the start
of each period, the opening liability for the finance lease obligation is reduced by
the lease payment at the beginning of the year, and the interest charge must be
applied to the remaining balance.
Example: Allocation of finance charge

Year 1.
lease.
The annual lease payments are ₦18,000, payable at the start of each year.

(Note: “Year 0” is the first day of year 1. It would be better to think of it as time 0).
Liability
Opening Lease after day 1 Interest at Closing
Year liability payments payment 16.1434%. liability
0 80,000 (18,000) 62,000 10,009 72,009
1 72,009 (18,000) 54,009 8,719 62,728
2 62,728 (18,000) 44,728 7,221 51,948
3 51,948 (18,000) 33,948 5,480 39,429
4 39,429 (18,000) 21,429 3,459 24,888
5 24,888 (18,000) 6,888 1,112 8,000
6 8,000 (8,000) 0
36,000
The interest expense is calculated by multiplying the opening liability by

16.1434% in each year (so as to provide a constant rate of charge on the
outstanding obligation).
In the above example the first payment of ₦18,000 is made on the first day of the
lease term. Therefore it does not include any interest and is a repayment of
capital.

Corporate reporting
The year 1 interest of ₦10,009 is recognised at the end of year 1 (31 December
Year 1). It is paid the next day by the payment of ₦18,000 made on 1 January
Year 2.
The closing liability at the end of year 1 is made up of the interest accrued in year
1 and an amount of capital which will be paid off in year 2.
This can be shown for all of the years below.
Example: Capital repayments

Schedule to show repayment of capital:

1 80,000 (18,000) - (18,000) 62,000
2 62,000 (18,000) 10,009 (7,991) 54,009
3 51,948 (18,000) 8,719 (9,281) 44,728
4 39,429 (18,000) 7,221 (10,779) 33,948
5 24,888 (18,000) 5,480 (12,520) 21,429
6 (start) 8,000 (18,000) 3,459 (14,541) 6,888
6 (end) 6,888 (8,000) 1,112 (6,888) 0
Current and non-current liability

If payments are made annually in advance, the next payment is a current liability.
Therefore in the above example the ₦18,000 paid on 1 January Year 2 is a
current liability.
However, this is made up of two elements, interest of ₦10,009 and a capital
repayment of ₦7,991. These elements could be shown separately.
This means that the closing liability at the end of year 1 as identified on the
previous page (₦72,009) is made up of three parts:
 the interest recognised in year 1 but unpaid at the year-end (₦10,009);
 the current element of the capital owed on the lease (₦7,991); and
 the non-current element of the capital owed on the lease (₦54,009).

Example: Current and non-current liability

1 80,000 (18,000) - (18,000) 62,000
2 62,000 (18,000) 10,009 (7,991) 54,009
Interest Finance Finance

expense lease lease non-
current current current
liability liability liability
Liability: ₦
Current liabilities
Interest expense 10,009
Current part of finance lease liability 7,991
Non-current liability
Non-current part of finance lease liability 54,009
Total finance lease liability (for proof) 62,000
Total liability (for proof) 72,009
Practice question 2
The fair value of an asset, leased under a finance lease commencing on 1 January
Year 1 is ₦10,000.
The lease is for three years with payments of ₦4,021 annually on 1 January Year 1,
Year 2 and Year 3.
Required
Complete the lease payment table for all three years 1 to 3, and calculate the
current liability and the non-current liability at 31 December Year 1 under the
actuarial method.

Corporate reporting
4.8 Disclosures
Finance lessees must disclose the following:
 the net carrying amount at the end of the reporting period for each class of
asset;
 a reconciliation between the total of future minimum lease payments at the
end of the reporting period, and their present value (note that the present
value of the minimum lease payments is the total finance lease liability as
at the reporting date);
 the total of future minimum lease payments at the end of the reporting
period, and their present value, for each of the following periods:
 not later than one year;
 later than one year and not later than five years;
 later than five years.
Example: Finance lessee disclosures

Using the example used in section 3.4 to show the disclosures as at the end of the
first year.
Minimum lease payments Gross PV
₦ ₦
No later than 1 year 18,000 16,190
Later than 1 year and no later than 5 year
(4 18,000 + 8,000) 80,000 54,751
Later than 5 years nil nil
98,000 70,491
Less finance charge that relates to future periods
(36,000  8,941)1 (27,059)
Present value of finance lease liabilities (the total
finance lease liability) 70,941 70,491
1The finance charge that relates to future periods is the total finance
charge less the finance charge already expensed.
Working
Present
Gross (₦) Discount factor (11.18%) value (₦)
1 year’s time 18,000 0.8995 16,190

2 years’ time 18,000 0.8090 14,563
3 years’ time 18,000 0.7277 13,099
4 years’ time 18,000 0.6546 11,782
5 years’ time 26,000 0.5887 15,307
80,000 54,751
98,000 70,941

Finance lessees must also disclose the following:

 contingent rents recognised as an expense in the period;
 the total of future minimum sublease payments expected to be received
under non-cancellable subleases at the end of the reporting period;
 a general description of the lessee's material leasing arrangements
including, but not limited to, the following:
 the basis on which contingent rent payable is determined;
 the existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and
escalation clauses; and
 restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those
concerning dividends, additional debt, and further leasing.
Definition: Contingent rent

Contingent rent is that portion of the lease payments that is not fixed in amount
but is based on the future amount of a factor that changes other than with the
passage of time (e.g. percentage of future sales, amount of future use, future price
indices, future market rates of interest).

Corporate reporting
5 ACCOUNTING FOR A FINANCE LEASE: LESS0R ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 Definitions
 Finance lease accounting
 Manufacturer/dealer leases
 Finance lessor disclosures
5.1 Definitions
The lessor does not record the leased asset in his own financial statements
because he has transferred the risks and rewards of ownership of the physical
leased asset to the lessee. Instead, he records the amount due to him under the
terms of the finance lease as a receivable.
The receivable is described as the net investment in the lease.
Definitions: Gross and net investment in the lease

Gross investment in the lease is the aggregate of:
(a) the minimum lease payments receivable by the lessor under a finance
lease, and
(b) any unguaranteed residual value accruing to the lessor.
Net investment in the lease is the gross investment in the lease discounted at the
interest rate implicit in the lease.
An earlier section explained that the interest rate implicit in the lease is the
discount rate that, at the inception of the lease, causes:
 the aggregate present value of the minimum lease payments and the
unguaranteed residual value; to be equal to
 the sum of the fair value of the leased asset and any initial direct costs of
the lessor.
Therefore the net investment in the lease is the sum of the fair value of the asset
plus the initial direct costs.

5.2 Finance lease accounting

Many of the entries to be made in the ledger accounts of the lessor are a ‘mirror
image’ of those made by the lessee in respect of his lease liability.
Lessee Lessor
Initial recognition Finance lease payable Finance lease receivable
(net investment in the
lease)
Subsequent Finance cost Finance income
measurement
Pattern of So as to provide a So as to provide a
recognition constant periodic rate of constant periodic rate of
charge on the outstanding return on the net
obligation investment in the lease.
Initial recognition
The lessor records a receivable for the capital amount owed by the lessee. This
should be stated at the amount of the ‘net investment in the lease’. The net
investment in the lease is the fair value of the asset.
Illustration: Double entry on Initial recognition of a finance lease

Debit Credit
Net investment in the lease X
Cash/bank X
For finance leases other than those involving manufacturer or dealer lessors,
initial direct costs are included in the initial measurement of the finance lease
receivable and reduce the amount of income recognised over the lease term.
This is because they reduce the total finance income which is the difference
between all future payments and the receivable initially recognised.
Initial direct costs of manufacturer or dealer lessors in connection with negotiating
and arranging a lease are excluded from the definition of initial direct costs. As a
result, they are excluded from the net investment in the lease.
The treatment of similar costs incurred by manufacturers and dealers is explained
later.

Corporate reporting
Subsequent measurement of the receivable

During each year, the lessor receives payments from the lessor. Each receipt is
recorded in the ledger account as follows.
Illustration: Lessor receipts

Debit Credit
Cash/bank X
A finance lease receivable (net investment in the lease) is measured in the same
way as any other financial asset. The balance at any point in time is as follows:
Illustration: Net investment in the lease
₦
Amount loaned at the start of the lease (the amount recognised X
on initial recognition of the lease)
Plus: Interest accrued X
Minus: Repayments (lease payments or rentals) (X)
Repayment of loan principal (X)
Amount owed to the lessor now. X
In effect, each lease receipt consists of two elements:

 finance income on the receivable; and
 a partial repayment of the receivable (net investment in the lease).
The finance charge is recognised as income in profit or loss for the period. The
partial repayment of the lease receivable reduces the amount owed to the lessor.
Finance income
The total rental receipts over the life of the lease will be more than the amount
initially recognised as a receivable. The difference is finance income.
The total finance income that arises over the life of the lease is the difference
between the amount invested in the lease (the amount loaned plus the initial
direct costs) and the sum of all receipts.
Illustration: Total finance income
₦
Lessor’s minimum lease payments X
Initial direct costs X
X
Amount on initial recognition (X)
Total finance charge X

Example: Total finance income

Kano Finance agreed to lease a machine to Ibadan Construction commencing on 1
January Year 1.
The lease was a 6 year finance lease of a machine on 1 January Year 1 with annual
lease payments of ₦18,000, payable in arrears.
and Kano Finance incurred initial direct costs of ₦2,000 when arranging the lease.
The estimated residual value of the asset at the end of the lease is ₦10,000. The
lessee has guaranteed an amount of ₦8,000.
Total finance income
Lessor’s minimum lease payments: ₦

Annual rentals (6  18,000) 108,000
Guaranteed residual value 8,000
Unguaranteed residual value 2,000
118,000
Amount on initial recognition (80,000)
Initial direct costs (2,000)
(82,000)
Total finance income 36,000
The finance income is recognised over the life of the lease by adding a periodic
return to the net investment in the lease with the other side of the entry as
income in profit or loss for the year.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Statement of comprehensive income: finance income X

Corporate reporting
Calculating and allocating finance income

Finance income is recognised so as to give a constant periodic rate of return on
the lessor's net investment in the finance lease.
Example: Calculating and allocating finance income

January Year 1.
The estimated residual value of the asset at the end of the lease is ₦10,000. The
lessee has guaranteed an amount of ₦8,000.
Proof that interest rate implicit in the lease is 10.798%
Discount
Cash factor Present
Year Narrative flow (10.798%) value
Minimum lease payments
1 to 6 Annual rentals 18,000 4.2553 76,595
6 Guaranteed residual value 10,000 0.54052 5,405
82,000
Fair value of the asset 80,000

Initial direct costs 2,000
82,000

Example: Calculating and allocating finance income

January Year 1.
The estimated residual value of the asset at the end of the lease is ₦8,000 and the
lessee has guaranteed this amount.
Net investment in the lease
Opening net Interest Lease Closing net

Year investment (10.798%) receipts investment
1 82,000 8,854 (18,000) 72,854
2 72,854 7,867 (18,000) 62,721
3 62,721 6,773 (18,000) 51,494
4 51,494 5,560 (18,000) 39,054
5 39,054 4,217 (18,000) 25,271
6 25,271 2,729 (26,000) 2,000
36,000
The interest income is calculated by multiplying the opening receivable

by 10.798% in each year (so as to provide a constant rate of return on
the net investment in the lease).
The final balance on the account is the unguaranteed residual value.

Corporate reporting
5.3 Manufacturer/dealer leases

Manufacturers or dealers often offer to customers the choice of either buying or
leasing an asset. A finance lease of an asset by a manufacturer or dealer lessor
gives rise to two types of income:
 profit or loss equivalent to the profit or loss resulting from an outright sale of
the asset being leased, at normal selling prices, reflecting any applicable
volume or trade discounts; and
 finance income over the lease term.
Revenue
The sales revenue recognised at the commencement of the lease term is the
lower of:
 the fair value of the asset; and
 the present value of the lessor’s minimum lease payments at a market rate
of interest.
Cost of sale
The cost of sale recognised at the commencement of the lease term is the
carrying amount of the leased asset less the present value of the unguaranteed
residual value.
The deduction of the present value of the unguaranteed residual value
recognises that this part of the asset is not being sold. This amount is transferred
to the lease receivable. The balance on the lease receivable is then the present
value of the amounts which the lessor will collect off the lessee plus the present
value of the unguaranteed residual value. This is the net investment in the lease
as defined in section 4.1.
Costs incurred by manufacturer or dealer lessors in connection with negotiating
and arranging a lease must be recognised as an expense when the selling profit
is recognised.
Profit or loss on the sale

The difference between the sales revenue and the cost of sale is the selling profit
or loss. Profit or loss on these transactions is recognised in accordance with the
policy followed for recognising profit on outright sales.
The manufacturer or dealer might offer artificially low rates of interest on the
finance transaction. In such cases the selling profit is restricted to that which
would apply if a market rate of interest were charged.

Example: Manufacturer or dealer leases

Multan Motors is a car dealer.
It sells cars and offers a certain model for sale by lease.
Price of the car in a cash sale ₦2,000,000
Cost of the car ₦1,500,000
Finance option:
Annual rental ₦804,230
Lease term 3 years
Interest rate 10%
Estimated residual value nil
Lessor’s cost of setting up the lease ₦20,000
Discount factor
t1 to t3 @ 10% 2.486852 (written as 2.487)
Working: Revenue – lower of: ₦

Fair value of the asset 2,000,000
Present value of the minimum lease payments
804,230  2.487 2,000,000
Initial double entry:

Revenue Debit Credit
Lease receivable (Net investment in the lease) 2,000,000
Statement of comprehensive income 2,000,000
Cost of sale
Asset (Inventory) 1,500,000
Cost of setting up the lease
Cash/bank 20,000

Corporate reporting
Example: Manufacturer or dealer lease (continued)
Net investment in the lease (over its life):

Opening net Lease Closing net
Year investment Interest (10%) receipts investment
1 2,000,000 200,000 (804,230) 1,395,770
2 1,395,770 139,577 (804,230) 731,117
3 731,117 73,113 (804,230) nil
The interest income is calculated by multiplying the opening receivable

by 10% in each year (so as to provide a constant rate of return on the net
investment in the lease).
Summary of double entry in year 1:

Net
investment in
Bank Inventory the lease Profit or loss
B/f 1,500,000Dr
Revenue 2,000,000Dr 2,000,000Cr
Cost of sales (1,500,000)Cr (1,500,000)Dr
Set up cost (20,000)Cr (20,000)Dr
Profit on sale 480,000Cr
Lease income 200,000Dr 200,000Cr

Lease rental 804,230Dr (804,230)Cr
1,395,770Dr 680,000Cr

Example: Manufacturer or dealer leases with unguaranteed residual value

Price of the car in a cash sale ₦2,000,000

Cost of the car ₦1,500,000
Finance option:
Annual rental ₦764,018
Lease term 3 years
Interest rate 10%
Estimated residual value ₦133,100
Lessor’s cost of setting up the lease ₦20,000
Discount factors:
t3 @ 10% 0.7513148 (written as 0.751)
t1 to t3 @ 10% 2.486852 (written as 2.487)
Workings
W1: Revenue – lower of: ₦
Fair value of the asset 2,000,000
764,018 2.487 1,900,000
W2: Present value of the unguaranteed residual value ₦

133,156  0.751 100,000
Initial double entry:

Revenue Debit Credit
Lease receivable (Net investment in the lease) 1,900,000
Cost of sale
Asset (Inventory) 1,400,000
Transfer
Lease receivable (Net investment in the lease) 100,000
Asset (Inventory) 100,000
Cost of setting up the lease
Cash/bank 20,000

Corporate reporting
Example: Manufacturer or dealer lease (continued)
Net investment in the lease (over its life):

Opening net Lease Closing net
Year investment Interest (10%) receipts investment
1 1,900,000
100,000
2,000,000 200,000 (764,018) 1,435,982
2 1,435,982 143,598 (764,018) 815,562
3 815,562 81,556 (764,018) 133,100
The interest income is calculated by multiplying the opening receivable by

10% in each year (so as to provide a constant rate of return on the net
investment in the lease).
The balance on the account at the end of the lease term is the unguranteed
residual value.
Summary of double entry in year 1:

Net
investment in
Bank Inventory the lease Profit or loss
B/f 1,500,000Dr
Revenue 1,900,000Dr 1,900,000Cr
Cost of sales (1,400,000)Cr (1,400,000)Dr
Set up cost (20,000)Cr (20,000)Dr
Profit on sale 480,000Cr
Transfer (100,000)Cr 100,000Dr
Lease income 200,000Dr 200,000Cr

Lease rental 764,018Dr (764,018)Cr
1,435,982Dr 680,000Cr

5.4 Finance lessor disclosures

A finance lessor must disclose the following:
 a reconciliation between the gross investment in the lease at the end of the
reporting period, and the present value of minimum lease payments
receivable at the end of the reporting period;
 the gross investment in the lease and the present value of minimum lease
payments receivable at the end of the reporting period, for each of the
following periods:
 later than five years;
 unearned finance income;
 the unguaranteed residual values accruing to the benefit of the lessor;
 the accumulated allowance for uncollectible minimum lease payments
receivable;
 contingent rents recognised as income in the period;
 a general description of the lessor's material leasing arrangements.
Definitions: Unearned finance income

Unearned finance income is the difference between:
(a) the gross investment in the lease, and
(b) the net investment in the lease.

Corporate reporting
6 ACCOUNTING FOR AN OPERATING LEASE
Section overview
 Operating leases in the financial statements of the lessee

 Operating lessee disclosures
 Operating leases in the financial statements of the lessor
 Operating lessor disclosures
 SIC 15: Operating lease incentives
6.1 Operating leases in the financial statements of the lessee

An operating lease is accounted for in a different way from a finance lease. The
leased asset is not owned ‘in substance’ by the lessee. The lease arrangement is
similar to a rental agreement for the hire of the asset.
IAS 17 Leases states that the total payments made by the lessee under an
operating lease should be recognised as an expense, and apportioned between
financial periods on a straight-line basis. (If another rational basis is more
appropriate then that may be used).
Any difference between amounts charged as an expense for a financial period
and amounts of lease rental actually paid during the period will result in an
accrual or prepayment in the statement of financial position.
Example: Accounting for operating leases

Under a four-year operating lease agreement, Entity F pays a non-returnable
deposit of ₦50,000 and then four years’ rental of ₦50,000 per annum on the first
day of each year.
Required
(a) Calculate the annual expense for the operating lease for each of the four
years.
(b) Calculate the asset or liability in the statement of financial position at the
end of Year 1 and at the end of Year 2.

Answer
(a) Total lease payments = ₦50,000 + (₦50,000 × 4 years) = ₦250,000
Annual charge for the lease (annual expense) = ₦250,000 ÷ 4 years =
₦62,500.
Statement of financial position at end of Year 1 ₦
Lease payments in Year 1 (₦50,000 + ₦50,000) 100,000
Charged as an expense in Year 1 (62,500)
––––––––
Prepayment: asset at end of Year 1 37,500
––––––––
(b)
Statement of financial position at end of Year 2 ₦
Balance b/f from Year 1 (prepayment) 37,500
Lease payment in Year 2 50,000
87,500
Charged as an expense in Year 2 (62,500)
Prepayment: asset at end of Year 2 25,000
6.2 Operating lessee disclosures

Operating lessees must disclose the following:
 the total of future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable
operating leases for each of the following periods:
 later than five years;
 the total of future minimum sublease payments expected to be received
under non-cancellable subleases at the end of the reporting period;
 lease and sublease payments recognised as an expense in the period, with
separate amounts for minimum lease payments, contingent rents, and
sublease payments;
 a general description of the lessee's significant leasing arrangements
including, but not limited to, the following:
 the basis on which contingent rent payable is determined;
 the existence and terms of renewal or purchase options and
escalation clauses; and
 restrictions imposed by lease arrangements, such as those
concerning dividends, additional debt and further leasing.
6.3 Operating leases in the financial statements of the lessor

Because the lessor has not transferred the risks and rewards of ownership of the
physical asset to the lessee, the lessor shows the leased asset as a non-current
asset in its statement of financial position.
It will be shown in an appropriate category of property, plant and equipment at
its carrying value (cost/valuation minus accumulated depreciation).

Corporate reporting
In respect of the leased asset, the lessor’s annual statement of comprehensive

income will include in profit or loss:
 depreciation on the asset as an expense, and
 rental income (as for the lessee, this is usually calculated on a straight-line
basis).
Lease income from operating leases is recognised in income on a straight-line
basis over the lease term, unless another systematic basis is more representative
of the time pattern in which use benefit derived from the leased asset is
diminished.
Initial direct costs incurred by lessors in negotiating and arranging an operating
lease are added to the carrying amount of the leased asset and recognised as an
expense over the lease term on the same basis as the lease income.
The depreciation policy for depreciable leased assets must be consistent with the
lessor's normal depreciation policy for similar assets, and calculated in
accordance with IAS 16 and IAS 38.
Manufacturer/dealer leases
A manufacturer or dealer lessor must not recognise any selling profit on entering
into an operating lease. It is not the equivalent of a sale as the risks and benefits
of ownership do not pass.
6.4 Operating lessor disclosures

Operating lessors must disclose the following:
 the future minimum lease payments under non-cancellable operating
leases in the aggregate and for each of the following periods:
 later than five years.
 total contingent rents recognised as income in the period.
 a general description of the lessor's leasing arrangements.
6.5 SIC 15: Operating lease incentives
The issue
Lessors often give incentives to induce a potential lessee to sign up for a lease.
Incentives include:
 rent-free periods;
 up-front cash payments; or
 contributions to the lessee's relocation costs
The issue is how such incentives in respect of operating leases be recognised by
both the lessee and lessor.

Consensus
Lease incentives (for new or renewed operating lease) are an integral part of the
net consideration and should be recognised on a straight-line basis unless
another systematic basis is more appropriate.
 A lessor must recognise the aggregate cost of incentives as a reduction of
rental income over the lease term
 A lessee must recognise the aggregate benefit of incentives as a reduction
of rental expense over the lease term
Example: Operating lease incentives

X plc signed a contract for the lease of an asset on 1st January 2014
The lease was for 20 years.
The first year is rent free with rentals of ₦30,000 per annum payable in arrears
thereafter.
Analysis (lessee’s view):
The lease incentive must be recognised over 20 years. This means that
the total rentals for 20 years are 19 payments of ₦30,000).
Therefore, the annual expense would be:
19 × ₦30,000
= ₦28,500
20 years
The double entries would be as follows:

Year 1 Debit Credit
Statement of profit or loss ₦28,500
Deferred credit ₦28,500
The deferred credit represents the lessee’s right to recognise a benefit of

1,500 per annum over the life of the lease. This means that even though
the future annual cash payments will be ₦30,000 the company will only
recognise an expense of ₦28,500.
Years 2 to 20 Debit Credit

Statement of profit or loss ₦28,500
Deferred credit ₦1,500 ₦1,500
Cash ₦30,000

Corporate reporting
7 SALE AND LEASEBACK TRANSACTIONS
Section overview
 Sale and leaseback transactions

 Sale and finance leaseback (finance lease)
 Sale and operating leaseback (operating lease)
7.1 Sale and leaseback transactions

Sale and leaseback transactions involve one entity selling an asset, normally to a
bank or finance company, and then immediately leasing it back. The main
purpose is to allow the entity to release cash that is ‘tied up’ in the asset, whilst
retaining use of the asset.
For example, a company may own an office building that it uses for its
administrative operations. It may decide to sell and lease back the building, to
raise cash. By selling the building, it raises cash. By leasing back the building, it
retains the use of the building for its operational activities.
The leaseback could be arranged either as a finance lease or an operating lease,
and this will affect the accounting treatment of the transaction.
7.2 Sale and finance leaseback (finance lease)

Before the transaction the owner has the risks and rewards of ownership. The
owner sells the asset and then leases it back under a finance lease. The owner
has retained the risks and rewards of ownership. In substance this is not a sale
so profit should not be recognised. The accounting treatment is as follows.
There are two stages, the disposal (sale) and the finance leaseback:
 The sale.
 On disposal, the asset should be removed from the seller’s statement
of financial position.
 Any surplus from the sale in excess of the carrying amount should be
deferred and amortised over the term (life) of the lease.
 The leaseback. The normal finance lease rules are then applied, to
reintroduce the asset to the statement of financial position of the lessee at
its fair value, and to establish a leasing obligation.

Example: Sale and finance leaseback

In 20X6 a company sold an asset and leased it back under a finance lease. The
asset had a carrying value of ₦70,000 and was sold for its market value of
₦120,000.
At the date of sale it had a remaining life of five years and was leased back for
the whole of this period at a rental of ₦28,000 per annum in arrears.
Debit Credit
The sale ₦ ₦
Cash 120,000
Asset 70,000
The leaseback
Asset 120,000
Lease obligation 120,000
7.3 Sale and operating leaseback (operating lease)

Again, there are two stages to the transaction, the sale and the operating
leaseback. The substance and legal form of the transaction are the same. The
asset has been sold by the lessee (known as the seller/lessee) and the risks and
rewards have been permanently transferred to the lessor as the leaseback is an
operating lease in nature.
On sale, the asset should be removed from the seller/lessee’s statement of
financial position.
 The gain or loss on disposal should be recognised in profit or loss. (See
below for details of how the gain is calculated).
 The normal operating lease rules are then applied to account for the rental
payments.
IAS 17 outlines three treatments for accounting for the profit on the sale of the
asset, depending on whether the asset was sold for its fair value, for less than
fair value or for more than fair value.
Sale at fair value

This is just a normal sale. If an asset is sold at fair value, the gain or loss on
disposal is recognised immediately in profit or loss in the usual way.

Corporate reporting
Example: Sale and operating leaseback – Sale at fair value

In early 20X7 a company sold an asset for ₦1.5 million and leased it back under
a five-year operating lease.
The asset had a carrying value of ₦1 million.
Debit Credit
₦ ₦
Cash 1,500,000
Asset 1,000,000
Sale at less than fair value

If an asset is sold at less than fair value, the gain or loss on disposal is
recognised immediately in profit or loss.
However, if the sale makes a loss and this is compensated for by future lease
payments at below market price, the loss should not be recognised immediately,
but deferred and then released to profit or loss over the expected period of use
(the lease period).
Example: Sale and operating leaseback – Sale below fair value

The asset had a carrying value of ₦2 million and a remaining useful life of ten
years.
Debit Credit
₦ ₦
Cash 1,500,000
Asset 2,000,000

Example: Sale and operating leaseback – Sale below fair value compensated by
lower future rentals
years.
The company accepted an offer below the fair value of the asset because it was
able to negotiate rentals at below the market rate in compensation.
Debit Credit
₦ ₦
Cash 1,500,000
Asset 2,000,000
Deferred loss (on the statement of financial
position) 500,000
The deferred loss amortised in proportion to the lease payments over the period
for which the asset is expected to be used.
Sale at more than fair value

If an asset is sold at more than fair value, the normal gain or loss on disposal
(based on the difference between the carrying amount and fair value) is
recognised immediately in profit or loss.
The excess profit (based on the difference between the fair value and actual sale
value) should be deferred and released to profit or loss over the expected period
of use (the lease period).
Example: Sale and operating leaseback – Sale above fair value

years.
The fair value of the asset at the date of sale was ₦1.2 million.
Debit Credit
₦ ₦
Cash 1,500,000
Asset 1,000,000
Statement of comprehensive income
(Normal profit of ₦1.2m – ₦1m) 200,000
Cr Deferred income
(Excess profit: this is ₦1.5m – ₦1.2m) 300,000
Note: The deferred income will be released to profit or loss over the lease term of
5 years.

Corporate reporting
8 IMPACT ON PRESENTATION
Section overview
 The effect of classifying a lease incorrectly
8.1 The effect of classifying a lease incorrectly

If a finance lease is treated as an operating lease, the financial statements do not
fairly present the financial position of the entity:
 The leased asset is not recognised in the statement of financial position,
even though the substance of the lease is that the entity owns it.
 The liability for the lease payments is not recognised in the statement of
financial position.
Therefore both assets and liabilities are understated. The lease becomes a form
of ‘off balance sheet finance’, hidden from the users of the financial statements.
The entity’s (lessee’s) liabilities can appear to be much lower than they actually
are.
Classifying a lease incorrectly affects the numbers in the financial statements.
An example seen earlier in the chapter is used to illustrate this.

Example:
The fair value of an asset, leased under a finance lease commencing on 1 January
. Year 1 is ₦12,886.
The lease is for three years with payments of ₦5,000 annually in arrears on 31
December Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3. The interest rate implicit in the lease is 8%.
Finance lease liability (given again for your convenience)
Opening Interest Lease Closing
Year balance (8%) payment balance
1 12,886 1,031 (5,000) 8,917
2 8,917 713 (5,000) 4,630
3 4,630 370 (5,000) –
2,114
The numbers that would appear in the financial statements for year 1 if
the lease were treated as finance lease or as an operating lease are
shown below:
Finance Operating
Statement of financial position lease lease
Non-current asset ₦
Asset held under finance lease
(12,886 – (1/3 of 12,866= 4,289) 8,597 
Liability: ₦
Non-current liability 4,630 
Current liability 4,287 
Total liability 8,917 
Statement of comprehensive income

Depreciation charge (1/3 of 12,866) 4,289 
Finance charge 1,013 
Rental  5,000
5,302 5,000

Corporate reporting
9 ED/2013/6: LEASES
Section overview
 Introduction
 Proposed approach: Lessee accounting – Introduction
 Proposed approach: Lessee accounting – Dual approach
 Proposed approach: Lessor accounting
9.1 Introduction
The 2013 World Leasing Yearbook reported that new leases entered into
worldwide in 2011 amounted to almost $800 billion. Leasing is an important
activity for many entities.
Under existing accounting standards, the majority of those leases are not
reported on a lessee’s statement of financial position.
The objective of the project is to improve the quality and comparability of financial
reporting by providing greater transparency about leverage, the assets an entity
uses in its operations, and the risks to which it is exposed from entering into
lease transactions.
IAS 17 Leases focuses on identifying when a lease is economically similar to
purchasing the asset being leased. When this is the case, the lease is classified
as a finance lease and reported on the lessee’s statement of financial position.
All other leases are classified as operating leases and are not reported on the
lessee’s statement of financial position.
Nevertheless, commitments arise from operating leases as they do from finance
leases and other similar financial liabilities. Consequently, a lessee’s statement
of financial position provides a misleading picture about leverage and the assets
that the lessee uses in its operations.
Illustration:
The US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) estimated that US public
companies had approximately $1.25 trillion of off-balance-sheet undiscounted
operating lease commitments in 2005
The off-balance-sheet financing numbers can be substantial!
Conclusion
The distinction between operating and financial leases is arbitrary and
unsatisfactory. IAS 17 does not provide for the recognition in lessees’ balance
sheets of material assets and liabilities arising from operating leases.
Comparability (and hence usefulness) of financial statements would be enhanced
if present treatment of operating leases and financial leases were replaced by an
approach that applied the same requirements to all leases.

9.2 Proposed approach: Lessee accounting – Introduction

The ED proposes a new approach to lease accounting that would require a
lessee to recognise assets and liabilities for the rights and obligations created by
leases.
At the start of a lease, the lessee obtains a right to use the underlying asset for a
period of time, and the lessor has provided or delivered that right. The lessee
must base the initial double entry on the recognition of the right-of-use asset.
Each lease is classified as either Type A or Type B depending on the amount of
consumption of the underlying right-of-use asset. The classification of the lease
determines how the subsequent lease expense is recognised.
Initial recognition
A lessee must recognise a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for all leases of
more than 12 months.
A lessee can choose to recognise a right-of-use asset and a lease liability for
leases of 12 months or less but is not required to do so.
Measurement on initial recognition

The right-of-use asset and the lease liability are initially measured at the present
value of lease payments.
Lease payments always Lease payments which might be included

included
Fixed payments Variable lease payments (excluded if linked to
sales or use and included only if payments
linked to an index or a rate)
Residual value guarantees Optional payments (excluded unless significant
economic incentive to exercise the option)
The right-of-use asset also includes any costs incurred that are directly related to
entering into the lease.
The lease liability is measured in the same way regardless of the nature of the
underlying asset.

Corporate reporting
9.3 Proposed approach: Lessee accounting – Dual approach

There is a difference between a lease for which the lessee pays for the part of
the underlying asset that it consumes (or uses up) during the lease term, and a
lease for which the lessee merely pays for use.
Type A leases
A lessee typically consumes a part of any equipment or vehicle that it leases
(such as aircraft, ships, mining equipment, cars and trucks).
The rentals for such leases allow the lessor to recover the value of the part of the
asset consumed and to obtain a return on its investment in the asset.
In effect, a Type A lessee acquires part of the underlying asset and consumes it
over time. The consumption is paid for over time in the form of lease payments.
Thus, a lessee should amortise the right-of-use asset and present the expense
asset in the same line item as other similar expenses.
Interest on the lease liability should be recognised in the same line item as
interest on other, similar financial liabilities.
Type B leases
In other leases, the lessee merely uses the underlying asset without consuming
more than an insignificant part of it. This is typically the case for most property
leases.
The rentals for such leases allow the lessor to obtain a return on its investment in
the underlying asset. The return would be expected to be relatively even over the
lease term. Thus, those payments for use are presented as one amount in a
lessee’s statement of profit or loss and recognised on a straight-line basis.
Recognition of leases expenses and cash outflows
Type A Type B
Description Most equipment and Most property leases
vehicle leases
Statement of profit or Amortisation and Interest Single lease expense
loss
Classification as Type A or Type B

An entity must classify a lease largely on the basis of the nature of the underlying
asset, i.e.:
 most leases of equipment or vehicles would be classified as Type A leases.
 most leases of property would be classified as Type B leases.

9.4 Proposed approach: Lessor accounting

A lessor must distinguish between most property and most equipment leases in
the same way that a lessee would.
Type A leases
A lessor of most equipment or vehicles leases would:
 recognise a lease receivable and a retained interest in the underlying asset
(the residual asset), and derecognise the underlying asset; and
 recognise interest income on both the lease receivable and the residual
asset over the lease term.
A manufacturer or dealer lessor might also recognise profit on the lease when the
underlying asset is made available for use by the lessee.
Type B leases
A lessor of property would recognise the underlying asset on its statement of
financial position and recognise lease rentals on a straight-line basis.
Type A Type B
Description Most equipment and Most property leases
vehicle leases
Statement of financial Lease receivable and Continue to report asset
position residual asset being leased
Statement of profit or Interest income (and any Rental income
loss profit on lease at start of
lease)
Impact of the new rules on lessors

The accounting treatment for finance leases will not change if the proposals are
adopted.
For operating leases, the extent of change would depend on whether the
underlying asset is property or equipment.
 The accounting treatment for operating leases of property will not change if
the proposals are adopted.
 The accounting treatment for operating leases of equipment or vehicles will
change significantly if the proposals are adopted.

Corporate reporting
 The recognition of a lease as a finance lease has implications for the gearing
ratio of an entity and the return on total assets.
 Whether a lease is a finance lease or an operating lease.
 Whether an “arrangement” is a lease or not.
 Whether to classify an interest in a property under a lease as an investment
property or a an operating lease.
 Whether to allocate payments under an operating lease straight line or some
other pattern of economic benefits.

11 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define and identify different types of lease
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of lessee
accounting
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of lessor
accounting.
 Prepare and present extracts of financial statements in respect of sale and lease
back arrangements.
 Analyse the effect of different leasing transactions on the presentation of financial
statements

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
The lease is a finance lease.
Reasons
The lease is for a major part of the life of the asset (6 out of 7 years).
Ibadan Construction must ensure the asset. It is exposed to one of the
major risks of ownership of the asset (its loss).
The present value of the minimum lease payments is 95.3%
(4.767  600,000/3,000,000) of the fair value of the asset at the inception of the
lease.
Solution 2
₦
Total lease payments (3 × ₦4,021) 12,063
Minus: Cash price of the asset (10,000)
––––––––
Total finance charge 2,063
––––––––
Actuarial method
Year ended Opening Lease Capital Interest at Closing
31 balance payment outstanding 22.25% balance
December
₦ ₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
Year 1 10,000 (4,021) 5,979 1,330 7,309
Year 2 7,309 (4,021) 3,288 733 4,021
Year 3 4,021 (4,021) – – –
The year-end liability at the end of Year 1 is ₦7,309 in total.
 The non-current liability is the liability at the start of the next year after
deducting the first payment (₦3,288).
 The current liability is the payment in year 2 less any interest contained in it
that has not yet accrued.
₦
Current liability, end of Year 1 4,021
Non-current liability, end of Year 1 3,288
––––––
Total liability, end of Year 1 7,309
––––––

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
16
IAS 37: Provisions, contingent
liabilities and contingent assets
Contents
1 Provisions: Recognition
2 Provisions: Measurement
3 Provisions: Double entry and disclosure
4 Guidance on specific provisions
5 Interpretations
6 Contingent liabilities and contingent assets
8 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the rules on recognition of provisions. It also explains the necessary
disclosures in respect of contingencies
convenience.

 Define liability, provision, contingent liability and contingent asset
 Distinguish between provisions, contingent liabilities or contingent assets
 Understand and apply the recognition criteria for provisions under IFRS
 Calculate/ measure provisions
 Account for changes in provisions
 Report provisions in final accounts

Chapter 16: IAS 37: Provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets
1 PROVISIONS: RECOGNITION
Section overview
 Introduction
 Recognition criteria for provisions
 Present obligation
 Obligation arising out of a past event
 Probable outflow of economic benefits
1.1 Introduction
The first five sections of this chapter explain rules set out in IAS 37: Provisions,
contingent liabilities and contingent assets.
Definitions
Provisions are liabilities of uncertain timing or amount.
A liability is a present obligation of the enterprise arising from past events, the
settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise of
resources embodying economic benefits.
An obligating event is an event that creates a legal or constructive obligation that
results in an enterprise having no realistic alternative to settling that obligation.
Provisions differ from other liabilities because there is uncertainty about the
timing or amount of the future cash flows required to settle the liability.
Accruals are liabilities to pay for goods or services that have been received or
supplied but not yet invoiced. There is often a degree of estimation in the
measurement of accruals but any inherent uncertainty is much less than for
provisions.
IAS 37 applies to all provisions and contingencies apart from those covered by
the specific requirements of other standards.
In some countries the term “provision” is also used to describe the reduction in
the value of an asset. For example accountants might talk of provision for
depreciation, provision for doubtful debts and so on. These “provisions” are not
covered by this standard which is only about provisions that are liabilities.
Major accounting issues

There are three issues to address in accounting for provisions:
 whether or not a provision should be recognised;
 how to measure a provision that is recognised; and
 what is the double entry on initial recognition of a provision and how is it
remeasured on subsequent reporting dates.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Recognition criteria for provisions

A provision should be recognised when:
 a company has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a
past event;
 it is probable that an outflow of economic benefits will be required to settle
the obligation; and
 a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation.
If one of these conditions is not met then a provision cannot be recognised.
1.3 Present obligation

An obligation must exist in order for a provision to be recognised.
An obligation may be legal or constructive.
 A legal obligation is one arising from a contract, or some other aspect of
the law.
 A constructive obligation is one arising from the company’s actions,
whereby
 through established past practice, published policies, or a specific
current statement, the company has indicated to other parties that it
will accept certain responsibilities; and
 as a result, the company has created a valid expectation that it will
discharge those responsibilities.
Example: Constructive obligation

A clothing retailer has a policy of taking back items of clothing that customers
have purchased, and refunding the purchase price, simply because the purchaser
has changed his or her mind about the item.
The retailer does not have a legal obligation to do this under the consumer
protection legislation that applies in the jurisdiction in which it operates.
If this is the usual practice of a particular retailer, and the retailer’s policy is well-
known or has been made known to customers, then a constructive obligation exists
whenever a sale is made.
A provision would be recognised for sales returns subject to the other two criteria
being satisfied.
In most cases it will be clear that a past event has given rise to a present
obligation. However, in rare cases this may not be the case. In these cases, the
past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if it is more likely than
not that a present obligation exists at the end of the reporting period. This
determination must be based on all available evidence,

1.4 Obligation arising out of a past event

A past event that leads to a present obligation is called an obligating event. For
this to be the case it is necessary that the company has no realistic alternative to
settling the obligation created by the event.
This is the case only:
 where the settlement of the obligation can be enforced by law; or
 in the case of a constructive obligation, where the event (which may be an
action of the company) creates valid expectations in other parties that the
company will discharge the obligation.
The event leading to the obligation must be past, and must have occurred before
the end of the reporting period when the provision is first recognised. No
provision is made for costs that may be incurred in the future but where no
obligation yet exists.
Illustration:
A company is planning a reorganisation. These plans are in an early stage.
There is no obligation (legal or constructive) to undertake the reorganisation. The
company cannot create a provision for reorganisation costs.
Only obligations arising from past events that exist independently of a company's
future actions are recognised as provisions.
Example:
Lagos Properties owns a series of high rise modern office blocks in several major
cities in Nigeria.
The government introduces legislation that requires toughened safety glass to be
fitted in all windows on floors above the ground floor. The legislation only applies
initially to new buildings but all buildings will have to comply within 5 years.
Analysis:
There is no obligating event.
Even though Lagos Properties will have to comply within 5 years it can avoid the
future expenditure by its future actions, for example by selling the buildings. There
is no present obligation for that future expenditure and no provision is recognised.
Example:
Aba Energy Company operates in a country where there is no environmental
legislation. Its operations cause pollution in this country.
Aba Energy Company has a widely published policy in which it undertakes to clean
up all contamination that it causes and it has a record of honouring this published
policy.
Analysis:
There is an obligating event. Aba Energy Company has a constructive obligation
which will lead to an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits regardless
of the future actions of the company. A provision would be recognised for the
clean-up subject to the other two criteria being satisfied.

Corporate reporting
An obligation always involves another party to whom the obligation is owed.

However, it is not necessary to know the identity of that party. It is perfectly
possible to have an obligation to the public at large or to a group of people.
Example:
Maiduguri Household Appliances Corporation gives warranties at the time of sale
to purchasers of its products. Under the terms of the sale contract the company
undertakes to make good any manufacturing defects that become apparent within
three years from the date of sale.
In the period it has sold 250,000 appliances and estimates that about 2% will
prove faulty.
Analysis:
There is an obligating event being the sale of an item with the promise to repair it
as necessary. The fact that Maiduguri Household Appliances Corporation does not
know which of its customers will seek repairs in the future is irrelevant to the
existence of the obligation.
A provision would be recognised for the future repairs subject to the other two
criteria being satisfied.
Note that the estimate that only 2% will be faulty is irrelevant in terms of
recognising a provision. However, it would be important when it came to measuring
the size of the provisions. This is covered in the next section.
An obligation always involves a commitment to another party. Therefore, a

management decision does not give rise to a constructive obligation unless it has
been communicated before the end of the reporting period to those affected by it
in a sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the
company will discharge its responsibilities.
Example:
On 13 December Jos Engineering decided to close a factory. The closure will lead
to 100 redundancies at a significant cost to the company.
At 31 December no news of this plan had been communicated to the workforce.
Analysis:
There is no obligating event. This will only come into existence when
communication of the decision and its consequences are communicated to the
workforce.
An event may not give rise to an obligation immediately but may do so at a later
date due to a change in circumstances. These include:
 changes in the law; or
 where an act of the company (for example, a sufficiently specific public
statement) gives rise to a constructive obligation.
If details of a proposed new law have yet to be finalised, an obligation arises only
when the legislation is virtually certain to be enacted as drafted.

1.5 Probable outflow of economic benefits

The outflow of benefits must be probable. ‘Probable’ is defined by IAS 37 as
‘more likely than not to occur’.
Illustration:
A company may have given a guarantee but may not expect to have to honour it.
No provision arises because a payment under the guarantee is not probable.
More likely than not implies a greater than 50% chance but be careful to think
about this in the right way.
Example:
Maiduguri Household Appliances Corporation gives warranties at the time of sale
to purchasers of its products. Under the terms of the sale contract the company
undertakes to make good any manufacturing defects that become apparent within
three years from the date of sale.
In the period it has sold 250,000 appliances and estimates that about 2% will
prove faulty.
Analysis:
The outflow of benefits is probable. It is more likely than not that 2% will be faulty.
(In other words there is more than a 50% chance that 2% of items will prove to be
faulty).

Corporate reporting
2 PROVISIONS: MEASUREMENT
Section overview
 Introduction
 Uncertainties
 Time value
 Future events
 Reimbursements
2.1 Introduction
The amount recognised as a provision must be the best estimate, as at the end
of the reporting period, of the future expenditure required to settle the obligation.
This is the amount that the company would have to pay to settle the obligation at
this date. It is the amount that the company would have to pay a third party to
take the obligation off its hands.
The estimates of the outcome and financial effect of an obligation are made by
management based on judgement and experience of similar transactions and
perhaps reports from independent experts.
Risks and uncertainties should be taken into account in reaching the best
estimate. Events after the reporting period will provide useful evidence. (Events
after the reporting period are dealt with in more detail later.)
2.2 Uncertainties
Uncertainties about the amount to be recognised as a provision are dealt with by
various means according to the circumstances.
In measuring a single obligation, the best estimate of the liability may be the most
likely outcome. However, other possible outcomes should be considered. If there
are other possibilities which are mostly higher or mostly lower than the most likely
outcome, then the best estimate will be a higher or lower amount.

Example:
Gombe Prefabricators Limited (GPL) has won a contract to provide temporary
accommodation for workers involved in building a new airport. The contract
involves the erection of accommodation blocks on a public park and two years
later the removal of the blocks and the reinstatement of the site.
The blocks have been built and it is now GPL’s year-end.
GPL estimates that the task of removing the blocks and reinstating the park to its
present condition might be complex, resulting in costs with a present value of
₦2,000,000, or straightforward, resulting in costs with a present value of
₦1,300,000.
GPL estimates that there is a 60% chance of the job being straightforward.
Should a provision be recognised and if so at what value?
Analysis
Should a provision be recognised?
Is there a present obligation as a Yes. A present obligation arises
result of a past event? due to the existence of a
contractual term and the building
of the block.
Is it probable that there will be an Yes. This is certain.
outflow of economic benefits to
settle the obligation
Can a reliable estimate be made of Yes. Data is available.
the amount of the obligation?
A provision should be recognised.
How should the provision be measured? (What is the best estimate of

expenditure required to settle the obligation?)
The most likely outcome is that the job will be straightforward. In this
case the provision would be recognised at ₦1,300,000.
However there is a significant chance that the job will be complex so
perhaps GPL should measure the liability at the higher amount. This may
sound a little vague but in practice this comes down to a matter of
judgement.

Corporate reporting
When there is a large population of potential obligations (for example, a provision

for multiple claims under guarantees) the obligation should be estimated by
calculating an expected value of the cost of the future obligations. This is done by
weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities.
Example:
Sokoto Manufacturing has sold 10,000 units in the year. Sales accrued evenly over
the year.
It estimates that for every 100 items sold, 20 will require small repairs at a cost of
₦100, 10 will require substantial repairs at a cost of ₦400 each and 5 will require
major repairs or replacement at a cost of ₦800 each.
On average the need for a repair becomes apparent 6 months after a sale.
What is the closing provision?
A provision will be required for the sales in the second six months of the year as
presumably the repairs necessary in respect of the sales in the first six months
have been completed by the year end.
Sales accrue evenly, therefore, the sales in the second six months are 5,000 units
(6/12  10,000).
Repair Number Cost per repair (₦) Total (₦)

Small 20%  5,000 = 1,000 100 100,000
Substantial 10%  5,000 = 500 400 200,000
Major 5%  5,000 = 250 800 200,000
Provision 500,000
Note that this would be reduced by the repairs already made by the year end
2.3 Time value

Where the effect of the time value of money is material, a provision is measured
at the present value of the expenditures expected to be required to settle the
obligation.
The discount rate used should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current
market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the
liability.
The need to discount is often found when accounting for decommissioning
liabilities. These are discussed in section 2.4.

Example:
Gombe Prefabricators Limited (GPL) has won a contract to provide temporary
accommodation for workers involved in building a new airport. The contract
involves the erection of accommodation blocks on a public park and two years
later the removal of the blocks and the reinstatement of the site.
The blocks have been built and it is now 31 December 2013 (GPL’s year-end).
GPL estimates that in two years it will have to pay ₦2,000,000 to remove the
blocks and reinstate the site.
The pre-tax discount rate that reflects current market assessments of the time
value of money and the risks specific to the liability is 10%.
The provision that should be recognised at 31 December 2013 is as follows:

1
₦2,000,000 = ₦1,652,893
1.1
2.4 Future events

Expected future events may be important in measuring provisions. For example,
a company may believe that the cost of cleaning up a site at the end of its life will
be reduced by future changes in technology.
The measurement of an obligation must take expected future changes into
account where there is sufficient objective evidence that they will occur. In such
cases the measurement of the provision should be based on the reasonable
expectations of technically qualified, objective observers, taking account of all
available evidence as to the technology that will be available at the time of the
clean-up.
This means that a company might include expected cost reductions associated
with increased experience in applying existing technology or the expected cost of
applying existing technology to a larger or more complex clean-up operation than
has previously been carried out.
One future event might be the effect of possible new legislation.
The measurement process should take this into account when there is sufficient
objective evidence that the legislation is virtually certain to be enacted.
In practice, the proceeds of the sale of an asset in the future might be used to
pay for an event for which a provision is recognised today. However, gains from
the expected disposal of assets must not be taken into account in measuring a
provision.

Corporate reporting
2.5 Reimbursements
In some cases, a part or all of a company’s provision may be recoverable from a
third party. For example, a company paying out to a customer under the terms of
a guarantee may itself be able to claim money back from one of its own
suppliers.
IAS 37 requires that such a reimbursement:
 should only be recognised where receipt is virtually certain; and
 should be treated as a separate asset in the statement of financial position
(i.e. not netted off against the provision) at an amount no greater than that
of the provision.
However, IAS 37 allows the expense relating to a provision to be presented net
of the amount recognised for a reimbursement in the statement of

3 PROVISIONS: DOUBLE ENTRY AND DISCLOSURES
Section overview
 Introduction
 Measurement on initial recognition
 Use of provisions
 Subsequent measurement
 Disclosures about provisions
3.1 Introduction
IAS 37 is about the recognition and measurement of provisions which are of
course a credit balance. It gives little guidance on the recognition of the debit
entry on initial recognition of a provision saying that whether an expense or asset
is recognised is left to guidance in other standards.
3.2 Measurement on initial recognition

In most cases the debit entry that arises when a provision is recognised is an
expense. There is one important case where it is capitalised as an asset (on
recognition of a decommissioning liability) and this is discussed later.
Illustration: Usual double entry on initial recognition of a provision

Debit Credit
Profit or loss (expense) X
Provision X
3.3 Use of provisions

A provision is set up to recognise an expense (usually) that exists at the reporting
date. When the expense is paid the following double entry is used:
Illustration: Using a provision.

Debit Credit
Provision X
Cash X
If the provision is more than the amount needed to settle the liability the balance
is released as a credit back through the income statement.
If the provision is insufficient to settle the liability an extra expense is recognised.
IAS 37 also states that a provision may be used only for expenditures for which
the provision was originally recognised.

Corporate reporting
Example: Use of provisions

A company has created a provision of ₦300,000 for the cost of warranties and
guarantees.
The company now finds that it will probably have to pay ₦250,000 to settle a legal
dispute.
It cannot use the warranties provision for the costs of the legal dispute. An extra
₦250,000 expense must be recognised.
3.4 Subsequent measurement

Each provision must be reviewed at the end of each reporting period. This might
result in derecognition of a provision that no longer meets the recognition criteria
or in the re-measurement of a provision. An increase in a provision would result
in the recognition of a further expense or a reduction in expense as the
previously recognised provision is reduced through a credit to profit or loss.
Illustration: Subsequent re-measurement of provisions.
Debit Credit
Derecognition of a provision that is no longer needed.
Provision X
Income statement X
Increase in a provision:
Profit or loss (expense) X
Provision X
Decrease in a provision:
Provision X
Profit or loss X

Example: Subsequent measurement

31 December 2012
A company was sued by a customer in the year ended 31 December 2012.
Legal advice is that the customer is virtually certain to win the case as several
similar cases have already been decided in the favour of the injured parties.
At 31 December 2012, the company’s lawyer was of the opinion that, the cost of
the settlement would be ₦1,000,000.
A provision is recognised in the amount of ₦1,000,000 as follows (reducing profit
for the year by that amount).
Debit (₦) Credit (₦)
Expenses 1,000,000
Provision 1,000,000
31 December 2013
The claim has still not been settled. The lawyer now advises that the claim will
probably be settled in the customer’s favour at ₦1,200,000.
The provision is increased to ₦1,200,000 as follows.
Expenses 200,000
Provision 200,000
31 December 2014
The claim has still not been settled. The lawyer now believes that the claim will be
settled at ₦900,000.
The provision is reduced to ₦900,000 as follows.
Provision 300,000
Expenses 300,000
The reduction in the provision increases profit in the year and the provision in the
statement of financial position is adjusted down to the revised estimate of
₦900,000.
31 December 2014
The claim is settled for ₦950,000. On settlement, the double entry in the ledger
accounts will be:
Expenses 50,000
Provision 900,000
Cash 950,000
The charge against profit on settlement of the legal claim is ₦50,000.
The provision no longer exists. The total amount charged against profit over the
four years was the final settlement figure of ₦950,000.

Corporate reporting
When a provision is included in the statement of financial position at a discounted

value (at present value) the amount of the provision will increase over time, to
reflect the passage of time. In other words, as time passes the amount of the
discount gets smaller, so the reported provision increases. This increase in value
is included in borrowing costs for the period.
3.5 Disclosures about provisions

IAS 37 requires the following disclosures about provisions in notes to the
For each class of provision:
 the opening and closing balances and movements in the provision during
the year;
 a brief description of:
 the nature of the obligation;
 the expected timing of any settlement; and
 an indication of the uncertainties surrounding the amount and timing
of any settlement.

4 GUIDANCE ON SPECIFIC PROVISIONS
Section overview
 Onerous contracts
 Future operating losses
 Restructuring
 Decommissioning liabilities and similar provisions
 Future repairs to assets
IAS 37 explains how its rules apply in given circumstances. Some of the guidance is in
the body of the standard and some in an appendix to the standard.
4.1 Onerous contracts
Definition
An onerous contract is a contract where the unavoidable costs of
fulfilling/completing the contract now exceed the benefits to be received (the
contract revenue).
A provision should be made for the additional unavoidable costs of an onerous

contract. (The ‘additional unavoidable costs’ are the amount by which costs that
cannot be avoided are expected to exceed the benefits).
The example in IAS 37 relates to an operating lease.
Example: Onerous contract

On 31 December 2013, Company H is half way through an eight year operating
lease on its factory when it moves to a new factory due to an expansion of
demand for its products.
It cannot cancel the lease or sub-let the factory and there is no prospect of being
able to sub-let it.
Annual lease payments are ₦60,000.
Analysis
A present legal obligation exists as a result of a past event (the signing of the
lease).
An outflow of resources is probable. (These are the rentals for the remainder of
the term of the lease, which cannot be avoided.)
The amount can be measured reliably (₦60,000 × 4 years, discounted to a
present value).
The discounted value of the future lease payments for four years may therefore
be recognised as a provision.
Other circumstances that might lead to the recognition of a provision in respect of

an onerous contract relate to supply contracts.

Corporate reporting
Example: Onerous contract

Ogbomosho Clothing has a contract to buy 300 metres of silk from a supplier each
month for ₦3,000 per metre.
Ogbomosho Clothing had a contract with a Dubai retailer to sell each dress for
₦5,000 only. The retailer has fallen into administration and the administrators
have cancelled the contract, as they were entitled to do under one of its clauses.
Ogbomosho Clothing cannot sell the dresses to any other customer.
The contract to buy the silk can be cancelled with three months’ notice.
Analysis
The company can cancel the contract but must pay for the next three months
deliveries:
Cost (300m × ₦3,000 × 3 months) ₦2,700,000
A provision should be recognised for this amount.
4.2 Future operating losses

A company may forecast that it will make a substantial operating loss in the next
year or several years. If so, its directors might want to ‘take all the bad news’
immediately, and create a provision for the future losses.
Provisions cannot be made for future operating losses. This is because they arise
from future events, not past events.
4.3 Restructuring
A company may plan to restructure a significant part of its operations. Examples
of restructuring are:
 the sale or termination of a line of business
 the closure of business operations in a country or geographical region, or
relocation of operations from one region or country to another
 major changes in management structure, such as the removal of an entire
‘layer’ of management from the management hierarchy
 fundamental reorganisations changing the nature and focus of the
company’s operations.
A provision is recognised for the future restructuring costs only if a present
obligation exists.

A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when a company:

 has a detailed formal plan for the restructuring identifying at least:
 the business or part of a business concerned;
 the principal locations affected;
 the location, function, and approximate number of employees who will
be compensated for terminating their services;
 the expenditures that will be undertaken; and
 when the plan will be implemented; and
 has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry out the
restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main
features to those affected by it.
A restructuring decision made before the end of the reporting period does not
give rise to a constructive obligation unless the company has:
 started to implement the plan; or
 announced the main features of the plan to those affected by it in a
sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the
restructuring will occur.
A company might start to implement a restructuring plan, or announces its main
features to those affected, after the reporting period but before the financial
Disclosure is required under IAS 10 Events after the Reporting Period if the
restructuring is material.
A restructuring provision must only include the direct expenditures arising from
the restructuring. These are those that are both:
 necessarily entailed by the restructuring; and
 not associated with the ongoing activities of the company.
A restructuring provision would not include costs that are associated with ongoing
activities such as:
 retraining or relocating continuing staff;
 marketing; or
 investment in new systems etc.

Corporate reporting
4.4 Decommissioning liabilities and similar provisions

A company may be required to ‘clean up’ a location where it has been working
when production ceases.
This is often the case in industries where companies are only granted licenses to
operate on condition that they undertake to perform future clean-up operations.
Such industries include, oil and gas, mining and nuclear power.
For example, a company that operates an oil rig may have to repair the damage
it has caused to the sea bed once the oil has all been extracted.
The normal rules apply for the recognition of a provision: a company recognises
a provision only where it has an obligation to rectify environmental damage as a
result of a past event.
A company has an obligation to ‘clean-up’ a site if:
 it is required to do so by law (a legal obligation); or
 its actions have created a constructive obligation to do so.
A constructive obligation might exist if (for example) a company has actually
promised to decontaminate a site or if it has adopted environmentally friendly
policies and has made the public aware of this.
Accounting for a provision for a decommissioning liability

IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment identifies the initial estimate of the costs of
dismantling and removing an item and restoring the site upon which it is located
as part of the cost of an asset.
Future clean-up costs often occur many years in the future so any provision
recognised is usually discounted to its present value.
Illustration: Initial recognition of a provision for a decommissioning liability

Debit Credit
Non-current asset X
Provision X
The asset is depreciated over its useful life in the same way as other non-current
assets.
The provision is remeasured at each reporting date. If there has been no change
in the estimates (i.e. the future cash cost, the timing of the expenditure and the
discount rate) the provision will increase each year because the payment of the
cash becomes one year closer. This increase is described as being due to the
unwinding of the discount.
The amount due to the unwinding of the discount must be expensed.


A company has constructed an oil rig which became operational on 1 January
2013.
The company has contracted to remove the oil rig and all associated infrastructure
and to restore the site to repair any environmental damage to the site on
completion of drilling activity. This is estimated to be at a cost of ₦8,000,000 in 10
years’ time.
The pre-tax rate that reflects current market assessments of the time value of
money and the risks specific to the liability is 10%.
1 January 2013 – Initial measurement

1
₦8,000,000 × = ₦3,084,346
1.1
Debit Credit
Asset 3,084,346
Provision 3,084,346
31 December 2013
The provision is remeasured as:
1
₦8,000,000 × = ₦3,392,781
1.1
Provision: ₦
Balance b/f 3,084,346
Interest expense (the unwinding of the discount) 308,435
Balance c/f 3,392,781
The asset is depreciated (say on a straight line)

Asset: ₦
Cost 8,000,000
Depreciation (₦8,000,000/10 years) (800,000)
Double entry:
Debit Credit
Profit or loss (interest expense) 308,435
Provision 308,435
Profit or loss (depreciation expense) 800,000

Accumulated depreciation 800,000

Corporate reporting
A provision for making good environmental damage might be recognised both on

when an asset is installed and then increased as the asset is used.
Example:
A company is about to begin to operate a coal mine. At the end of the reporting
period, the mineshaft has been prepared and all the necessary equipment has
been constructed and is in place, but no coal has yet been extracted.
Under local law, the company is obliged to rectify all damage to the site once the
mining operation has been completed (this is expected to be several years from
now).
Management estimates that 20% of the eventual costs of performing this work
will relate to plugging the mine and removing the equipment and various
buildings and the remaining 80% will relate to restoring the damage caused by
the actual extraction of coal.
Analysis
The company has a legal obligation to rectify the environmental damage caused
by the actual digging of the mineshaft and construction of the site. An outflow of
economic benefits is probable.
Therefore the company should recognise a provision for the best estimate of
removing the equipment and rectifying other damage which has occurred to date.
This is expected to be about 20% of the total cost of restoring the site.
Because no coal has yet been extracted, the company has no obligation to rectify
any damage caused by mining. No provision can be recognised for this part of the
expenditure (estimated at about 80% of the total).
4.5 Future repairs to assets

Some assets need to be repaired or to have parts replaced at intervals during
their lives.
For example, suppose that a furnace has a lining that has to be replaced every
five years. If the lining is not replaced, the furnace will break down.
Before IAS 37 was issued, companies would often recognise provisions for the
cost of future repairs or replacement parts. These might be built up in instalments
over the life of the asset or the relevant part of the asset.
IAS 37 effectively prohibits this treatment. The reasoning behind this is that a
company almost always has an alternative to incurring the expenditure, even if it
is required by law (for example, for safety reasons). For example, the company
which has to replace the lining of its furnace could sell the furnace or stop using
it, although this is unlikely in practice.
IAS 37 states that a provision cannot be recognised for the cost of future repairs
or replacement parts unless the company has an obligation to incur the
expenditure, which is unlikely. The obligating event is normally the actual repair
or purchase of the replacement part.

Instead of recognising a provision, a company should capitalise expenditure

incurred on replacement of an asset and depreciate this cost over its useful life.
This is the period until the part needs to be replaced again. For example, the cost
of replacing the furnace lining should be capitalised, so that the furnace lining is a
non-current asset; the cost should then be depreciated over five years. (Note:
IAS 16: Property, plant and equipment states that where an asset has two or
more parts with different useful lives, each part should be depreciated
separately.)
Normal repair costs, however, are expenses that should be included in profit or
loss as incurred.

Corporate reporting
5 INTERPRETATIONS
Section overview
 IFRIC 21: Levies

 IFRIC 5: rights to interests arising from decommissioning, restoration and
environmental rehabilitation funds
 IFRIC 6: Liabilities arising from participating in a specific market: waste electrical
and electronic equipment
5.1 IFRIC 21: Levies
Background
A public authority (national/regional/local government and their agencies) may
impose a levy on entities that operate in a specific market.
IFRIC 21 provides guidance on the recognition of such liabilities under IAS 37
Scope
IFRIC 21 provides guidance on the accounting for levies recognised in
accordance with the definition of a liability provided in IAS 37 (even allowing for
the fact the amount may be certain).
Typical characteristics of levies within scope of this interpretation include the
following:
 they require a transfer of resources to a public authority in accordance with
law/regulations (e.g. money);;
 they are paid by entities that operate in a specific market identified by the
legislation (e.g. the entity is a bank);
 they are non-exchange transactions (i.e. the paying entity receives no
goods/asset in exchange);
 they are triggered when a specific activity occurs (e.g. the entity operates
as a retail bank) or threshold is passed;
 the amount is calculated based on current or preceding period data (e.g.
gross revenues).
The following transactions are not within the scope of this interpretation:
 taxes under IAS 12;
 fines/penalties for breaching legislation; and
 contracts between a public authority and a private entity
 liabilities arising under emissions trading schemes
Issues
IFRIC 21 addresses the following issues:
 What constitutes the obligating event for the recognition of a levy liability?
 Does the economic compulsion to continue to operate in a future period
create a constructive obligation to pay a levy that will arise from operating
in that future period?

 Does the going concern principle imply the need for a discounted present
value obligation for future operating?
 Can the liability arise at a point in time, or over time?
 What is the obligating event when the liability is triggered by exceeding a
minimum threshold?
 How should the demand for interim reporting affect the accounting –
deferral or anticipation?
Consensus
The obligating event is the activity that triggers the payment of the levy as
defined in the legislation. For example, the obligating event may be “the
generation of revenue from signing customers to an insurance contract”.
Even though the obligating event may be the generation of revenue in the current
period from the “prescribed activity”, the amount may be calculated by reference
to revenue generated in the previous period.
An entity does not have a constructive obligation to pay a levy that will arise in a
future period as a result of being economically compelled to operate in that
period.
The going concern principle does not imply that an entity has a present obligation
to continue to operate in the future and therefore does not lead to the entity
recognising a liability at a reporting date for levies that will arise in a future period
(discounted or not!).
The liability is recognised progressively if the obligating event occurs over time.
For example, the liability to pay a levy from banking activity is based on the
revenue earned over time from that activity. However, if the obligating event is
“earning revenue from banking on 31 December 2016”, then the liability is
recognised at that instant based on the fact that the prescribed activity was going
on at 31 Dec 2016
If an obligation to pay is triggered by the passing of a threshold, then the
obligating event is the passing of that threshold (for example a minimum activity
threshold such as revenue or output produced)
The other side of the double entry for the recognition of a liability is typically to
expenses, but an asset might be recognised if an entity prepays the liability
before it has a present obligation.
The same recognition principle is applied to interim reporting. There is no:
 anticipation of the liability/expense if there is no obligating event at the end
of the interim period; or
 deferral if a present obligation exists at the end of the interim period

Corporate reporting
5.2 IFRIC 5: Rights to interests arising from decommissioning, restoration and

environmental rehabilitation funds
Background
An entity facing future decommissioning cost might segregate assets to fund this
cost.
Contributions to these funds may be voluntary or required by regulation or law.
The funds may be established by a single contributor to fund its own
decommissioning obligations or by multiple contributors to fund their individual or
joint decommissioning obligations.
Contributors retain the obligation to pay decommissioning costs but are able to
obtain reimbursement of the costs from the fund.
Typical features of decommissioning funds include the following:
 they are separately administered by independent trustees;
 contributions to the fund are invested to help pay decommissioning costs
of contributors; and
 contributors may have restricted access (if any) to any fund surplus
Scope
IFRIC 5 applies to accounting by a contributor for interests arising from
decommissioning funds that have both of the following features:
 the assets are administered separately (either by being held in a separate
legal entity or as segregated assets within another entity); and
 a contributor’s right to access the assets is restricted.
A residual interest in a fund that extends beyond a right to reimbursement may
be an equity instrument within the scope of IAS 39 and not IFRIC 5
The issue
The issues are as follows:
 How should a contributor account for its interest in a fund?
 When a contributor has an obligation to make additional contributions (e.g.
in the event of the bankruptcy of another contributor) how should that
obligation be accounted for?

Consensus: Accounting for an interest in a fund

A contributor must recognise its obligation to pay decommissioning costs as a
liability and recognise its interest in the fund separately.
A contributor must determine whether it has control, joint control or significant
influence over the fund by reference to IFRS 10 and IFRS 11 and account for any
interest accordingly.
Otherwise the interest in the fund is recognised as the right to receive
reimbursement (IAS 37) and measured at the lower of:
 the amount of the decommissioning obligation recognised; and
 the contributor’s share of the fair value of the net assets of the fund
attributable to contributors.
Change in carrying value of this right (other than contributions to and payments
from the fund) is recognised in P&L.
Consensus: Obligations to make additional contributions

A contributor may have an obligation to make additional contributions in certain
circumstances, e.g.:
 bankruptcy of another contributor; or
 value of fund assets being insufficient to fulfil the fund’s reimbursement
obligations.
Such an obligation is a contingent liability within the scope of IAS 37.A liability is
recognised only if it is probable that additional contributions will be made.
Disclosure
The nature of an interest in a fund and any restrictions on access to its assets
must be disclosed.
Also the disclosure requirements of IAS 37 apply when:
 an interest in a fund is accounted for as a right to receive reimbursement;
or
 an obligation to make potential additional contributions is not recognised as
a liability.

Corporate reporting
5.3 IFRIC 6: Liabilities arising from participating in a specific market: waste

electrical and electronic equipment
Background
This interpretation was written to give guidance on how companies trading in
electrical appliances in the European Union should account for a new legal
requirement.
The EU Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WE&EE)
requires that the cost of waste management for historical household equipment
must be borne by producers of that type of equipment who are in the market
during a measurement period. This means that if a person buys a new cooker,
the supplier must take the old cooker away and dispose of it.
Each member state must:
 define the measurement period; and
 establish a mechanism for producers to contribute costs proportionately
This will affect the measurement of any obligation
IAS 37 defines an obligating event as a past event that leads to a present
obligation that an entity has no realistic alternative to settling. A provision is
recognised only for ‘obligations arising from past events existing independently of
an entity’s future actions’.
Although the following rules were written with the EU in mind remember that they
would apply to a Nigerian business making supplies in the EU and they would
also apply to similar legislation (if enacted) elsewhere.
Scope
IFRIC 6 provides guidance on the recognition of waste management liabilities
under the EU directive in respect of sales of historical household equipment
The issue
When should the liability for the decommissioning of WE&EE be recognised?
What constitutes the obligating event for the recognition of WE&EE liability by
producers?
 The manufacture or sale of the historical household equipment?
 Participation in the market during the measurement period?
 The incurrence of costs in the performance of waste management
activities?
Consensus
No liability arises for waste management costs for household electrical
equipment following from manufacture or sale
There is no obligation unless (and until) a market share exists during the
measurement period.
The obligating event is participation in the market during the measurement
period.

6 CONTINGENT LIABILITIES AND CONTINGENT ASSETS
Section overview
 Definitions
 Recognising contingent liabilities or contingent assets
 Disclosures about contingent liabilities and contingent assets
 Summary: liabilities, provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets
6.1 Definitions
‘Contingent’ means ‘dependent on something else happening’.
Contingent liability
A contingent liability is one that does not exist at the reporting date but may do so
in the future or it is a liability that exists at the reporting date but cannot be
recognised because it fails one of the IAS 37 recognition criteria.
Definition: Contingent liability

A contingent liability is either of the following:
A contingent liability is a possible obligation that arises from past events and
whose existence will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one
or more uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the entity.
OR
A contingent liability is a present obligation that arises from past events but is not
recognised because it is not probable that an outflow of economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligation or the amount of the obligation cannot be
measured with sufficient reliability.
IAS 37 makes a distinction between:

 provisions – which are recognised as liabilities (assuming that a reliable
estimate can be made) because they are present obligations and it is
probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligations; and
 contingent liabilities – which are not recognised as liabilities because they
are either:
 possible obligations;
 present obligations that do not meet the recognition criteria for
provisions because either:
 it is not probable that an outflow of resources embodying
economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation; or
 a sufficiently reliable estimate of the amount of the obligation
cannot be made).

Corporate reporting
Example:
Company G is involved in a legal dispute with a customer, who is making a claim
against Company G for losses it has suffered as a consequence of a breach of
contract.
If Company G’s lawyers believe that the likelihood of the claim succeeding is
possible rather than probable, then the claim should be treated as a contingent
liability and not as a provision.
Contingent asset
Definition: Contingent asset

A contingent asset is a possible asset that arises from past events whose existence
will be confirmed only by the occurrence or non-occurrence of one or more
uncertain future events not wholly within the control of the entity.
An example of a contingent asset might be a possible gain arising from an

outstanding legal action against a third party. The existence of the asset (the
money receivable) will only be confirmed by the outcome of the legal dispute.
6.2 Recognising contingent liabilities or contingent assets

Contingent liabilities and contingent assets are not recognised in the financial
statements.
In some circumstances, information about the existence of a contingent asset or
a contingent liability should be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
 Contingent liabilities should be disclosed unless the possibility of any
outflow in settlement is remote (the meaning of ‘remote’ is not defined in
IAS 37).
 Contingent assets should be disclosed only if an inflow in settlement is
probable. ’Probable’ is defined by IAS 37 as ‘more likely than not’. (And if
an inflow is certain, the item is an actual asset that should be recognised in
the statement of financial position.)
6.3 Disclosures about contingent liabilities and contingent assets

Where disclosure of a contingent liability or a contingent asset is appropriate, the
following disclosures are required:
 A brief description of the nature of the contingent liability/asset
 Where practicable:
 an estimate of its financial effect
 an indication of the uncertainties.
 For contingent liabilities, the possibility of any reimbursement.

6.4 Summary: liabilities, provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets

The following table provides a summary of the rules about whether items should
be treated as liabilities, provisions, contingent liabilities or contingent assets.
Contingent
Criteria Provision Contingent liability
asset
Present Yes Yes No (but may Only a
obligation/ come into possible
asset arising existance in asset
from past the future)
events?
Will Probable Not probable Outflow to be Inflow to be
settlement outflow – and outflow – or a confirmed by confirmed by
result in a reliable reliable uncertain uncertain
outflow/ estimate can estimate future events future events
inflow of be made of cannot be
economic the obligation made of the
benefits? obligation
Treatment in Recognise a Disclose as a Disclose as a Only disclose
the financial provision contingent contingent if inflow is
statements liability liability probable
(unless the (unless the
possibility of possibility of
outflow is outflow is
remote) remote)
Decision tree
An Appendix to IAS 37 includes a decision tree, showing the rules for deciding
whether an item should be recognised as a provision, reported as a contingent
liability, or not reported at all in the financial statements.

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
Sokoto Transformers Ltd (STL) is organised into several divisions.
The following events relate to the year ended 31 December 2013.
1 A number of products are sold with a warranty. At the beginning of the
year the provision stood at ₦750,000.
A number of claims have been settled during the period for ₦400,000.
As at the year end there were unsettled claims from 150 customers.
Experience is that 40% of the claims submitted do not fulfil warranty
conditions and can be defended at no cost.
The average cost of settling the other claims will be ₦7,000 each.
2 A transformer unit supplied to Rahim Yar Khan District Hospital
exploded during the year.
The hospital has initiated legal proceedings for damages of ₦10
million against STL.
STL’s legal advisors have warned that STL has only a 40% chance of
defending the claim successfully. The present value of this claim has
been estimated at ₦9 million.
The explosion was due to faulty components supplied to STL for
inclusion in the transformer. Legal proceedings have been started
against the supplier. STL’s legal advisors say that STL have a very good
chance of winning the case and should receive 40% of the amount that
they have to pay to the hospital.
3 On 1 July 2013 STL entered into a two-year, fixed price contract to
supply a customer 100 units per month.
The forecast profit per unit was ₦1,600 but, due to unforeseen cost
increases and production problems, each unit is anticipated to make a
loss of ₦800.
4 On 1 July 2012 one of STL’s divisions has commenced the extraction of
minerals in an overseas country. The extraction process causes
pollution progressively as the ore is extracted.
There is no environmental clean-up law enacted in the country.
STL made public statements during the licence negotiations that as a
responsible company it would restore the environment at the end of
the licence.
STL has a licence to operate for 5 years. At the end of five years the
cost of cleaning (on the basis of the planned extraction) will be
₦5,000,000.
Extraction commenced on 1 July 2013 and is currently at planned
levels.
Required
Prepare the provisions and contingencies note for the financial
statements for the year ended 31 December 2013, including narrative
commentary.


 Whether a present obligation exists as a result of a past event
 Whether it is probable that an outflow of resources will be required to settle it
 Whether a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation
 Whether criteria have been satisfied to trigger the recognition of a restructuring
provision.
 Whether a circumstance indicates future losses (no provision) or an onerous
contract (provision)
 How to measure provisions.

Corporate reporting
8 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define liability, provision, contingent liability and contingent asset
 Distinguish between provisions, contingent liabilities or contingent assets
 Understand and apply the recognition criteria for provisions under IFRS
 Calculate/ measure provisions
 Account for changes in provisions
 Report provisions in final accounts

SOLUTION TO PRACTICE QUESTION

Solution: Provisions and contingencies 1
Legal Onerous Clean-up
Warranty claim contract costs Total
₦000 ₦000 ₦000 ₦000 ₦000
At 1 January
2013 750 nil nil 500 1,250
Used in the
year (400) (400)
Statement of
comprehensive
income
(balance) 280 9,000 1,440 1,000 11,720
At 31
December
2013 630 9,000 1,440 1,500 12,570
W1 W2 W3 W4
Warranty: The company grants warranties on certain categories of goods.

The measurement of the provision is on the company’s experience of the
likelihood and cost of paying out under the warranty.
Legal claim: The legal claim provision is in respect of a claim made by a
customer for damages as a result of faulty equipment supplied by the
company. It represents the present value of the amount at which the
company's legal advisors believe the claim is likely to be settled.
Onerous contract: The provision for the onerous contract is in respect of a
two-year fixed-price contract which the company entered into on 1 July
2013. Due to unforeseen cost increases and production problems, a loss on
this contract is now anticipated. The provision is based on the amount of
this loss up to the end of the contract.
Clean-up costs: The provision for clean-up costs is in respect of the
company's overseas mineral extraction operations.
The company is 18 months into a five year operating licence. The estimated
cost of cleaning up the site at the end of the five years is ₦5,000,000. A
provision of ₦1,000,000 per annum is recognised.
Contingent asset: The company is making a claim against a supplier of

components. These components led in part to the legal claim against the
company for which a provision has been made above. Legal advice is that
this claim is likely to succeed and should amount to around 40% of the
total damages (₦3.6 million).
W1 Warranty provision: 150  ₦7,000  60% = ₦630,000.

W2 Onerous contract: 18 months  100 units  ₦800 = ₦1,440,000.
W3 Clean up costs: ₦1,000,000 per annum as it is the extraction that
causes the cost.

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
17
IAS 12: Income taxes
Contents
1 Accounting for taxation
2 Deferred tax: Introduction
3 Recognition of deferred tax: basic approach
4 Recognition and measurement rules
5 Deferred tax: business combinations
7 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the accounting treatments for current tax and deferred tax.
convenience.
Note that at this level you also need to know how to account for deferred taxation issues
arising in business combinations which was not covered previously.

 Account for current tax
 Define temporary differences
 Identify temporary differences that cause deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax assets
 Determine the amount of deferred tax to be recognised in respect of temporary
differences identified
 Apply the disclosure requirements of IAS12

Chapter 17: IAS 12: Income taxes
1 ACCOUNTING FOR TAXATION
Section overview
 Taxation of profits
 Over-estimate or under-estimate of tax from the previous year
 Taxation in the statement of financial position
1.1 Taxation of profits

Companies pay tax on their profits. The tax charge is based on their accounting
profit as adjusted according to the tax law of Nigeria.
Definitions
Accounting profit is profit or loss for a period before deducting tax expense.
Taxable profit (tax loss) is the profit (loss) for a period, determined in accordance
with the rules established by the taxation authorities, upon which income taxes are
payable (recoverable).
Current tax is the amount of income taxes payable (recoverable) in respect of the
taxable profit (tax loss) for a period.
Tax computation
A series of adjustments is made against a company’s accounting profit to arrive
at its taxable profit. These adjustments involve:
 Adding back inadmissible deductions (accounting expenses which are not
allowed as a deduction against taxable profit).
 Deducting admissible deductions which include:
 expenses that are allowable as a deduction against taxable profit but
which have not been recognised in the financial statements; and
 income recognised in the financial statements but which is exempted
from company income tax.
The tax rate is applied to the taxable profit to calculate how much a company
owes in tax for the period. IFRS describes this as current tax.
An exam question might require you to perform a basic taxation computation
from information given in the question.
Illustration: Tax computation format

₦
Accounting profit before tax X
Add back: Inadmissible deductions X
Less: Admissible deductions (X)
Taxable profit X
Tax rate x%
Tax payable (current tax) X

Corporate reporting
Example: Taxation computation

Enugu Traders had an accounting profit of ₦789,000 for the year ended 31
December 2013.
The accounting profit was after depreciation of ₦70,000 and included a profit on
disposal (capital gain) of ₦97,000.
The company had incurred borrowing costs of ₦70,000 in the year of which
₦10,000 had been capitalised in accordance with IAS 23.
The company holds some assets under finance leases. During the year finance
charge in respect of the leases was ₦15,000 and rentals paid were ₦80,000.
At 1 January 2013 the tax written down value of machinery was ₦120,000 and for
buildings was ₦600,000.
Tax regime
All borrowing costs are deductible for tax purposes.
Capital gains are not taxable.
Fines are not tax deductible.
Finance lease rentals are deductible in full for tax purposes.
Accounting depreciation is not allowable for tax purposes.
Tax depreciation is claimable at 10% per annum for buildings and 15% per
annum for machinery applied to tax written down value at the start of the year.
Tax is paid at 30%
The tax computation is as follows:
₦
Accounting profit 789,000
Add back inadmissible deductions:
Accounting depreciation 70,000
Fine paid 125,000
Finance charge on finance lease 15,000
210,000
Less: Admissible deductions
Lease payments 80,000
Capital gain 97,000
Borrowing cost capitalised 10,000
(187,000)
Assessable profit 812,000
Less: Capital allowances
(15%  120,000 + 10%  600,000) (78,000)
Taxable profit 734,000
Income tax (30% of taxable profit) 220,200

Education tax (2% of assessable profit (812,000)) 16,240
Tax payable to FIRS 236,440

Tax base
The above example referred to the tax written down value of the machinery and
buildings. This is the tax authority’s view of the carrying amount of the asset
measured as cost less capital allowances calculated according to the tax
legislation.
IFRS uses the term tax base to refer to an asset or liability measured according
to the tax rules.
Definition
The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability
for tax purposes.
The tax base of an asset is the amount that the tax authorities will allow as a
deduction in the future.
Measurement
Current tax liabilities (assets) for the current and prior periods must be measured
at the amount expected to be paid to (recovered from) the taxation authorities,
using the tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or substantively
enacted by the end of the reporting period.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Over-estimate or under-estimate of tax from the previous year

Current tax for current and prior periods must be recognised as a liability until
paid. If the amount already paid exceeds the amount due the excess must be
recognised as an asset.
When the financial statements are prepared, the tax charge on the profits for the
year is likely to be an estimate. The figure for tax on profits in the statement of
comprehensive income is therefore not the amount of tax that will eventually be
payable, because it is only an estimate. The actual tax charge, agreed with the
tax authorities some time later, is likely to be different.
In these circumstances, the tax charge for the year is adjusted for any under-
estimate or over-estimate of tax in the previous year.
 an under-estimate of tax on the previous year’s profits is added to the tax
charge for the current year.
 an over-estimate of tax on the previous year’s profits is deducted from the
tax charge for the current year.
Example: Over-estimate or under-estimate of tax
₦ ₦
Profit from operations 460,000
Interest (60,000)
Profit before tax 400,000
Tax:
Adjustment for under-estimate of tax in the
previous year 3,000
Tax on current year profits 100,000
Tax charge for the year (103,000)
Profit after tax 297,000

1.3 Taxation in the statement of financial position

The taxation charge for the year is the liability that the company expects to pay.
The timing of tax payments on profits varies from one country to another,
depending on the tax rules in each country. The actual amount of tax payable,
and reported in the statement of financial position as a current liability (taxation
payable), is calculated as follows:
Illustration: Taxation in the statement of financial position
₦
Tax payable at the beginning of the year X
Tax charge for the year X
X
Tax payments made during the year (X)
Tax payable at the end of the year X
Example: Taxation in the financial statements

Fresh Company has a financial year ending on 31 December.
At 31 December 2012 it had a liability for income tax of ₦77,000.
The tax on profits for the year to 31 December 2013 was ₦114,000.
The tax charge for the year to 31 December 2012 was over-estimated by ₦6,000.
During the year to 31 December 2013, the company made payments of
₦123,000 in income tax.
This would result in the following accounting treatment:
Tax charge in the statement of comprehensive income ₦
Tax on current year profits 114,000
Adjustment for over-estimate of tax in the previous year (6,000)
Taxation charge for the year 108,000
Tax liability in the statement of financial position ₦

Tax payable at the beginning of the year 77,000
Tax charge for the year 108,000
185,000
Tax payments made during the year (123,000)
Tax payable at the end of the year 62,000

Corporate reporting
2 DEFERRED TAX: INTRODUCTION
Section overview
 Deferred taxation – Underlying problem

 Identifying deferred tax balances
 IAS 12 approach to the problem
2.1 Deferred taxation - Underlying problem

As explained in the last section, in most jurisdictions the rules for the recognition
and measurement of certain assets, liabilities, income and expenses for tax
purposes differ from the equivalent rules under IFRSs. This results in different
figures in the financial statements and in the tax computations/tax working
papers.
It is convenient to envisage two separate sets of accounts:
 one set constructed following IFRS rules; and,
 a second set following the tax rules (tax computations).
This results in a breakdown in the tax rate percentage relationship between the
profit before tax figure and the taxation figure. In other words the tax charge is
not the tax rate applied to the profit before tax.
Example: Deferred taxation - Underlying problem

X Limited made accounting profit before tax of ₦50,000 in each of the years,
20X1, 20X2 and 20X3 and pays tax at 30%.
X Limited bought an item of plant on 1 January 20X1 for ₦9,000. This asset is to
be depreciated on a straight line basis over 3 years.
Accounting depreciation is not allowed as a taxable deduction in the jurisdiction in
which the company operates. Instead tax allowable depreciation is available as
shown in the following tax computations.
20X1 20X2 20X3
₦ ₦ ₦
Accounting profit (after
depreciation) 50,000 50,000 50,000
Add back depreciation 3,000 3,000 3,000
Deduct capital allowances (4,500) (2,500) (2,000)
(1,500) 500 1,000
Taxable profit 48,500 50,500 51,000
Tax @ 30% 14,550 15,150 15,300

Example continued: Deferred taxation - Underlying problem

In the absence of the recognition of deferred tax this would be reported as follows:
X Limited: Statement of comprehensive income for the years ending:

20X1 20X2 20X3 Total
₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
Profit before tax 50,000 50,000 50,000 150,000
Income tax @ 30% (as
above) (14,550) (15,150) (15,300) (45,000)
Profit after tax 35,450 34,850 34,700 105,000
Looking at the total column, the profit before tax is linked to the taxation
figure through the tax rate (150,000  30% = 45,000).
This is not the case in each separate year.
This is because the current tax charge is not found by multiplying the
accounting profit before tax by the tax rate. Rather, it is found by
multiplying an adjusted version of this figure by the tax rate
The item of plant is written off in the calculation of both accounting profit
and taxable profit but by different amounts in different periods. The
differences are temporary in nature as over the three year period, the
same expense is recognised for the item of plant under both the
accounting rules and the tax rules.
Transactions recognised in the financial statements in one period may have their
tax effect deferred to (or more rarely, accelerated from) another. Thus the tax is
not matched with the underlying transaction that has given rise to it.
In the above example the tax consequences of an expense (depreciation in this
case) are recognised in different periods to when the expense is recognised.
Accounting for deferred tax is based on the principle that the tax consequence of
an item should be recognised in the same period as the item is recognised. It
tries to match tax expenses and credits to the period in which the underlying
transactions to which they relate are recognised.
In order to do this, the taxation effect that arises due to the differences between
the figures recognised under IFRS and the tax rules is recognised in the financial
statements.
The double entry to achieve this is between a deferred tax balance in the
statement of financial position (which might be an asset or a liability) and the tax
charge in the statement of comprehensive income. (More complex double entry
is possible but this is outside the scope of your syllabus).
The result of this is that the overall tax expense recognised in the statement of
comprehensive income is made up of the current tax and deferred tax numbers.
Definition: Tax expense

Tax expense (tax income) is the aggregate amount included in the determination of
profit or loss for the period in respect of current tax and deferred tax.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Identifying deferred tax balances

The differences between the two sets of rules will result in different numbers in
the financial statements and in the tax computations.
Two perspectives
These differences can be viewed from:
 a statement of comprehensive income (income and expenses) perspective:
 the differences arising in the period are identified by comparing
income and expenses recognised under IFRS to the equivalent
figures that are taxable or allowable under tax legislation;
 the approach identifies the deferred tax expense or credit recognised
in the statement of comprehensive income for the period (with the
other side of the entry recognised as a liability or asset);or
 a statement of financial position (assets and liabilities) perspective:
 the differences are identified on a cumulative basis by comparing the
carrying amount of assets and liabilities under IFRS to the carrying
amount of the same assets and liabilities according to the tax rules;
 the approach identifies the deferred tax liability (or asset) that should
be recognised (with the movement on this amount recognised as a
credit or expense in the statement of comprehensive income).
IAS 12 uses the statement of financial position perspective but both will be
explained here for greater understanding.
Example continued: Two perspectives

The following table identifies the differences between the accounting treatment
and the taxation treatment of the item of plant from both perspectives.
Assets Income
Carrying and and
amount Tax base liabilities expenses
Cost at 01/01/X1 9,000 9,000
Charge for the year (3,000) (4,500) (1,500)
Cost at 31/12/X1 6,000 4,500 1,500
Charge for the year (3,000) (2,500) 500
Cost at 31/12/X2 3,000 2,000 1,000
Charge for the year (3,000) (2,000) 1,000
Cost at 31/12/X3    

Statement of comprehensive income perspective
Example continued: Statement of comprehensive income perspective

20X1:
₦3,000 is disallowed but ₦4,500 is allowed instead.
 taxable expense is ₦1,500 greater than the accounting expense.
taxable profit is ₦1,500 less than accounting profit.
 current tax is reduced by 30% of ₦1,500 (₦450).
 deferred tax expense of ₦450 must be recognised to restore the balance
(Dr: Tax expense / Cr: Deferred taxation liability).
20X2:
 taxable expense is ₦500 less than the accounting expense.
taxable profit is ₦500 more than accounting profit.
 current tax is increased by 30% of ₦500 (₦150).
 deferred tax credit of ₦150 must be recognised to restore the balance
(Dr: Deferred taxation liability / Cr: Tax expense).
20X3:
 taxable expense is ₦1,000 less than the accounting expense.
taxable profit is ₦1,000 more than accounting profit.
 current tax is increased by 30% of ₦1,000 (₦300).
 deferred tax credit of ₦300 must be recognised to restore the balance
(Dr: Deferred taxation liability / Cr: Tax expense).
The statement of comprehensive income would now be as follows:

20X1 20X2 20X3
₦ ₦ ₦
Profit before tax 50,000 50,000 50,000
Income tax @ 30% W1 14,550 15,150 15,300
Deferred tax 450 (150) (300)
(15,000) (15,000) (15,000)
Profit after tax 35,000 35,000 35,000
Statement of financial position 20X1 20X2 20X3

Deferred tax liability: ₦ ₦ ₦
Balance b/f nil 450 300
Movement in the year 450 (150) (300)
Balance b/f 450 300 nil

Corporate reporting
Statement of financial position perspective
Example continued: Statement of financial position perspective

This approach compares the carrying amount of assets and liabilities in the
financial statements to their tax base to identify the cumulative differences to that
point in time.
These differences are called temporary differences.
An asset in the financial statements compared to the taxman’s view requires the
recognition of a deferred tax liability which is measured by applying the tax rate to
the temporary difference.
Carrying Temporary Tax @
amount Tax base difference 30%
At 31/12/X1 6,000 4,500 1,500 450
At 31/12/X2 3,000 2,000 1,000 300
At 31/12/X3 nil nil nil nil
By the end of 20X1

The asset in the financial statements is ₦1,500 more than the tax base.
A deferred tax liability of ₦450 must be recognised.
Debit Credit
Tax expense 450
Deferred tax liability 450
By the end of 20X2

The asset in the financial statements is ₦1,000 more than the tax base.
A deferred tax liability of ₦300 must be recognised but there was ₦450 at
the start of the year so the liability must be reduced.
Debit Credit
Tax expense 150
By the end of 20X3

The asset in the financial statements is the same as the tax base (nil).
A deferred tax liability of nil must be recognised but there was ₦300 at the
start of the year so the liability must be reduced.
Debit Credit
Tax expense 300
These amounts are the same as on the previous page and would have the
same impact on the financial statements.

The recognition of deferred taxation has restored the relationship between profit
before tax and the tax charge through the tax rate in each year (30% of ₦50,000
= ₦15,000).
Terminology
When a difference comes into existence or grows it is said to originate. When the
difference reduces in size it is said to reverse.
Thus, in the above example a difference of ₦1,500 originated in 20X1. This
difference then reversed in 20X2 and 20X3.
Warning
Do not think that an origination always leads to the recognition of a liability and
an expense. The direction of the double entry depends on the circumstances that
gave rise to the temporary difference. This is covered in section 3 of this chapter.
2.3 IAS 12 approach to the problem

IAS 12: Income taxes, advocates a statement of financial position approach.
Business must identify a deferred tax liability (or perhaps asset) at each reporting
date.
It must do this by identifying the differences between the carrying amount of
assets and liabilities in the financial statements to the tax base (tax authority’s
view of those same items). These differences are known as temporary
differences (this will be explained in more detail in the next section).
Once the temporary differences have been identified the deferred tax balance is
calculated by applying the appropriate tax rate to the difference.

Corporate reporting
3 RECOGNITION OF DEFERRED TAX: BASIC APPROACH
Section overview
 Identifying the temporary difference

 Taxable and deductible temporary differences
 Accounting for deferred tax
 Sources of temporary differences
3.1 Identifying the temporary difference

Accounting for deferred tax is based on the identification of the temporary
differences.
Definition: Temporary difference

Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or
liability in the statement of financial position and its tax base.
Temporary differences may be either:
(a) taxable temporary differences, which are temporary differences that will result
in taxable amounts in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of future periods
when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered or settled; or
(b) deductible temporary differences, which are temporary differences that will
result in amounts that are deductible in determining taxable profit (tax loss) of
future periods when the carrying amount of the asset or liability is recovered
or settled.
The tax base of an asset is the amount that will be deductible for tax purposes
against any taxable economic benefit that will flow to an entity when it recovers
the carrying amount of the asset.
Definition: Tax base

The tax base of an asset or liability is the amount attributed to that asset or liability
for tax purposes.

3.2 Taxable and deductible temporary differences

Temporary differences may be either taxable temporary differences or deductible
temporary differences.
Taxable temporary differences

A taxable temporary difference is caused by a debit in the carrying amount of an
asset or liability in the financial statements compared to the tax base of that item.
Taxable temporary differences lead to the recognition of deferred tax liabilities.
Example: Taxable temporary differences

Each of the following is a taxable temporary difference leading to the recognition of
a deferred tax liability.
Deferred
Carrying Temporary tax liability
amount Tax base difference (30%)
Non-current asset 1,000 800 200 60
Inventory 650 600 50 15
Receivable 800 500 300 90
Receivable (note 1) 500 nil 500 150
Payable (note 2) (1,000) (1,200) 200 60
Note 1:
This implies that an item accounted for using the accruals basis in the
financial statements is being taxed on a cash bases.
If an item is taxed on cash basis the tax base would be zero as no
receivable would be recognised under the tax rules.
Note 2:
The credit balance in the financial statements is ₦1,000 and the tax base is
a credit of ₦1,200. Therefore, the financial statements show a debit
balance of 200 compared to the tax base. This leads to a deferred tax
liability.
IAS 12 rationalises the approach as follows (using the non-current assets
figures to illustrate)
Inherent in the recognition of an asset is that the carrying amount (₦1,000)
will be recovered in the form of economic benefits that will flow to the entity
in future periods.
When the carrying amount exceeds the tax base (as it does in this case at
₦800) the amount of taxable economic benefit will exceed the amount that
will be allowed as a deduction for tax purposes.
This difference is a taxable temporary difference and the obligation to pay
the resulting income tax in the future periods is a liability that exists at the
reporting date.
The company will only be able to expense ₦800 in the tax computations
against the recovery of ₦1,000.
The ₦200 that is not covered will be taxed and that tax should be
recognised for now.

Corporate reporting
Definition: Deferred tax liability

Deferred tax liabilities are the amounts of income taxes payable in future periods
in respect of taxable temporary differences.
Deductible temporary differences

A deductible temporary difference is caused by a credit in the carrying amount of
an asset or liability in the financial statements compared to the tax base of that
item.
Deductible temporary differences lead to the recognition of deferred tax assets.
Example: Deductible temporary differences

Each of the following is a deductible temporary difference leading to the
recognition of a deferred tax asset.
Deferred
Carrying Temporary tax asset
amount Tax base difference (30%)
Non-current asset (note 1) 1,000 1,200 (200) 60
Receivable 800 900 (100) 30
Payable (1,200) (1,000) (200) 60
Note 1:
There is a debit balance for the non-current asset of ₦1,000 and its tax
base is a debit of ₦1,200. Therefore, the financial statements show a credit
balance of 200 compared to the tax base. This leads to a deferred tax
asset.
Definition: Deferred tax asset

Deferred tax assets are the amounts of income taxes recoverable in future periods
in respect of:
(a) deductible temporary differences;
(b) the carry forward of unused tax losses; and
(c) the carry forward of unused tax credits.
(The deferred tax assets arising from the carry forward of unused tax losses and
the carry forward of unused tax credits are not in your syllabus).

3.3 Accounting for deferred tax

Accounting for deferred taxation involves the recognition of a liability (or an asset)
in the statement of financial position at each year end. The business must then
account for the movement on the liability.
The other side of the entry that changes the balance on the deferred taxation
liability (asset) is recognised in the statement of profit or loss. (Note that some
differences require double entry to other comprehensive income or directly to
equity).
Approach
The calculation of the balance to be recognised in the statement of financial
position is quite straightforward.
 Step 1: Identify the temporary differences (this should always involve a
columnar working as in the example below);
 Step 2: Multiply the temporary differences by the appropriate tax rate.
 Step 3: Compare this figure to the opening figure and complete the double
entry.
Example: Accounting for deferred tax

X plc has non-current assets with a carrying value of ₦200,000 and a tax base of
₦140,000.
It has recognised a receivable of ₦10,000. This relates to income which is taxed on
a cash basis.
It has also accrued for an expense in the amount of ₦20,000. Tax relief is only
given on this expense when it is paid.
At the start of the year X plc had a deferred tax liability of ₦12,000.
Required
Show the movement on the deferred tax account and construct the journal to
record this movement.
In order to answer a question like this you need to complete the following
proforma:
₦
Deferred taxation balance at the start of the year 12,000
Transfer to the income statement (as a balancing figure) ?
Deferred taxation balance at the end of the year (working) ?
In order to complete this you need a working to identify the temporary

differences.

Corporate reporting
Example continued: Accounting for deferred tax

The temporary differences are identified and the required deferred tax balance
calculated as follows:
Working:
Carrying Temporary DT balance at
amount Tax base differences 30%
₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
Non-current assets 200,000 140,000 60,000 18,000
(liability)
Accrued income 10,000  10,000 3,000
(liability)
Accrued expense (20,000)  (20,000) (6,000)
asset
50,000 15,000
The answer can then be completed by filling in the missing figures and
constructing the journal as follows:
₦
Deferred taxation balance at the start of the year 12,000
Statement of profit or loss (as a balancing figure) 3,000
Deferred taxation balance at the end of the year (working) 15,000
Journal: Debit Credit

Income statement (tax expense) 3,000
Deferred tax liability 3,000
SIC 25: Changes in tax status of an entity or its shareholders

Issue
 A change in the tax status of an entity or its shareholders may increase or
decrease tax assets and liabilities.
 How should the tax consequences of such change be accounted for?
Consensus
 The current and deferred tax consequences of a change in tax status must
be included in the statement of profit or loss for the period unless they
relate to transactions recognised in other comprehensive income or directly
in equity.
 In those cases the tax consequences should be recognised in other
comprehensive income or directly in equity.

3.4 Sources of temporary differences

Circumstances under which temporary differences arise include;
 Situations when income or expense is included in accounting profit in one
period but included in the taxable profit in a different period. Examples
include:
 items which are taxed on a cash basis but which will be accounted for
on an accruals basis.
 situations where the accounting depreciation does not equal capital
allowances.
 Revaluation of assets where the tax authorities do not amend the tax base
when the asset is revalued.
Examples leading to the recognition of deferred tax liabilities

Interest may be received in arrears, leading to a receivable in the statement of
financial position. However, this interest may not be taxable until the cash is
received.
Example: Recognition of deferred tax liabilities

A plc recognises interest receivable of ₦600,000 in its financial statements.
No cash has yet been received and interest is taxed on a cash basis. The interest
receivable has a tax base of nil.
Carrying Temporary
amount Tax base difference
₦ ₦ ₦
Interest receivable 600,000  600,000
Deferred tax liability @ 30% 180,000
Development costs may be capitalised and amortised (in accordance with IAS
38) but tax relief may be given for the development costs as they are paid.

In the year ended 30 June 2014, B Plc incurred development costs of ₦320,000.
These were capitalised in accordance with IAS 38, with an amortisation charge of
₦15,000 in 2014.
Development costs are an allowable expense for tax purposes in the period in
which they are paid. The relevant tax rate is 30%.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Development costs 305,000  305,000

Corporate reporting
Accounting depreciation is not deductible for tax purposes in most tax regimes.
Instead the governments allow a deduction on statutory grounds.

C plc has non-current assets at 31 December 2013 with a cost of ₦5,000,000.
Accumulated depreciation for accounting purposes is ₦2,250,000 to give a
carrying amount of ₦2,750,000
Tax deductible depreciation of ₦3,000,000 has been deducted to date.
The fixed assets have a tax base of ₦2,000,000.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Non-current asset 2,750,000 2,000,000 750,000
Examples leading to the recognition of deferred tax assets

Warranty costs may be recognised as a liability (in accordance with IAS 37) but
tax relief may be given only when the cash is spent in the future.
Example: Recognition of deferred tax assets

D plc recognises a liability of ₦100,000 for accrued product warranty costs.
For tax purposes, the product warranty costs will not be deductible until the entity
pays any warranty claims. (Therefore the tax base is nil).
The company is very profitable and does not expect this to change. (This means
that they expect to pay tax in the future so should be able to recover the deferred
tax asset).
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Warranty provision 100,000  100,000
Deferred tax asset @ 30% 30,000

This time the financial statements contain a liability when compared to
the tax authority’s view of the situation. Therefore deferred tax is an
asset.

It is possible to have a temporary difference even if there is no asset or liability. In

such cases there is a zero value for the asset (or liability). For example, research
costs may be expensed as incurred (in accordance with IAS 38) but tax relief
may be given for the costs at a later date.
Example: Recognition of deferred tax assets

In the year ended 31 December 2013, E Plc incurred research costs of ₦500,000.
These were expensed accordance with IAS 38.
Research costs are not permitted as a taxable deduction until a later period.
The relevant tax rate is 30%.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Research costs nil 500,000 500,000
Deferred tax asset @ 30% 150,000

Corporate reporting
4 RECOGNITION AND MEASUREMENT RULES
Section overview
 Recognition of deferred tax liabilities

 Recognition of deferred tax assets
 A recognition issue – non-taxable items
 Measurement of deferred tax balances
4.1 Recognition of deferred tax liabilities

A deferred tax liability must be recognised for all taxable temporary differences,
except to the extent that the deferred tax liability arises from:
 the initial recognition of goodwill; or
 the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction which:
 is not a business combination; and
 at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor
taxable profit (tax loss).
There is further guidance on the recognition of deferred tax liabilities in respect of
taxable temporary differences arising in a business combination.
Comment on the exceptions: Goodwill

Goodwill usually exists only in group accounts. Groups are not taxed as such: it
is the members of a group that are the taxable entities, i.e. the parent and each
subsidiary are taxed separately. Goodwill in group accounts is not an asset
recognised by the tax authorities so has a tax base of nil. This means that
goodwill is a temporary difference but does not lead to the recognition of a
deferred tax liability because of the exception.
Example: Goodwill
In the year ended 31 December 2013, A Plc acquired 80% of another company and
recognised goodwill of ₦100,000 in respect of this acquisition.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Goodwill 100,000 nil 100,000
Deferred tax (due to the exception) nil
The exception refers to the initial recognition of goodwill. However, there is

no deferred tax in respect of this difference at any time in the future even
if the carrying amount (and hence the temporary difference) changes..

In some jurisdictions goodwill can arise in individual company financial

statements. Furthermore, the goodwill might be tax deductible in those
jurisdictions. In such cases goodwill is just the same as any other asset and its
tax consequences would be recognised in the same way.
Example: Goodwill
In the year ended 31 December 2013, B Plc acquired a partnership and recognised
good will of ₦100,000 in respect of this acquisition.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Goodwill 100,000 100,000 nil
Deferred tax on initial recognition nil
In the future, both the carrying amount and the tax base of the goodwill
might change leading to deferred tax consequences.
Comment on the exceptions: Initial recognition of other items

A temporary difference may arise on initial recognition of an asset or liability, for
example if part or all of the cost of an asset will not be deductible for tax
purposes. This exception relates to the initial recognition of an asset or liability in
a transaction that is not a business combination. In other words, the exception
does not apply if the initial recognition is due to a business combination. There is
guidance on deferred tax arising in business combinations but this is not
examinable at this level.
If the transaction is not a business combination and affects either accounting
profit or taxable profit the exception does not apply and deferred tax is
recognised on initial recognition.
Example: Loan
In the year ended 31 December 2013, C Plc lent ₦100,000 to another company
and incurred costs of ₦5,000 in arranging the loan. The loan is recognised at
₦105,000 in the accounts.
Under the tax rules in C Plc’s jurisdiction the cost of arranging the loan is deductible
in the period in which the loan is made.
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Loan 105,000 100,000 5,000
Deferred tax on initial recognition 1,500
The exception does not apply as the transaction affects the taxable
profits on initial recognition.

Corporate reporting
If the transaction is not a business combination, and affects neither accounting

profit nor taxable profit, deferred tax would normally be recognised but the
exception prohibits it.
Example: Initial recognition

In the year ended 31 December 2013, D Plc acquired a non-current asset at a cost
of ₦100,000. The asset is to be depreciated on a straight line basis over its useful
life of 5 years.
The asset falls outside the tax system. Depreciation is not allowable for tax
purposes and there is no tax deductible equivalent. Any gain on disposal is not
taxable and any loss on disposal not taxable.
Initial recognition:
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Non-current asset 100,000 nil 100,000
Deferred tax on initial recognition (due to the exception) nil
Subsequent measurement (1 year later)

Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Non-current asset 80,000 nil 80,000
Deferred tax on initial recognition (due to the exception

– this still results from the initial recognition) nil

4.2 Recognition of deferred tax assets

A deferred tax asset must be recognised for all deductible temporary differences
to the extent that it is probable that taxable profit will be available against which
the deductible temporary difference can be utilised, unless the deferred tax asset
arises from the initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction that:
 is not a business combination; and
 at the time of the transaction, affects neither accounting profit nor taxable
profit (tax loss).
There is further guidance on the recognition of deferred tax asset in respect of
deductible temporary differences arising in a business combination but that is
outside the scope of your syllabus.
A deferred tax asset must only be recognised to the extent that it is probable that
taxable profit will be available against which the deductible temporary difference
can be used.
This means that IAS 12 brings a different standard to the recognition of deferred
tax assets than it does to deferred tax liabilities:
 liabilities are always be recognised in full (subject to certain exemptions
beyond the scope of your syllabus); but
 assets may not be recognised in full (or in some cases at all).
IAS 12 also requires that the carrying amount of a deferred tax asset must be
reviewed at the end of each reporting period to check if it is still probable that
sufficient taxable profit is expected to be available to allow the benefit of its use.
If this is not the case the carrying amount of the deferred tax asset must be
reduced to the amount that it is expected will be used in the future. Any such
reduction might be reversed in the future if circumstances change again.

Corporate reporting
4.3 A recognition issue – non-taxable items

The definition of temporary difference is repeated here for convenience:
Definition: Temporary difference

Temporary differences are differences between the carrying amount of an asset or
liability in the statement of financial position and its tax base.
Deferred tax should be recognised only in respect of those items where expense
or income is recognised in both accounting profit and taxable profit but in different
periods.
Unfortunately, applying the definition of temporary difference given above would
result in the inclusion of items where the difference might not be temporary but
permanent in nature.
Example: Permanent difference.

E Plc has recognised ₦100,000 income as a receivable in its accounting profit for
the year.
This income is not taxable.
Applying the definition of temporary difference would lead to the following:
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Receivable 100,000 nil 100,000
However, this is not a temporary difference. It is not a transaction

recognised in accounting profits in one period and taxable profits in
another.
It is never recognised in taxable profits.
Items not taxable or tax allowable should not result in the recognition of deferred
tax balances. In order to achieve this effect, IAS 12 includes the following rules:
 the tax base of an asset is the amount that will be deductible for tax
purposes against any taxable economic benefits that will flow to an entity
when it recovers the carrying amount of the asset. If those economic
benefits will not be taxable, the tax base of the asset is equal to its carrying
amount.
 the tax base of a liability is its carrying amount, less any amount that will be
deductible for tax purposes in respect of that liability in future periods. In the
case of revenue which is received in advance, the tax base of the resulting
liability is its carrying amount, less any amount of the revenue that will not
be taxable in future periods.

Returning to the above example:
Example: Permanent difference.

E Plc has recognised ₦100,000 income as a receivable in its accounting profit for
the year.
This income is not taxable.
Applying the definition of temporary difference would lead to the following:
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Receivable 100,000 100,000 nil
The item is not taxable so its tax base is set to be the same as its
carrying amount.
This results in a nil temporary difference and prevents the recognition of
deferred tax on this asset.
This sounds rather complicated but just remember that it is a mechanism to

exclude non-taxable items from the consideration of deferred tax (even though
the definition might have included them).
Remember this: there is no deferred tax to recognise on items that are not
taxed or for which no tax relief is given.
Closing comment
Accounting for deferred taxation restores the relationship that should exist
between the profit before tax in the financial statements, the tax rate and the tax
charge. In earlier examples we saw that after accounting for deferred tax the tax
expense (current and deferred tax) was equal to the tax rate  the accounting
profit before tax.
This will not be the case if there are permanent differences.
4.4 Measurement of deferred tax balances

Deferred tax assets and liabilities must not be discounted.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities must be measured at the tax rates that are
expected to apply to the period when the asset is realised or the liability is
settled, based on tax rates (and tax laws) that have been enacted or
substantively enacted by the end of the reporting period.

Corporate reporting
5 DEFERRED TAX: BUSINESS COMBINATIONS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Revaluation of assets/liabilities in the fair value exercise
 Unremitted earnings of group companies
 Unrealised profit adjustments
 Change in recoverability of parent’s deferred tax asset due to an acquisition
5.1 Introduction
Additional deferred tax items need to be considered in preparing group accounts,
because new sources of temporary differences arise:
 revaluation of assets/liabilities in the fair value exercise;
 unremitted earnings of group companies;
 unrealised profit adjustments.
5.2 Revaluation of assets/liabilities in the fair value exercise

When a parent company makes an acquisition, it must perform a fair value
exercise on the assets and liabilities of the entity it has acquired. This will result
in a change in the carrying value of some of the assets and liabilities. However,
the tax base will not be affected, as this is based on the original cost.
Temporary differences arise for all the revalued assets and liabilities
Double entry
The deferred tax is recognised automatically during the consolidation process.
There is no need to make a specific double entry.

Example: Fair value exercise and deferred tax

P Ltd acquires a 100% subsidiary on 31 December 20X6.for ₦600,000.
The subsidiary’s deferred taxation position at the date of acquisition was as
follows:
Temporary
Book value Tax base differences
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Accounts receivable 210 210 -
Inventory 124 124 -
Pension liability - - -
Accounts payable (120) (120) -
Temporary differences 30
Deferred tax at 30% 9
P Ltd carries out a fair value exercise.

The deferred tax balance must be recomputed to take account of the fair
value differences as follows:
Temporary
Fair value Tax base differences
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Accounts receivable 210 210 -
Inventory 174 124 50
Pension liability (30) - (30)
Accounts payable (120) (120) -
Fair value of net assets 504
Temporary differences 140
Deferred tax at 30% 42
The deferred tax balance of ₦9,000 must be increased to ₦42,000 in

the consolidation workings.
Goodwill is calculated as follows:
₦000
Cost of investment 600
Fair value of net assets acquired (as in the
statement of financial position) 504
Deferred tax arising on fair value exercise (42)
(462)
Goodwill on acquisition 138

Corporate reporting
5.3 Unremitted earnings of group companies

When a company acquires a subsidiary or associate, it acquires a right to receive
dividends out of its accumulated profits. A temporary difference arises on the
profits of the subsidiary or associate that have not been distributed to the parent
as at the date of consolidation. For clarity, this is the parent’s share of the
subsidiary’s post acquisition retained profit.
IAS 12 requires that a deferred tax liability be recognised for these undistributed
earnings, because they will attract tax when the dividends are paid to the parent
in the future.
However, deferred taxation is not recognised on such amounts when:
 the parent is able to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary
difference (i.e. the timing of when the dividend is paid); and
 it is probable that the temporary difference will not reverse in the future (i.e.
there is no intention to instigate the payment of a dividend).
In practice, it is unusual to see companies recognising deferred tax liability for
undistributed profits of a subsidiary because of the above rule.
The situation for investments in associates is different because the parent is
unlikely to control the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference.
Recognition of deferred tax liability for undistributed profits of associates is quite
common.
5.4 Unrealised profit adjustments

Where inter-company trading takes place between group companies and the
inventory is still held by the group at the year end, an adjustment is made in the
group accounts because the profit has not been realised outside of the group.
However, tax is charged on the profits of the individual companies, not on the
group as a whole. The profit on intra-group sales will therefore be subjected to
tax, and this will create a temporary difference.
The issue to resolve is whose tax rate should be used when providing for the
deferred tax on this temporary difference – the seller’s or the buyer’s? IAS 12
requires that deferred tax be provided at the buyer’s rate of tax.
5.5 Change in recoverability of parent’s deferred tax asset due to an acquisition

A parent company may have a deferred tax asset that it has not recognised as it
does not believe it probable that taxable profits will be available against which the
asset can be used.
The probability of realising a pre-acquisition deferred tax asset of the acquirer
could change as a result of a business combination.
For example, the acquirer may be able to utilise the benefit of its unused tax
losses against the future taxable profit of the acquiree.
In such cases, the parent company should recognise the change in the deferred
tax asset in the period of the business combination. This does not affect the
goodwill calculation.

Section overview
 Presentation
 Disclosure
6.1 Presentation
IAS 12: Income taxes contains rules on when current tax liabilities may be offset
against current tax assets
Offset of current tax liabilities and assets

A company must offset current tax assets and current tax liabilities if, and only if,
it:
 has a legally enforceable right to set off the recognised amounts; and
 intends either to settle on a net basis, or to realise the asset and settle the
liability simultaneously.
These are the same rules as apply to assets and liabilities in general as
described in IAS 1.
In the context of taxation balances whether a current tax liability and asset may
be offset is usually specified in tax law, thus satisfying the first criterion.
In most cases, where offset is legally available the asset would then be settled on
a net basis (i.e. the company would pay the net amount).
Offset of deferred tax liabilities and assets

A company must offset deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities if, and only
if:
 the entity has a legally enforceable right to set off current tax assets against
current tax liabilities; and
 the deferred tax assets and the deferred tax liabilities relate to income
taxes levied by the same taxation authority on either:
 the same taxable entity; or
 different taxable entities which intend either to settle current tax
liabilities and assets on a net basis, or to realise the assets and settle
the liabilities simultaneously, in each future period in which significant
amounts of deferred tax liabilities or assets are expected to be settled
or recovered.
The existence of deferred tax liability is strong evidence that a deferred tax asset
from the same tax authority will be recoverable.

Corporate reporting
Example: Offset of deferred tax liabilities and assets

The following deferred tax positions relate to the same entity:
Situation 1 Situation 2
Deferred tax liability 12,000 5,000
Deferred tax asset (8,000) (8,000)
4,000 (3,000)
In situation 1, the financial statements will report the net position as a liability of
4,000. The existence of the liability indicates that the company will be able to
recover the asset, so the asset can be set off against the liability.
In situation 2, setting off the asset against the liability leaves a deferred tax asset
of 3,000. This asset may only be recognised if the entity believes it is probable that
it will be recovered in the foreseeable future.

6.2 Disclosure
This section does not include the IAS 12 disclosure requirements in respect of
those aspects of deferred taxation which are not examinable at this level.
Components of tax expense (income)

The major components of tax expense (income) must be disclosed separately.
Components of tax expense (income) may include:
 current tax expense (income);
 any adjustments recognised in the period for current tax of prior periods;
 the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to the origination and
reversal of temporary differences;
 the amount of deferred tax expense (income) relating to changes in tax
rates or the imposition of new taxes;
 the amount of the benefit arising from a previously unrecognised tax loss,
tax credit or temporary difference of a prior period that is used to reduce
current tax expense;
 deferred tax expense arising from the write-down, or reversal of a previous
write-down, of a deferred tax asset;
 the amount of tax expense (income) relating to those changes in
accounting policies and errors that are included in profit or loss in
accordance with IAS 8, because they cannot be accounted for
retrospectively.
Illustration: Note to the statement of comprehensive income

Taxation expense ₦
Current tax 129,000
Adjustment for over estimate of tax in prior year (5,000)
Deferred taxation
Arising during the period 20,000
Due to change in tax rate (5,000)
15,000
139,000

Corporate reporting
Example: Change in rate

31 December 2013
Profits were taxed at 30%.
A Plc recognised a deferred tax liability of ₦30,000 (it had temporary differences of
₦100,000).
31 December 2014
The tax rate changed to 25% during the year.
At the year- end A Plc carried out the following deferred tax calculation:
Carrying Temporary
₦ ₦ ₦
Non-current assets 1,000,000 820,000 180,000
Deferred tax at 25% 45,000
The movement on the deferred tax liability would be shown as follows:

₦
Deferred taxation b/f 30,000
Statement of comprehensive income: Rate change (5/30 
30,000) (5,000)
Deferred taxation b/f restated 25,000
Statement of comprehensive income (balancing figure – due
to the origination of temporary differences in the period) 20,000
Deferred taxation balance at the end of the year (working) 45,000
Journal: Debit Credit

Deferred tax liability 15,000
Tax reconciliation
The following must also be disclosed:
 an explanation of the relationship between tax expense (income) and
accounting profit in either or both of the following forms:
 a numerical reconciliation between tax expense (income) and the
product of accounting profit multiplied by the applicable tax rate(s),
disclosing also the basis on which the applicable tax rate(s) is (are)
computed; or
 a numerical reconciliation between the average effective tax rate and
the applicable tax rate, disclosing also the basis on which the
applicable tax rate is computed;
 an explanation of changes in the applicable tax rate(s) compared to the
previous accounting period;

A major theme in this chapter is that the different rules followed to calculate
accounting profit and taxable profit lead to distortion of the relationship that exists
between profit before tax in the financial statements, the tax rate and the current
tax expense for the period. Accounting for deferred tax corrects this distortion so
that after accounting for deferred tax the tax expense (current and deferred tax)
was equal to the tax rate  the accounting profit before tax.
This is not the case if there are permanent differences. The above reconciliations
show the effect of permanent differences.
Example: Tax reconciliations

B Plc had an accounting profit before tax of ₦500,000.
This contained income of ₦20,000 which is not taxable.
Accounting depreciation in the year was ₦100,000 and tax allowable depreciation
was ₦150,000. This means that a temporary difference of ₦50,000 originated in
the year.
B Plc’s taxation computation is as follows: ₦
Add back inadmissible deductions
Depreciation 100,000
Deduct admissible deduction
Income not taxed (20,000)
Assessable profit 580,000
Tax allowable depreciation (150,000)
Taxable profit 430,000
Tax at 30% 129,000
Tax expense ₦
Current tax 129,000
Deferred taxation (30%  ₦50,000) 15,000
Tax expense 144,000
Tax reconciliation (in absolute numbers) ₦

Applicable tax rate 30%
Accounting profit  the applicable tax rate 150,000
Tax effect of untaxed income (30% of ₦20,000) (6,000)
Tax expense 144,000
Tax reconciliation (in percentages)

Applicable tax rate 30.0%
Tax effect of untaxed income (6,000/500,000) (1.2%)
Effective tax rate (144,000/500,000) 28.8%

Corporate reporting
Other disclosures
An entity must disclose the amount of income tax consequences of dividends to
shareholders of the entity that were proposed or declared before the financial
statements were authorised for issue, but are not recognised as a liability in the
financial statements;
An entity must disclose the amount of a deferred tax asset and the nature of the
evidence supporting its recognition, when:
 the utilisation of the deferred tax asset is dependent on future taxable
profits in excess of the profits arising from the reversal of existing taxable
temporary differences; and
 the entity has suffered a loss in either the current or preceding period in the
tax jurisdiction to which the deferred tax asset relates.

7 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Account for current tax
 Define temporary differences
 Identify temporary differences that cause deferred tax liabilities and deferred tax
assets
 Determine the amount of deferred tax to be recognised in respect of temporary
differences identified
 Apply the disclosure requirements of IAS12

Corporate reporting
XYZ Limited had an accounting profit before tax of ₦90,000 for the year ended
31st December 2013. The tax rate is 30%.
The following balances and information are relevant as at 31st December
2013.
Non-current assets ₦ ₦
Property 63,000 1
Plant and machinery 100,000 90,000 2
Assets held under finance lease 80,000 3
Receivables:
Trade receivables 73,000 4
Interest receivable 1,000 5
Payables
Fine 10,000
Finance lease obligation 85,867 3
Interest payable 3,300 5
Note 1: The property cost the company ₦70,000 at the start of the year. It is
being depreciated on a 10% straight line basis for accounting purposes.
The company’s tax advisers have said that the company can claim ₦42,000
accelerated depreciation as a taxable expense in this year’s tax
computation.
Note 2: The balances in respect of plant and machinery are after providing
for accounting depreciation of ₦12,000 and tax allowable depreciation of
₦10,000 respectively.
Note 3: The asset held under the finance lease was acquired during the
period.
The tax code does not distinguish between finance leases and operating
leases. Rental expense for leases is tax deductible. The annual rental for
the asset is ₦28,800 and was paid on 31st December 2014.
Note 4: The receivables figure is shown net of an allowance for doubtful
balances of ₦7,000. This is the first year that such an allowance has been
recognised. A deduction for debts is only allowed for tax purposes when the
debtor enters liquidation.
Note 5: Interest income is taxed and interest expense is allowable on a cash
basis. There were no opening balances on interest receivable and interest
payable.
a. Prepare a tax computation and calculate the current tax expense.

b. Calculate the deferred tax liability required as at 31 December 2013.
c. Show the movement on the deferred tax account for the year ended 31
December 2013 given that the opening balance was ₦3,600 Cr.
d. Prepare a note showing the components of the tax expense for the period.
e. Prepare a reconciliation between the tax expense and the product of the
accounting profit multiplied by the applicable rate.


Solution: Tax computation for the year ended 31 December 2013 1a
₦ ₦
Add back inadmissible expenses
Depreciation on property 7,000
Depreciation of plant and machinery 12,000
Depreciation of asset held under finance lease 20,000
Finance charge re finance lease 14,667
Increase in provision for doubtful debts 7,000
Interest payable accrual 3,300
Fine 10,000 73,967
Less admissible deductions
Interest income 1,000
Tax allowable depreciation on property 42,000
Tax allowable depreciation on plant and
machinery 10,000
Lease rentals 28,800 (81,800)
82,167
Tax 30% 24,650

Corporate reporting
Solution: Deferred tax liability as 31 December 2013 1b

Carrying Temporary
value Tax base difference
₦ ₦ ₦
Property 63,000 28,000 35,000
Plant and machinery 100,000 90,000 10,000
Assets held under finance lease 80,000 nil 80,000
Finance lease obligation (85,867) nil (85,867)
(5,867) nil (5,867)
Trade receivables 73,000 80,000 (7,000)
Interest receivable 1,000 nil 1,000
Fine (10,000) (10,000) 
Interest payable (3,300) nil (3,300)
29,833
Deferred tax @ 30% 8,950
Temporary Deferred
differences tax @ 30%
Deferred tax liabilities 46,000 13,800
Deferred tax assets (16,167) (4,850)
8,950
Solution: Movement on the deferred tax account for the year ended 31 December 1c
2013.
₦
Deferred tax as at 1st January 2014 3,600
Statement of comprehensive income (balancing figure) 5,350
Deferred tax as at 31st December 2014 8,950
Solution: Components of tax expense for the year ended 31 December 2013. 1d
₦
Current tax expense (see part a) 24,650
Deferred tax (see part c) 5,350
Tax expense 30,000

Solutions: Tax reconciliation for the year ended 31 December 2013. 1e

₦
Tax at the applicable rate (30%) 27,000

Tax effects of expenses that are not deductible in determining
taxable profit
Fines 3,000
Tax expense 30,000

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
18
IAS 19: Employee benefits
Contents
1 Employee benefits
2 Post-employment benefits
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 19 is an examinable standard.
Exam context
This chapter explains the rules set out in IAS 19. The most complex area is accounting for
defined benefit pension plans. Recent changes to the rules have simplified the model but it is
still needs careful attention. Work through the examples carefully and make sure that you
understand the process.

 Define the different types of employment benefits
 Account for defined contribution post-employment benefit plans
 Define the various cost components associated with defined benefit post-employment
benefit plans
 Explain the role of an actuary
 Account for defined benefit post-employment benefit plans including the application of
the asset ceiling.

Chapter 18: IAS 19: Employee benefits
1 IAS 19: EMPLOYEE BENEFITS
Section overview
 The scope and basic principles of IAS 19

 Short-term employee benefits
 Termination benefits
 Other long term benefits
1.1 The scope and basic principles of IAS 19
Definition
Employee benefits are all forms of consideration given by an entity in exchange
for service rendered by employees or for the termination of employment.
A company may reward its employees in ways other than payment of a basic
salary. Employers often provide entitlements to paid holidays, or pay an annual
cash bonus to some employees, or provide employees with a company car,
medical insurance and pension benefits. (Some employees also receive share
options under company pension schemes: these are classified as share-based
payments.)
IAS 19 provides guidance on accounting for all forms of employee benefits,
except for share-based payments. Share-based payments are dealt with by IFRS
2.
IAS 19 sets out rules of accounting and disclosure for:
 short term employee benefits;
 wages, salaries and social security contributions;
 paid annual leave and paid sick leave;
 profit-sharing and bonuses; and
 non-monetary benefits (such as medical care, housing, cars and free
or subsidised goods or services) for current employees;
 post-employment benefits, such as the following:
 retirement benefits (e.g. pensions and lump sum payments on
retirement); and
 other post-employment benefits, such as post-employment life
insurance and post-employment medical care;
 other long-term employee benefits, such as the following:
 long-term paid absences such as long-service leave or sabbatical
leave;
 jubilee or other long-service benefits; and
 long-term disability benefits; and
 termination benefits.

Corporate reporting
Accounting principle
The basic principle in IAS 19 is that the cost of providing benefits to employees
should be matched with the period during which the employees work to earn the
benefits. This principle applies even when the benefits are payable in the future,
such as pension benefits.
IAS 19 requires an entity:
 to recognise a liability when an employee has provided a service in
exchange for a benefit that will be paid in the future, and
 to recognise an expense when the entity makes use of the service provided
by the employee.
The basic double entry may therefore be (depending on the nature of the
employee benefits):
 Debit: Employment cost (charged as an expense in the statement of profit
or loss)
 Credit: Liability for employee benefits
1.2 Short-term employee benefits
Definition
Short-term employee benefits are employee benefits that expected to be settled
wholly within twelve months after the end of the period in which the employee
provides the service.
Short-term employee benefits include:

 wages, salaries and social security contributions
 paid annual holiday and paid absences due to sickness
 profit-sharing payments and bonuses
 other benefits not in a monetary form, such as medical insurance, free
accommodation in a house or flat owned by the entity and company cars.
The expense must be accounted for on an accruals basis and any unpaid
entitlement should be recognised as a short-term liability. Discounting the liability
to a present value is not required, because it is payable within 12 months.
Short-term paid absences

Sometimes an entity may pay employees for absence for various reasons. These
include holidays, sickness and maternity leave.
Entitlement to paid absences falls into two categories:
 accumulating
 carried forward for use in future periods if the current period’s
entitlement is not used in full;
 expense and liability is recognised when employees render service
that increases their entitlement to future paid absences

 measured at the additional amount expected to be paid as a result of

the unused entitlement that has accumulated at the end of the
reporting period.
 non-accumulating.
 unused amounts cannot be carried forward;
 expense and liability is recognised when the absences occur.
Profit-sharing and bonus plans

The expected cost of profit-sharing and bonus payments must be recognised
when, and only when:
 the entity has a present legal or constructive obligation to make such
payments as a result of past events; and
 a reliable estimate of the obligation can be made.
A reliable estimate of its legal or constructive obligation under a profit-sharing or
bonus plan can be made when, and only when:
 the formal terms of the plan contain a formula for determining the amount of
the benefit;
 the entity determines the amounts to be paid before the financial
statements are authorised for issue; or
 past practice gives clear evidence of the amount of the entity’s constructive
obligation.
A present obligation exists when, and only when, the entity has no realistic
alternative but to make the payments.
1.3 Termination benefits
Definition
Termination benefits are employee benefits provided in exchange for the
termination of an employee’s employment as a result of either:
a. an entity’s decision to terminate an employee’s employment before the
normal retirement date; or
b. an employee’s decision to accept an offer of benefits in exchange for the
termination of employment.
Recognition
An entity must recognise a liability and expense for termination benefits at the
earlier of the following dates:
 when the entity can no longer withdraw the offer of those benefits; and
 when the entity recognises costs for a restructuring within the scope of IAS
37 that involves the payment of termination benefits.
Measurement
Termination benefits are measured in accordance with the nature of the
employee benefit, that is to say short term benefits, other long term benefits or
post-employment benefits.

Corporate reporting
1.4 Other long term benefits
Definition
Other long-term employee benefits are all employee benefits other than short-
term employee benefits, post-employment benefits and termination benefits.
An entity must recognise a net liability (asset) for any other long term benefit.
This is measured as:
 the present value of the obligation for the benefit; less
 the fair value of assets set aside to meet the obligation (if any).
Movements in the amount from one year to the next are recognised in P&L.

2 POST-EMPLOYMENT BENEFITS
Section overview
 Post-employment benefits
 Defined contribution pension plans
 Defined benefit pension plans
 Introduction to accounting for defined benefit pension plans
 Accounting for defined benefit pension plans
 Accounting for defined benefit pension plans – Alternative approach
 Asset ceiling example
 Multi-employer plans
 ED/2014/3: Defined benefit plans: Employee contributions
2.1 Post-employment benefits
Definition
Post-employment benefits are employee benefits (other than termination
benefits and short-term employee benefits) that are payable after the completion
of employment.
The most significant post-employment benefit is a retirement pension, but there

may also be post-employment life insurance and medical care.
Definition
Post-employment benefit plans are formal or informal arrangements under which
an entity provides post-employment benefits for one or more employees.
There are two types of post-employment benefit plan:

 defined contribution plans; and
 defined benefit plans.
Definitions
Defined contribution plans are post-employment benefit plans under which an
entity pays fixed contributions into a separate entity (a fund) and will have no
legal or constructive obligation to pay further contributions if the fund does not
hold sufficient assets to pay all employee benefits relating to employee service in
the current and prior periods.
Defined benefit plans are post-employment benefit plans other than defined
contribution plans.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Defined contribution pension plans

In a defined contribution pension plan, the employer pays an agreed amount of
money (‘defined contributions’) at regular intervals into a pension fund for the
employee. The amount of money that the employer contributes is usually a fixed
percentage of the employee’s wages or salary (e.g. 5% of the employee’s basic
salary).
The contributions to the fund are invested to earn a return and increase the value
of the fund. When an employee retires, he or she is paid a pension out of the
fund. The amount of pension received by the employee is not pre-determined,
but depends on the size of the employee’s share of the fund at retirement.
As the name ‘defined contribution’ implies, the company’s obligation to pay a
pension to the employee is limited to the agreed amounts of contribution. The
company is not required to make good any shortfalls if the pension fund does not
have enough assets to pay the pension benefits that the employee would like to
have. In effect, the employee bears the risk of a poor-performing fund, not the
employer.
Accounting treatment: contributions to defined contribution schemes

Accounting for the employer’s contributions to a defined contribution scheme is
straightforward. Using the accruals concept:
 the contributions payable for the reporting period are charged to profit or
loss as an expense (an employee cost) in the statement of profit or loss.
 any unpaid contributions at the end of the year will be shown in the
statement of financial position as an accrual/liability and any prepaid
contributions will be shown as an asset (a prepayment).
2.3 Defined benefit pension plans

Under a defined benefit plan, the employer guarantees the amount of pension
that its employees will receive after they retire. A company might save cash into a
separate fund (just as for defined contribution plans) in order to build up an asset
that can be used to pay the pensions of employees when they retire. This would
be known as a funded plan. If an employer does not save up in this way the plan
is described as being unfunded.
The amount that an employee will receive is usually linked to the number of years
that he or she has worked for the company, and the size of his/her annual salary
at retirement date (or on leaving the company). Defined benefit plans are often
known as “final salary schemes”
If there are insufficient funds in the plan to provide employees with the
guaranteed pensions then the employer must make up the shortfall. The risk
remains with the employer.

Role of an actuary
An actuary is a highly qualified specialist in the financial impact of risk and
uncertainty. They advise companies on the conduct of their pension plans.
An actuary will advise the company how much to pay in contributions into the
pension plan each year, in order to ensure there are sufficient funds to cover the
company’s obligation to make the pension payments. This involves making a
large number of estimates. For example, the actuary has to estimate the average
life expectancy of retired employees, the expected number of years of service
that retired employees will have given when they retire, their final salary and the
expected returns on investments in the pension fund.
It is very unlikely that the actuary’s estimates will be 100% accurate so whenever
the value of the pension fund assets and the employer’s pension obligations are
measured, the company may find that there is a deficit or a surplus.
 When the amount of the employer’s future pension obligations is more than
the value of the investments in the pension fund, the fund is in deficit.
 When the value of the investments in the pension fund is higher than the
value of the employer’s obligations to make future pension payments, the
fund is in surplus.
When a surplus or deficit occurs an employer might take no action. This would be
the case when the company believes that the actuarial assumptions may not be
true in the short term but will be true over the long term. Alternatively, the
company might decide to eliminate a deficit (not necessarily immediately) by
making additional contributions into the fund.
When the fund is in surplus, the employer might stop making contributions into
the fund for a period of time (and ‘take a pension holiday’). Alternatively the
company may withdraw the surplus from the fund, for its own benefit.

Corporate reporting
2.4 Introduction to accounting for defined benefit pension plans

Pensions are paid by the defined benefit plan which is a separate legal entity
from the company. However, the company has the legal obligation to pay the
pensions.
The defined benefit plan is a special entity set up in order to handle a large
number of complex and long term transactions for the company and to separate
the plan’s assets from those of the company (the pensions of the employees are
protected if the company runs into difficulties).

IAS 19 requires that an entity must recognise a defined benefit item (net liability
due to a deficit or net asset due to a surplus) in the statement of financial
position.
The net defined benefit liability (asset) is the deficit or surplus and is measured
as:
 the present value of the defined benefit obligation; less
 the fair value of plan assets (if any).
A surplus in a defined benefit plan is measured at the lower of:
 the surplus in the defined benefit plan; and
 the asset ceiling (which is the present value of any economic benefits
available in the form of refunds from the plan or reductions in future
contributions to the plan).
Definition
The present value of a defined benefit obligation is the present value, without
deducting any plan assets, of expected future payments required to settle the
obligation resulting from employee service in the current and prior periods.
The obligation is estimated by an actuary, and is based on actuarial estimates
and assumptions. IAS 19 requires that it must be measured using the projected
unit credit method (you may need to know this term but do not need to apply it)
using a discount rate available on high quality corporate bonds.
Movement for the period

The movements on the defined benefit item are due to:
 cash contributions to the plan
 current service cost (to P&L);
 past service cost (to P&L);
 gains or loss on settlement (to P&L);
 net interest (expense or income); and (to P&L); and
 remeasurement (to OCI);
Note that the benefit paid has no effect as it reduces the plan assets and plan
obligations by the same amount.

Definitions – Movements recognised through P&L
Definitions
Current service cost is the increase in the present value of the defined benefit
obligation resulting from employee service in the current period;
Past service cost is the change in the present value of the defined benefit
obligation for employee service in prior periods, resulting from a plan amendment
(the introduction or withdrawal of, or changes to, a defined benefit plan) or a
curtailment (a significant reduction by the entity in the number of employees
covered by a plan).
Net interest on the net defined benefit liability (asset) is the change during the
period in the net defined benefit liability (asset) that arises from the passage of
time.
A settlement is a transaction that eliminates all further legal or constructive
obligations for part or all of the benefits provided under a defined benefit plan,
other than a payment of benefits to, or on behalf of, employees that is set out in
the terms of the plan and included in the actuarial assumptions.
Definitions – Movements recognised through OCI
Definitions
Remeasurements of the net defined benefit liability (asset) comprise:
a. actuarial gains and losses;
b. any change in the effect of the asset ceiling, excluding amounts included in
net interest on the net defined benefit liability (asset).
Actuarial gains and losses are changes in the present value of the defined benefit
obligation resulting from:
a. experience adjustments (the effects of differences between the previous
actuarial assumptions and what has actually occurred); and
b. the effects of changes in actuarial assumptions.

Corporate reporting
2.5 Accounting for defined benefit pension plans
Step 1
Construct a note to show the net liability (net asset) that is recognised on the face
of the statement of financial position. This note should include both amounts for
the current year and comparatives.
Illustration: Defined benefit net liability (asset)

Opening Closing
Present value of plan obligation X X
Fair value of plan assets X X
X X
This is used to identify the movement on the defined benefit liability (asset) which
is journalised at step 2
Step 2
Construct the following journal and enter the movement on the defined benefit
liability (asset) and the cash paid to the plan by the company (contributions).
Illustration: Journal
Debit Credit
Profit or loss
(remeasurement)
Cash (contributions) X
Defined benefit net liability X
The above illustration assumes an increase in the liability. This would not be the
case in all examples. (In other words, the movement might be a debit or a credit,
depending on circumstance).
Step 3
Identify the profit and loss entries. These comprise:
 current service cost;
 past service cost (if any); and
 interest (an interest rate applied to the opening net liability (asset).
Enter the total into the journal.
Step 4
Calculate the remeasurement as a balancing figure.

Example: Defined benefit accounting

The following information relates to the defined benefit plan of Company X for the
year to 31 December 20X6.
At 1 January 20X6: ₦000
Fair value of the plan assets 900
Present value of the plan obligations 1,850
During 20X6: ₦000

Current service cost 90
Contributions paid into the plan 150
Benefits paid out by the plan 60
Actuarial assumptions:
Discount rate 10%
New actuarial valuation at 31 December 20X6: ₦000

Construct a journal to show the movement on the defined benefit account.
Answer: Defined benefit accounting

Step 1: The opening position
1 January 31 December
20X6 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Present value of plan obligation 1,850 1,960
Fair value of plan assets (900) (850)
950 1,110
Note that the movement on the defined benefit liability is an increase of

₦160,000 (1,110,000 – 950,000)
Step 2: Construct the journal and fill in the blanks as far as possible
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss
(remeasurement)
Cash (contributions) 150
Defined benefit net liability 160

Corporate reporting
Answer (continued): Defined benefit accounting

Step 3: Identify amounts to be recognised in profit or loss
₦000
Interest (10%  ₦950,000) 95
185
Note that the movement on the defined benefit liability is an increase of

₦160,000 (1,110,000 – 950,000)
Step 4: Complete the journal by calculating the remeasurement as a balancing

figure
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss 185
(remeasurement as a balancing figure) 125
310 310
2.6 Accounting for defined benefit pension plans – Alternative approach

Steps 1 and 2 are as before. The difference is in the calculation of the
remeasurement.
This involves rolling the opening figures forward to the year end. The approach is
to calculate what the closing defined benefit net liability (net asset) should be by
adjusting the opening defined benefit net liability (asset) by what has happened in
the period and by applying the actuarial assumptions.
This balance can then be compared with the actual closing balance and the
remeasurement identified as a balancing figure.
This accounting treatment can best be explained using an example:

Example: Defined benefit accounting

During 20X6: ₦000

Discount rate 10%

Answer: Defined benefit accounting

Step 1: The opening position (as before)
20X6 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Present value of plan obligation 1,850 1,960
Fair value of plan assets (900) (850)
950 1,110
Step 2: Construct the journal and fill in the blanks as far as possible (as before)
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss
(remeasurement)

Corporate reporting
Answer (continued): Defined benefit accounting

Step 3: Construct a working to identify the movements on the defined benefit net
liability (asset)
₦000
At start of year (950)
1 Net interest (10% × 950,000) (95)
2 Contributions paid (given) 150
3 Current service cost (given) (90)
4 Benefits paid out (given) 0
Expected year end position (985)
Remeasurement (balancing figure) (125)
Actual year end position (1,110)
Step 4: Complete the journal by entering in the profit and loss amounts and the
remeasurement from the above working.
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss (₦95,000 + ₦90,000) 185
310 310

Possible complication
In the above illustration the opening defined benefit net liability (asset) was rolled
forward.
IAS 19 requires disclosure of reconciliations of the present value of the defined
benefit obligation and the fair value of the defined benefit assets.
This is done by constructing a similar working to that shown in step 3 above but
including further columns for both the defined benefit liability and the defined
benefit asset.
Example:
Using the facts from the previous example the working would be as follows:
Step 3: Construct a working to identify the movements on the defined benefit net
liability (asset)
Company
Fund position position
Liability Assets Net
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
At start of year (1,850) 900 (950)
1 Interest expense (10% × 1,850,000) (185) (185)
1 Interest earned (10% × 900,000) 90 90
1 Net interest (10% × 950,000) (95)
2 Contributions paid (given) 150 150
3 Current service cost (given) (90) (90)
4 Benefits paid out (given) 60 (60) 0
Expected year end position (2,065) 1,080 (985)
Remeasurement (balancing figure) 105 (230) (125)
Actual year end position (1,960) 850 (1,110)
Note, that this explains why the benefits paid do not figure in the double entry.
When benefit is paid it reduces both the asset and the liability and in
consequence has no impact on the net position.

Corporate reporting
2.7 Asset ceiling example

IAS 19 requires that an entity must recognise a defined benefit item (net liability
due to a deficit or net asset due to a surplus) in the statement of financial
position.
The net defined benefit liability (asset) is the deficit or surplus and is measured
as:
 the present value of the defined benefit obligation; less
 the fair value of plan assets (if any).
However, if the net item is a surplus it is subject to a test which puts a ceiling on
the amount that can be recognised. This is known as the “asset ceiling” test.
A surplus in a defined benefit plan is measured at the lower of:
 the surplus in the defined benefit plan; and
 the asset ceiling (which is the present value of any economic benefits
available in the form of refunds from the plan or reductions in future
contributions to the plan).
The approach is exactly the same as before except that net defined benefit
assets recognised at step 1 must be adjusted downwards to the asset ceiling.
Example: Defined benefit accounting with asset ceiling

Fair value of the plan assets 1,150
Present value of economic benefits available due to
rules in the jurisdiction 40
During 20X6: ₦000

Discount rate 10%

Fair value of the plan assets 1,395
Present value of economic benefits available due to
rules in the jurisdiction 65

Answer: Defined benefit accounting with asset ceiling

Step 1: The opening position
20X6 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Fair value of plan assets 1,150 1,395
Present value of plan obligation (1,100) (1,315)
50 80
Asset ceiling adjustment (balancing figure) (10) (15)
Asset ceiling (PV of economic benefits
available 40 65
Note that the movement on the defined benefit asset is an increase of ₦25,000
(65,000 – 40,000)
Step 2: Construct the journal and fill in the blanks as far as possible (as before)
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss
(remeasurement)
Defined benefit net asset 25
Step 3: Identify amounts to be recognised in profit or loss

₦000
Current service cost (125)
Interest credit (10%  40,000) 4
121
Step 4: Complete the journal by calculating the remeasurement as a balancing

figure
Debit Credit
₦000 ₦000
Profit or loss 121
(remeasurement as a balancing figure) 66
Defined benefit net asset 25
146 146

Corporate reporting
2.8 Multi-employer plans

Multi-employer plans are defined contribution plans (other than state plans) or
defined benefit plans that:
 pool the assets contributed by various entities that are not under common
control; and
 use those assets to provide benefits to employees of more than one entity,
on the basis that contribution and benefit levels are determined without
regard to the identity of the entity that employs the employees.
Any multi-employer plan must be classified as a defined contribution plan or a
defined benefit plan.
If an entity participates in a multi-employer defined benefit plan it must account
for its proportionate share of the defined benefit obligation, plan assets and cost
associated with the plan in the same way as for any other defined benefit plan.
If sufficient information is not available to use defined benefit accounting for a
multi-employer defined benefit plan, an entity must account for it as if it were a
defined contribution plan.
Group plans
Defined benefit plans that share risks between entities under common control
(e.g. a parent and its subsidiaries) are not multi-employer plans.
Any entity participating in a defined benefit plan that shares risks between entities
under common control must disclose:
 the contractual agreement or stated policy for charging the net defined
benefit cost or the fact that there is no such policy.
 the policy for determining the contribution to be paid by the entity.
2.9 ED/2014/3: Defined benefit plans: Employee contributions

IAS 19 says that contributions from employees or third parties set out in the
formal terms of the plan either reduce service cost (if they are linked to service),
or reduce remeasurements of the net defined benefit liability (asset).
The ED proposes to stress that contributions from employees or third parties may
be recognised as a reduction in the service cost in that period if, and only if they
are linked solely to the employee’s service rendered in the same period in which
they are payable.

3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define the different types of employment benefits
 Account for defined contribution post-employment benefit plans
 Define the various cost components associated with defined benefit post-
employment benefit plans
 Explain the role of an actuary
 Account for defined benefit post-employment benefit plans including the
application of the asset ceiling.

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
19
IFRS 2: Share-based payments
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Measurement of equity settled share-based payment
transactions
3 Measurement of cash settled share-based payment
transactions
4 Measurement of share-based payment transaction
with cash alternatives
5 Disclosures
6 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IFRS 2 is an examinable document.
Exam context
This chapter explains how to account for share-based payments.

 Describe the three types of share-based payment scheme
 Account for equity-settled share-based payments
 Account for cash-settled share-based payments
 Explain what happens when there is a choice of equity or cash

Chapter 19: IFRS 2: Share-based payments
1 INTRODUCTION
Section overview
 Introduction
 Scope
 Types of share-based payments
 Recognition
 Grants of share options to employees: the accounting problem
1.1 Introduction
IFRS 2 Share-based payment explains the accounting treatment for share-based
payment transactions.
Definition
A share-based payment transaction is defined as a transaction in which an entity:
a. receives goods or services as consideration for equity instruments of the
entity, or
b. receives goods or services from a supplier by incurring a liability to the
supplier for an amount that is based on the entity’s share price.
1.2 Scope
Included in scope
The IFRS applies to share-based payment transactions in which an entity
acquires or receives goods or services unless the transaction is specifically
excluded from its scope.
Excluded from the scope

Transfers of an entity’s equity instruments by its shareholders to parties that have
supplied goods or services to the entity when such a transfer is clearly for a
purpose other than payment for goods or services supplied (in which case it is
within the scope of IFRS 2)
Transactions with an employee (or other party) in their capacity as a shareholder.
Transactions where equity instruments are issued in exchange for control of an
acquiree in a business combination.
Share-based payment transactions in which the entity receives or acquires goods
or services under a “contract to buy or sell a non-financial item” that is within the
scope of IFRS on financial instruments. (IAS 32 Presentation and IAS 39
Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement).

Corporate reporting
1.3 Types of share based payments

IFRS 2 identifies three types of share based payment transaction:
 equity-settled share-based payment transactions
 where the entity pays for goods or services by issuing equity
instruments including both:
 shares; and,
 share options;
 cash-settled share-based payment transactions
 where an entity incurs a liability for goods or services and the
settlement amount is based on the price (or value) of the entity’s
shares or other equity instruments.
 transactions where an entity acquires goods or receives services and either
the entity or the supplier can choose payment to be:
 a cash amount based on the price (or value) of the entity’s shares or
other equity instruments, or
 equity instruments of the entity
IFRS 2 uses the generic term equity instruments. In most cases the equity
instruments in question are either shares or share options.
IFRS 2 does not apply in the cases of shares issued as consideration in a
business combination or to contracts for the purchase of goods within the scope
of IAS 32 and 39.
IFRS 2 uses the term fair value in a way that differs in some respects from the
IFRS 13 definition. When applying IFRS 2, fair value is measured in accordance
with the guidance in IFRS2 not that in IFRS 13.
1.4 Recognition
Goods and services must be recognised when the goods and services are
received.
This might result in the recognition of an asset or expense depending on the
nature of the transaction. If the goods or services received or acquired in a share-
based payment transaction do not qualify for recognition as assets (determined
by rules in other standards), they must be recognised as expenses.
 if the goods or services are received or acquired through an equity-settled
share-based payment transaction the credit entry to match the recognition
of the debit is to equity.
 if the goods or services are received or acquired through a cash-settled
share-based payment transaction the credit entry to match the recognition
of the debit is to a liability.

1.5 Grants of share options to employees: the accounting problem.
The nature of employee share options

Occasionally shares may be used instead of cash to pay suppliers for goods or
services. These are described as share-based payments, and until IFRS 2, there
was no accounting standard addressing the recognition and measurement of
these transactions.
However, the main reason for the publication of IFRS 2 was to introduce rules of
accounting for employee share options.
In an employee share option scheme, an employee is given the right to subscribe
for new shares in the company at a future date, at a price that is usually fixed
when the share options are awarded.
The accounting problem

The award of share options to an employee is a reward for services given by the
employee.
 If the employee is rewarded with a cash bonus, the cost of the cash bonus
would be included in total employment costs and charged as an expense in
the relevant accounting period.
 A problem in the past with accounting for share options was that although
share options are a similar type of reward for service, the cost of the
options were not charged as an expense in the statement of profit or loss.
An award of share options to an employee is consideration given by the entity to
the employee in return for the employee’s services. Before IFRS 2 was published
this was not accounted for.
As the following sections explain in detail, the IFRS 2 rules on share based
payment result in the recognition of an expense in profit or loss.
Controversy
When the standard was in its development phase, many argued that there was
no expense because no cash passes hands. However, IFRS 2 is based on the
concept that the expenses represent a consumption of benefit that usually
happens to be measured in terms of a cash cost but need not be in all cases.
The IFRS 2 expense represents the consumption of the benefit of the employees’
service.

Corporate reporting
2 MEASUREMENT OF EQUITY-SETTLED SHARE-BASED PAYMENT

TRANSACTIONS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Direct or indirect measurement
 Measurement data
 Measurement of fair value of equity instruments granted
 Recognition
 Modifications to the terms and conditions on which equity instruments were
granted
 After equity instruments have vested
2.1 Introduction
When an entity acquires goods or receives services it must measure them at fair
value with a corresponding increase in equity.
This raises several issues:
 how should the fair value be measured?
 when should the fair value be measured?
 when should the transaction be recognised?
In answering these questions IFRS 2 distinguishes between:
 transactions with employees (and others providing similar services); and
 transactions with other parties.
The IFRS 2 approach is summarised in the following table:
Transactions with Transactions with

other parties employees
How is the fair value of With reference to the fair With reference to the fair
the transaction value of the goods and value of the equity
measured? services received instrument granted
When is the transaction At the date when the At the date when the
measured? goods and services are equity instruments are
received granted
When is the transaction
recognised?
No vesting conditions At date the goods and At grant date
services are received (there is a presumption
that the services have
been received in full)
Vesting conditions As the service is As the service is
rendered over the rendered over the
vesting period vesting period

2.2 Direct or indirect measurement

There are two possible approaches which could be followed to measure the fair
value of the transaction:
 estimate the fair value of the debit:
 this is known as direct measurement;
 this uses the fair value of the goods and services themselves;
 there is a rebuttable presumption that this can be estimated reliably;
 it must be used except for:
 those rare cases in which the fair value of goods and services
received cannot be estimated reliably; and,
 transactions with employees.
 estimate the fair value of the equity instrument credit:
 this is known as indirect measurement;
 this uses the fair value of the equity instruments themselves;
 it must be used:
 when the fair value of goods and services received cannot be
estimated reliably; or
 for transactions with employees.
2.3 Measurement date

The measurement date is the date at which the fair value of the equity
instruments granted is measured for the purposes of this IFRS.
The measurement date is:
 the grant date for transactions with employees (and others providing similar
services);
 the date on which goods are obtained or services received for transactions
with parties other than employees (and those providing similar services).
2.4 Measurement of fair value of equity instruments granted

This is needed when the indirect method is being used (i.e. when options are
granted to employees).
Fair value is measured taking into account all relevant terms and conditions upon
which the equity instruments are granted.
Grant of shares
The market price of the shares is used.
If the shares are not publicly traded an estimated market price should be used
adjusted to take into account the terms and conditions upon which those shares
were granted.

Corporate reporting
Options
The fair value of options granted is measured at the market price of traded
options with similar terms and conditions.
In most cases there will not be a traded option with similar terms and conditions
because the options granted are subject to terms and conditions that do not apply
to traded options. For example, typically, employee share options are:
 non-transferable and
 subject to vesting conditions.
Fair value is then estimated by applying an option pricing model, for example:
 the Black-Scholes-Merton model; or,
 a binomial model.
In applying the model the entity must take into account all relevant factors. These
include:
 the exercise price of the option;
 the life of the option;
 the current price of the underlying shares;
 the expected volatility of the share price;
 the dividends expected on the shares;
 the risk-free interest rate for the life of the option;
 vesting conditions that are market conditions.
2.5 Recognition
Often, when equity instruments are granted they are subject to conditions that
must be satisfied before the counterparty becomes unconditionally entitled to the
instrument.
No vesting conditions
If the counterparty is not required to complete a specified period of service before
becoming unconditionally entitled to the equity instruments they are said to vest
immediately.
In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the entity must presume that services
rendered by the counterparty as consideration for the equity instruments have
been received.
In this case the entity must recognise the services received in full on the grant
date.
Recognition – vesting conditions

IFRS 2 distinguishes different categories of “vesting condition”. These are:
 service conditions require the counterparty to complete a specified period
of service before the option vests; and
 performance conditions require the counterparty to complete a specified
period of service and specified performance targets to be met.

Recognition over a period

A grant of equity instruments is often conditional upon satisfying specified vesting
conditions. In this case the services received are recognised over the vesting
period (with corresponding increases in equity).
 At each year end an entity must make the best available estimate of the
number of equity instruments expected to vest taking account of non-
market vesting conditions. These might include:
 service conditions; and
 non-market performance conditions.
 The number of shares is then valued using the fair value at the grant date.
 The charge for the year is then calculated by comparing the opening and
closing estimates.
 At the vesting date the actual number of equity instruments that vest (or
that would have vested except for the failure of a market condition) is the
basis for the overall cumulative charge (and the corresponding balance in
equity).
Estimates of the outcome of vesting conditions may change from year to year.
The estimate at any particular date, of the number of equity instruments granted,
takes such changes into account
Ultimately, the amount recognised for goods or services received as
consideration for the equity instruments granted is based on the number of equity
instruments that eventually vest (or that would have vested except for the failure
of a market condition – see below)
No amount is recognised on a cumulative basis for goods or services received if
the equity instruments granted do not vest because of failure to satisfy non-
market vesting conditions.
Market conditions
A performance target may involve a market condition. This is any condition that
relates to share price.
For example, a performance condition might be that the shares will vest as long
as an employee stays with the company for three years from the grant date and
the share price increases by 20% in this period.
The probability of achieving a market condition is taken into account when
estimating the fair value of the equity instrument granted. Subsequent changes in
this probability play no part in the recognition.
When people meet this for the first time they often find it a little difficult to accept.
For clarity, this means that an option may not vest due to failure to meet the
market condition but an expenses is recognised as if the condition had been met.
Another way of saying this is that a market condition is a measurement attribute
rather than a recognition attribute.

Corporate reporting
Service condition
If a grant of share options is conditional upon the completion of three years’
service, recognition is based on the assumption that the services rendered by the
employee in consideration for these share options will be received over that
three-year vesting period.
Example: Equity settled share-based payment

X plc is a company with a 31st December year end.
On 1st January Year 1 grants 100 options to each of its 500 employees.
Each grant is conditional upon the employee working for X plc over the next three
years.
At the grant date X plc estimates :
a. The fair value of each option is ₦15.
b. 20% of employees will leave over the vesting period.
Required
Calculate the income statement expense for each year of the vesting period if
everything turns out exactly as expected.
Answer
31st December Year 1

₦ Equity
Expected outcome (at grant date value)
500 × 80% × 100 × ₦15 600,000
×1/3
Year 1 charge 200,000
Accumulated in equity by end of year 1 200,000
31st December Year 2 ₦

500 × 80% × 100 × ₦15 600,000
×2/3
Recognised by the year end 400,000
Less expense previously recognised (200,000)

Actual outcome (at grant date value)
500 × 80% × 100 × ₦15 600,000

Changes in estimate of the outcome of the service conditions are taken into
account in the calculation of the number of equity instruments that are expected
to vest at the end of the vesting period.
Practice question 1
On 1st January Year 1 X plc grants 100 options to each of its 500
employees.
Each grant is conditional upon the employee working for X plc over the next
three years.
At the grant date X plc estimates that the fair value of each option is ₦15.
Required:
Calculate the income statement charge for the year ended:
1. 31st December Year 1 if at that date, X plc expects 85% of
employees to still be with the company at the end of the vesting
period.
2. 31st December Year 2 if at that date, X plc expects 88% of
employees to still be with the company at the end of the vesting
period.
3. 31st December Year 3 if at that date 44,300 share options vest.

Corporate reporting
Service condition – non- market performance condition

If a grant of share options is conditional on staying with an entity until a
performance condition is achieved the length of the vesting period will vary.
The length of the expected vesting period is estimated at grant date an revised if
subsequent information indicates that the length of the vesting period differs from
previous estimates (but not if the performance condition is a market condition).
Example: Equity settled share-based payment with performance condition

On 1st January Year 1 X plc grants 100 shares to each of its 500 employees on
condition that the employees remain with the company in the vesting period.
The shares will vest at:
a. 31st December Year 1 if X plc’s earnings grow by 18% or more; or
b. 31st December Year 2 if X plc’s earnings grow by an average of 13% or
more over the two years; or
c. 31st December Year 3 if X plc’s earnings grow by an average of 10% or
more over the three years.
At the grant date X plc estimates that the fair value of each share is ₦30.

Earnings have grown by 14% therefore the shares do not vest at this date.
X plc makes the following estimates:
a. earnings will increase at 14% in the next year with the result that the
shares are expected to vest at the next year end.
b. 88% of employees are expected to still be with the company at that time.

₦ Equity
500 × 88% × 100 × ₦30 1,320,000
×1/2
Year 1 charge
660,000

Example (continued): Equity settled share-based payment with performance

condition

Earnings have grown by 10% therefore the shares do not vest at this date. The
growth rate over the two years is less than an average of 13%. Therefore the
shares do not vest at this date.
X plc makes the following estimates:
a. earnings will increase at 6% in the next year with the result that the
shares are expected to vest at the next year end.
b. 84% of employees are expected to still be with the company at that time.

₦ Equity
500 × 84% × 100 × ₦30 1,260,000
Accumulated in equity by end of year 2 1,260,000

Earnings have grown by 8%. This gives an average growth rate of 10.67% so the
shares vest.
There are 419 employees who receive shares.

₦ Equity
419 × 100 × ₦30 1,257,000
Accumulated in equity by end of year 3 1,257,000

Corporate reporting
2.6 Modifications to the terms and conditions on which equity instruments were
granted
The terms and conditions upon which an option was granted may be modified
subsequently. For example, it might reduce the exercise price of options granted
to employees (i.e. reprice the options), which increases the fair value of those
options.
Any changes to the terms and conditions on which the options were granted must
be taken into account when measuring the services received.
Background
As a minimum an entity must recognise services received measured at the grant
date fair value of the equity instruments granted, unless those equity instruments
do not vest because of failure to satisfy a non-market vesting condition.
In addition, the entity must recognise the effects of modifications that increase the
total fair value of the share-based payment arrangement or are otherwise
beneficial to the employee.
Modifications that increase the fair value of the equity instruments granted
The entity must calculate the incremental fair value of the equity instruments
brought about by the modification.
This incremental fair value is included in the measurement of the amount
recognised for services received as consideration for the equity instruments
granted.
The incremental fair value granted is calculated as the difference between the
following as at the date of the modification:
 the fair value of the modified equity instrument; and
 that of the original equity instrument, both estimated as at the date of the
modification.
When a modification occurs during the vesting period the incremental fair value
granted is included in the measurement of the amount recognised over the period
from the modification date until the date when the equity instruments vest. This is
in addition to the amount based on the grant date fair value of the original equity
instruments, which is recognised over the remainder of the original vesting
period.
Modification that increase the number of equity instruments granted
This is similar to the above.

The fair value of the additional equity instruments granted (measured at the date
of the modification) is included in the measurement of the amount recognised for
services received as consideration for the equity instruments granted.
When a modification occurs during the vesting period the fair value of the
additional equity instruments granted is included in the measurement of the
amount recognised for services received over the period from the modification
date until the date when the additional equity instruments vest. This is in addition
to the amount based on the grant date fair value of the equity instruments
originally granted, which is recognised over the remainder of the original vesting
period.

Modification that decrease the total fair value of the share based arrangement
In effect such modifications are ignored. The entity must continue to account for
the services received as consideration for the equity instruments granted as if
that modification had not occurred.
Cancellation of share based arrangement
A cancellation is accounted for as an acceleration of vesting. The amount that

would otherwise have been recognised over the vesting period is recognised
immediately.
An entity may make a payment to the employee in compensation for the
cancellation. Such a payment is accounted for as the repurchase of an equity
interest and deducted from equity. However if the payment exceeds the fair value
of the equity instruments repurchased any excess is recognised as an expense.
An entity may grant new equity instruments to the employee and identify them as
a replacement for those cancelled on the date when those new equity
instruments are granted. When this happens the grant of the new instruments is
accounted for in the same way as a modification.
The incremental fair value granted is calculated at the date the replacement
equity instruments are granted as the difference between:
 the fair value of the replacement equity instruments; and
 the net fair value of the cancelled equity instruments which is:
 the fair value of the cancelled instruments immediately before the
cancellation, less
 the amount of any payment made to the employee on cancellation of
the equity instruments that is accounted for as a deduction from
equity.
Example: Cancellation
On 1st January Year 1 X plc grants 100 options to each of its 500 employees.
Each grant is conditional upon the employee working for X plc over the next five
years.
The grant date fair value of each option is ₦10.
X plc expects 80% of employees to leave over the vesting period.
X Plc cancelled the scheme in Year 3 when 460 employees were still in the
scheme.
Required:
Calculate the income statement expense for each year.

Corporate reporting
Answer

₦ Equity
500 × 80% × 100 × ₦10 400,000
×1/5

500 × 80% × 100 × ₦10 400,000
×2/5
Recognised by the year end 160,000

Total expense
460 × 100 × ₦10 460,000
2.7 After equity instruments have vested

Once goods or services have been recognised in accordance with IFRS 2 (with a
corresponding increase in equity) an entity is not allowed to adjust total equity.
For example an entity is not allowed to reverse the transaction when:
 vested equity instruments are later forfeited; or
 options are not exercised.
However an entity is allowed to recognise a transfer from one component of
equity to another.

3 MEASUREMENT OF CASH-SETTLED SHARE-BASED PAYMENT

TRANSACTIONS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Share appreciation scheme – as an illustration
3.1 Introduction
Cash-settled share-based payment transactions - This is where an entity incurs a
liability for goods and services and the settlement amount is based on the price
(or value) of the entity’s shares or other equity instruments.
The basic rules are:
 The liability incurred is measured at its fair value at each reporting date until
it is settled.
 Any change in the fair value of the liability is recognised in profit or loss.
3.2 Share appreciation scheme – as an illustration

An entity might grant share appreciation rights to employees as part of their pay
package, whereby the employees will become entitled to a future cash payment
(rather than an equity instrument), based on the increase in the entity’s share
price from a specified level over a specified period of time.
Immediate recognition
An entity must recognise services received, and a liability to pay for those
services, as the employees render service.
Some share appreciation rights vest immediately (the employees are not required
to complete a specified period of service to become entitled to the cash
payment).
 In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the entity must presume that the
services rendered by the employees in exchange for the share appreciation
rights have been received
 The entity must recognise immediately the services received and a liability
to pay for them.
Recognition over a period
Some share appreciation schemes do not vest until the employees have
completed a specified period of service.
The entity must recognise the services received, and a liability to pay for them, as
the employees render service during that period.
Measurement
The liability is measured, initially and at each reporting date until settled, at the
fair value of the share appreciation rights.

Corporate reporting
This is done by applying an option pricing model, taking into account:

 the terms and conditions on which the share appreciation rights were
granted, and
 the extent to which the employees have rendered service to date.
If the share appreciation rights granted are conditional upon the employees’
remaining in the entity’s employ for the next three years and the employees have
completed only one year’s service at the reporting date, the entity must measure
the fair value of the liability at the reporting date and multiplying the resulting
amount by one-third.
Example: Cash-settled share-based payment transaction

X plc grants 100 cash share appreciation rights (SARs) to each of its 500
employees.
Each grant is conditional upon the employee working for X plc over the next three
years.
Further information
Actual leavers Estimate of further Number of employees
in the year leavers in the future whose interest is expected
to vest
Year 1 35 60 405
Year 2 40 25 400
Year 3 22 - 403
(actually vest)
The entity estimates the fair value of the SARs at the end of each year in which a
liability exists as shown below.
Year Fair value
1 15
2 18
3 20
Required
Calculate the year end liability and hence the expense in each year.
Answer
Expense for services received and consumed

Year 1 Year 2 Year 5
Number of employees whose
interest is expected to vest 405 400 403
Number of rights 100 100 100
Fair value of the right 15 18 20
Total expected expense ₦607,500 ₦720,000 ₦806,000
Fraction of the vesting period 1/3 2/3 3/3
Liability at year end (W) ₦202,500 ₦480,000 806,000
Liability at the start - (₦202,500) (₦480,000)
Charge to P&L (Movement on
the liability) ₦202,500 ₦277,500 ₦326,000

4 MEASURMENT OF SHARE-BASED PAYMENT TRANSACTIONS WITH

CASH ALTERNATIVES
Section overview
 Introduction
 Share-based payment transactions in which the counterparty has the choice of
settlement
 Share-based payment transactions in which entity has the choice of settlement
4.1 Introduction
Some employee share-based payment arrangements give the employees (or the
employer) the right to choose to receive (or pay) cash instead of shares or
options, or instead of exercising options.
The standard contains different accounting methods for cash-settled and equity-
settled share-based payment transactions. Where there is a choice of
settlement, it is necessary to determine which accounting method should be
applied.
This depends on whether:
 the employee has the choice of settlement; or
 the entity has the choice of settlement.
4.2 Share-based payment transactions in which the counterparty has the choice
of settlement
Background
The counterparty has been granted rights to a compound financial instrument,
(i.e. a financial instrument that includes both debt and equity components). Thus
the counterparty has:
 the right to be paid in cash; with,
 an option to take shares.
The entity must measure the fair value of the compound financial instrument at
grant date identifying a value to both components.
Transactions where the fair value of goods and services is measured directly
This category will not include transactions with employees.
The equity component is measured as the difference between the fair value of
the goods or services received and the fair value of the debt component, at the
date when the goods or services are received.
Other transactions
This category includes transactions with employees.
The debt component and the equity component are measured separately.
The fair value of the compound financial instrument is the sum of the fair values
of the two components.

Corporate reporting
Share-based payment transactions in which the counterparty has the choice of

settlement are often structured so that the fair value of one settlement alternative
is the same as the other. (For example, the counterparty might have the choice
of receiving share options or cash-settled share appreciation rights).
In such cases, the fair value of the equity component is zero, and hence the fair
value of the compound financial instrument is the same as the fair value of the
debt component. (This is because the fair value of the equity component must
take into account the fact that the holder forfeits the right to receive cash in order
to exercise the option).In addition the entity must account separately for the
goods or services received or acquired in respect of each component of the
compound financial instrument.
 for the debt component, the entity must recognise the goods or services
acquired, and a liability to pay for those goods or services, as the
counterparty supplies goods or renders service, in the same way as other
cash-settled share-based payment transactions.
 for the equity component (if any), the entity must recognise the goods or
services received, and an increase in equity, as the counterparty supplies
goods or renders service, in the same way as other equity-settled share-
based payment transactions.
Date of settlement
The liability is remeasured at its fair value at the date of settlement.
 If the entity issues equity instruments on settlement (instead of paying
cash), the liability is transferred direct to equity, as the consideration for the
equity instruments issued.
 If the entity pays cash on settlement (instead of issuing equity instruments),
any equity component previously recognised remains in equity. (The entity
is allowed to recognise a transfer within equity, i.e. a transfer from one
component of equity to another).
4.3 Share-based payment transactions in which the entity has the choice of
settlement
Where an obligation exists

The entity must determine whether it has a present obligation to settle in cash
and account for the share-based payment transaction accordingly.
The entity has a present obligation to settle in cash if the choice of settlement in
equity instruments
 has no commercial substance; or,
 if the entity has a past practice or a stated policy of settling in cash.
Where an obligation exists, the entity must account for the transaction according
to the rules applied to cash-settled share-based payment transactions.

Where there is no obligation

Where an obligation does not exist the entity must account for the transaction
according to the rules applied to equity-settled transactions.
In this case the entity may still decide to settle in cash at the settlement date.
 If the entity elects to settle in cash, the cash payment is accounted for as
the repurchase of an equity interest, i.e. as a deduction from equity.
 if the entity elects to settle by issuing equity instruments, no further
accounting is required (other than a transfer from one component of equity
to another, if necessary).
There is a special rule to amend the above where the entity elects the settlement
alternative with the higher fair value, as at the date of settlement. If this is the
case the entity must recognise an additional expense for the excess value given:
 If cash is paid and the fair value of this is greater than the fair value of the
shares that could have been issued in settlement the difference must be
taken to profit.
 If shares are issued in settlement and they have a fair value greater than
that of the cash alternative the difference must be taken to profit.

Corporate reporting
5 DISCLOSURES
Section overview
 Disclosures about nature and extent of share based payment arrangements

 Disclosures about fair value measurement
 Disclosures about effect on profit or loss for the period and financial position
5.1 Disclosures about nature and extent of share based payment arrangements
Underlying principle
An entity must disclose information that enables users of the financial statements
to understand the nature and extent of share-based payment arrangements that
existed during the period.
To give effect to this principle an entity must disclose at least the following:
 a description of each type of share-based payment arrangement that
existed at any time during the period, including the general terms and
conditions of each arrangement, such as:
 vesting requirements;
 the maximum term of options granted; and,
 the method of settlement (e.g. whether in cash or equity).
 the number and weighted average exercise prices of share options for each
of the following groups of options:
 outstanding at the beginning of the period;
 granted during the period;
 forfeited during the period;
 exercised during the period;
 expired during the period;
 outstanding at the end of the period; and
 exercisable at the end of the period.
 for share options exercised during the period, the weighted average share
price at the date of exercise. If options were exercised on a regular basis
throughout the period, the entity may instead disclose the weighted
average share price during the period.
 for share options outstanding at the end of the period, the range of exercise
prices and weighted average remaining contractual life. If the range of
exercise prices is wide, the outstanding options shall be divided into ranges
that are meaningful for assessing the number and timing of additional
shares that may be issued and the cash that may be received upon
exercise of those options.

5.2 Disclosures about fair value measurement

An entity must disclose information to enable users to understand how the fair
value of the goods or services received, or the fair value of the equity instruments
granted, during the period was determined.
5.3 Disclosures about effect on profit or loss for the period and financial position
Underlying principle
An entity must disclose information that enables users of the financial statements
to understand the effect of share-based payment transactions on the entity’s
profit or loss for the period and on its financial position.
To give effect to this principle an entity must disclose at least the following:
 the total expense recognised for the period arising from share-based
payment transactions in which the goods or services received did not
qualify for recognition as assets and hence were recognised immediately
as an expense, including separate disclosure of that portion of the total
expense that arises from transactions accounted for as equity-settled
share-based payment transactions;
 for liabilities arising from share-based payment transactions:
 the total carrying amount at the end of the period; and
 the total intrinsic value at the end of the period of liabilities for which
the counterparty’s right to cash or other assets had vested by the end
of the period (e.g. vested share appreciation rights).

Corporate reporting
6 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Describe the three types of share-based payment scheme
 Account for equity-settled share-based payments
 Account for cash-settled share-based payments
 Explain what happens when there is a choice of equity or cash


Solutions 1
₦ Equity
500 × 85% × 100 × ₦15 637,500
×1/3
Accumulated in equity 212,500
₦
500 × 88% × 100 × ₦15 660,000
×2/3
440,000
₦
Actual outcome (at grant date value)
44,300 × ₦15 664,500

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
20
Financial instruments:
Recognition and measurement
Contents
1 GAAP for financial instruments
2 IAS 39: Recognition and measurement
3 IAS 39: Other matters
4 IAS 39: Hedge accounting
5 IFRS 9: Recognition and measurement
6 IFRS 9: Other matters
7 IFRS 9: Hedge accounting
8 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
IAS 39 and IFRS 9 are examinable documents.
Exam context
This chapter explains the basic rules on the recognition, measurement, presentation and
disclosure of financial instruments.

 Define financial asset and financial liability
 Explain fair value and amortised cost
 Apply the correct accounting treatment for each of the four categories of financial asset
identified by IAS 39
 Account for financial liabilities in accordance with IAS 39 (and IFRS 9)
 Apply the correct accounting treatment for each of the three categories of financial
asset identified by IFRS 9
 Apply the IAS 39 rules to measure impairment of financial assets
 Explain how the IFRS 9 rules differ from the above
 Account for derecognition of financial assets in straightforward situations
 Explain and carry out fair value hedge accounting
 Explain and carry out cash flow hedge accounting

Chapter 20: Financial instruments: Recognition and measurement
1 GAAP FOR FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
Section overview
 Background
 Definitions
 Derivatives
 Using derivatives
1.1 Background
The rules on financial instruments are set out in four accounting standards:
 IAS 32: Financial instruments: Presentation;
 IAS 39: Financial instruments: Recognition and measurement;
 IFRS 7: Financial instruments: Disclosure;
 IFRS 9: Financial Instruments
IAS 39 and IFRS 9

The IASB inherited IAS 39 from its predecessor body. The IASB has received
many complaints about IAS 39 from interested parties that the requirements in
IAS 39 were difficult to understand, apply and interpret. These interested parties
urged the IASB to develop a new standard for the financial reporting of financial
instruments that is principle-based and less complex.
The IASB entered a project to replace IAS 39. The project progressed as a series
of phases with the results of each phase being published as completed.
The full version of IFRS 9 was completed in July 2014. IFRS 9 will replace IAS 39
but IFRS 9 is not compulsory until 2018 (and then only if the regulatory
authorities in various jurisdictions allow it).
IFRS 9 does allow early adoption and will be adopted before 2018 in some
jurisdictions. In fact, due to the phased production of the new standard the IFRS
9 rules on classification of financial assets are already being applied in some
jurisdictions.
IFRS 9 is not completely different to IAS 39. Rules in several areas have not
changed.

Corporate reporting
The following table provides a summary of rules that are different.
Area Comment
Scope No change.
Recognition No change.
Measurement on No change.
initial recognition
Derecognition No change.
Classification of New rules.
financial assets Also note that the classification drives subsequent
measurement.
Classification of No change
financial liabilities
Measurement No change in the methods but, as mentioned above, the
classification of financial assets drives subsequent
measurement.
This means that some instruments will be measured
differently.
Embedded Embedded derivatives in financial assets – no need to
derivatives separate as the derivative will cause the host to be
measured at fair value through profit or loss (see later)
Other embedded derivatives – no change
Impairment New rules.
Hedge New rules.
accounting
1.2 Definitions
A financial instrument is a contract that gives rise to both:
 A financial asset in one entity, and
 A financial liability or equity instrument in another entity.
A financial asset is any asset that is:
 cash;
 An equity instrument of another entity;
 A contractual right:
 to receive cash or another financial asset from another entity; or
 to exchange financial assets or financial liabilities with another entity
A financial liability is any liability that is a contractual obligation:
 To deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity; or
 To exchange financial assets or financial liabilities with another entity under
conditions that are potentially unfavourable to the entity.

Financial instruments include:

 Cash
 Shares
 Loans
 Debentures
 Accounts receivable or accounts payable; and
 Financial derivatives and commodity derivatives.
1.3 Derivatives
A derivative is a financial instrument with all three of the following characteristics:
 Its value changes in response to a specified underlying (interest rate,
commodity price, exchange rate etc.); and
 It requires no or little initial investment; and
 It is settled at a future date
Categories of derivatives
Derivatives can be classified into two broad categories:
 Forward arrangements (commit parties to a course of action)
 forward contracts
 futures
 swaps
 Options (gives the option buyer a choice over whether or not to exercise his
rights under the contract)
Forward contracts
A forward contract is a tailor-made contract to buy or sell a specified amount of a
specified item (commodity or financial item) on a specified date at a specified
price.
A contract like this will require no initial outlay by the company (it has zero fair
value at the date it is entered into). Over the life of the contract its fair value will
depend on the spot exchange rates and the time to the end of the contract.

Corporate reporting
Example: Forward contracts

A Nigerian company enters into a 6m forward contract to buy US $100,000 at a
rate of ₦160 = $1
This means that the Nigeria company will pay ₦16,000,000 to buy $100,000 in
6m time.
This removes uncertainty for the Nigerian company.
A simple valuation of the forward can be made at any time over the life of the
contract by comparing the contracted rate to the spot rate.
Spot rate at date of valuation
₦150 = $1 ₦170 = $1
Cost of $100,000 under forward contract ₦16,000,000 ₦16,000,000
Cost of $100,000 on open market ₦15,000,000 ₦17,000,000
Difference ₦1,000,000 ₦1,000,000
Nigerian company would recognise: a liability an asset
Note that this is a simplification. In practice the time to the end of the contract
would need to be built into the value. This is beyond the scope of the syllabus.
Futures
Futures are like forwards but are standardised in terms of amounts, date,
currency, commodity etc. This standardisation means that they can be traded. A
company can enter into a futures contract and then may make a gain or a loss on
the market just like any other traded item.
If a company holds futures they might be an asset or a liability at any particular
date.
Swaps
A swap is an agreement between parties to exchange cash flows related to an
underlying obligation. The most common type of swap is an interest rate swap. In
an interest rate swap, two parties agree to exchange interest payments on the
same notional amount of principal, at regular intervals over an agreed number of
years.
One party might pay interest to the other party at a variable or floating rate, and
in return the other party may pay interest on the same principal at a fixed rate (a
rate that is fixed by the swap agreement).
A swap might be recorded as an asset or liability at any particular date. This
depends on the interaction between the amount that an entity has contracted to
pay out and the amount that it is entitled to receive.

Options
The holder of the option has entered into a contract that gives it the right but not
the obligation to buy (call option) or sell (put option) a specified amount of a
specified commodity at a specified price.
An option differs from a forward arrangement. An option offers its buyer/holder
the choice to exercise his rights under the contract, but also has the choice not to
enforce the contract terms.
The seller of the option must fulfil the terms of the contract, but only if the option
holder chooses to enforce them.
Holding an option is therefore similar to an insurance policy: it is exercised if the
market price moves adversely. As the option holder has a privileged status –
deciding whether or not to enforce the contract terms – he is required to pay a
sum of money (a premium) to the option seller. This premium is paid when the
option is arranged, and non-refundable if the holder later decides not to exercise
his rights under the option.
From the point of view of the holder the option will only ever be recorded as an
asset. At initial recognition this would be the amount of the premium.
Subsequently the holder would only exercise the option if it was beneficial to do
so. Therefore it could only ever be an asset.
1.4 Using derivatives

A company can enter into a transaction involving a derivative for one of two
reasons:
 to speculate, and hope to make a profit from favourable movements in
rates or prices; or
 to hedge against exposure to a particular risk
Speculation and the use of derivatives

Many derivatives are traded on exchanges, and so are easily available for buying
and selling. Entities can buy or sell derivatives in order to set up speculative
positions, so that a profit will be made from dealing in the derivatives provided
that the market price of the ‘underlying item’ moves favourably.
For example, forward contracts in cocoa could be purchased by a company that
has no interest in the cocoa itself, but just wants to gamble on future cocoa
prices. The forward contracts would probably be exchange-traded forward
contracts, known as commodity (cocoa) futures.
Speculating in derivatives may expose entities to huge risks, if expectations do
not come true and the price of the underlying item moves the ‘wrong way’. In
extreme cases this has led to financial collapse of the company.
Hedging with derivatives

Derivatives can be used to obtain protection against exposure to the risk of an
unfavourable movement in the market price of an item, such as the price of a
commodity, an interest rate or a foreign exchange rate.

Corporate reporting
Example: Hedging risk

A chocolate manufacturer may be worried that the price of cocoa might increase
and if it does, it will affect his costs of production and operating profits.
The company could manage this risk by entering into a forward contract to fix
now the price of his future purchases of cocoa.
By fixing the price now for future purchases, the risk of an adverse movement in
the market price of cocoa is removed.
This is described as ‘hedging’ the risk, or hedging the exposure to risk.

2 IAS 39: RECOGNITION AND MEASUREMENT
Section overview
 Recognition of financial instruments

 Initial measurement
 Categories of financial asset
 Categories of financial liability
 Subsequent measurement at fair value
 Subsequent measurement at amortised cost
2.1 Recognition of financial instruments

A financial asset or a financial liability should be recognised in the statement of
financial position when the reporting entity becomes a party to the contractual
provisions of the instrument.
Comment
This is different from the normal recognition criteria for an asset or a liability.
Usually an asset or liability is recognised when there is a probable inflow or
outflow of economic benefits.
The effect of this is that all financial assets and liabilities, including derivatives,
are recognised in the statement of financial position, even if they have no cost.
Classification on initial recognition

IAS 39 defines four classes of financial asset and two classes of financial liability
into which financial assets and financial liabilities must be allocated to one of
these classes on initial recognition.
The categories of financial assets and liabilities do not affect the initial
measurement of the assets and liabilities. However, they do affect the method of
accounting after initial recognition.
2.2 Initial measurement

A financial instrument should be measured initially at its fair value. This is usually
the fair value of the consideration given or received.
In the case of many derivatives the fair value on initial recognition is often zero. It
may seem odd to recognise a zero amount but this is done so that any gain or
loss that might arise between the date of initial recognition and the reporting date
is recognised in accordance with the rules in IAS 39.
Transaction costs (for example, a dealer’s fee) might be incurred on initial
recognition of a financial instrument. The accounting treatment of these fees
depends on the subsequent accounting treatment applied to the financial asset or
financial liability in question.
Transaction costs are expensed immediately in the statement of profit or loss if
the financial asset or financial liability is subsequently measured at fair value with
gains and losses recognised in the statement of profit or loss.

Corporate reporting
Otherwise the transaction cost is capitalised as part of the carrying amount of the
financial asset or financial liability on initial recognition.
Subsequent measurement Treatment of transaction cost

Fair value through profit or loss Written off as an expense in profit and
loss.
Other methods (Amortised cost or fair The transaction cost is capitalised and
value through OCI) included in the initial cost of the
financial instrument.
2.3 Categories of financial asset

On initial recognition, financial assets are classified into one of four categories.
This categorisation is very important as it determines the subsequent
measurement of the financial asset.
The four categories are:
(1) Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss.
This includes financial assets that are held for trading.
Derivatives that are assets must be included in this category unless held in
hedging relationships that qualify for hedge accounting.
An entity can choose to treat other financial instruments as ‘at fair value
through profit or loss’, provided that they meet certain criteria.
(2) Held to maturity investments. These are financial assets with fixed
payments and a fixed maturity that the entity intends to hold until their
maturity. An example is an investment in bonds issued by another entity,
where there is no intention to sell the bonds on the market before their
maturity.
Loan stock, redeemable preference shares and bonds issued by other
entities would fall into this category, provided that the entity plans to hold
the investment to the end of its term (for example, when it is redeemable).
(3) Loans and receivables. These are assets with fixed payments but are not
quoted in an active market. They include regular bank loans and accounts
receivable (trade receivables). They are not expected to be sold in the near
future.
This category could include loans made to other entities, trade receivables
and investments in bonds and other forms of debt, provided that the other
conditions are met.
(4) Available-for-sale financial assets. These are any other financial assets
that do not fall into any of the three categories above. In addition, an entity
can designate an asset as available-for-sale when it is first recognised.

2.4 Categories of financial liability

On initial recognition, financial liabilities are classified into one of two categories.
This categorisation determines the subsequent measurement of the financial
liability.
There are two categories of financial liabilities:
(1) Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss. These include
derivatives that are liabilities unless held in hedging relationships that
qualify for hedge accounting.
(2) Financial liabilities measured at amortised cost. This category is for all
remaining financial liabilities.

After initial recognition financial assets (financial liabilities) are measured either
at:
 fair value; or
 amortised cost.
The measurement methods to be applied to each category of financial asset are
summarised as follows:
Category of financial Measurement method at subsequent reporting

asset dates
Financial assets at fair Fair value.
value through profit or loss Gain or loss recognised in the statement of proft
or loss
Held to maturity financial Amortised cost
assets
Loans and receivables Amortised cost
Available-for-sale financial Fair value.
assets Gain or loss recognised in other comprehensive
income and accumulated in a spearate equity
reserve.
The measurement methods to be applied to each category of financial liabilities

are summarised as follows:
Category of financial Measurement method at subsequent reporting

asset dates
Liabilities at fair value Fair value.
through profit or loss Gain or loss recognised in the statement of proft
or loss
Liabilities measured at Amortised cost
amortised cost
Valuation at amortised cost is explained later.

Corporate reporting
2.6 Subsequent measurement at fair value
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss

The accounting treatment for financial assets at fair value through profit or loss is
evident in the name of the category.
All financial assets in this category are remeasured to the fair value at each
reporting date with all gains and losses recognised in the statement of profit or
loss. They are said to be marked to market.
Available for sale financial assets

The accounting treatment of an available for sale financial asset (AFS financial
asset) is more complicated. All financial assets in this category are remeasured
to the fair value at each reporting date with all gains and losses recognised in
other comprehensive income and taken to a separate reserve in equity.
When an AFS financial asset is sold the cumulative gain or loss previously
recognised for this asset is reclassified from other comprehensive income to
profit or loss.
Illustration: AFS asset

Recognition of a gain Dr Cr
AFS asset X
Other comprehensive income X
The gain recognised in other comprehensive income is accumulated in

reserves as a credit balance.
On sale of the AFS asset

Other comprehensive income X
Statement of profit or loss X
The debit recognised in other comprehensive income is set against the

previously recognised credit balance in reserves thus reducing it to zero.
Companies need systems which are able to track gains and losses on individual
AFS financial assets so that when an asset is sold, the appropriate amount can
be reclassified.

Example: AFS asset

A company purchased a financial asset for ₦30,000 plus 1% transaction costs on
1 April 20X6. It classified this asset as available for sale.
At the end of the financial year (31 December 20X6) the investment was
₦40,000.
On 11 January 20X7 the asset was sold for ₦50,000.
The following double entries are necessary:

1 April 20X6: Initial recognition Dr (₦) Cr (₦)
AFS financial asset 30,300
Cash 30,300
Being: Initial recognition of an AFS financial asset

(At cost plus transaction cost = ₦30,000 + (1% of ₦30,000))
31 December 20X6: Subsequent measurement Dr (₦) Cr (₦)

AFS financial asset (₦40,000 - ₦30,300) 9,700
Being: Re-measurement of AFS financial asset to fair value.
1 January 20X7: Disposal Dr (₦) Cr (₦)

Cash 50,000
AFS financial asset 40,000
Being: Recognition of profit on disposal of an AFS financial asset.
Dr (₦) Cr (₦)
Being: Reclassification adjustment arising on disposal of an AFS

financial asset.
The statement of profit or loss would show an overall gain of ₦19,700 (being the
gain on disposal of ₦10,000 plus the reclassification adjustment of ₦9,700).

Corporate reporting
Guidance on fair value

IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement, defines fair value and contains guidance on
how it should be measured.
Definition
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the
measurement date (i.e. it is an exit price).
Fair value measurement looks at the asset (liability) from the point of view of a
market participant. The fair value must take into account all factors that a market
participant would consider relevant to the value.
These factors might include:
 the condition and location of the asset; and
 restrictions, if any, on the sale or use of the asset.
A quoted price in an active market provides the most reliable evidence of fair
value and must be used to measure fair value whenever available.
IFRS 13 defines an active market as a market in which transactions for the asset
(liability) take place with sufficient frequency and volume to provide pricing
information on an on-going basis.
Bid /Offer prices

For some assets (liabilities), markets quote prices that differ depending on
whether the asset is being sold to or bought from the market.
The price at which an asset can be sold to the market is called the bid price (it is
the amount the market bids for the asset).
The price at which an asset can be bought from the market is called the ask or
offer price (it is the amount the market asks for the asset or offers to sell it for).
The price within the bid-ask spread that is most representative of fair value in the
circumstances must be used to measure fair value. Previously, bid price had to
be used for financial assets and ask price for financial liabilities but this is no
longer the case.

Valuation techniques
The objective of using a valuation technique is to estimate the price at which an
orderly transaction to sell the asset (or to transfer the liability) would take place
between market participants at the measurement date under current market
conditions.
IFRS 13 requires that one of three valuation techniques must be used:
 market approach – uses prices and other relevant information from market
transactions involving identical or similar assets and liabilities;
 cost approach – the amount required to replace the service capacity of an
asset (also known as the current replacement cost)
 income approach – converts future amounts (cash flows, profits) to single
current (discounted) amount.
An entity must use a valuation technique that is appropriate in the circumstances
and for which sufficient data is available to measure fair value, maximising the
use of relevant observable inputs and minimising the use of unobservable inputs.
Quoted price in an active market provides the most reliable evidence of fair value
and must be used to measure fair value whenever available.
Fair value hierarchy

IFRS 13 establishes a fair value hierarchy to categorise inputs to valuation
techniques into three levels.
Definition Examples
Level 1 Quoted prices in active Share price quoted on the London
markets for identical assets Stock Exchange
or liabilities that the entity can
access at the measurement
date
Level 2 Inputs other than quoted Quoted price of a similar asset to
prices included within Level 1 the one being valued.
that are observable for the
Quoted interest rate.
asset or liability, either
directly or indirectly.
Level 3 Unobservable inputs for the Cash flow projections.
asset or liability.

Corporate reporting
2.7 Subsequent measurement at amortised cost

Held to maturity investments, loans and receivables and many financial liabilities
are measured at amortised cost after their initial recognition.
Amortised cost is calculated as follows for a financial asset:
 amount initially recognised (initial cost of investment); plus
 interest income recognised (using the effective rate); less
 interest actually received (cash received).
Similarly, the amortised cost of a financial liability is calculated as:

 amount initially recognised as a liability (initial cost); plus
 interest expense recognised (using the effective rate); less
 interest actually paid (cash paid).
Illustration: Amortised cost

Financial Financial
asset liability
Amount at initial recognition X X
Plus: Interest recognised using the
effective rate:
as income X
as expense X
Less: repayments (X) (X)
Amortised cost X X
Interest expense is measured using the effective rate. This is the rate that
matches the amount loaned (borrowed) with the discounted future cash flows
received (paid).
The effective rate is the discount rate that, when applied to the future interest and
redemption cash flows, gives an amount equal to the amount initially recognised
for the financial asset or financial liability. Thus, it results in a net present value of
zero. It is the IRR of all cash flows associated with lending or borrowing.
The interest recognised is calculated by applying the effective rate to the
outstanding balance on the bond at the beginning of the period. The interest
recognised in profit and loss each year is not necessarily the cash paid.
The outstanding balance at the end of a period is the opening balance plus the
interest charge at the effective rate, minus the actual interest payments in the
period.

Example: Amortised cost (liability)

A company issues a bond (borrows).
The bond has an issue value of ₦1 million and pays a coupon rate of 5% interest
for two years, then 7% interest for two years (this is known as a stepped bond).
Interest is paid annually on the anniversary of the bond issue.
The bond will be redeemed at par after four years.
The effective rate for this bond is 5.942%
The amortised cost of the liability at the end of each year is calculated by
constructing an amortisation table as follows:
Amortised cost
brought Interest at Amortised cost
Year forward 5.942% Cash paid carried forward
1 1,000,000 59,424 (50,000) 1,009,424
2 1,009,424 59,983 (50,000) 1,019,407
3 1,019,407 60,577 (70,000) 1,009,984
4 1,009,984 60,016 (70,000) 1,000,000
240,000 240,000
The bond is initially recorded at cost (₦1,000,000) and by the end of year 1 it has
an amortised cost of ₦1,009,424.
The difference is due to the difference in the interest expense recognised in the
statement of profit or loss (₦59,424) and the interest actually paid (₦50,000).
The total interest paid over the four years is ₦240,000. However, it is charged to
the profit or loss each year at the effective rate (5.942%) on the outstanding
balance, not as the actual interest paid on the bonds in cash each year.
The investor in the above bond would recognise a financial asset at amortised
cost and recognise interest income in the same amounts as above.
The following is another example, this time from an investor’s viewpoint

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
X purchased a loan on 1 January 20X5 and classified it as measured at
amortised cost.
Terms:
Nominal value ₦50 million
Coupon rate 10%
Term to maturity 3 years
Purchase price ₦48 million
Effective rate 11.67%
Calculate the amortised cost of the bond and show the interest income for each
year to maturity.
Practice question 2
A company issues ₦10 million of 6% bonds at a price of ₦100.50 for each
₦100 nominal value with issue costs of ₦50,000.
The bonds are redeemable after four years for ₦10,444,000.
The effective annual interest rate for this financial instrument is 7%.
Calculate the amortised cost of the bond and show the interest expense for
each year to maturity.

3 IAS 39: OTHER MATTERS
Section overview
 Embedded derivatives
 Impairment of financial instruments
 Derecognition of financial instruments
3.1 Embedded derivatives

Certain contracts may not meet the definition of a derivative in their entirety but
may have implicit or explicit terms that act in a manner similar to a derivative.
They are said to have a derivative embedded in them.
If a contract contains an embedded derivative it is known as a hybrid contract,
being made up of a host contract and an embedded derivative.
The effect of an embedded derivative is that it causes some of the cash flows
associated with the contract to vary in a similar way to a stand-alone derivative.
The problem is that in the absence of rules requiring separation of embedded
derivatives:
 an entity could bury a derivative position in another contract to avoid the
IAS 39 fair value rules; or
 two different entities could hold similar derivative positions and therefore
face exactly the same economic exposure, but if the derivative of one
company was embedded in another contract these same economic
exposures would be accounted for differently.
Derivatives might be embedded in financial assets and financial liabilities but
might also be associated with transactions like leases and supply contracts.
Examples: Embedded derivatives

A loan might have interest or principal repayments linked to oil price.
There is an oil derivative embedded in the loan.
Rules
The decision about whether an embedded derivative must be separated, or not,
requires an analysis of the terms and conditions of the hybrid contract.
Separation is required subject to three conditions, all of which must be met.
An embedded derivative must be separated when:
 the hybrid is not measured at fair value with changes to P&L; and
 a separate instrument with similar terms would be a derivative; and
 its economic characteristics and risks are not closely related to those of the
host.

Corporate reporting
Commentary on the separation rules

There would be no point in splitting something that is already fair valued into two
components that would be fair valued. Therefore, there is no need to separate an
embedded derivative from an instrument that is measured at fair value through
profit or loss.
However, many contracts cannot be fair valued (e.g. leases, supply contracts,
insurance contracts etc.). These contracts will always satisfy this condition and
therefore, might contain embedded derivatives that would require separation
Secondly “a separate instrument with similar terms would be a derivative”. There
must be a derivative that can be separated. The contract must include terms
(implied or explicit) that satisfy the definition of a derivative
Lastly separation is only required when the underlying economics of the
derivative are different to those of the host or as IAS 39 puts it, when “the
economic characteristics and risks of the embedded derivative are not closely
related to those of the host”.
Example: Embedded derivative

A company invests in a convertible debt instrument costing ₦250,000.
The fixed interest rate is 7%. At the end of ten years, the instrument can be
converted into ordinary shares, at the option of the company. Otherwise, the
capital of ₦250,000 will be repaid.
The investment is classed as available-for-sale.
The fair value of the equity option has been estimated as ₦35,000.
Analysis:
The embedded derivative is the option to convert the debt instrument into equity
at the end of ten years. The host contract is the debt instrument. The embedded
derivative must be separated from the host contract because the conditions listed
above are met:
a. The debt instrument is not measured at fair value, with changes in fair
value recognised as profit or loss.
b. A separate instrument with similar terms would be a derivative
c. The debt and equity do not have closely-related characteristics.
There is an embedded derivative.
Since the fair value of the embedded derivative (the equity option) is ₦35,000 the
transaction is recognised as follows:
₦
Available for sale asset 215,000
Derivative (share option) 35,000
Subsequently, the available-for-sale investment and the derivative will

be accounted for in different ways.

3.2 Impairment of financial instruments

Impairment of most non-current assets is covered by IAS 36, but impairment of
financial instruments is dealt with by IAS 39. The rules for financial assets are
similar to those for non-financial assets.
This is only an issue for financial assets measured at amortised cost and fair
value through OCI. Any impairment losses on those measured at fair value
through profit and loss are automatically recognised through the basic fair value
model.
A financial asset is impaired if its carrying amount exceeds its estimated
recoverable amount. This comparison is made only if there are indications of
impairment at the reporting date. An entity must assess whether this is the case.
Indicators of impairment might include:
 financial difficulties of the issuer – indicating that interest may not be
received by a holder of bonds of the issuer;
 default by the borrower on interest payments;
 disappearance of an active market for the investment;
 a significant continued decline in value.
If there are indications of impairment of an asset measured at amortised cost an
entity must estimate its recoverable amount. This is the present value of
estimated future cash flows from the asset discounted at the original effective
rate.

Corporate reporting
Example: Impairment of financial asset

Company X invests in a bond.
The bond has an issue value of ₦1 million and pays a coupon rate of 5% interest
for two years, then 7% interest for two years (this known as a stepped bond).
Interest is paid annually on the anniversary of the bond issue.
The bond will be redeemed at par after four years.
The effective rate for this bond is 5.942%
At the end of the second year it becomes apparent that the issuer has financial
difficulties and it is estimated that Company X will only receive ₦60 for every
₦100 of the future cash flows.
At the end of year 2 the amortised cost is:

Amortised cost Interest at Amortised cost
Year brought forward 5.942% Cash paid carried forward
1 1,000,000 59,424 (50,000) 1,009,424
2 1,009,424 59,983 (50,000) 1,019,407
The recoverable amount is calculated as follows:
Discount factor
Year Future cash flows (@5.942%)
3 70,000 @ 60% = 42,000 0.9439 39,644
4 1,070,000 @ 60% = 642,000 0.891 572,022
Recoverable amount 611,666
Impairment 407,741
Note that the recoverable amount could have been calculated easily as 60% of
the carrying amount:
60% of 1,019,407 = 611,644 (22 difference due to rounding)
Any impairment loss is charged to profit or loss.

3.3 Derecognition of financial instruments

Derecognition is the removal of a previously recognised financial asset or
financial liability from an entity’s statement of financial position.
Derecognition of a financial liability

A financial liability (or a part of a financial liability) is derecognised when, and only
when, it is extinguished.
This is when the obligation specified in the contract is discharged or cancelled or
expires.
Derecognition of a financial asset

Most transactions involving derecognition of a financial asset are straightforward.
However, financial assets may be subject to complicated transactions where
some of the risks and rewards that attach to an asset are retained but some are
passed on. IAS 39 contains complex guidance designed to meet the challenge
posed by complex transactions.
The guidance is structured so that a transaction involving a financial asset is
subject to a series of tests to establish whether the asset should be
derecognised.
These tests can be framed as a series of questions.
1 Have the contractual rights to cash flows of the financial asset expired?
 If the answer is “yes” – derecognise the financial asset
 If the answer is “no” – ask the next question
2 Has the asset been transferred to another party?
 If the answer is “no” – the asset is retained
 If the answer is “yes” – ask the next question
3 Have substantially all of the risks and rewards of ownership passed?
 If the answer is “the risks and rewards are neither passed nor
retained (i.e. some are passed but some kept)” – ask the next
question
4 Has the asset has been transferred in a way such that risks and rewards of
ownership have neither passed nor been retained but control has been lost.
This all sounds very complicated but what it means is that a financial asset is
derecognised if one of three combinations of circumstances occur:
 the contractual rights to the cash flows from the financial asset expire; or
 the financial asset is transferred and substantially all of the risks and
rewards of ownership pass to the transferee; or
 the financial asset is transferred, substantially all of the risks and rewards of
ownership are neither transferred nor retained but control of the asset has
been lost.

Corporate reporting
Most transactions being considered involve the receipt of cash.

 Transactions where the asset is derecognised may lead to the recognition
of a profit or loss on disposal.
 Transactions where the asset is not derecognised lead to the recognition of
a liability for the cash received.
Example: Derecognition
ABC collects ₦10,000 that it is owed by a customer.
Yes – Derecognise the asset
Dr Cash ₦10,000
Cr Receivable ₦10,000
ABC sells ₦100,000 of its accounts receivables to a factor and receives an 80%
advance immediately. The factor charges a fee of ₦8,000 for the service.
The debts are factored without recourse and a balancing payment of ₦12,000
will be paid by the factor 30 days after the receivables are factored.
Answer
No – ask the next question
Yes (for 80% of it)
The receivables are factored without recourse so ABC has passed on the
risks and rewards of ownership.
ABC must derecognise the asset transferred.
Dr Cash ₦80,000
Cr Receivables ₦80,000
In addition ABC has given part of the receivable to the factor as a fee:
Dr P&L ₦8,000

ABC sells ₦100,000 of its accounts receivables to a factor and receives an 80%
advance immediately. The factor charges a fee of ₦8,000 for the service.
The debts are factored with recourse and a further advance of 12% will be
received by the seller if the customer pays on time.
Answer
No – ask the next question
Yes (for 80% of it)
The debt is factored with recourse so the bad debt risk stays with ABC. In
addition, ABC has access to future rewards as further sums are receivable
if the customers pay on time.
As ABC has kept the future risks and rewards relating to the ₦80,000, this
element of the receivable is not derecognised.
Dr Cash ₦80,000
Cr Liability ₦80,000
Being receipt of cash from factor – This liability is reduced as the factor
collects the cash.
Dr Liability ₦X
Cr Receivable ₦X
In addition ABC has given part of the receivable to the factor as a fee:
Dr P&L ₦8,000

Corporate reporting
4 IAS 39: HEDGE ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 What is hedging?
 Definitions
 The principles of hedge accounting
 Fair value hedge
 Cash flow hedge
 Cash flow hedge – basis adjustment
 Hedges of a net investment in a foreign operation
4.1 What is hedging?

Hedging is the process of entering into a transaction in order to reduce risk.
Companies may use derivatives to establish ‘positions’, so that gains or losses
from holding the position in derivatives will offset losses or gains on the related
item that is being hedged.
Example:
A UK company has a liability to pay a US supplier $200,000 in three months’
time.
The company is exposed to the risk that the US dollar will increase in value
against the British pound in the next three months, so that the payment in dollars
will become more expensive (in pounds).
A hedge can be created for this exposure to foreign exchange risk by making a
forward contract to buy $200,000 in three months’ time, at a rate of exchange
that is fixed now by the contract.
This is an example of hedging: the exposure to risk has been removed by the
forward contract.
The logic of accounting for hedging should be that if a position is hedged, then
any gains on the underlying instrument that are reported in profit and loss should
be offset by matching losses on the hedging position in derivatives, which should
also be reported in profit or loss.
Similarly, any losses on the underlying instrument that are reported in profit or
loss should be offset by matching gains on the hedging position in derivatives,
which should also be reported in profit or loss.
However, without special rules to account for hedging, the financial statements
may not reflect the offsetting of the risk and the economic reality of hedging.

4.2 Definitions
A company can hedge whatever it wants to but, IAS 39 only allows hedge
accounting when certain conditions are satisfied. IAS 39 uses the following
definitions in describing the hedge accounting rules.
Hedged item
Definition
A hedged item is an asset, liability, firm commitment, highly probable forecast
transaction or net investment in a foreign operation that exposes the entity to risk
of changes in fair value or future cash flows and is designated as being hedged.
Hedges of net items cannot qualify for hedge accounting. Suppose a company
whose functional currency was naira had a €100 asset and an €80 liability. This
company would have a foreign exchange risk exposure on €20. In practice a
company might hedge this €20 position. This cannot qualify for hedge
accounting.
Further guidance in IAS 39 limits the risks that can be hedged. A company might
hedge risk components. For example, a company might invest in a foreign
currency, interest bearing bond. The company might hedge the foreign currency
risk and/or the interest rate risk and or the credit risk of this bond. In each case it
would be allowed to use hedge accounting.
However, this is not the case for non-financial items which must be hedged for
foreign exchange risk or their total risk. For example, a jet fuel manufacturer
might hedge the crude oil cost component of its production costs. This cannot be
hedge accounted under IAS 39.
Hedging instrument
Definition
A hedging instrument is a designated derivative or (for a hedge of the risk of
changes in foreign currency exchange rates only) a designated non-derivative
financial asset or non-derivative financial liability whose fair value or cash flows
are expected to offset changes in the fair value or cash flows of a designated
hedged item.
Hedge accounting is not allowed for hedges where non derivative financial assets
and liabilities are used as hedging instruments except for hedges of foreign
exchange risk.
Hedge accounting is only allowed for hedges involving derivatives external to the
entity. Therefore, if a member of a group takes a derivative position with another
member of the group in order to hedge a risk it may use hedge accounting in its
own financial statements. This hedge accounting must be removed on
consolidation as then the derivative is not external.

Corporate reporting
Hedge effectiveness
Definition
Hedge effectiveness is the degree to which changes in the fair value or cash flows
of the hedged item that are attributable to a hedged risk are offset by changes in
the fair value or cash flows of the hedging instrument.
IAS 39 does not specify methods of measuring effectiveness but does require
that it be measured on every reporting date (at least). Whatever method is used
must be documented and in place before hedge accounting is allowed.
4.3 The principles of hedge accounting

Hedge accounting provides special rules that allow the matching of the gain or
loss on the derivatives position with the loss or gain on the hedged item. This
reduces volatility in the statement of financial position and the statement of profit
or loss, and so is very attractive to the preparers of accounts.
The special rules for accounting for hedging can only be used where very
stringent conditions are met:
 The derivative must be designated as a hedging instrument.
 The hedge must be expected to be highly effective (almost fully offset).
 The hedge must be regularly assessed and found to be highly effective.
(Highly effective is where the change in the value of the hedging instrument
(derivative) relative to the change in the item that is being hedged is in the
range 80% - 125%).
 Formal documentation must be prepared to describe
 the hedging instrument;
 the hedged item;
 the hedged risk;
 the method of testing effectiveness; and
 the type of hedge.
Hedge accounting models

Where the conditions for using hedge accounting are met, the method of hedge
accounting to be used depends on the type of hedge.
IAS 39 identifies three types of hedging relationship:
 fair value hedges
 cash flow hedges; and
 hedges of a net investment in a foreign entity (accounted for as a cash flow
hedge).

4.4 Fair value hedge

A fair value hedge is a hedge against the risk of a change in the fair value of an
asset or liability. For example, oil held in inventory could be hedged with an oil
forward contract to hedge the exposure to a risk of a fall in oil sales prices. Or the
risk of a change in the fair value of a fixed rate debt owed by a company could be
hedged using an interest rate swap.
Accounting treatment of fair value hedges

Accounting for a fair value hedge is as follows:
 The gain or loss on the hedging instrument (the derivative) is taken to
profit or loss, as normal.
 The carrying amount of the hedged item is adjusted by the loss or gain on
the hedged item attributable to the hedged risk with the other side of the
entry recognised in profit or loss.
Example: Fair value hedge

Entity X holds an inventory of 100 barrels of oil at a cost of $70 a barrel.
30th September 20X1: Oil is trading at $100 a barrel. Entity X decides to hedge
the fair value of its oil inventory by entering into a 12 m forward contract to sell
the oil at $100 per barrel.
31st December 20X1: Oil is trading at $90 per barrel.
Required
Assuming that the hedge has been properly documented explain the accounting
treatment for this hedge (ignore time value).

Corporate reporting
Answer
Hedging instrument (gain)
The forward contract gives Entity X the right to sell oil at $100 per barrel but it is
only worth $90 per barrel. This represents a gain of $10 per barrel
Dr Derivative asset (100 barrels @ $10) $1,000
Cr P&L $1,000
Hedged item (loss)
The fair value of oil has fallen by $10 per barrel. The carrying amount of the
inventory is adjusted by this amount.
Dr P&L $1,000
Cr Inventory $1,000
Note that the hedged item is not fair valued. Its carrying amount is adjusted by
the change in its fair value.
Summary
Debit/(credit)
Derivative
Inventory (asset) P&L
30th September 20X1 10,000
31st December 20X1:
Fair value change
Derivative 1,000 (1,000)
Inventory (1,000) 1,000
+ 1,008 0 + 1,008
4.5 Cash flow hedge

A cash flow hedge is a hedge against the risk of changes in cash flows relating to
a recognised asset or liability or an anticipated purchase or sale. For example,
floating rate debt issued by a company might be hedged using an interest rate
swap to manage increases in interest rates. Or future US dollar sales of airline
seats by a UK company might be hedged by a US$/£ forward contracts to
manage changes in exchange rates. These are hedges relating to future cash
flows from interest payments or foreign exchange receipts.
Accounting treatment of cash flow hedges

Accounting for a cash flow hedge is as follows:
 The change in the fair value of the hedging instrument is analysed into
‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’ elements.
 The ‘effective’ portion is recognised in other comprehensive income
(directly in equity).
 The ‘ineffective’ portion is recognised in profit or loss.
 The amount recognised in other comprehensive income is subsequently
released to the profit or loss as a reclassification adjustment in the same
period as the hedged forecast cash flows affect profit or loss.

Example: Cash flow hedge

X SA is a French company
It expects to sell $1,000 of airline seats for cash in six months’ time.
The current spot rate is €1 = $1.
It sells the future dollar receipts forward to fix the amount to be received in euros
and to provide a hedge against the risk of a fall in the value of the dollar against
the euro.
At inception (30 September 20X1)
At inception, the anticipated future sale is not recorded in the accounts, and the
derivative (the forward contract) has an initial value of zero.
Reporting date (31 December 20X1)
The dollar has weakened with the following results:
a. The derivative is an asset with a fair value of €80.
b. The change in expected cash flows in euros from the forecast seat sales
has fallen by €75 (€1,000 to €925).
Effectiveness:
The hedge is highly effective, because the change in the value of the forward
contract (+ €80) closely matches the change in the value of the forecast sales
receipts (– €75).
The hedge is 93.75% effective (75/80). Alternatively, this could be expressed as
106.67% (80/75). It is within the range 80% to 125%.
Accounting:
The gain on the derivative of €80 must be split into ‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’
elements.
The ‘effective’ gain is the amount of the gain that matches the fall in value in the
hedged item. In this example, this is €75.
The ‘ineffective’ gain is the difference (€80 - €75 = €5).
The effective gain is recognised in other comprehensive income and accumulated
in an equity reserve.
The ineffective element of €5 is reported as a gain in profit or loss for the period.
Dr Cr
Derivative 80
Equity reserve 75
Profit or loss 5

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Cash flow hedge.
31 March 20X2 (At settlement)

The forward contract is settled with a gain of €103. This is €23 more than
expected at the last reporting date. The amount must be recognised with the
effective element being taken to OCI and the ineffective element recognised in
P&L.
The airline seats are sold, but the proceeds in euros are €905. This is €20 less
than the €925 estimated at the last reporting date.
The further gain on the derivative must be split into effective and ineffective
elements:
a. Effective = €20 (€ 925 – € 905, which is the loss on the euro receipts)
b. Ineffective = €3 (the balance, €23 – €20).
Dr Cr
Derivative 23
Equity reserve 20
Profit or loss 3
Accounting on settlement
The income from the sales is €905.
The ‘effective’ gains on the derivative held in the equity reserve are released to
profit or loss as a reclassification adjustment in other comprehensive income.
The release of the €95 to profit or loss means that the total income from the seat
sales and the effective hedged gains is €1,000. This was the amount of income
that was ‘hedged’ by the original forward contract.
Summary:
Debit /(credit)
Derivative Profit or
Cash (asset) OCI loss
Previous period 80 (75) (5)
Current period:
Fair value change 23 (20) (3)
Sale of seats 905 (905)
Reclassification
adjustment 95 (95)
Settle forward contract 103 (103)
1,008 0 0 (1,008)
The statement of profit or loss includes €1,000 revenue that the company ‘locked
into’ with the hedging position, plus the gain of €8 (€5 + €3) on the ineffective
part of the hedge (= the speculative element of the derivative).

4.6 Cash flow hedge – Basis adjustment

A cash flow hedged transaction might be the future purchase of a non-financial
asset.
Example: Cash flow hedge – Basis adjustment

Entity X is based in the UK and has a December year end. Its functional currency
is sterling (GBP)
Entity X forecasts the purchase of a machine from a US supplier and will be paid
for in dollars (USD). The purchase is expected to occur on 1st January 20X3.
It is now 30th September 20X2. The cost of the machine is $15,000. The
exchange rate is $1.5=£1 giving a cost to Entity X of £10,000.
Entity X hedges the exchange risk be entering into a forward contract for
$15,000 @ $1.5=£1. This is designated as a cash flow hedge and accounted for
accordingly.
1st January 20X3
Entity X buys the machine for $15,000. The exchange rate is $1.47=£1 giving a
cost to Entity X of £10,200.
A gain on the forward contract of £200 has been recognised through OCI by this
date. This means that there is a credit balance of £200 in the cash flow hedge
reserve in equity.
This must be released to profit as the hedged transaction impacts the profit and
loss account. The hedged transaction impacts the profit and loss account as the
asset is depreciated.
There are two ways of doing this.
Approach one
Debit /(credit)
OCI (equity Profit or
Machine reserve) loss)
1 January 20X3 10,200 (200)
31 December 20X3:
Depreciation (say 10 years) (1,020) 1,020
Transfer from equity:
reclassification adjustment 20 (20)
Charge for the year 1,000
Balance carried forward 9,180 (180)
The amounts recognised on the statement of financial position net at £10,000 on

initial recognition (10,200 – 200). This is because Entity X was able to lock in the
rate of $1.5=£1 for the purchase of the machine. The accounting treatment
results in a net expense in the P&L of £1,000 (£10,000/10 years).

Corporate reporting
Example: Cash flow hedge – Basis adjustment

IAS 39 allows a simpler approach.
When a hedged forecast transaction results in the recognition of a non-financial
asset (or liability) an entity is allowed to net off the amount deferred in equity
against the initial amount recognised for the asset.
This is known as a “basis adjustment”.
Approach two
Debit /(credit)
Equity
reserve Profit or
Machine (via OCI) loss (P&L)
1 January 20X3 10,200 (200)
Basis adjustment (200) 200
Carrying amount on initial
recognition 10,000 nil
31 December 20X3:
Depreciation (say 10 years) (1,000) 1,000
Balance carried forward 9,000 nil
This is only allowed for non-financial assets and liabilities. Approach one must be
used for financial assets and liabilities.
4.7 Hedges of a net investment in a foreign operation

A later chapter explains the accounting treatment, for consolidation purposes, of
an investment in a foreign subsidiary or other foreign operation.
The net assets of the foreign subsidiary are translated at the end of each
financial year, and any foreign exchange differences are recognised in other
comprehensive income (until the foreign subsidiary is disposed of, when the
cumulative profit or loss is then reclassified from ‘equity’ to profit or loss).
IAS 39 allows hedge accounting for an investment in a foreign subsidiary. An
entity may designate an eligible hedging instrument for a net investment in a
foreign subsidiary, provided that the hedging instrument is equal to or less than
the value of the net assets in the foreign subsidiary.
This is accounted for as a cash flow hedge.

5 IFRS 9: RECOGNITION AND MEASUREMENT
Section overview
 Recognition of financial instruments

 Classification of financial assets
 Other measurement rules
 Classification of financial liabilities
5.1 Recognition of financial instruments

The initial recognition rule and the measurement on initial recognition are the
same as those in IAS 39.
A financial asset might be an investment in debt or in equity.
5.2 Classification of financial assets

Classification determines how financial assets are accounted for and in
particular, how they are measured on an ongoing basis.
A company must classify financial assets as subsequently measured at:
 amortised cost;
 fair value through other comprehensive income; or
 fair value through profit or loss
This classification is made on the basis of both:
 the business model for managing the financial assets and
 the contractual cash flow characteristics of the financial asset.
Financial assets at amortised cost

A financial asset must be measured at amortised cost if both of the following
conditions are met:
 the asset is held within a business model whose objective is to hold assets
in order to collect contractual cash flows; and
 the contractual terms of the financial asset give rise on specified dates to
cash flows that are solely payments of principal and interest on the principal
amount outstanding.

Corporate reporting
Financial assets at fair value through other comprehensive income

A financial asset must be measured at fair value through other comprehensive
income if both of the following conditions are met:
 the financial asset is held within a business model whose objective is
achieved by both collecting contractual cash flows and selling financial
assets and
 the contractual terms of the financial asset give rise on specified dates to
cash flows that are solely payments of principal and interest on the principal
amount outstanding.
Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss

A financial asset must be measured at fair value through profit or loss unless it is
measured at amortised cost or at fair value through other comprehensive income.
Reclassification of financial assets after initial recognition is required when an
entity changes its model for managing financial assets. It is not allowed in any
other circumstance.
Example: Classification of financial assets

A company makes a large bond issue to the market.
Three companies (A plc, B plc and C plc) each buy identical ₦10,000,000 bonds.
Company Business model Classification of bond
A plc A plc holds bonds for the A plc must measure
purpose of collecting contractual the bond at amortised
cash flows to maturity cost
B plc B plc holds bonds for the B plc must measure
purpose of collecting contractual the bond at fair value
cash flows but sells them on the through OCI
market when prices are
favourable
C plc C plc buys bonds to trade in C plc must measure
them the bond at fair value
through P&L
5.3 Other measurement rules
Option to designate a financial asset at fair value through profit or loss

Despite the above, a company may, at initial recognition, irrevocably designate a
financial asset as measured at fair value through profit or loss if doing so
eliminates or significantly reduces a measurement or recognition inconsistency
(sometimes referred to as an ‘accounting mismatch’) that would otherwise arise
from measuring assets or liabilities or recognising the gains and losses on them
on different bases.

Equity instruments
Investments in equity are measured at fair value through profit or loss.
However a company can make an irrevocable election at initial recognition to
measure an equity investment at fair value through other comprehensive income
as long as it is not held for trading.
Overview of classification of financial assets
Method Which instruments?

Amortised cost Loans and receivables that satisfy the amortised
cost criteria
Fair value to OCI Loans and receivables that satisfy the fair value
through OCI criteria
Equity that has been subject to a declaration
Fair value through profit or Equity
loss (FVTPL)
Derivatives
Loans and receivables that fail the amortised
cost criteria
Loans and receivables that satisfy the amortised
cost criteria but are designated into this category
on initial recognition
5.4 Classification of financial liabilities

The rules on accounting for financial liabilities are the same as in IAS 39.
At initial recognition, financial liabilities are classified as subsequently measured
at amortised cost with specific exceptions including:
 derivatives that are liabilities at the reporting date; and
 financial liabilities that might arise when a financial asset is transferred but
this transfer does not satisfy the derecognition criteria.
A company is allowed to designate a financial liability as measured at fair value
through profit or loss. This designation can only be made if:
 it eliminates or significantly reduces a measurement or recognition
inconsistency; or
 this would allow the company to reflect a documented risk management
strategy.
Any such designation is irrevocable.
If a financial liability is measured at fair value any change due to the company’s
own credit risk is recognised in OCI (not P&L)
Reclassification of a financial liability after initial recognition is not allowed.

Corporate reporting
Summary of accounting of items measured at fair value
Category Examples
Financial asset at fair value Whole fair value movement to profit or loss
through profit or loss
Financial asset at fair value Whole fair value movement to OCI
through OCI
Subsequent sale of the asset
Gain or loss on disposal calculated based
on the carrying amount of the asset at the
date of disposal.
No reclassification of the amounts
previously recognised in OCI in respect of
equity for which an irrevocable election has
been made. (This is different to the IAS 39
requirement on disposal of an AFS equity
investment).
Reclassification is still required for debt
instruments measured at fair value through
OCI.
Financial liability at fair value Change in fair value attributed to change in
through profit or loss credit risk to OCI.
Remaining change in fair value to profit or
loss
Example: Equity investment

An equity investment is purchased for ₦30,000 plus 1% transaction costs on 1
January 20X6. It is classified as at fair value through OCI.
At the end of the financial year (31 December) the investment is revalued to its
fair value of ₦40,000.
On 11 December 20X7 it is sold for ₦50,000.
Required
Explain the accounting treatment for this investment.

Answer
1 January 20X6 The investment is recorded at ₦30,300. This is the cost plus the
capitalised transaction costs.
31 December 20X6 The investment is revalued to its fair value of ₦40,000.
The gain of ₦9,700 is included in other comprehensive income for the year.
11 December 20X7 The journal entry to record the disposal is as follows:
Dr Cr
Cash 50,000
Investment 40,000
If the amounts recognised in OCI were accumulated in a separate reserve the
following is allowed:
Dr Cr
Separate reserve 9,700
Accumulated profit 9,700

Corporate reporting
6 IFRS 9: OTHER MATTERS
Section overview
 Embedded derivatives
 Impairment of financial instruments
 Derecognition of financial instruments
6.1 Embedded derivatives

The treatment of embedded derivatives depends on whether the hybrid contract
contains a host that is an asset within the scope of IFRS 9.
Hybrid contains a host contract within the scope of IFRS 9

If the host contract is an asset within the scope of IFRS 9 the normal rules of
classification and accounting apply.
The contractual cash flows of the financial asset are assessed in their entirety,
and the asset as a whole is measured at FVTPL if any of its cash flows do not
represent payments of principal and interest.
It may well be the case that the presence of the derivative causes this to happen.
Hybrid contains a host contract outside the scope of IFRS 9

If a hybrid contract contains a host that is not an asset within the scope of IFRS
9, an embedded derivative must be separated from the host and accounted for
as a derivative subject to the same rules as in IAS 39
6.2 Impairment of financial instruments

The IAS 39 impairment model delays the recognition of impairment of a financial
asset until there is an indication of impairment. It is described as an incurred loss
model. This means that losses are only recognised when an event occurs that
reduces the recoverability of a financial asset.
The IFRS 9 approach is to require recognition of losses on an expected loss
approach.
Definitions
Credit loss: The difference between all contractual cash flows that are due to an
entity in accordance with the contract and all the cash flows that the entity
expects to receive (i.e. all cash shortfalls), discounted at the original effective
interest rate.
Lifetime expected credit losses: The expected credit losses that result from all
possible default events over the expected life of a financial instrument.
12-month expected credit losses: The portion of lifetime expected credit losses
that represent the expected credit losses that result from default events on a
financial instrument that are possible within the 12 months after the reporting
date.

The recognition of a loss allowance is achieved as follows:
Illustration: Recognition of a loss allowance
Debit Credit
(for financial assets carried at amortised cost) X
Statement of other comprehensive income
(for financial assets carried at fair value through OCI) X
Loss allowance X
The loss allowance must not be offset against the financial asset.
Overview of the impairment model

The IASB have published a project summary which explains the impairment
model in three stages
Stage 1
As soon as a financial instrument is originated or purchased, 12-month expected
credit losses are recognised in profit or loss (or OCI) and a loss allowance is
established. This serves as a proxy for the initial expectations of credit losses.
12-month expected credit losses are the portion of the lifetime expected credit
losses associated with the possibility of a default in the next twelve months.
 It is not the expected cash shortfalls over the next twelve months—instead,
it is the effect of the entire credit loss on an asset weighted by the
probability that this loss will occur in the next 12 months.
 It is also not the credit losses on assets that are forecast to actually default
in the next 12 months.
Interest revenue is calculated on the gross carrying amount (i.e. without
adjustment for expected credit losses).
Stage 2
If the credit risk increases significantly and the resulting credit quality is not
considered to be low credit risk, full lifetime expected credit losses are
recognised.
Lifetime expected credit losses are an expected present value measure of losses
that arise if a borrower defaults on their obligation throughout the life of the
financial instrument. They are the weighted average credit losses with the
probability of default as the weight.
Interest revenue is calculated on the gross carrying amount (i.e. without
adjustment for expected credit losses).
Stage 3
The credit risk of a financial asset might increase further to the point that it is
considered credit-impaired. Lifetime expected credit losses are still recognised on
these financial assets but will probably be remeasured upwards.

Corporate reporting
Interest revenue is calculated based on the amortised cost (i.e. the gross carrying
amount adjusted for the loss allowance). This would require a recalculation of the
effective interest rate.
6.3 Derecognition of financial instruments

Derecognition is the removal of a previously recognised financial asset or
financial liability from an entity’s statement of financial position.
The IAS 39 rules have been incorporated into IFRS 9 with no change.

7 IFRS 9: HEDGE ACCOUNTING
Section overview
 Reasons for change

 Summary of changes
7.1 Reasons for change

The hedge accounting rules in IAS 39 have been criticised. Commentators have
pointed out that the accounting treatment is based on rules rather than principles.
This results in the rules being too restrictive resulting in accounting information
that does not adequately reflect risk management practices.
For example, there are instances where hedge accounting cannot be applied to
groups of items, whereas for risk management purposes items are often hedged
on a group basis.
What is the objective of hedge accounting?

An entity uses hedging to manage risks, for example, foreign exchange risk,
interest rate risk or the price of a commodity. It may choose to apply hedge
accounting to show the effect of managing those risks in the financial statements.
IFRS 9 states that the objective of hedge accounting is to represent the effect of
an entity’s risk management activities that use financial instruments to manage
exposures arising from particular risks that could affect profit or loss (or OCI).
This statement links the accounting rules to the risk management objective
resulting in a principles based approach.

Corporate reporting
7.2 Summary of changes
IAS 39 IFRS 9
Hedge accounting criteria
IAS 39 sets a high hurdle before The quantitative hurdle removed.
hedge accounting is available and
for it to continue. There is a strict
quantitative effectiveness test
(80%-125%) which is widely
criticised as being arbitrary and for
causing unavailability of hedge
accounting for hedges that are
good in economic terms.
Hedging instruments
Non derivative financial instrument Non derivative financial instrument can
can only be used as hedge of be designated as hedging instruments as
foreign exchange risk. long as they at FVTPL
Hedged items
IAS 39 allows components (parts) This distinction has been eliminated.
of financial items to be hedged, but
Hedges of components of non-financial
not components of non- financial
items will qualify for hedge accounting.
items.
For example hedge accounting can
be achieved for a hedge of credit
risk in bond but not for a hedge of
oil price in jet fuel.
Risk managers often hedge a risk
component for non-financial items.
Companies often hedge net Hedges of net positions can qualify for
positions but IAS 39 does not allow hedge accounting as long as certain
hedge accounting for these hedges criteria are met.
creating an inconsistency between
hedge accounting and risk
management activity.
For example, a company might
hedge a net foreign exchange
position of 20 that is made up of an
asset of 100 and a liability of 80.
Hedge accounting models
Fair value hedge accounting: Fair No change
value differences to P&L
Basis adjustment allowed when a Basis adjustment required when a cash

cash flow hedge results in the flow hedge or a fair value hedge results
recognition of a non- financial asset in the recognition of a non-financial asset
or liability or liability

8 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define financial asset and financial liability
 Explain fair value and amortised cost
 Apply the correct accounting treatment for each of the four categories of financial
asset identified by IAS 39
 Account for financial liabilities in accordance with IAS 39 (and IFRS 9)
 Apply the correct accounting treatment for each of the three categories of
financial asset identified by IFRS 9
 Apply the IAS 39 rules to measure impairment of financial assets
 Account for derecognition of financial assets in straightforward situations
 Explain and carry out fair value hedge accounting
 Explain and carry out cash flow hedge accounting

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
The amount recognised as income in profit or loss each year is based on the effective
rate of return, but the cash actually paid is based on the coupon rate of 10%.
The difference is treated as an adjustment to the carrying value of the investment in the
statement of financial position, which is the amortised cost of the asset.
This is calculated as follows:
Year Asset value Interest at Asset value
brought forward 11.67% Cash paid carried forward
20X5 48.00m 5.60m (5m) 48.06m
20X6 48.60m 5.65m (5m) 49.25m
20X7 49.25m 5.75m (5m) 50.00m
17m 15m
Solution 2
The initial liability is (₦10 million × 100.50/100) – ₦50,000 = ₦10,000,000.
Liability at Finance Liability at

start of year charge at 7% Interest paid end of year
₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
Year 1 10,000,000 700,000 (600,000) 10,100,000
Year 2 10,100,000 707,000 (600,000) 10,207,000
Year 3 10,207,000 714,490 (600,000) 10,321,490
Year 4 10,321,490 722,510 (600,000) 10,444,000
2,844,000 2,400,000
The final interest payment of ₦722,510 contains a rounding adjustment of₦6.

Note that the difference between the interest charged and the interest paid is because
the final payment of the redemption proceeds has not been shown. This contains a
redemption premium of ₦444,000 which has already been recognised as an expense
by the year end.

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
21
Financial instruments:
Presentation and disclosure
Contents
1 IAS 32: Presentation
2 Interpretations
3 IFRS 7: Disclosure
4 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the basic rules on presentation and disclosure of financial instruments.

 Distinguish between debt and equity
 Apply split accounting in the books of the issue on the initial recognition of a convertible
bond
 Explain the IFRS 7 disclosures in respect of financial instruments in overview

Chapter 21: Financial instruments: Presentation and disclosure
1 IAS 32: PRESENTATION
Section overview
 Liability or equity?
 Preference shares: debt or equity?
 Compound instruments
 Transactions in own equity
 Offsetting
 Distributable profit
1.1 Liability or equity?

Financial instruments issued by a company must be classified as either liabilities
or equity. This classification should be based on the substance of the contract,
rather than the legal form.
A financial liability is any liability where the issuer has a contractual obligation:
 To deliver cash or another financial asset to another entity, or
 To exchange financial instruments with another entity on potentially
unfavourable terms.
The owner of an equity instrument is entitled to receive a dividend, but the
company does not have a contractual obligation to make the payment. So equity
does not meet the above definition of a financial liability.
An equity instrument is defined as any contract that offers the residual interest in
the assets of the company after deducting all of the liabilities.
Returns on financial instruments

Returns on financial instruments are reported differently, depending on whether
the instrument is a liability or equity. The classification of the financial instrument
determines the treatment of the interest, dividends, gains and losses.
 Interest expense, dividend payments, gains and losses relating to a
financial liability are recognised in the statement of profit or loss.
 Distributions to equity holders are debited to equity and shown in the
statement of changes in equity.
1.2 Preference shares: debt or equity?

Preference shares are shares that are entitled to a payment of their dividend,
usually a fixed amount each year, before the ordinary shareholders can be paid
any dividend or that rank ahead of ordinary shares for any distribution of net
assets in the event of a winding up of the company.
Preference shares include the following types:
 Redeemable preference shares are those that the entity has an obligation
to buy back (or the right to buy back) at a future date.
 Irredeemable (perpetual) preference shares are those that will not be
bought back at any time in the future.

Corporate reporting
 convertible preference shares are those that are convertible at a future date
into another financial instrument, usually into ordinary equity shares of the
entity.
Classification of preference shares

Depending on their characteristics, preference shares issued by a company
might be classified as:
 equity; or
 a financial liability of the company; or
 a compound financial instrument containing elements of both financial
liability and equity.
IAS 32 states (in a guidance note) that the key factor for classifying preference
shares is the extent to which the entity is obliged to make future payments to the
preference shareholders.
 Redeemable preference shares.
 Redemption is mandatory: Since the issuing entity will be required to
redeem the shares, there is an obligation. The shares are a financial
liability.
 Redemption at the choice of the holder: Since the issuing entity does
not have an unconditional right to avoid delivering cash or another
financial asset there is an obligation. The shares are a financial
liability.
 Redemption at the choice of the issuer: The issuing entity has an
unconditional right to avoid delivering cash or another financial asset
there is no obligation. The shares are equity.
 Irredeemable non-cumulative preference shares should be treated as
equity, because the entity has no obligation to the shareholders that the
shareholders have any right to enforce.

1.3 Compound instruments

A compound instrument is a financial instrument, issued by a company that
cannot be classified as simply a liability or as equity, because it contains
elements of both debt and equity. An example of a compound instrument is a
convertible bond. The company issues a bond that can be converted into equity
in the future or redeemed for cash. Initially, it is a liability, but it has a call option
on the company’s equity embedded within it.
Typically, a convertible bond pays a rate of interest that is lower than the market
rate for a non-convertible bond (a ‘straight bond’) with the same risk profile. This
is because the terms of the conversion normally allow the bondholder to convert
the bond into shares at a rate that is lower than the market price.
Split accounting for compound instruments

On initial recognition of compound instrument, the credit entry for the financial
instrument must be split into the two component parts, equity and liability.
When convertible bonds are issued they are shown in the statement of financial
position partly as debt finance and partly as equity finance. The question is how
to determine the amount of the issue price that is debt and the amount that is
equity.
The method to use is to calculate the equity element as the residual after
determining the present value of the debt element:
 The present value of the interest payments and the redemption value of the
convertible is found using a market interest rate for similar debt finance
which is not convertible (normally a higher interest rate as there is no
conversion element).
 Compare this present value to the proceeds of the bond issue to find the
residual equity element.
 Any transaction costs incurred by issuing the instrument should be
allocated to each component, the liability and equity, according to the split
in value above.
Comment on the measurement of the debt element

The process starts by deriving a fair value for the liability, on the assumption that
the bond has no conversion rights, and is a ‘straight’ fixed rate bond that will be
redeemed at par at maturity.
If the company had sold a bond with identical features but with no conversion
rights, how much could it have been sold for? To answer this question, it is
necessary to recognise that the fair value of a bond is simply the present value of
the future cash flows that the bond will generate, discounted at the market rate of
interest, which in the following example is 8%.

Corporate reporting
Example: Convertible bond

A company issues ₦10 million of 6% convertible bonds at par on 1 January 20X1.
The bonds are redeemable at par after four years or can be converted at any time
up to that date into shares with a nominal value of ₦2,000,000.
The market rate of interest for similar debt which is not convertible is 8%.
The bonds should be recorded in the statement of financial position at the date of
issue as follows:
Step 1: Measure the liability component first by discounting the interest
payments and the amount that would be paid on redemption (if not converted) at
the prevailing market interest rate of 8%.
31 December Cash flow DF (8%) ₦
20X1 to 20X4
Interest: 10,000,000  6% 600,000 3.312 1,987,200
20X4:
Repayment of principle 10,000,000 0.735 7,350,000
Value of debt element 9,337,200
Step 2: Compare the value of the debt element to the cash

raised. The difference is the equity element.
Total proceeds 10,000,000

Value of equity element (residual) 662,800
The initial double entry to recognise the bond would be as follows:

Dr Cr
Cash 10,000,000
Liability 9,337,200
Equity 662,800

The liability component is measured at amortised cost in the usual way at each
subsequent reporting date.
Example (continued): Subsequent measurement of the debt element of the

convertible bond
Cash flow
Amortised Interest at (interest Amortised
cost at start effective rate actually paid cost at year
of the year (8%) at 6%) end
20X1 9,337,200 746,976 (600,000) 9,484,176
20X2 9,484,176 758,734 (600,000) 9,642,910
20X3 9,642,910 771,433 (600,000) 9,814,343
20X4 9,814,343 785,557 (600,000) 10,000,000
Note that the final interest expense of ₦785,557 includes a rounding adjustment
of ₦510).
There is no guidance on the subsequent accounting treatment of the equity
element. One approach would be to retain it as a separate component of equity
and then release it to retained earnings when the bond is paid or converted.
Example (continued): Double entry on repayment or conversion of the bond.
At 31 December 20X4 the bond will either be paid or converted. Possible double
entries in each case are as follows:
If the bond is repaid

Dr Cr
Liability 10,000,000
Cash 10,000,000
and:
Equity component 662,800
Retained earnings 662,800
If the bond is converted:

Dr Cr
Liability 10,000,000
Share capital 2,000,000
Share premium 8,000,000
and:
Equity component 662,800
Retained earnings 662,800

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
A company issued a convertible bond for ₦2,000,000 on 1 January 20X5.
The bond is to be redeemed on 31 December 20X7 (3 years after issue).
The bond holders can take cash or shares with a nominal value of
₦1,200,000 on this date.
The bond pays interest at 5% but the market rate of interest for similar risk
bonds without the conversion feature was 9% at the date of issue.
a) Calculate the liability and equity components of the bond on initial
recognition.
b) Construct the necessary journal on initial recognition.
c) Construct an amortisation table to show how the liability component
would be measured over the life of the bond.
d) Construct the journal to reflect the possible conversion of the bonds to
shares on 31 December 20X7.
1.4 Transactions in own equity

A company may reacquire its own shares. Such shares are called treasury
shares. ’. The company might then hold on to the shares until it uses them for a
particular purpose, such as awarding shares to employees in a share grant
scheme. The accounting treatment of treasury shares is that they should be
deducted from equity.
Any gain or loss on transactions involving treasury shares is recognised directly
in equity, and should not be reported in the statement of profit or loss and other
IAS 32 requires that the amount of treasury shares held should be disclosed
separately, either:
 on the face of the statement of financial position as a deduction from share
capital, or
 offset against share capital and disclosed in the notes to the accounts.

1.5 Offsetting
Offsetting an asset and a liability and presenting a net amount on the face of the
statement of financial position can result in a loss of information to the users. IAS
1 prohibits offset unless required or permitted by an IFRS.
The idea is that offset should only be allowed if it reflects the substance of the
transactions or balances.
IAS 32 adds more detail to this guidance in respect of offsetting financial assets
and liabilities.
IAS 32 requires the presentation of financial assets and financial liabilities in a
way that reflects the company’s future cash flows from collecting the cash from
the asset and paying the cash on the liability. It limits a company’s ability to offset
a financial asset and a financial liability to those instances when the cash flows
will occur at the same time.
The IAS 32 rule is that a financial asset and a financial liability must be offset and
shown net in the statement of financial position when and only when an entity:
 Currently has a legal right to set off the amounts; and
 Intends either to settle the amounts net, or to realise (sell) the asset and
settle the liability simultaneously.
In order for a legal right of set off to be current it must not be contingent on a
future event. Furthermore it must be legally enforceable in all of the following
circumstances:
 The normal course of business;
 The event of default;
 The event of insolvency or bankruptcy of the entity and all of the
counterparties
Note: The existence of a legal right to set off a cash balance in one account with
an overdraft in another is insufficient for offsetting to be allowed. The company
must additionally show intent to settle the balances net, and this is likely to be
rare in practice. Consequently, cash balances in the bank and bank overdrafts
are usually reported separately in the statement of financial position, and not
‘netted off’ against each other.
Many companies adopting IFRS for the first time find that they have net amounts
in the statement of financial position under their old GAAP that have to be shown
as a separate financial asset and financial liability under IFRS. The net position is
described as being “grossed up”.

Corporate reporting
1.6 Distributable profit

Rules are set out in CAMA 1994 (as amended), paragraphs 379 to 386.
Dividends are declared, in respect of a period, in a general meeting on the
recommendation of the directors.
 A company may is allowed to pay interim dividends;
 The general meeting can decrease but not increase the amount of dividend
recommended by the directors.
Dividends are payable only out of the distributable profits of the company.
These are:
 profits arising from the use of the company's property although it is a
wasting asset;
 revenue reserves;
 realised profit on a fixed asset sold, but where more than one asset is sold,
the net realised profit on the assets sold.
A company must not declare or pay dividend if there are reasonable grounds for
believing that the company is or would be unable to pay its liabilities as they
become due after the payment.
A dividend cannot be paid out of the share premium account or capital
redemption reserve though these can be used to fund bonus issues.
Dividends are paid by individual entities. When a group announces that it is
paying a dividend it is actually the parent company that is making the payment.
Example: Group distributions

P acquired 80% of S on 1 January 20X1 for ₦230,000.
The retained profits of S were ₦100,000 at that date and are ₦300,000 at the
current year end.
P has retained profits of ₦400,000 at the current year end.
The consolidated retained profits are as follows:
Consolidated retained profits: ₦

All of P’s retained profits 400,000
P’s share of the post-acquisition retained profits of S
(80% of (300,000  100,000)) 160,000
560,000
The maximum distribution that can be made by the group (i.e. as a dividend paid
to P’s shareholders) is ₦400,000.
The share of post-acquisition retained profits of S are contained in a separate
legal entity and are not available for distribution by the parent.
If S were to pay a dividend, 80% would pass to P and hence become available for
P to pay out to its owners. (The remaining 20% would be owned by the NCI).

2 INTERPRETATIONS
Section overview
 IFRIC 2: Members shares in cooperative entities and similar instruments

 IFRIC 17: Distributions of non-cash assets to owners
 IFRIC 19: Extinguishing financial liabilities with equity instruments
2.1 IFRIC 2: Members shares in cooperative entities and similar instruments
Background
IFRIC 2 applies to financial instruments within the scope of IAS 32, including
financial instruments issued to members of co-operative entities that evidence
the members’ ownership interest in the entity.
Co-operatives (and similar entities) are formed by groups of persons to meet
common economic or social needs. Members’ interests in a co-operative are
often described as “members’ shares”.
Members’ shares have characteristics of equity. For example they give the
member the rights to vote and to participate in dividend distributions.
Members’ shares may also give the holder the right to request redemption for
cash or another financial asset but include limits on whether the financial
instruments will be redeemed.
The issue
IAS 32 gives guidance on classification of financial instruments as financial
liabilities or equity. The guidance covers instruments that allow the holder to put
those instruments to the issuer for cash or another financial instrument (“puttable
instruments”).
IFRIC 2 explains how redemption terms should be evaluated in determining
whether the financial instruments should be classified as liabilities or equity
Consensus
A contractual right of a holder to request redemption does not in itself mean that
the financial instrument must be classified as a financial liability.
An entity must consider all of the terms and conditions of the financial instrument
to determine its classification, including relevant local laws, regulations and the
entity’s governing charter in effect at the date of classification.
Members’ shares that give holders the right to request redemption are classified
as equity when:
 the instrument would be classified as equity if there were no such terms
attached; and
 the entity has an unconditional right to refuse redemption of the members’
shares; or
 redemption is unconditionally prohibited by local law, regulation or the
entity’s governing charter.

Corporate reporting
Example: Equity or liability

X co-operative has a charter which allows redemption of members’ shares at sole
discretion of the co-operative but redemption has never been refused.
Analysis
X co-operative has the unconditional right to refuse redemption so the members’
shares are equity.
The fact that redemption has never been refused is not relevant in deciding the
status of the instruments.
Provisions that prohibit redemption only if conditions (such as liquidity

constraints) are met/not met do not result in members’ shares being equity.
Example: Equity or liability

X co-operative has a charter which allows redemption of members’ shares at sole
discretion of the co-operative but also states that redemption is automatic unless
X cannot make payments without violating local regulations regarding liquidity.
Analysis
X co-operative does not have the unconditional right to refuse redemption so the
members’ shares are liabilities.
Unconditional prohibition may be:

 absolute
 all redemptions are prohibited
 members shares are equity
 partial
 redemption prohibited where it causes the number of members’
shares or amount of paid-in capital from members’ shares to fall
below a specified level
 Members’ shares above this level – liability
 Members’ shares below this level – equity
The limit may change from time to time – leading to a transfer between financial
liabilities and equity.

2.2 IFRIC 17: Distributions of non-cash assets to owners
Introduction
IFRIC 17 sets out guidance on how an entity should measure distributions of
assets other than cash when it pays dividends to owners in their capacity as
owners.
Issues addressed:
 When should an entity recognise a dividend payable?
 How should an entity measure the dividend payable?
 When an entity settles the dividend payable, how should it account for any
difference between the carrying amount of the assets distributed and the
carrying amount of the dividend payable?
A dividend payable should be recognised when it is appropriately authorised and
is no longer at the discretion of the entity
Dividend payable should be measured at the fair value of the net assets to be
distributed
Any difference between the dividend paid and the carrying amount of the net
assets distributed is recognised in profit and loss
Scope
Within scope:
 Distributions of non-cash assets (e.g. items of property, plant and
equipment, businesses as defined in IFRS 3, ownership interests in another
entity or disposal groups under IFRS 5).
 Distributions that give owners choice of settlement in cash or non-cash
assets.
The IFRIC applies only to distributions in which all owners of the same class of
equity instruments are treated equally.
Outside of the scope
 Distributions of non-cash assets that are ultimately controlled by the same
party/parties before and after the distribution, in separate, individual and
consolidated financial statements.
 Distributions of part ownership interests in a subsidiary with retention of
control.
IFRIC 17 does not address the accounting for the non-cash distribution by the
shareholders who receive the distribution
Recognition of dividend payable

Dividend payable should be recognised when it is appropriately authorised and is
no longer at the discretion of the entity
This is:
 when the declaration is approved by the relevant authority where such
approval is required in the jurisdiction; or
 when the dividend is declared if no such approval is required

Corporate reporting
Measurement of a dividend payable

At the fair value of the assets to be distributed
Choice of settlement:
both the fair value of each alternative and the associated probability of owners
selecting each alternative must be estimated
Subsequent measurement:
the carrying amount of the dividend payable must be reviewed at the end of each
reporting period and at settlement;
any changes in the amount of the dividend payable must be recognised in equity
Accounting for any difference

Any difference between the carrying amount of the assets distributed and the
carrying amount of the dividend payable at settlement must be recognised in
profit and loss
Presentation and disclosure

Any difference between the carrying amounts of the dividend payable and the
assets distributed must be presented as a separate line item in the statement of
profit or loss.
An entity must disclose:
 The brought forward and carried forward carrying amount of the dividend
payable.
 Any decrease/increase in the carrying amount as a result of the change in
the fair value of the assets to be distributed
When a dividend of non-cash assets is declared after the end of the period but
before the financial statements are authorised for issue the entity must disclose
the:
 nature of asset;
 carrying amount at period end;
 estimated fair value; and
 estimation methodology as required by IFRS 7

2.3 IFRIC 19: Extinguishing financial liabilities with equity instruments
Background
The terms of a liability might be renegotiated such that the lender (creditor)
accepts equity instruments as payment instead of cash
IFRIC 19 sets out how an entity that issues equity instruments to extinguish all or
part of a financial liability should account for the transaction.
IFRIC 19 does not address accounting by the creditor.
The following transactions are scoped out of IFRIC 19:
 Transactions involving the creditor in its capacity as an existing shareholder
(e.g. a rights issue);
 Transactions between businesses under common control both before and
after the transaction. This allows companies within a group to account for
exchange of debt for equity instruments in a corporate reconstruction
without regard to the rules in this interpretation.
 Extinguishing a financial liability by issuing equity instruments in
accordance with the original terms of the liability (e.g. convertible
instruments).
Issues addressed
Are an entity’s equity instruments issued to extinguish all or part of a financial
liability “consideration paid” in the context of IAS 39 liability derecognition rules?
How should an entity initially measure the equity instruments issued?
How should the entity account for any difference between the carrying amount of
the liability and the initially measured equity instruments?
Consensus: Are the equity instruments “consideration paid”

The issue of equity instruments is “consideration paid” to extinguish all or part of
a financial liability. This leads to the derecognition of the liability.
Consensus: Initial measurement of equity instruments issued

Equity instruments issued must be initially measured at the fair value of those
instruments. If the fair value cannot be reliably measured then the fair value of
the liability extinguished is used instead.
Consensus: Accounting for the difference

The difference between the carrying amount of the liability extinguished and the
consideration paid (fair value of equity instruments issued) must be recognised in
profit or loss. A separate line item or disclosure in the notes is required.
If only a part of the financial liability is extinguished the part of the consideration
allocated to the remaining liability must form part of the assessment as to
whether the remaining liability has been substantially modified.

Corporate reporting
Example: Accounting for the difference

Entity X has in issue ₦50m 6% loan stock.
It negotiates with the lenders an extinguishment of the debt by the issue of equity
instruments with a fair value of ₦48m.
Debit Credit
Financial liability ₦50m
Equity ₦48m
Profit on extinguishment ₦2m

3 IFRS 7: DISCLOSURE
Section overview
 Objectives of IFRS 7
 Statement of financial position disclosures
 Statement of profit or loss disclosures
 Risk disclosures
3.1 Objectives of IFRS 7

All companies are exposed to various types of financial risk. Some risks are
obvious from looking at the statement of financial position. For example, a loan
requiring repayment in the next year is reported as a current liability, and users of
the financial statements can assess the risk that the company will be unable to
repay the loan.
However, there are often many other risks that a company faces that are not
apparent from the financial statements. For example if a significant volume of a
company’s sales are made overseas, there is exposure to the risk of exchange
rate movements.
Example:
A UK company has an investment of units purchased in a German company’s
floating rate silver-linked bond. The bond pays interest on the capital, and part of
the interest payment represents bonus interest linked to movements in the price
of silver.
There are several financial risks that this company faces with respect to this
investment.
It is a floating rate bond. So if market interest rates for bonds decrease, the
interest income from the bonds will fall.
Interest is paid in euros. For a UK company there is a foreign exchange risk
associated with changes in the value of the euro. If the euro falls in value against
the British pound, the value of the income to a UK investor will fall.
A bonus is linked to movements in the price of silver. So there is exposure to
changes in the price of silver.
There is default risk. The German company may default on payments of interest
or on repayment of the principal when the bond reaches its redemption date.
IFRS 7 requires that an entity should disclose information that enables users of
the financial statements to ‘evaluate the significance of financial instruments’ for
the entity’s financial position and financial performance.
There are two main parts to IFRS 7:
A section on the disclosure of ‘the significance of financial instruments’ for the
entity’s financial position and financial performance
A section on disclosures of the nature and extent of risks arising from financial
instruments.

Corporate reporting
3.2 Statement of financial position disclosures

The carrying amounts of financial instruments must be shown, either in the
statement of financial position or in a note to the financial statements, for each
class of financial instrument:
 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
 Held-to-maturity investments
 Loans and receivables
 Available-for-sale financial assets
 Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss
 Financial liabilities measured at amortised cost.
The above categories are replaced by the following if IFRS 9 is being followed:
 Financial assets at fair value through profit or loss
 Financial assets at amortised cost
 Financial liabilities at fair value through profit or loss
 Financial liabilities measured at amortised cost.
Other disclosures relating to the statement of financial position are also required.
 Collateral. A note should disclose the amount of financial assets that the
entity has pledged as collateral for liabilities or contingent liabilities.
 Allowance account for credit losses. When financial assets (such as
trade receivables) are impaired by credit losses and the impairment is
recorded in a separate account (such as an allowance account for
irrecoverable trade receivables), the entity should provide a reconciliation of
changes in the account during the period, for each class of financial assets.
 Defaults and breaches. For loans payable, the entity should disclose
details of any defaults during the period in the loan payments, or any other
breaches in the loan conditions.
With some exceptions, for each class of financial asset and financial liability, an
entity must disclose the fair value of the assets or liabilities in a way that permits
the fair value to be compared with the carrying amount for that class. An
important exception is where the carrying amount is a reasonable approximation
of fair value, which should normally be the case for short-term receivables and
payables.
3.3 Statement of profit or loss disclosures

An entity must disclose the following items either in the statement of profit or loss
or in notes to the financial statements:
 Net gains or losses on financial assets or financial liabilities at fair value
through profit or loss.
 Net gains or losses on available-for-sale financial assets, showing
separately:
 the gain or loss recognised in other comprehensive income (and so
directly in equity) during the period, and

 the amount removed from equity and reclassified from equity to profit
and loss through other comprehensive income in the period.
 Net gains or losses on held-to-maturity investments.
 Net gains or losses on loans and receivables.
 Net gains or losses on financial liabilities measured at amortised cost.
 Total interest income and total interest expense, calculated using the
effective interest method, for financial assets or liabilities that are not at fair
value through profit or loss.
 Fee income and expenses arising from financial assets or liabilities that are
not at fair value through profit or loss.
 The amount of any impairment loss for each class of financial asset.
Other disclosures
IFRS 7 also requires other disclosures. These include the following:
 Information relating to hedge accounting, for cash flow hedges, fair value
hedges and hedges of net investments in foreign operations. The
disclosures should include a description of each type of hedge, a
description of the financial instruments designated as hedging instruments
and their fair values at the reporting date, and the nature of the risks being
hedged.
 With some exceptions, for each class of financial asset and financial
liability, an entity must disclose the fair value of the assets or liabilities in a
way that permits the fair value to be compared with the carrying amount for
that class. An important exception is where the carrying amount is a
reasonable approximation of fair value, which should normally be the case
for short-term receivables and payables.
3.4 Risk disclosures

IFRS 7 also requires that an entity should disclose information that enables users
of its financial statements to evaluate the nature and extent of the risks arising
from its financial instruments.
These risks typically include, but are not restricted to:
 Credit risk
 Liquidity risk, and
 Market risk.
For each category of risk, the entity should provide both quantitative and
qualitative information about the risks.
 Qualitative disclosures. For each type of risk, there should be disclosures
of the exposures to risk and how they arise; and the objectives policies and
processes for managing the risk and the methods used to measure the risk.
 Quantitative disclosures. For each type of risk, the entity should also
disclose summary quantitative data about its exposures at the end of the
reporting period. This disclosure should be based on information presented
to the entity’s senior management, such as the board of directors or chief
executive officer.

Corporate reporting
Credit risk
Credit risk is the risk that someone who owes money (a trade receivable, a
borrower, a bond issuer, and so on) will not pay. An entity is required to disclose
the following information about credit risk exposures:
 A best estimate of the entity’s maximum exposure to credit risk at the end
of the reporting period and a description of any collateral held.
 For each class of financial assets, a disclosure of assets where payment is
‘past due’ or the asset has been impaired.
Liquidity risk
Liquidity risk is the risk that the entity will not have access to sufficient cash to
meet its payment obligations when these are due. IFRS 7 requires disclosure of:
 A maturity analysis for financial liabilities, showing when the contractual
liabilities fall due for payment
 A description of how the entity manages the liquidity risk that arises from
this maturity profile of payments.
Market risk
Market risk is the risk of losses that might occur from changes in the value of
financial instruments due to changes in:
 Exchange rates,
 Interest rates, or
 Market prices.
An entity should provide a sensitivity analysis for each type of market risk to
which it is exposed at the end of the reporting period. The sensitivity analysis
should show how profit or loss would have been affected by a change in the
market risk variable (interest rate, exchange rate, market price of an item) that
might have been reasonably possible at that date.
Alternatively, an entity can provide sensitivity analysis in a different form, where it
uses a different model for analysis of sensitivity, such as a value at risk (VaR)
model. These models are commonly used by banks.

4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Distinguish between debt and equity
 Apply split accounting in the books of the issue on the initial recognition of a
convertible bond
 Explain the IFRS 7 disclosures in respect of financial instruments in overview

Corporate reporting
Solution 1
a) Split of liability and equity on initial recognition
Discount Present
31st December Cash (₦) factor 9% value (₦)
20X5 - interest 100,000 0.9174 91,743
20X6 - interest 100,000 0.8417 84,168
20X7 - interest 100,000 0.7722 77,218
20X7 - principal 2,000,000 0.7722 1,544,367
Fair value of bond 1,797,496
Value of equity (balance) 202,504
Proceeds from issue of bond 2,000,000
b) Journal on initial recognition Dr (₦) Cr (₦)

Cash 2,000,000
Liability 1,797,496
Equity 202,504
c) Amortisation table
Liability at Finance charge Interest Liability at
start of year at 9% paid end of year
₦ ₦ ₦ ₦
20X5 1,797,496 161,775 (100,000) 1,859,271
20X6 1,859,271 167,334 (100,000) 1,926,605
20X7 1,926,605 173,395 (100,000) 2,000,000
d) Journal on conversion to shares ₦ ₦

Bond 2,000,000
Equity - option proceeds 202,504
Share capital 1,200,000
Share premium 1,002,504

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
22
Sundry standards and interpretations
Contents
1 IAS 26: Retirement benefit plans
2 IAS 41: Agriculture
3 IFRS 4: Insurance contracts
4 IFRS 6: Exploration for and evaluation of mineral
resources
5 IFRS 14: Regulatory deferral accounts
6 IFRS for small and medium sized entities (SMEs)
7 Service concession arrangements
8 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IAS 26, IAS 41, IFRS 4, IFRS 6, IFRS 14, the IFRS for SMEs and IFRIC 12 are examinable
document.
Exam context
This chapter provides an overview of each of the above standards.

 Explain the main requirements of IAS 26
 Explain the main requirements of IFRS 4
 Describe, in overview, the IFRS for SMEs
 Describe, in overview IFRIC 12: Service concession arrangements

Chapter 22: Sundry standards and interpretations
1 IAS 26: RETIREMENT BENEFIT PLANS
Section overview
 Scope
 Definitions
 Valuation of plan assets
 Defined contribution plans
 Defined benefit plans
 Disclosure
1.1 Scope
IAS 26 complements IAS 19, Employee Benefits which is concerned with the
determination of the cost of retirement benefits in the financial statements of
employers.
IAS 26 applies to the reports of retirement benefit plans whether they are:
 defined contribution plans; or
 defined benefit plans; and
 regardless of:
 whether a fund has a separate legal identity; or
 whether there are trustees.
All other IFRS apply to the reports of retirement benefit plans to the extent that
they are not superseded by IAS 26.
Insured benefits
Retirement benefit plans with assets invested with insurance companies are
within the scope of IAS 26 unless the contract with the insurance company is in
the name of a specified participant or a group of participants and the retirement
benefit obligation is solely the responsibility of the insurance company.
Outside scope
IAS 26 does not deal with other forms of employment benefits such as
employment termination indemnities, deferred compensation arrangements, long-
service leave benefits, special early retirement or redundancy plans, health and
welfare plans or bonus plans.
Government social security type arrangements are also excluded from the scope
of IAS 26.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Definitions
Definition
Retirement benefit plans are arrangements whereby an entity provides benefits
for its employees on or after termination of service (either in the form of an
annual income or as a lump sum) when such benefits, or the employer's
contributions towards them, can be determined or estimated in advance of
retirement from the provisions of a document or from the entity's practices.
A retirement benefit plan is a reporting entity separate from the employers of the
participants in the plan.
Retirement benefit plans are known by a variety of names, for example, pension
schemes, superannuation schemes; or retirement benefit schemes'
Definitions
Defined contribution plans are retirement benefit plans under which amounts to
be paid as retirement benefits are determined by contributions to a fund together
with investment earnings thereon.
Defined benefit plans are retirement benefit plans under which amounts to be
paid as retirement benefits are determined by reference to a formula usually
based on employees' earnings and/or years of service.
Funding is the transfer of assets to an entity (the fund) separate from the
employer's entity to meet future obligations for the payment of retirement
benefits.
Participants are the members of a retirement benefit plan and others who are
entitled to benefits under the plan.
Net assets available for benefits are the assets of a plan less liabilities other than
the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits.
Actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits is the present value of
the expected payments by a retirement benefit plan to existing and past
employees, attributable to the service already rendered.
Vested benefits are benefits, the rights to which, under the conditions of a
retirement benefit plan, are not conditional on continued employment.
1.3 Valuation of plan assets

Retirement benefit plan investments are carried at fair value.
The fair value of marketable securities is market value.
Where an estimate of fair value is not possible for plan asset the reason why this
is the case must be disclosed.
Securities that have a fixed redemption value and that have been acquired to
match the obligations of the plan may be carried at amounts based on their
ultimate redemption value assuming a constant rate of return to maturity.

1.4 Defined Contribution Plans
Objective of report
The reporting objective is to provide information about the plan and the
performance of its investments.
 The participants are interested in
 the activities of the plan because they directly affect the level of future
benefits; and
 knowing whether contributions have been received and proper control
has been exercised to protect the rights of beneficiaries.
 An employer is interested in the efficient and fair operation of the plan.
The reporting objective is usually achieved by providing a report including:
 a description of significant activities for the period and the effect of any
changes relating to the plan, and its membership and terms and conditions;
 statements reporting on the transactions and investment performance for
the period and the financial position of the plan at the end of the period; and
 a description of the investment policies.
Requirement
The report of a defined contribution plan must contain:
 a statement of net assets available for benefits; and
 a description of the funding policy.
1.5 Defined Benefit Plans
Objective of report
The reporting objective is to provide information about the financial resources
and activities of the plan that is useful in assessing the relationships between the
accumulation of resources and plan benefits over time.
This is usually achieved by providing a report including the following:
 a description of significant activities for the period and the effect of any
changes relating to the plan, and its membership and terms and conditions;
 statements reporting on the transactions and investment performance for
the period and the financial position of the plan at the end of the period;
 actuarial information either as part of the statements or by way of a
separate report; and
 a description of the investment policies.

Corporate reporting
Requirement
The report must contain either:
 a statement that shows:
 the net assets available for benefits;
 the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits,
distinguishing between vested benefits and non-vested benefits; and
 the resulting excess or deficit; or
 a statement of net assets available for benefits including either:
 a note disclosing the actuarial present value of promised retirement
benefits, distinguishing between vested benefits and non-vested
benefits; or
 a reference to this information in an accompanying actuarial report.
The report should explain:
 the relationship between the actuarial present value of promised retirement
benefits; and the net assets available for benefits; and
 the policy for the funding of promised benefits.
If an actuarial valuation has not been prepared at the date of the report, the most
recent valuation is used as a base and the date of the valuation disclosed.
Actuarial Present Value of Promised Retirement Benefits

The actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits is based on the
benefits promised under the terms of the plan on service rendered to date using
either:
 current salary levels; or
 projected salary levels
1.6 Disclosure
Specific requirement
The report of a retirement benefit plan (defined benefit or defined contribution)
must contain the following information:
 a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits;
 a summary of significant accounting policies; and
 a description of the plan and the effect of any changes in the plan during
the period.

Guidance
Reports provided by retirement benefit plans include the following, if applicable:
 a statement of net assets available for benefits disclosing:
 assets at the end of the period suitably classified;
 the basis of valuation of assets;
 details of any single investment exceeding either 5% of the net assets
available for benefits or 5% of any class or type of security;
 details of any investment in the employer; and
 liabilities other than the actuarial present value of promised retirement
benefits;
 a statement of changes in net assets available for benefits showing the
following:
 employer contributions;
 employee contributions;
 investment income such as interest and dividends;
 other income;
 benefits paid or payable (analysed, for example, as retirement, death
and disability benefits, and lump sum payments);
 administrative expenses;
 other expenses;
 taxes on income;
 profits and losses on disposal of investments and changes in value of
investments; and
 transfers from and to other plans;
 a description of the funding policy;
For defined benefit plans:
 the actuarial present value of promised retirement benefits (which may
distinguish between vested benefits and non-vested benefits) based on the
benefits promised under the terms of the plan on service rendered to date
using either:
 current salary levels; or
 projected salary levels;
 a description of the significant actuarial assumptions made and the method
used to calculate the actuarial present value of promised retirement
benefits.
This information may be included in an accompanying actuarial report to be read
in conjunction with the related financial information.

Corporate reporting
Description of the plan

A description of the plan must be provided either as part of the financial
information or in a separate report.
It may contain the following:
 the names of the employers and the employee groups covered;
 the number of participants receiving benefits and the number of other
participants, classified as appropriate;
 the type of plan - defined contribution or defined benefit;
 a note as to whether participants contribute to the plan;
 a description of the retirement benefits promised to participants;
 a description of any plan termination terms; and
 changes in any of the above during the period covered by the report.
It is not uncommon to refer to other documents that are readily available to users
and in which the plan is described, and to include only information on subsequent
changes in the report.

2 IAS 41: AGRICULTURE
Section overview
 Scope and definitions

 Accounting treatment
 Government grants
2.1 Scope and definitions
Scope
IAS 41 Agriculture covers the following agricultural activities:
 biological assets, except for bearer plants;
 agricultural produce at the point of harvest; and
 government grants for agriculture (in certain situations).
IAS 41 does not apply to:
 the harvested agricultural product (IAS 2 Inventory applies);
 land relating to the agricultural activity (IAS 16 or IAS 40 applies);
 bearer plants related to agricultural activity (however, IAS 41 does apply to
the produce on those bearer plants).
 intangible assets related to agricultural activity (IAS 38 Intangible assets
applies).
Definitions
The following definitions are relevant to IAS 41:
Definitions
Agricultural activities – the management by an entity of the biological
transformation of biological assets
a. for sale, or
b. into agricultural produce, or
c. into additional biological assets.
Biological asset – a living animal or plant, such as sheep, cows, rice, wheat,
potatoes and so on.
Biological transformation means the processes of growth, production,
degeneration and procreation that cause changes in the quality or the quantity of
a biological asset
Agricultural produce is the harvested product of the entity’s biological assets.
Harvest – the detachment of produce from a biological asset or the cessation of a
biological asset’s life.

Corporate reporting
Illustration: Definitions
A farmer has a field of lambs (‘biological assets’).
As the lambs grow they go through biological transformation.
As sheep they are able to procreate and lambs will be born (additional biological
assets) and the wool from the sheep provides a source of revenue for the farmer
(‘agricultural produce’).
Once the wool has been sheared from the sheep (‘harvested’), IAS 2 requires that
it be accounted for as regular inventory.
Definitions
A bearer plant is a living plant that:
a. is used in the production or supply of agricultural produce;
b. is expected to bear produce for more than one period; and
c. has a remote likelihood of being sold as agricultural produce, except for
incidental scrap sales.
Illustration: Definitions (further examples)

Products that result
from processiong
Biological assets Agricultural produce after harvest
sheep wool yarn, carpet etc.
trees in a timber plantation felled trees logs, lumber
dairy cattle milk cheese
cotton plants harvested cotton thread, clothing etc.
sugarcane harvested cane sugar
tobacco plants picked leaves cured tobacco
tea bushes picked leaves tea
fruit tress picked fruit processed fruit
oil palm picked fruit palm oil
rubber trees harvested latex rubber products
Plants such as tea bushes, grape vines, oil palms and rubber trees, usually meet
the definition of a bearer plant and are within the scope of IAS 16 Property, Plant
and equipment. However, the produce growing on bearer plants, for example,
tea leaves, grapes, oil palm fruit and latex, is within the scope of IAS 41.
Note that there is no “animal” equivalent of a bearer plant. Thus, cows kept for
milk are within the scope of IAS 41.

2.2 Accounting treatment
Recognition of a biological asset or agricultural produce

An entity should recognise a biological asset or agricultural produce when (and
only when):
 the entity controls the asset as a result of past events
 it is probable that future benefits will flow from the asset to the entity, and
 the fair value or cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
Measurement
 A biological asset should be measured initially and subsequently at the
end of each reporting period at its fair value minus ultimate selling costs
(unless the fair value cannot be measured reliably). The gain or loss arising
on initial recognition and subsequent revaluation should be included in
profit or loss for the period in which it arises.
 Agricultural produce harvested from an entity’s biological assets is
measured at its fair value minus estimated ultimate selling costs. The
gain or loss on initial recognition is included in the profit or loss for that
period. Ultimate selling costs include commissions to brokers and dealers,
levies to regulators, transfer taxes and duties.
 Fair value is the quoted price in an active market. It is presumed that fair
values can be measured reliably for biological assets. If this is not so, the
biological asset should be measured at its cost minus any accumulated
depreciation or impairment.
Example: Accounting treatment

Using the earlier example of a sheep farmer, lambs should initially be measured
when they are born at their fair value minus costs to sell.
As they grow and their value changes, this gain or loss should be reflected in the
biological asset value and also in profit and loss.
The sheep may be used for obtaining wool. Once the wool has been sheared from
the sheep, as an agricultural produce the wool should be valued at fair value
minus costs to sell.
If the wool is then turned into yarn or carpet its value is then transferred to
inventory and IAS 2 will provide any further accounting rules.
2.3 Government grants

Agricultural entities (for example, farms) often benefit from government grants in
the form of cash payments. An unconditional grant relating to a biological asset
that is being measured at fair value should be recognised as income when the
grant becomes receivable.
A grant may be dependent on certain conditions being met. For example, the
entity may be asked not to engage in a specific agricultural activity. In such
cases, the grant should be recognised only when the conditions are met.
If the biological asset has been measured at cost because fair value could not be
measured reliably, then the requirements of IAS 20 Accounting for government
grants should be applied.

Corporate reporting
3 IFRS4: INSURANCE CONTRACTS
Section overview
 Background
 Insurance risk
 Objective of IFRS 4
3.1 Background
The group accounts of listed entities in the EU had to be prepared according to
IFRS for all accounting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005. This
regulation applied to some very large insurance companies in the EU.
In the run up to conversion, the insurance industry identified a problem. IFRS
contained no rules on accounting for insurance contracts. IAS 8 specifies criteria
for an entity to use in developing an accounting policy if no IFRS applies
specifically to an item. The industry believed that this would lead to difficulties
and divergent accounting across the industry.
The IASB launched the insurance contract project, intending that this would be
completed in two phases.
Phase 1 was intended as a temporary solution to the problem faced by insurers
and this resulted in the publication of IFRS 4 in 2004. Phase 2 was expected to
be completed in 2005/6 but this has not happened yet. The project team has
been working assiduously on this for many years. Their failure to complete the
project to date is a reflection on how complex insurance issues can be and also
the need for US GAAP and IFRS to converge in this area.
3.2 Insurance risk
Definition
Insurance contract: A contract under which one party (the insurer) accepts
significant insurance risk from another party (the policyholder) by agreeing to
compensate the policyholder if a specified uncertain future event (the insured
event) adversely affects the policyholder. (See Appendix B for guidance on this
definition.)
Insurance risk: Risk, other than financial risk, transferred from the holder of a
contract to the issuer.
Financial risk: The risk of a possible future change in one or more of a specified
interest rate, financial instrument price, commodity price, foreign exchange rate,
index of prices or rates, credit rating or credit index or other variable, provided in
the case of a non-financial variable that the variable is not specific to a party to
the contract.
Note that if a product does not fall into this definition then IAS 39 (IFRS 9) would
probably apply to it.

3.3 Objective of IFRS 4

IFRS4 was published to introduce:
 limited improvements to accounting practices for insurance contracts prior
to Phase 2 of the project; and
 requirements for disclosure of information that identifies and explains
amounts in the financial statements arising from insurance contracts, and
helps users to understand the amount, timing and uncertainty of future cash
flows under such contracts.
IFRS 4 applies to insurers and must be followed in accounting for:
 insurance contracts issued; and
 reinsurance contracts issued and held.
Definition
Reinsurance contract: An insurance contract issued by one insurer (the reinsurer)
to compensate another insurer (the cedant) for losses on one or more contracts
issued by the cedant.

IAS 8 specifies criteria for an entity to use in developing an accounting policy if
no IFRS applies specifically to an item. However, IFRS 4 exempts an insurer
from applying those criteria to its accounting policies for:
 insurance contracts that it; and
 reinsurance contracts that it holds.
However, IFRS 4 does not exempt insurers from certain implications of the IAS 8
criteria. Specifically, an insurer:
 must not:
 recognise a liability for catastrophe provisions or equalisation
provisions relating to future claims that are not in existence at the
reporting date;
 offset reinsurance assets and related insurance liabilities; or
 offset income/expense from reinsurance contracts against the
expense/income from the related insurance contracts; but
 must:
 remove an insurance liability when, and only when, it is extinguished,
discharged, cancelled or expired;
 carry out a liability adequacy test; and
 consider whether its reinsurance assets are impaired
Changes in accounting policies

An insurer is allowed to change accounting policies for insurance contracts when
the change makes information used as a basis of decision making:
 more relevant and no less reliable; or
 more reliable and no less relevant

Corporate reporting
In particular an insurer cannot introduce any of the following practices, although it

may continue using accounting policies that involve them:
 measuring insurance liabilities on an undiscounted basis
 measuring contractual rights to future investment management fees at an
amount that exceeds their fair value as implied by a comparison with
current market-based fees for similar services
 using non-uniform accounting policies for the insurance liabilities of
subsidiaries.
Prudence
An insurer need not change accounting policies for insurance contracts to
eliminate excessive prudence.
If an insurer already measures its insurance contracts with sufficient prudence, it
must not introduce additional prudence.

4 IFRS 6: EXPLORATION FOR AND EVALUATION OF MINERAL

RESOURCES
Section overview
 Background
 Initial recognition and measurement
 Presentation
 Impairment
 Disclosure
4.1 Background
The group accounts of listed entities in the EU had to be prepared according to
IFRS for all accounting periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005. This
regulation applied to some very large insurance companies in the EU.
In the run up to conversion, it was noted that there was no IFRS that dealt with
this area, but there were significant entities which engaged in such activities.
There were different views held globally on the accounting solution and this led to
a number of different accounting treatments.
IFRS 6
IFRS 6 specifies the financial reporting for the exploration for and evaluation of
mineral resources. IFRS 6 applies to expenditure incurred on exploration for and
evaluation of mineral resources but not to those expenditures incurred:
 before the exploration for and evaluation of mineral resources (e.g.
expenditures incurred before the entity has obtained the legal rights to
explore a specific area); or
 after the technical feasibility and commercial viability of extraction are
demonstrable
Definitions
Exploration and evaluation assets are exploration and evaluation expenditures
recognised as assets in accordance with the entity’s accounting policy.
Exploration and evaluation expenditures are expenditures incurred by an entity in
connection with the expenditures for and evaluation of mineral resources before
the technical feasibility and commercial viability of extracting a mineral resource
are demonstrable.

Corporate reporting

IAS 8 sets out criteria which must be applied by a company when needs to
develop an accounting policy for a transaction not covered by a specific IFRS.
IFRS 6 exempts companies from applying these criteria in developing an
accounting policy for the recognition and measurement of exploration and
evaluation assets.
In other words, companies are free to develop an accounting policy (within the
broader guidance of IFRS6) without reference to other parts of IFRS. This is
particularly useful when a company involved in this industry adopts IFRS
because they may be able to carry on using their pre IFRS accounting policy
Changes in accounting policies

An entity is allowed to change accounting policies for exploration and evaluation
expenditures when the change makes information used as a basis of decision
making:
 more relevant and no less reliable; or
 more reliable and no less relevant
To justify a change, The company must demonstrate that the change brings the
financial statements closer to meeting the IAS 8 criteria but the change need not
achieve full compliance with those criteria
4.3 Initial recognition and measurement

Exploration and evaluation assets are measured at cost. A company must
determine a policy of specifying which expenditures are recognised as
exploration and evaluation assets and apply this policy consistently in doing this.
Expenditures which might be specified include:
 acquisition of exploration rights;
 topographical, geological, geochemical and geophysical studies;
 exploratory drilling;
 trenching;
 sampling; and
 activities in relation to evaluating the technical feasibility and commercial
viability of extracting a mineral resource
Expenditures related to the development of mineral resources must not be
recognised as exploration and evaluation assets. The Conceptual Framework
and IAS 38 Intangible Assets provide guidance on the recognition of assets
arising from development.
IAS 37 applies to the recognition of any obligations for removal and restoration
that are incurred as a consequence of exploration for and evaluation of mineral
resources.


A company must apply one of the following to exploration and evaluation assets:
 cost model; or
 revaluation model
If the revaluation model is applied (IAS 16 or IAS 38 model), it must be consistent
with the classification of the expenditure as tangible or intangible
This means that a revaluation model for expenditure classified as an intangible is
only possible if there is a fair value that can be measured with reference to an
active market
4.5 Presentation
Exploration and evaluation assets must be classified according to the nature of
the assets acquired as:
 tangible (e.g. vehicles and drilling rigs); or
 intangible (e.g. drilling rights).
The classification must be applied consistently.
An exploration and evaluation asset is reclassified from this category when the
technical feasibility and commercial viability of extracting a mineral resource are
demonstrable. In such cases they must be assessed for impairment before
reclassification.
4.6 Impairment
Exploration and evaluation assets must be:
 allocated to cash-generating units (CGUs) or groups of CGUs for the
purpose of assessing such assets for impairment (the CGU; and
 assessed for impairment when there are indications that the carrying
amount may exceed recoverable amount
Exploration and evaluation assets are unlikely to generate cash flows
independently from other assets so as such they are similar to goodwill.
Therefore IFRS 6 requires them to be allocated to CGUs groups for the purpose
of impairment testing. They are not tested individually for impairment
Indicators of impairment include (the list is not exhaustive):
 expiry of the period of the exploration right without expectation of renewal;
 expenditure on further exploration/evaluation in the specific area is not
budgeted/planned;
 non discovery of commercially viable quantities of mineral resources;
 a decision to discontinue activities in the specific area;
 indication that the carrying amount of the exploration and evaluation asset
is unlikely to be recovered in full from successful development or by sale

Corporate reporting
4.7 Disclosure
Entities must disclose information that identifies and explains the amounts
recognised arising from the exploration and evaluation of mineral resources
 accounting policies for exploration and evaluation expenditures, and
recognition as assets;
 amounts of assets, liabilities, income and expense and operating and
investing cash flows arising from the exploration for and evaluation of
mineral resources
 Exploration and evaluation assets must be treated as a separate class of
assets (IAS 16 or IAS 38 disclosures apply depending on classification).

5 IFRS 14: REGULATORY DEFERRAL ACCOUNTS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Overview of requirements
5.1 Introduction
Some countries regulate prices that can be charged for certain goods and
services. Such goods and services are said to be “rate regulated”.
Definitions
Rate-regulated activities: An entity’s activities that are subject to rate regulation.
Rate regulation: A framework for establishing the prices that can be charged to
customers for goods or services and that framework is subject to oversight
and/or approval by a rate regulator.
Regulatory deferral account balance: The balance of any expense (or income)
account that would not be recognised as an asset or a liability in accordance with
other Standards, but that qualifies for deferral because it is included, or is
expected to be included, by the rate regulator in establishing the rate(s) that can
be charged to customers.
In the absence of an accounting standard on a topic, entities that adopt IFRS

must formulate an accounting policy in accordance with guidance given in IAS 8.
This has led to divergence in practice.
The IASB are engaged in a project on this area but in the meantime have issued
IFRS 14 as an interim measure.
5.2 Overview of requirements

IFRS 14 permits a first-time adopter within its scope to continue to account for
regulatory deferral account balances in its first IFRS financial statements in
accordance with its previous GAAP when it adopts IFRS.
However, IFRS 14 introduces limited changes to some previous GAAP
accounting practices for regulatory deferral account balances, which are primarily
related to the presentation of these accounts. It requires entities to present
regulatory deferral account balances as separate line items in the statement of
financial position and to present movements in those account balances as
separate line items in the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income.
IFRS 14 also requires specific disclosures to identify the nature of, and risks
associated with, the rate regulation that has resulted in the recognition of
regulatory deferral account balances.

Corporate reporting
6 IFRS FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTITIES (SMES)
Section overview
 Introduction
 IFRS for SMEs
 IFRS for SMEs section by section
 Comprehensive review of the IFRS for SMEs
6.1 Introduction
International accounting standards are written to meet the needs of investors in
international capital markets. Most companies adopting IFRSs are large listed
entities. The IASB has not stated that IFRSs are only aimed at quoted
companies, but certainly the majority of adopters are large entities. In many
countries IFRSs are used as national GAAP which means that unquoted small
and medium-sized entities (SMEs) have to apply them.
There is an argument that all entities should apply the same accounting
standards in order to give a fair presentation of the affairs of the entity. However
in some cases, many of the IFRSs are complex and can be difficult for SMEs to
apply, particularly in areas such as financial instruments. Additionally, not all the
information required by IFRSs for disclosure is needed by the users of the SME’s
Some commentators therefore suggest that SMEs and public entities should be
allowed to use simplified or differing standards as the nature of their business is
different from large quoted entities.
The users of financial statements of SMEs are different from the users of the
financial statements of quoted companies. The only ‘user groups’ that use the
financial statements of an SME are normally:
 its shareholders/owners
 senior management, and
 possibly, government departments and agencies.
A SME is often owned and managed by a small number of entrepreneurs, and
may be a family-owned and family-run business. Large companies, in contrast,
are run by professional boards of directors, who must be held accountable to
their shareholders.
Because there are big differences between SMEs and large quoted companies, it
is not clear whether there is any reason why SMEs should comply with IFRSs.
There are arguments in favour of using IFRSs for SMEs, and arguments against.

Arguments against the use of IFRSs by SMEs

There are several reasons why SMEs should not adopt IFRSs for the
preparation of their financial statements.
 Some IFRSs deal with subjects that are of little or no relevance to SMEs,
such as accounting standards on consolidation, associates, joint ventures,
deferred tax, construction contracts and standards that deal with complex
issues of fair value measurement.
 The costs of complying with IFRSs can be high. Large companies are able
to bear the cost, which might not be significant relative to their size. For
SMEs, the cost is proportionately much higher, and it is doubtful whether
the benefits of complying with IFRSs would justify the costs.
 There are not many users of financial statements of SMEs, and they use
the financial statements for a smaller range of decisions, compared to
investors in international capital markets. So would it be a waste of time (as
well as cost) to comply with IFRSs?
Arguments in favour of the use of IFRSs by SMEs

There are also reasons why SMEs should adopt IFRSs for the preparation of
their financial statements.
 If SMEs use different accounting rules and requirements to prepare their
financial statements, there will be a ‘two-tier’ system of accounting. This
could make it difficult to compare results of larger and smaller companies,
should the need arise. Confidence in the quality of financial reporting might
be affected adversely.
 If SMEs prepared financial statements in accordance with their national
GAAP, it will be impossible to compare financial statements of companies
in different countries. If SMEs grow in size and eventually obtain a stock
market quotation, they will have some difficulty in the transition from
national GAAP to IFRSs.
 It has also been argued that full statutory accounts for SMEs would be in
the public interest, and might help to protect other stakeholders in the
company (such as suppliers, customers, lenders and employees).
Considerations in developing standards for SMEs

The aim of developing a set of accounting standards for SMEs is that they allow
information to be presented that is relevant, reliable, comparable and
understandable. The information presented should be suitable for the uses of the
managers and directors and any other interested parties of the SME.
Additionally, many of the detailed disclosures within full IFRSs are not relevant
and the accounting standards should be modified for this. The difficulty is getting
the right balance of modification, too much and the financial statements will lose
their focus and will not be helpful to users.

Corporate reporting
6.2 IFRS for SMEs

The standard consists of 230 pages of text, arranged into 35 sections that cover
all of the recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure requirements for
SMEs. There is no cross reference to other IFRS (with one exception relating to
financial instruments).
The IFRS for SMEs imposes a lesser burden on SMEs due to:
 some topics in IFRSs being omitted because they are not relevant to typical
SMEs
 the simplification of many of the recognition and measurement
requirements available in full IFRSs
 substantially fewer disclosures.
The IFRS for SMEs does not address the following topics:
 earnings per share (i.e. there is no equivalent to IAS 33);
 interim accounting (i.e. there is no equivalent to IAS 34);
 segment reporting (i.e. there is no equivalent to IFRS 8);
 special accounting for assets held for sale (i.e. there is no equivalent to
IFRS 5).
The omission of equivalent rules to those in IAS 33, IAS 34 and IFRS 8 is not
surprising as they are relevant to listed entities. As the next section explains,
such entities cannot be SMEs.
Stand-alone document
The IFRS for SMEs is a stand-alone document. This means that it contains all of
the rules to be followed by SMEs without referring to other IFRSs. For example it
sets out rules for property, plant and equipment without specifying that the rules
are similar or dissimilar to those found in IAS 16.
In the following pages we provide an overview of the sections of the IFRS for
SMEs and often refer to similarity or difference to equivalent other IFRSs. This is
not what the IFRS for SMEs does but we adopt the approach to make it easier for
you to gain an understanding of the main features of the standard.
The IFRS for SMEs is derived from rules in other IFRS. You will note that it uses
the same terminology and that many of the rules are identical. However, in
several cases the rules in other IFRSs from which the IFRS for SMEs derives
have been changed whereas the equivalent rules in this standard have not been
changed. For example the rules on joint ventures are based on the standard (IAS
31) that preceded IFRS 11 which you covered earlier. You should not interpret
this as meaning that the standard is out of date. It simply means that there is a
difference between the rules for SMEs and those followed by other entities.
Changes to the main body of standards will not necessarily result in a revision to
the IFRS for SMEs.

6.3 IFRS for SMEs section by section
Section 1: Small and medium-sized entities
Definition
Small and medium-sized entities are entities that:
a. do not have public accountability, and
b. publish general purpose financial statements for external users. Examples of
external users include owners who are not involved in managing the
business, existing and potential creditors, and credit rating agencies.
An entity has public accountability if:
a. its debt or equity instruments are traded in a public market or it is in the
process of issuing such instruments; or
b. it holds assets in a fiduciary capacity for a broad group of outsiders as one of
its primary businesses (e.g. banks and insurance companies).
The decision as to which entities are required or permitted to apply the standard
will lie with the regulatory and legislative authorities in each jurisdiction.
Section 2: Concepts and pervasive principles

This section is drawn from the IASB Framework for the preparation and
presentation of financial statements. This was the document that preceded the
IASB Conceptual Framework with which you are already familiar.
The section states that the objective of financial statements of a small or
medium-sized entity is to provide information about the financial position,
performance and cash flows of the entity that is useful for economic decision-
making by a broad range of users who are not in a position to demand reports
tailored to meet their particular information needs. Financial statements also
show the results of the stewardship of management (the accountability of
management for the resources entrusted to it).
The section lists the following qualitative characteristics of information in financial
statements:
 understandability;
 relevance;
 materiality;
 reliability;
 substance over form;
 prudence;
 completeness;
 comparability; and
 timeliness.
The section contains guidance on financial position (including the definitions of
assets, liabilities and equity) and on financial performance (including the
definitions of income and expenses) which is the same as in the conceptual
framework. The recognition criteria are also the same.

Corporate reporting
The IFRS for SMEs contains guidance on measurement that is not found in either
the original or the new frameworks.
An entity must measure assets and liabilities at historical cost unless another
section in the IFRS for SMEs requires initial measurement on another basis such
as fair value.
Most non-financial assets that an entity initially recognised at historical cost are
subsequently measured on other measurement bases. For example:
 property, plant and equipment is measured at the lower of depreciated cost
and recoverable amount;
 inventories are measured at the lower of cost and selling price less costs to
complete and sell; and
 an entity recognises an impairment loss relating to non-financial assets that
are in use or held for sale.
This guidance is intended to ensure that an asset is not measured at an amount
greater than the entity expects to recover from the sale or use of that asset.
Most liabilities other than financial liabilities are measured at the best estimate of
the amount that would be required to settle the obligation at the reporting date.
Assets and liabilities, or income and expenses, must not be offset unless
required or permitted by another section in the IFRS for SMEs.
Section 3: Financial statement presentation

Financial statements must present fairly the financial position, financial
performance and cash flows of an entity. Fair presentation requires the faithful
representation of the effects of transactions, other events and conditions in
accordance with the definitions and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities,
income and expenses set out in Section 2 Concepts and Pervasive Principles.
The application of the IFRS for SMEs, with additional disclosure when necessary,
is presumed to result in financial statements that achieve a fair presentation of
the financial position, financial performance and cash flows of SMEs.
Application of the IFRS for SMEs by an entity with public accountability cannot
result in a fair presentation in accordance with this IFRS.
An entity whose financial statements comply with the IFRS for SMEs must make
an explicit and unreserved statement of such compliance in the notes. Financial
statements must not be described as complying with the IFRS for SMEs unless
they comply with all the requirements of this IFRS.
A complete set of financial statements of an entity reporting under the IFRS for
SMEs is similar to that required by full IFRS and comprises:
 a statement of financial position;
 either a single statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income,
or a separate statement of profit or loss and a separate statement of other
comprehensive income;
 a statement of changes in equity (or a statement of income and retained
earnings);
 a statement of cash flows;
 notes including a summary of significant accounting policies; and
 comparative information.

Section 4: Statement of financial position

The rules in IFRS for SMEs on statements of financial position are very similar to
those found in IAS 1.
One difference is that line items required for assets held for sale or liabilities of
disposal groups held for sale are not required.
Section 5: Statement of comprehensive income and income statement

The rules in IFRS for SMEs on statements of financial performance are very
similar to those found in IAS 1.
An entity must present its total comprehensive income either:
 in a single statement; or
 in two statements
An entity must present its total comprehensive income for a period either:
 in a single statement of comprehensive income, in which case the
statement of comprehensive income presents all items of income and
expense recognised in the period, or
 in two statements (an income statement and a statement of comprehensive
income) in which case the income statement presents all items of income
and expense recognised in the period except the following three categories
of gain or loss that must be recognised in total comprehensive income in
accordance with the IFRS for SMEs:
 gains and losses arising on translating the financial statements of a
foreign operation (Section 30: Foreign currency translation).
 some actuarial gains and losses (Section 28: Employee benefits).
 some changes in fair values of hedging instruments (Section 12:
Other financial instruments).
An income statement is what the IFRS for SMEs calls a statement of profit or
loss.
Section 6: Statement of changes in equity and statement of income and retained

earnings
An SME must present either:
 a statement of changes in equity (SOCIE); or
 a statement of income and retained earnings (if the only changes in equity
in the period arise from profit or loss, dividends paid, corrections of errors
and changes in accounting policy).
The statement of income and retained earnings is an income statement with a
closing section which shows the following:
 retained earnings at the beginning of the reporting period;
 dividends declared and paid or payable during the period;
 restatements of retained earnings for corrections of prior period errors;
 restatements of retained earnings for changes in accounting policy; and
 retained earnings at the end of the reporting period.

Corporate reporting
Section 7: Statement of cash flows

There are no significant differences between the rules in section 7 and those in
IAS 7.
Section 8: Notes to the financial statements

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on notes to
the financial statements and those found in IAS 1.
Section 9: Consolidated and separate financial statements

This section derives from the standards that were replaced by the project that led
to the publication of IFRS 10. However, there are no significant, practical
differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on subsidiaries and consolidation
and those found in the other IFRS.
Each set of rules would result in the recognition of the same entities as
subsidiaries and result in the same consolidated financial statements in most (but
not all) cases. It is possible that the more detailed guidance on control in IFRS 10
would lead to the consolidation of some entities that might not be considered as
subsidiaries according to the IFRS for SMEs rules. However, most SMEs are
unlikely to be involved in the sort of investment that IFRS 10 would further
identify.
Section 10: Accounting policies, estimates and errors

The rules in IFRS for SMEs on accounting policies, estimates and errors are very
similar to those found in IAS 8. However, there is no requirement to disclose the
impact of a new standard in issue but not yet effective.
Sections 11 and 12: Introduction to IFRS for SMEs in respect of financial

instruments
Section 11 and Section 12 together deal with recognising, derecognising,
measuring and disclosing financial instruments (financial assets and financial
liabilities).
Section 11 applies to basic financial instruments and is relevant to all entities.
Section 12 applies to other, more complex financial instruments and transactions.
An entity must apply either:
 the provisions of both Section 11 and Section 12 in full, or
 the recognition and measurement provisions of IAS 39 (now IFRS 9).

Section 11: Basic financial instruments

This section applies to all entities.
A financial instrument is a contract that gives rise to a financial asset of one entity
and a financial liability or equity instrument of another entity.
An entity must recognise a financial asset or a financial liability only when the
entity becomes a party to the contractual provisions of the instrument.
Measurement of financial assets and liabilities on initial recognition is at the
transaction price (including transaction costs) with the following exceptions:
 financial assets and liabilities that are measured at fair value through profit
or loss) are measured at their fair value (which is usually the transaction
price) with transaction costs expensed to profit or loss;
 financing transactions (for example in connection with the sale of goods if
payment is deferred beyond normal business terms or is financed at a rate
of interest that is not a market rate) where the financial asset or financial
liability is measured at the present value of the future payments.
Subsequent measurement at the end of each reporting period is as follows:
 Debt instruments are measured at amortised cost using the effective
interest method with the following exceptions:
 Debt instruments that are classified as current assets or current
liabilities are measured at the undiscounted amount;
 If an arrangement constitutes a financing transaction, the debt
instrument is measured at the present value of the future payments.
 Investments in shares must be measured at fair value with all gains and
losses recognised through profit or loss.
Section 12: Other financial instruments issues

This section applies to only to those entities which have complex financial
instruments. This includes derivatives and any instrument with an embedded
derivative.
An entity must recognise a financial asset or a financial liability only when the
entity becomes a party to the contractual provisions of the instrument.
When a financial asset or financial liability is recognised initially, an entity must
measure it at its fair value, which is normally the transaction price.
At the end of each reporting period, an entity must measure all financial
instruments within the scope of Section 12 at fair value and recognise changes in
fair value in profit or loss.
This section includes a simplified hedge accounting regime which can only be
used to account for hedges of the following risks:
 interest rate risk of a debt instrument measured at amortised cost;
 foreign exchange or interest rate risk in a firm commitment or a highly
probable forecast transaction;
 price risk of a commodity that it holds or in a firm commitment or highly
probable forecast transaction to purchase or sell a commodity;
 foreign exchange risk in a net investment in a foreign operation.

Corporate reporting
Section 13: Inventories

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on
accounting for inventory and those found in IAS 2.
Section 14: Investments in associates

The section 14 rules on identifying investments in associates are very similar to
those found in IAS 28.
Section 14 allows an entity to account for all of its associates using one of the
following:
 cost model;
 equity method; or
 fair value model.
Section 15: Investments in joint ventures
Definition
A joint venture is a contractual arrangement whereby two or more parties
undertake an economic activity that is subject to joint control.
Joint control is the contractually agreed sharing of control over an economic
entity.
Joint control only exists when the strategic financial and operating decisions
relating to the economic activity require the unanimous consent of the entities
sharing control (the joint venturers).
Joint control is the key factor in deciding whether a joint venture exists. The
following characteristics are common to all types of joint venture:
 two or more joint venturers are bound by a contractual arrangement
(usually in writing); and
 the contractual arrangement establishes joint control.
The IFRS for SMEs identifies three broad types of joint venture:
 jointly-controlled operations
 jointly-controlled assets
 jointly-controlled entities.
An entity with a jointly-controlled operation must recognise:

 the assets that it controls and the liabilities that it incurs, and
 the expenses that it incurs and its share of the income that it earns from the
sale of goods or services by the joint venture.
An entity with an interest in jointly-controlled assets must recognise:
 its share of the jointly controlled assets, classified according to the nature of
the assets;
 any liabilities that it has incurred;

 its share of any liabilities incurred jointly with the other venturers in relation
to the joint venture;
 any income from the sale or use of its share of the output of the joint
venture, together with its share of any expenses incurred by the joint
venture; and
 any expenses that it has incurred in respect of its interest in the joint
venture.
An entity with an interest in jointly-controlled entity must account for all of its
jointly-controlled entities using one of the following:
 cost model;
 equity method; or
 fair value model.
Section 16: Investment property

The section 14 rules on identifying investment properties are very similar to those
found in IAS 40.
Section 14 requires that investment properties must be measured at fair value
(cost model not allowed, unless fair value cannot be measured reliably without
undue cost or effort).
Section 17: Property, plant and equipment

This section applies to accounting for property, plant and equipment and
investment property whose fair value cannot be measured reliably without undue
cost or effort.
Most of the section 17 rules are similar to the IAS 16 rules. However, there are
some differences.
 All assets within the scope of this section must be measured subsequently
using the cost model. Revaluation is not allowed.
 Residual value, useful life and depreciation need to be reviewed only if
there is an indication they may have changed since the most recent annual
reporting date. (IAS 16 requires an annual review).
Section 18: Intangible assets other than goodwill

The section 18 rules on accounting for intangible assets are similar to the IAS 38
rules. However, there are some differences.
 All assets within the scope of this section must be measured subsequently
using the cost model. Revaluation is not allowed.
 All research and development costs must be expensed as incurred. There
is no capitalisation of internally generated intangible assets.
All intangible assets must be amortised over their estimated useful lives. If this
cannot be estimated a useful life of 10 years is assumed. This means that there
is no requirement to test unamortised intangibles for impairment on an annual
basis.

Corporate reporting
Section 19: Business combinations and goodwill

The section 19 rules on accounting for business combinations and goodwill are
similar to the IFRS 3 rules. However, there are some differences.
 Acquisition costs are capitalised under this standard whereas they must be
expensed under IFRS 3.
 Goodwill is amortised over its estimated useful life. If this cannot be
estimated a useful life of 10 years is assumed. This means that there is no
requirement to test goodwill for impairment on an annual basis.
Section 20: Leases

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on leases
and those found in IAS 17.
Section 21: Provisions and contingencies

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on
provisions and contingencies and those found in IAS 37.
Section 22: Liabilities and equity

The section 22 rules on equity and liabilities are similar to the IAS 32 rules
though IAS 32 does envisage more complex scenarios. Both sets of rules would
lead to the same classification of an instrument as debt or equity and both sets of
rules require split accounting (into debt and equity components) on the initial
recognition of an issue of convertible debt.
Both sets of rules require that any gain or loss on transactions involving an
entity’s own equity must be recognised as a movement in equity. Section 22
applies the same rational to transactions involving a parent’s controlling interest
in a subsidiary that do not result in a loss of control. The carrying amount of the
non-controlling interest is adjusted to reflect the change in the parent’s interest in
the subsidiary’s net assets. Any difference between the amount by which the
non-controlling interest is so adjusted and the fair value of the consideration paid
or received, if any, shall be recognised directly in equity and attributed to equity
holders of the parent.
Section 23: Revenue

This section is based closely on IAS 18, IAS 11. There are no significant
differences between the section 23 rules and the rules in those standards.
Section 24: Government grants

The section 24 rules on accounting for government grants are similar to the IAS
20 rules. However, section 24 does not seem to allow deduction of a capital grant
from the asset to which it relates.
Section 25: Borrowing costs

Borrowing costs must be recognised as expenses and cannot be capitalised as
required by IAS 23.

Section 26: Share-based payment

The section 26 rules on accounting for share-based payment are similar to the
IFRS 2 rules.
One difference is that section 26 allows the directors to make an estimate of the
fair value of equity instruments granted when there is no observable market price
and a reliable measure of fair value is impracticable.
Section 27: Impairment of assets

The section 27 rules on impairment of assets are similar to those in IAS 2 for
inventories and those in IAS 36 for impairment of other non-financial assets.
Section 28: Employee benefits

The section 28 rules on accounting for employee benefits are very similar to
those found in IAS 19 with no significant differences worth mentioning.
Section 29: Income tax

This is one area where there are significant differences.
There was an ED proposing major changes to IAS 12 in issue when the IFRS for
SMEs was published. The tax rules in this section were based on those in the
ED. The ED was subsequently withdrawn and IAS 12 was not revised. This
means that the rules in section 29 are based on concepts which the IASB chose
not to follow in IAS 12 and are more complex than those in IAS 12.
These rules are not explained further in this text. (See also paragraph 5.4 of this
chapter).
Section 30: Foreign currency translation

The section 30 rules on foreign currency translation are similar to the IAS 21
rules.
One difference is that section 30 does not permit recycling of the cumulative
translation difference in respect of an investment in a foreign entity when that
entity is disposed of.
Section 31: Hyperinflation

The section 31 rules on hyperinflation are very similar to the IAS 21 rules.
This is not relevant to Nigerian companies.
Section 32: Events after the end of the reporting period

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules on events
after the end of the reporting period and those found in IAS 10.
Section 33: Related party disclosures

There are no significant differences between the IFRS for SMEs rules for related
parties and those found in IAS 24.

Corporate reporting
Section 34: Specialised activities

IFRS for SMEs provides guidance on:
 Agriculture (drawn from IAS 41);
 Extractive industries (refers back to the property, plant and equipment,
intangibles other than goodwill, and provisions sections of the IFRS);
 Service concession arrangements (drawn from, but much simplified, IFRIC
12).
Section 35: Transition to the IFRS for SMEs

This section applies to a first-time adopter of IFRS for SMEs. This could be a
company changing from local accounting rules or from full IFRS.
The guidance is similar to that provided by IFRS 1 for first time adoption of full
IFRS.
These rules are not described further in this chapter.
6.4 Comprehensive review of the IFRS for SMEs

The IFRS for SMEs was issued in July 2009. At that time the IASB stated its plan
to undertake an initial comprehensive review of the IFRS for SMEs to assess the
first two years’ experience that entities would have had in implementing it and to
consider whether there is a need for any amendments.
Companies started using the IFRS for SMEs in many jurisdictions in 2010.
Consequently, the IASB commenced its initial comprehensive review in 2012.
This review led to the publication of an exposure draft of proposed amendments
to the IFRS for SMEs (ED/2013/9) in October 2013.
The ED proposes 57 amendments which affect IFRS for SMEs. Further editorial
minor editorial amendments which have no effect on IFRS for SMEs were also
proposed. These were made largely to ensure consistency of terminology and
wording throughout the IFRS for SMEs.
The 57 amendments fall into several broad categories:
 amendments to incorporate new and revised IFRSs:
 amendments that change the IFRS for SMEs;
 new guidance;
 new exemptions;
 disclosure simplifications; and
 minor clarifications.
Note that there were no changes were proposed resulting from the issue of IFRS
10, IFRS 11, IFRS 12 and IFRS 13 nor IFRS 9. ). This implies that the IASB and
are content with the IFRS for SMEs in this area and see no need to align the
rules in the light of changes to the other standards.
One major change proposed is the alignment of section 29 on income tax with
IAS 12. The reason for the difference was explained in the previous section.

7 SERVICE CONCESSION ARRANGEMENTS
Section overview
 IFRIC 12: Service concession arrangements

 SIC 29: Service concession arrangements: disclosures
7.1 IFRIC 12: Service concession arrangements
Background
Some governments have introduced schemes to attract private sector
participation in public service infrastructure (roads, bridges, tunnels etc.).
For example, an entity in the private sector might construct a facility and then run
it for the government.
Typically an arrangement within the scope of IFRIC 12 involves a private sector
entity (an operator):
 constructing (or upgrading) infrastructure used to provide a public service;
 operating and maintaining that infrastructure for a specified period of time;
and
 being paid for its services over the period of the arrangement
Terminology
Grantor – government body that contracts with an operator.
Operator – private sector participant in a “service concession arrangement”
An important feature of service concession arrangements is that the operator has
a contractual obligation to provide services to the public on behalf of the public
sector entity.
This interpretation gives guidance to operators on how they must account for
public-to-private service concession arrangements (also known as “build-operate-
transfer” (BOT) arrangements, and “rehabilitate-operate-transfer” (ROT)). It does
not give guidance on grantor accounting.
Scope
Service concession arrangements are in the scope of IFRIC 12 if:
 the grantor controls (or regulates):
 what services must be provided by the operator;
 to whom the services are provided; and
 at what price; and
 the grantor controls the significant residual interest in the infrastructure at
the end of the term of the arrangement (if any)
Other common features of service concession arrangements include the
following:
 The contract sets out initial prices to be levied by the operator and
regulates price revisions

Corporate reporting
 The operator is obliged to hand over the infrastructure to the grantor in a

specified condition at the end of the arrangement
IFRIC 12 applies to both:
 infrastructure that the operator constructs or acquires from a third party for
the purpose of the service arrangement; and
 existing infrastructure to which the grantor gives the operator access for the
purpose of the service arrangement
The issue
IFRIC 12 gives guidance to operators on how they must account for service
concession arrangements. Specifically it provides rules on:
 how the operator should account for:
 its rights over the infrastructure asset;
 any other assets provided to the operator by the grantor;
 consideration under the arrangement;
 construction or upgrade services;
 operation services;
 borrowing costs; and
 subsequent accounting treatment of any financial asset and/or intangible
asset arising under the arrangement
Consensus
The infrastructure asset must not be recognised as PP&E by the operator. The
operator does not control the asset but merely operates it.
The operator has access operate the asset in order to provide the public service
on behalf of the grantor.
A grantor might transfer other assets to an operator to be kept or dealt with as it
wishes.
 Such assets are not government grants (IAS 20) if they are part of the
consideration for the arrangement.
 The assets are recognised as operator’s assets (measured at fair value on
initial recognition).
 The operator must recognise a liability for any obligations assumed in
exchange for the assets.
Consensus: Consideration for construction (upgrade) is recognised at its fair value

Consideration may be rights to:
 a financial asset; or
 an intangible asset
A financial asset must be recognised when the operator has an unconditional
contractual right to receive cash or another financial asset from or at the direction
of the grantor.

Such an unconditional contractual right exists where the grantor contractually

guarantees to pay the operator:
 specified or determinable amounts; or
 any shortfall between amounts received from users of the public service
and specified or determinable amounts
IAS 32 and IAS 39 (IFRS 9) and IFRS 7 apply.
An intangible asset is recognised to the extent that the operator receives a right
(a licence) to charge users of the public service. A right to charge users of the
public service is not an unconditional right to receive cash because the amounts
are contingent on the extent that the public uses the service
Consensus: Sundry issues

Contractual obligations to restore the infrastructure to a specified level of
serviceability before it is handed over to the grantor at the end of the service
arrangement are recognised and measured in accordance with IAS 37.
Borrowing costs are recognised and measured in accordance with IAS 23 might
lead to capitalisation of borrowing costs in the construction phase when the
operator has a contractual right to receive an intangible asset.
7.2 SIC 29: Service concession arrangements: disclosures

IFRIC 12 does not contain any disclosure requirements. Disclosures for service
concession arrangements are specified by SIC 29
An operator and a grantor must disclose:
 a description of the arrangement;
 significant terms that may affect the amount, timing and certainty of future
cash flows;
 the nature and extent of:
 rights to use specified assets;
 obligations to provide or rights to expect provision of services;
 obligations to acquire or build items of property, plant and equipment;
 obligations to deliver or rights to receive specified assets at the end of
the concession period;
 renewal and termination options; and
 other rights and obligations (e.g., major overhauls);
 changes in the arrangement occurring during the period; and
 how the service arrangement has been classified.
An operator must disclose revenue and profits (losses) recognised in the period
on exchanging construction services for a financial asset or an intangible asset.

Corporate reporting
8 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Describe, in overview, the IFRS for SMEs
 Describe, in overview IFRIC 12: Service concession arrangements

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
23
Business combinations
and consolidation
Contents
1 The nature of a group and consolidated accounts
2 IFRS 10: Consolidated financial statements
3 Proposed amendments
4 IFRS 3: Business combinations
5 Consolidation technique
6 Accounting for goodwill
7 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1(b) Identify from a given scenario a subsidiary, associate or joint venture
according to international standards and local regulation.
1(c) Calculate from given data and information the amounts to be included in an
entity’s consolidated financial statements arising from existing, new or
discontinuing activities or interests (excluding any part disposal) in
subsidiaries, associates or joint ventures in accordance with IFRS and local
regulations.
1(d) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of an entity
preparing consolidated financial statements undertaking a variety of
transactions on the basis of chosen accounting policies and in accordance
with IFRS and local regulations.
1(e) Identify and explain the extent of distributable profits of an entity based on
local regulations
This chapter does not cover the above competencies in their entirety. It covers that part of
the above competencies that involve new and existing investments in subsidiaries.
IFRS 3 and IFRS 10 are examinable documents.
Exam context
This chapter explains the provisions of these standards and allows you to revise
consolidated statements of financial position. It includes more detail impairment testing of
goodwill than you will have seen before.
The content of this chapter is a vital foundation for understanding more complex areas of
consolidation for example disposals of a subsidiary and the consolidation of subsidiaries the
functional currency of which differs from that presentation currency of the consolidated
 Explain and discuss in detail the requirements of IFRS 3 with regard to the calculation
of goodwill
 Define using examples subsidiary, parent and control
 Explain the concept of control as set out in IFRS 10
 Describe situations when control is presumed to exist
 Identify and describe the circumstances in which an entity is required to prepare and
present consolidated financial statements
 Prepare a consolidated statement of financial position including the fair value exercise
and the elimination of inter-company balances and accounting for unrealised profit
 Account for goodwill including impairment testing
 Account for gain on a bargain purchase (negative goodwill)

Chapter 23: Business combinations and consolidation
1 THE NATURE OF A GROUP AND CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS
Section overview
 International accounting standards and group accounts

 Location of accounting rules
 The nature and purpose of consolidated financial statements
1.1 International accounting standards and group accounts

The following standards relate to accounting for investments:
 IFRS 10 Consolidated financial statements
 IAS 27 Separate financial statements
 IAS 28 Investments in associates and joint ventures
 IFRS 11 Joint Arrangements
 IFRS 3 Business combinations
IAS 1 and group accounts

IAS 1 requires that financial statements distinguish between:
 profit or loss for the period;
 other comprehensive income, which consists of gains or losses that are not
reported in profit or loss – such as gains on asset revaluations;
 transactions between the entity and its owners in their capacity as owners,
which are called ‘equity transactions’ and reported in the statement of
changes in equity.
This applies to consolidated accounts (group accounts).
1.2 Location of accounting rules

IFRS 3 defines a business combination as a transaction or other event in which
an acquirer obtains control of one or more businesses.
IFRS 10 explains that a business under the control of another is a subsidiary and
the controlling entity is the parent.
IFRS 10 defines consolidated financial statements as the financial statements of
a group in which the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows
of the parent and its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic
entity. This means that groups must present their financial statements in the form
of consolidated accounts.
Guidance on the process of consolidation is set out in two standards, IFRS 3
Business Combinations and IFRS 10 Consolidated Financial Statements.
IFRS 3 is largely about the initial accounting for a new investment, setting out the
rules on the calculation of goodwill.

Corporate reporting
IFRS 10 covers the on-going rules related to consolidation. It is IFRS 10 that

requires:
 that the financial statements of P and S be prepared using uniform
accounting policies;
 the consolidated assets, liabilities, income and expenses are those of the
parent and its subsidiaries added on a line by line basis;
 the elimination of unrealised profit on intra group transactions; and
 the cancellation of intra group balances.
Changes of ownership
IFRS 3 explains how to account for further investments in a subsidiary after
control has been achieved. These are called step acquisitions.
IFRS 10 explains how to account for disposals.
1.3 The nature and purpose of consolidated financial statements

A subsidiary is usually acquired through the purchase of a controlling interest in
its equity. The parent makes a long-term investment in the subsidiary. In the
statement of financial position of the parent, there is a non-current asset:
‘Investment in subsidiary, at cost’
Sometimes, a parent company has no assets at all except shares in the
subsidiaries in the group. A parent whose main assets (or only assets) are
shares in subsidiaries is sometimes called a holding company.
When a large part of the assets of a parent company consists of investments in
subsidiaries, it is difficult for the users of the financial statements of the parent to
understand anything about its financial position or financial performance. To find
out meaningful information about their investment, users of the parent’s financial
statements need to know about the financial position and performance of the
operating subsidiaries.
The purpose of consolidated accounts is to provide financial statements that
have meaning and relevance to users.
When a parent acquires a subsidiary, both the parent and the subsidiary remain
legally separate entities. However, in practice they operate as if they were one
organisation. Consolidated financial statements reflect the reality (or substance)
of the situation: the group is a single economic unit.
Consolidated financial statements are the financial statements of a group in
which the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows of the
parent and its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic entity.

2 IFRS 10: CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview
 Introduction to IFRS 10
 Situations where control exists
 The requirement to prepare consolidated accounts
2.1 Introduction to IFRS 10

IFRS 10 establishes principles for the presentation of consolidated financial
statements when an entity controls one or more other entities
Definitions: Group, parent and subsidiary

Group: A parent and its subsidiaries
Parent: An entity that controls one or more entities.
Subsidiary: An entity that is controlled by another entity.
A group consists of a parent entity and one or more entities that it has control
over. These are called subsidiaries.
The entity that ultimately controls all the entities in the group is called the parent.
Some parent companies have no assets at all except shares in the subsidiaries
of the group. A parent whose main assets (or only assets) are shares in
subsidiaries is sometimes called a holding company.
Control
An entity is a subsidiary of another entity if it is controlled by that other entity.
IFRS 10 contains a principles based definition of control.
Definition: Control
An investor controls an investee when:
a. it is exposed, or has rights, to variable returns from its involvement with the
investee; and
b. it has the ability to affect those returns through its power over the investee.
In other words an investor controls an investee, if and only if, it has all the
following:
 power over the investee;
 exposure, or rights, to variable returns from its involvement with the
investee; and
 ability to use its power over the investee to affect the amount of its returns

Corporate reporting
2.2 Situations where control exists

The above definition of control is quite complicated.
In practice, the vast majority of cases involve a company achieving control of
another through buying a controlling interest in its shares.
Furthermore, in the vast majority of cases obtaining a controlling interest means
buying shares which give the holder more than 50% of the voting rights in the
other company.
Illustration: Wholly owned subsidiary

A owns 100% of B’s voting share capital.
A This 100% holding is described as a controlling

interest and gives A complete control of B.
100%
B would be described as a wholly owned
B subsidiary.
A company does not have to own all of the shares in another company in order to
control it.
Illustration: Partly owned subsidiary

A This 80% holding is described as a controlling

interest and gives A complete control of B.
80% B would be described as a partly owned
subsidiary.
B Other parties own the remaining 20% of the
shares. They have an ownership interest in B but
do not have control.
This is described as a non-controlling interest.
Non-controlling interest (NCI) is defined by IFRS
10 as: “the equity in a subsidiary not attributable
… to a parent.”
Control is assumed to exist when the parent owns directly, or indirectly through
other subsidiaries, more than half of the voting power of the entity, unless in
exceptional circumstances it can be clearly demonstrated that such control does
not exist.

Illustration:
A A owns a controlling interest in B.

60% B owns a controlling interest in C.
Therefore, A controls C indirectly through its
B ownership of B.
C is described as being a sub-subsidiary of A.
70%
Consolidation of sub-subsidiaries is not in this
C syllabus
In certain circumstances, a company might control another company even if it

owns shares which give it less than half of the voting rights. Such a company is
said to have de facto control over the other company. (De facto is a Latin phrase
which translates as of fact. It is used to mean in reality or to refer to a position
held in fact if not by legal right).

The other shares are held by a large number of unrelated investors none of whom
individually own more than 1% of B.
A This 45% holding probably gives A complete

control of B.
45% It would be unlikely that a sufficient number of
the other shareholders would vote together to
B stop A directing the company as it wishes.
A company might control another company even if it owns shares which give it
less than half of the voting rights because it has an agreement with other
shareholders which allow it to exercise control.

A further 10% is held by A’s bank who have agreed to use their vote as directed by
A.
A
This 45% holding together with its power to use
45% the votes attached to the banks shares gives A
complete control of B.
B
It was stated above but is worth emphasising that in the vast majority of cases
control is achieved through the purchase of shares that give the holder more than
50% of the voting rights in a company.

Corporate reporting
Two or more investors collectively control an investee when they must act
together to direct the relevant activities. If this is the case, no investor can direct
the activities without the co-operation of the others so no investor individually
controls the investee and it is not a subsidiary. Each investor must account for its
interest in accordance with the relevant IFRSs, such as IFRS 11 Joint
Arrangements, IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint Ventures or IFRS 9
Financial Instruments.
Power
An investor has power over an investee when it has existing rights that give it the
current ability to direct the relevant activities (the activities that significantly affect
the investee’s returns). This power does not necessarily have to be exercised. As
long as the rights exist, all other things being equal, the investee is a subsidiary.
Power arises from rights.
 Assessing power is often straightforward – for example when power arises
through holding more than 50% of voting rights; or
 Assessing power might be more complex, for example:
 when power results from one or more contractual arrangements; or
 when power is due to a dominant but not majority shareholding.
Only substantive rights are taken into account. Substantive rights are rights that
an investor has the practical ability to exercise. Usually such rights must be
currently exercisable so that the entity is in a position to direct the relevant
activities of the entity. However sometimes rights might be substantive, even
though they are not currently exercisable.

Example: Substantive rights

S Inc. is an investee company.
Policies over the relevant activities can be changed only at special or scheduled
shareholders’ meetings. This includes the approval of material sales of assets as
well as the making or disposing of significant investments.
S Inc. holds annual shareholder meetings at which decisions to direct the relevant
activities are made. The next scheduled shareholders’ meeting is in eight months.
Shareholders that individually or collectively hold at least 5% of the voting rights
can call a special meeting to change the existing policies over the relevant
activities with 30 days’ notice.
X Plc holds a majority of the voting rights in S Inc. Are these rights substantive?
Answer
The rights are substantive and S Inc. is a subsidiary of X Plc.
X plc is able to make decisions about the direction of the relevant activities when
they need to be made. The fact that it takes 30 days before it can exercise its
voting rights does not stop it from having the current ability to direct the relevant
activities.
Example: Substantive rights

B Inc. is an investee company (with the same fact pattern as for S Inc. above).
A Plc holds an option, which if exercised, would give it ownership of shares with
more than 50% of the voting rights of B Inc. This option is exercisable in 25 days
and is deeply in the money.
Is B Inc. a subsidiary of A Plc?
Answer
The option contract is a substantive right that gives A Plc the current ability to
direct the relevant activities of B Inc.
A plc has rights that are essentially equivalent to those of a majority shareholder
in that it can make decisions about the direction of the relevant activities when
they need to be made.
The fact that it takes 30 days before it can exercise its votes does not stop it from
having the current ability to direct the relevant activities.
B Inc. is a subsidiary of A Plc.

Corporate reporting
2.3 The requirement to prepare consolidated accounts
Definition
Consolidated financial statements: The financial statements of a group in which
the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows of the parent and
its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic entity
All parents?
An entity that is a parent must present consolidated financial statements.
There is an exception to this rule. A parent need not present consolidated
financial statements if (and only if) it meets all of the following conditions:
 The parent itself (X) is a wholly-owned subsidiary, with its own parent (Y).
 Alternatively, the parent (X) is a partially-owned subsidiary, with its own
parent (Y), and the other owners of X are prepared to allow it to avoid
preparing consolidated financial statements.
 The parent’s debt or equity instruments are not traded in a public market.
 The parent does not file its financial statements with a securities
commission for the purpose of issuing financial instruments in a public
market.
 The parent’s own parent, or the ultimate parent company (for example, the
parent of the parent’s parent), does produce consolidated financial
statements for public use that comply with International Financial Reporting
Standards.
All subsidiaries?
Consolidated financial statements should include all the subsidiaries of the parent
from the date at which control is achieved to the date upon which control is lost.
A question might explain that a parent does not wish to consolidate a subsidiary
but it would usually have to do so. The following might be given as spurious
justification for failing to consolidate a particular subsidiary:
 The subsidiary’s activities are dissimilar from those of the parent, so that
the consolidated financial statements might not present the group’s
financial performance and position fairly.
 Obtaining the information needed would be expensive and time-consuming
and might delay the preparation of the consolidated financial statements.
 The subsidiary operates under severe long term restrictions, so that the
parent is unable to manage it properly. For example, a subsidiary might be
located in a country badly disrupted by a war or a revolution. However, note
that if the parent loses control then the investee is no longer a subsidiary
and should not be consolidated.
Sometimes a group is acquired and the new parent intends to sell one of the new
subsidiaries. In this case the subsidiary is accounted for as discontinued
operation according to the rules in IFRS 5. This means that all of its assets and
all of its liabilities are included as separate lines on the face of the statement of
financial position and the group share of its profit (or loss) is shown as a separate
line on the face of the statement of profit or loss.

Investment entities exemption

Under normal rules a parent must consolidate all controlled entities.
However, an investment entity might take shares in another entity in order to
make gains through dividends or capital appreciation, not to become involved in
business of that entity. Furthermore, an investment entity might hold shares in a
diverse range of businesses in very different sectors.
These rules apply to an entity whose business activity is primarily investing
activity for example, venture capitalists, unit trusts and mutual funds. Some
investments of such entities may result in control.
An investment entity must not consolidate the entities that it controls but it must
measure them at fair value through profit or loss in accordance with IFRS 9
Financial Instruments.
An entity is an investment entity only if it meets all of the following criteria:
 Its only substantive activities are investing in multiple investments for
capital appreciation, investment income (dividends or interest), or both.
 It has made an explicit commitment to its investors that its purpose of
investment is to earn capital appreciation, investment income (dividends or
interest), or both.
 Ownership in the entity is represented by units of investments, such as
shares or partnership interests, to which proportionate shares of net assets
are attributed.
 The funds of its investors are pooled so that they can benefit from
professional investment management.
 It has investors that are unrelated to the parent (if any), and in aggregate
hold a significant ownership interest in the entity.
 Substantially all of the investments of the entity are managed, and their
performance is evaluated, on a fair value basis.
 It provides financial information about its investment activities to its
investors.

Corporate reporting
3 PROPOSED AMENDMENTS
Section overview
 ED/2014/2: Investment entities: Applying the consolidation exemption

 ED/2014/4: Measuring quoted investments in subsidiaries, joint ventures and
associates at fair value
3.1 ED/2014/2: Investment entities: Applying the consolidation exemption
Exemption from presenting consolidated financial statements

IFRS 10 provides an exemption from presenting consolidated financial
statements for a parent entity that meets specified criteria. One criterion is that its
ultimate or any intermediate parent produces consolidated financial statements
that are available for public use and comply with IFRS.
The ED proposes to amend IFRS 10 to confirm that the exemption from
preparing consolidated financial statements is available to a parent entity that is a
subsidiary of an investment entity, even when the investment entity measures its
subsidiaries at fair value in accordance with paragraph 31 of IFRS 10.
Example: Proposed clarification on exemption from presenting consolidated

A owns 100% of B
B owns 100% of C
B is exempt from preparing group accounts (in which it consolidates C) if its
ultimate parent produces consolidated financial statements that are available for
public use and comply with IFRS (subject to meeting other criteria).
If A were an investment entity it cannot consolidate B but must measure it at fair
value through profit or loss.
The ED proposes that in this case B would still not need to consolidate C.
Investment entities
IFRS 10 requires an investment entity to measure its investments in subsidiaries
at fair value. However, IFRS 10 requires an investment entity to consolidate a
subsidiary that provides services that relate to the investment entity’s investment
activities.
When a subsidiary of an investment entity itself meets the definition of an
investment entity and, additionally, provides services that relate to the parent’s
investment activities, it is unclear as to whether the investment entity parent
should measure that investment entity subsidiary at fair value or consolidate it.
The ED proposes to amend IFRS 10 to say that the requirement for an
investment entity to consolidate a subsidiary, instead of measuring it at fair value,
applies only to those subsidiaries that act as an extension of the operations of the
investment entity parent, and do not themselves qualify as investment entities.
The ED proposes to limit the need for an investment entity to consolidate
subsidiaries that provide services to those who are not themselves investment
entities and whose main purpose is to provide services to the parent.

Example: Investment entities

Situation 1
A owns 100% of B
A is an investment entity
A is not allowed to consolidate B but must measure its interest at fair value
through profit or loss.
Situation 2
A owns 100% of B
A is an investment entity
B provides services to A that relate to A’s investment activities.
A is must consolidate B.
Situation 3
A owns 100% of B
Both A and B are investment entities
B provides services to A that relate to A’s investment activities.
The proposal is that A must not consolidate B but must measure its interest at
fair value through profit or loss.
Consolidation of investment entities

IFRS 10 states that a non-investment entity parent of an investment entity cannot
retain the fair value measurement applied by the investment entity to its interests
in subsidiaries. That non-investment entity parent must instead consolidate all
subsidiaries in the group.
Example: Consolidation of investment entities

A owns 100% of B
B owns 100% of C
B is an investment entity
B must not consolidate C but must measure it at fair value through profit or loss.
A is not allowed to retain this treatment in its consolidated financial statements.

It must consolidate B and C in the usual way.
IAS 28 does not contain an equivalent explicit statement related to the application
of the equity method by a non-investment entity investor for its investments in
joint ventures or associates that are investment entities. The ED proposes to
include such a statement.

Corporate reporting
Example: Consolidation of investment entities

A owns 40% of B
B owns 100% of C
B is an investment entity
B must not consolidate C but must measure it at fair value through profit or loss.
Proposal: A is not allowed to retain this treatment in its consolidated financial

statements. It must equity account for B and C in the usual way.
3.2 ED/2014/4: Measuring quoted investments in subsidiaries, joint ventures

and associates at fair value
The proposals in the ED clarify that the fair value measurement of quoted
investments in subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates should be the product
of the quoted price (P) multiplied by the quantity of financial instruments held (Q),
or P × Q, without adjustments. For example, an entity might argue that the
product should be adjusted to take account of the size of the holding but this
would not be allowed.

4 IFRS 3: BUSINESS COMBINATIONS
Section overview
 Acquisition method
 Goodwill
 Cost (consideration transferred)
 Acquisition date amounts of assets acquired and liabilities assumed
Definitions
A business combination is a transaction or other event in which an acquirer
obtains control of one or more businesses.
A business is an integrated set of activities and assets that is capable of being
conducted and managed for the purpose of providing a return in the form of
dividends, lower costs or other economic benefits directly to investors or other
owners, members or participants.
Objective of IFRS 3
The objective of IFRS 3 is to improve the relevance, reliability and comparability
of information reported about business combinations and their effects.
It establishes principles and requirements for:
 the recognition and measurement of identifiable assets acquired, liabilities
assumed and non-controlling interest in the acquiree;
 the recognition and measurement of goodwill (or a gain from a bargain
purchase); and
 disclosures that enable users to evaluate the nature and financial effects of
a business combination.
Transactions under common control are not within the scope of IFRS 3.This
means that transfers of ownership of a subsidiary within a group (for example in
group reconstructions) are not subject to the rules in this standard. Companies
engaging in such transactions must develop accounting policies in accordance
with the guidance given in IAS 8.
4.2 Acquisition method

All business combinations are accounted for by the acquisition method which
involves:
 identifying the acquirer;
 determining the acquisition date;
 recognising and measuring the identifiable assets acquired, the liabilities
assumed and any non-controlling interest in the acquiree; and
 recognising and measuring goodwill or a gain from a bargain purchase

Corporate reporting
Identifying the acquirer

It might be difficult to identify an acquirer:
 The acquirer is usually the combining entity whose relative size is
significantly greater than that of the other(s).
 In a business combination affected by transferring cash (other assets) or by
incurring liabilities the acquirer is usually the entity that makes the transfer
or incurs the liabilities.
 In a business combinations affected by exchange of equity interests the
acquirer is usually the entity that issues equity (however, in a “reverse
acquisition” the issuing entity is the acquiree).
Also note that the acquirer is usually the entity:
 whose owners have the largest portion of the voting rights in the combined
entity;
 whose owners have the ability determine the composition of the governing
body of the combined entity;
 whose (former) management dominates the management of the combined
entity;
 that pays a premium over the pre-combination fair value of the equity
interests of the others
Determining the acquisition date

Acquisition date is the date on which the acquirer effectively obtains control of the
acquiree.
This generally the closing date (date of transfer of consideration and when net
assets are acquired) but might be before or after this date depending on
circumstances.

4.3 Goodwill
IFRS 3 is largely about the calculation of goodwill.
Definition: Goodwill
Goodwill: An asset representing the future economic benefits arising from other
assets acquired in a business combination that are not individually identified and
separately recognised.
IFRS 3 sets out the calculation of goodwill as follows:
Illustration: Goodwill
N.B. All balances are as at the date of acquisition.
₦
Consideration transferred (cost of the business combination) X
Non-controlling interest X
X
The net of the acquisition date amounts of identifiable
assets acquired and liabilities assumed (measured in
accordance with IFRS 3) X
Goodwill recognised X
The non-controlling interest may be stated as either:

 a proportionate share of the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities
assumed; or
 at fair value as at the date of acquisition
Issues to address:
IFRS 3 gives guidance on:
 cost of a business combination;
 recognition and measurement of identifiable assets and liabilities assumed;
and
 accounting for goodwill.
4.4 Cost (consideration transferred)

IFRS 3 states that the purchase consideration for an acquisition (business
combination) is the sum of:
 the fair values, at the acquisition date, of the assets transferred by the
acquirer, such as cash
 the liabilities incurred by the acquirer to the former owners of the acquiree
 equity instruments issued by the acquirer in exchange for control of the
acquiree.
The purchase consideration may include some deferred consideration.

Corporate reporting
When the acquirer issues shares as part of the purchase consideration and the
shares are quoted equity instruments, they are normally valued at their market
price at the acquisition date for the purpose of measuring the
consideration/acquisition cost.
If the consideration includes assets or liabilities of the acquirer carried at amounts
that differ from their fair values at the acquisition date, these are revalued with
gains and losses taken to P&L.
Consideration includes any asset or liability resulting from a contingent
consideration arrangement:
 recognised at acquisition-date fair value; and
 classified as a liability or equity on the basis of guidance in IAS 32 or other
applicable IFRSs.
A right to the return of previously transferred consideration is classified as an
asset if specified conditions are met.
Costs of acquisition: transaction costs

Transaction costs incurred in making an acquisition, such as the cost of the fees
of advisers and lawyers, must not be included in the cost of the acquisition.
These costs must be treated as an expense as incurred and written off to profit or
loss.
The amount of transaction costs associated with an acquisition and written off
during the period to profit or loss must be disclosed in a note to the financial
statements.
However, if an entity borrows money to finance an acquisition, the costs
associated with arranging the borrowing are treated in accordance with the rules
of IAS 39. These costs are deducted from the value of the debt and amortised
over the term of the debt using the effective rate of interest (i.e. the amortised
cost method).
Example: Cost of acquisition

Company P acquired 80% of the shares of Company S when the fair value of the
net assets of S was ₦800,000.
The purchase price was ₦300,000 in cash plus 10,000 new shares in Company
P.
The new shares were to be issued 1 month after the date of acquisition.
The market value of P’s shares at the date of acquisition was ₦40 each. One
month later the market value had increased to ₦45.
The costs of making the acquisition were ₦80,000.
The cost of the investment in the shares of S = ₦300,000 + (10,000 × ₦40 =
₦700,000. The share price at the date of acquisition is used not that at the date
of issue.
The costs of making the acquisition should be written off to profit or loss.
The parent company’s share of the net assets of S at the acquisition date was
₦640,000 (80% × ₦800,000). Purchased goodwill attributable to owners of the
parent company is therefore ₦60,000 (₦700,000 - ₦640,000).

Deferred consideration
Sometimes all or part of the cost of an acquisition is deferred and does not
become payable until a later date.
The amount of any deferred consideration (the amount not payable immediately)
is discounted to its present value at the acquisition date.
Contingent consideration
Sometimes the final cost of the combination is contingent on (depends on) a
future event. For example, an acquirer could agree to pay an additional amount if
the acquired subsidiary’s profits exceed a certain level within three years of the
acquisition.
In a situation such as this, the contingent payment should be included in the cost
of the combination (discounted to present value if the payment will occur more
than 12 months in the future).
Under the rules of IFRS 3, contingent consideration must be recognised at fair
value at acquisition, even if it is not probable that the consideration will actually
have to be paid.
Example: Contingent consideration

Company X purchased 100% of the issued capital of Company S on 1 January
Year 4.
The purchase agreement required Company X to pay ₦300,000 in cash
immediately and an additional sum of ₦100,000 on 31 December Year 6 if the
earnings of Company S increase at an annual rate of 25% per year in each of the
three years following the acquisition.
How should the contingent payment be recognised in calculating the goodwill
arising at the date of acquisition?
Answer
The contingent consideration should be included in the cost of investment (the
purchase consideration) whether or not it is probable that it will have to be paid.
The contingent consideration of ₦100,000 should be measured at fair value.
If it is fairly certain that the contingent consideration will have to be paid, an
appropriate measure of fair value might be the present value of the future
payment, discounted at an appropriate cost of capital. The purchase
consideration is therefore ₦300,000 plus the present value of the contingent
(deferred) consideration.
If there is still contingent consideration at the end of an accounting period, it

might be necessary to re-measure it.
If the contingent consideration will be payable in cash, it should be re-measured
to fair value at the end of the reporting period. Any gain or loss on re-
measurement should be taken to profit or loss.
If the contingent consideration will take the form of debt, the amount of the debt is
re-measured at fair value at the end of the reporting period and the change in
value is recognised in profit or loss in the period.

Corporate reporting
If the contingent consideration will take the form of equity, it is not re-measured at
the end of the reporting period. The eventual settlement of the payment will be
accounted for as an equity transaction (i.e. a transaction between the entity and
owners of the group in their capacity as owners).
A reason for re-measuring the contingent consideration is that the amount
payable might depend on the performance of the subsidiary after its acquisition.
If the profits are higher than expected, the contingent consideration might be re-
measured to a higher value, increasing the liability (the contingent payment) and
reducing the reported profit for the period.
Similarly if the profits are lower than expected, the contingent consideration might
be re-measured to a lower value, reducing the liability (the contingent payment)
and increasing the reported profit for the period.
(Note: Under the previous accounting rules, before the introduction of IFRS 3,
any increase in the value of contingent consideration was charged to goodwill.)
Share options given to the previous owners

When an entity acquires a subsidiary that was previously managed by its owners,
the previous owners might be given share options in the entity as an incentive to
stay on and work for the subsidiary after it has been acquired. IFRS 3 states that
the award of share options in these circumstances is not a part of the purchase
consideration. The options are post-acquisition employment expenses and
should be accounted for as share-based payments in accordance with IFRS 2.
4.5 Acquisition date amounts of assets acquired and liabilities assumed
Core principle
An acquirer of a business must recognise assets acquired and liabilities assumed
at their acquisition date fair values and disclose information that enables users to
evaluate the nature and financial effects of the acquisition.
To support this IFRS 3R sets out:
 a recognition principle;
 classification guidance; with
 a measurement principle.
There are specified exceptions to each of these.
Any asset acquired or liability assumed is subsequently measured in accordance
with applicable IFRS. There are also exceptions to this rule.
Recognition principle
An acquirer must recognise (separately from goodwill), identifiable assets
acquired, liabilities assumed and any non-controlling interest in the acquiree as of
the acquisition date.
To qualify for recognition identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed
must meet the definitions of assets and liabilities set out in The Conceptual
Framework as at the acquisition date.
This might result in recognition of assets and liabilities not previously recognised
by the acquiree.

When a company acquires a subsidiary, it may identify intangible assets of the

acquired subsidiary, which are not included in the subsidiary’s statement of
financial position. If these assets are separately identifiable and can be measured
reliably, they should be included in the consolidated statement of financial
position as intangible assets, and accounted for as such.
This can result in the recognition of assets and liabilities not previously
recognised by the acquiree.
Illustration: Identifiable asset on acquisition

If a company bought 100% of the Coca-Cola Corporation they would be buying a lot
of assets but part (perhaps the largest part) of the purchase consideration would
be to buy the Coca Cola brand.
Coca Cola does not recognise its own brand in its own financial statements
because companies are not allowed to recognised internally generated brands.
However, as far as the company buying the Coca-Cola Corporation is concerned the
brand is a purchased asset. It would be recognised in the consolidated financial
statements and would be taken into account in the goodwill calculation.
Contingent liabilities
Many acquired businesses will contain contingent liabilities such as contingent
liabilities for the settlement of legal disputes or for warranty liabilities. IFRS 3
states that contingent liabilities should be recognised at acquisition ‘even if it is
not probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be
required to settle the obligation.’
The contingent liabilities should be measured at fair value at the acquisition date.
(Contingent assets are not recognised).
Restructuring costs
An acquirer should not recognise a liability for the cost of restructuring a
subsidiary or for any other costs expected to be incurred as a result of the
acquisition (including future losses).
This is because a plan to restructure a subsidiary after an acquisition cannot be a
liability at the acquisition date. For there to be a liability (and for a provision to be
recognised) there must have been a past obligating event. This can only be the
case if the subsidiary was already committed to the restructuring before the
acquisition.
This means that the acquirer cannot recognise a provision for restructuring or
reorganisation at acquisition and then release it to profit and loss in order to
’smooth profits’ or reduce losses after the acquisition.
Measurement principle
Identifiable assets acquired and the liabilities assumed are measured at their
acquisition date fair values.
Definition: Fair value

Fair value: The price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a
liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement
date.

Corporate reporting
The net assets of a newly acquired business are subject to a fair valuation
exercise.
The table below shows how different types of asset and liability should be valued.
Item Fair value

Marketable Current market value
investments
Non-marketable Estimated values that take into consideration features
investments such as:
(a) price earnings ratios
(b) dividend yield
(c) expected growth rates of comparable investments
Trade and other Present values of the amounts to be received. This is
receivables normally the same as the book value. Discounting is not
usually required because amounts are expected to be
received within a few months.
Inventories: Selling price less the sum of:
finished goods
(a) the costs of disposal, and
(b) a reasonable profit allowance for the selling effort of
the acquirer based on profit for similar finished
goods.
Inventories: work Selling price of finished goods less the sum of:
in progress
(a) costs to complete,
(b) costs of disposal, and
(c) a reasonable profit for the completing and selling
effort based on profit for similar finished goods.
Inventories: raw Current replacement costs
materials
Land and buildings Market value
Plant and Normally market value. Use depreciated replacement
equipment cost if market value cannot be used (e.g., because of the
specialised nature of the plant and equipment or because
the items are rarely sold, except as part of a continuing
business).
Intangible assets Described later.
Trade and other Present values of amounts to be disbursed in meeting the
payables; long- liability determined at appropriate current interest rates.
term debt and For current liabilities this is normally the same as book
other liabilities. value.

Exceptions
Note that this table only shows the exceptions to the above principles and
guidance.
Topic Recognition Measurement at Measurement at

principle acquisition later dates
Contingent Defined by IAS Fair value At the higher of
liability 37 and not the original
recognised. amount and the
Contingent amount that
liability due to a would be reported
present obligation under IAS 37.
is recognised
Income taxes IAS 12 applies IAS 12 applies IAS 12 applies
Employee IAS 19 applies IAS 19 applies IAS 19 applies
benefits
Indemnification This is a right to Measurement of Measurement of
assets be compensated the asset mirrors the asset mirrors
by the seller if a the recognition of the recognition of
defined the liability the liability
contingency
occurs
Recognition of
the asset mirrors
the recognition of
the liability
Reacquired rights Recognised as an The asset
intangible asset recognised is
and measured on amortised over
the basis of the the over the
remaining remaining
contractual term contractual period
of the related of the contract in
contract which the right
regardless of was granted.
whether market
participants would
consider potential
contractual
renewals in
determining its
fair value
Share based IFRS 2 applies
payments
Assets held for IFRS 5 applies
sale
Deferred tax
Deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognised and measured in
accordance with IAS 12 Income Taxes, rather than at their acquisition-date fair
values.

Corporate reporting
Measurement period
Initial accounting for goodwill may be determined on a provisional basis and must
be finalised by the end of a measurement period.
This ends as soon as the acquirer receives the information it was seeking about
facts and circumstances that existed at the acquisition date but must not exceed
one year from the acquisition date.
During the measurement period new information obtained about facts and
circumstances that existed at the acquisition date might lead to the adjustment of
provisional amounts or recognition of additional assets or liabilities with a
corresponding change to goodwill.
Any adjustment restates the figures as if the accounting for the business
combination had been completed at the acquisition date.
Classification guidance
Identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed must be classified
(designated) as necessary at the acquisition date so as to allow subsequent
application of appropriate IFRS.
The classification is based on relevant circumstances as at the acquisition date
with two exceptions:
 classification of a lease contract in accordance with IAS 17 Leases; and
 classification of a contract as an insurance contract in accordance with
IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts.
Classification in these cases is based on circumstances at the inception of the
contract or date of a later modification that would change the classification.

5 CONSOLIDATION TECHNIQUE
Section overview
 The basic approach

 Practice questions
5.1 The basic approach
Suggested step by step approach to the preparation of consolidated statements of

financial position
To prepare a consolidated statement of financial position as at the acquisition
date, the following steps should be taken.
Step 1: Establish the group share (parent company share) in the subsidiary and
the percentage owned by non-controlling interests.
Step 2: Perform double entry to record any individual company adjustments that
might be necessary. Mark these in the face of the question. The information can
be lifted into workings later so that the marker can understand what you have
done.
Step 3: Set out a pro-forma (skeleton) statement of financial position and fill in
the easy numbers (for example those assets and liabilities that are a straight
cross cast and the share capital)
Step 4: Calculate the net assets of the subsidiary S at the acquisition date and at
the end of the reporting period taking into account information about the fair value
of assets at the acquisition date and the existence of any assets not recognised
by the subsidiary that might need to capitalise for consolidation purposes.
Step 5: Calculate the goodwill
₦
X
assets acquired and liabilities assumed (measured in
accordance with IFRS 3) X

Corporate reporting
Step 6: Calculate the non-controlling interest.
Illustration: Consolidated retained earnings

₦
NCI at the date of acquisition X
NCI’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S X
NCI’s share of each other post-acquisition reserves of S (if any) X
NCI at the date of consolidation X
Step 7: Calculate consolidated retained earnings.
Possible complications
You should be familiar with the following of possible complications that you may
need to take into account when answering questions:
 Before consolidation
 Measuring the cost of acquisition
 Identifying assets not recognised by the subsidiary which need to be
included for consolidation purposes
 Performing the fair value exercise
Construct a net assets summary of each subsidiary showing net assets at the
date of acquisition and at the reporting date.
 During consolidation
 Mid-year acquisition – consolidation must be from the date of
acquisition so you may need to construct a net assets total for a
subsidiary at a point during the previous year.
 Elimination of inter-company balances
 Elimination of unrealised profit.
 After consolidation
 Impairment testing goodwill
 Accounting for a gain on a bargain purchase.

5.2 Practice questions
Practice question 1
P acquired 70% of S on 1 January 20X1 for ₦450,000
The retained earnings of S were ₦50,000 at that date.
It is P’s policy to recognise non-controlling interest at the date of acquisition
as a proportionate share of net assets.
The statements of financial position P and S as at 31 December 20X1 were
as follows:
Assets: P (₦) S(₦)
Investment in S, at cost 450,000 -
Other assets 500,000 350,000
950,000 350,000
Equity
Share capital 100,000 100,000
Retained earnings 650,000 100,000
750,000 200,000
Current liabilities 200,000 150,000
950,000 350,000
x
Prepare a consolidated statement of financial position as at 31
December 20X1.

Corporate reporting
Practice question 2
P acquired 70% of S on 1 January 20X1 for ₦450,000
at fair value.
The fair value of the non-controlling interest at the date of acquisition was
₦75,000.
as follows:
Assets: P (₦) S(₦)
Investment in S, at cost 450,000 -
Other assets 500,000 350,000
950,000 350,000
Equity
750,000 200,000
950,000 350,000
x
December 20X1.

Practice question 3
P bought 80% of S 2 years ago.
At the date of acquisition S’s retained earnings stood at ₦600,000. The fair
value of its net assets was not materially different from the book value
except for the fact that it had a brand which was not recognised in S’s
accounts. This had a fair value of 100,000 at this date and an estimated
useful life of 20 years.
as follows:
P S
₦ ₦
PP and E 1,800,000 1,000,000
Investment in S 1,000,000
Other assets 400,000 300,000
3,200,000 1,300,000

Retained earnings 2,900,000 1,000,000
Liabilities 200,000 200,000
3,200,000 1,300,000

December 20X1.

Corporate reporting
Practice question 4
P bought 80% of S 2 years ago.
At the date of acquisition S’s retained earnings stood at ₦600,000 and the
fair value of its net assets were ₦1,000,000. This was ₦300,000 above
the book value of the net assets at this date.
The revaluation was due to an asset that had a remaining useful economic
life of 10 years as at the date of acquisition.
The statements of financial position P and S as at 31 December 20X1
were as follows:
P S
₦ ₦
PP and E 1,800,000 1,000,000
Investment in S 1,000,000
Other assets 400,000 300,000
3,200,000 1,300,000

Retained earnings 2,900,000 1,000,000
Liabilities 200,000 200,000
3,200,000 1,300,000

December 20X1.

Practice question 5
P acquired 70% of S on 1 January 20X1 for ₦1,000,000
Also, at the date of acquisition S held an item of plant with a carrying
amount of 250,000 less than its fair value. This asset had a remaining
useful life of 10 years as from that date.
as a proportionate share of net assets.
The statements of financial position of P and S as at 31 December 20X1
were as follows:
P (₦) S(₦)
Assets:
Investment in S, at cost 1,000,000 -
Other non-current assets 400,000 200,000
Current assets 500,000 350,000
1,900,000 550,000
Equity
Retained earnings 1,600,000 300,000
1,700,000 400,000
1,900,000 550,000

December 20X1.

Corporate reporting
6 ACCOUNTING FOR GOODWILL
Section overview
 Accounting for goodwill

 Impairment testing of goodwill
 Negative goodwill and bargain purchases
6.1 Accounting for goodwill
Positive goodwill - Excess of cost of combination over share of net assets

After initial recognition goodwill is measured at cost less any accumulated
impairment losses.
 Goodwill acquired in a business combination is not amortised.
 It is tested for impairment annually, or more frequently if events or changes
in circumstances indicate that it might be impaired, in accordance with IAS
36, Impairment of Assets.
Gain from a bargain purchase (“Negative goodwill”)

A bargain purchase is a business combination in which the calculation of goodwill
leads to a negative figure.
When this happens the acquirer must reassess whether it has correctly identified
all of the assets acquired and all of the liabilities assumed and must recognise
any additional assets or liabilities that are identified in that review.
The acquirer must then review the procedures used to measure the amounts this
IFRS requires to be recognised at the acquisition date for all of the following:
 the identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed;
 the non-controlling interest in the acquiree (if any); and
 the consideration transferred.
Any amount remaining after applying the above requirements is recognised as a
gain in profit or loss on the acquisition date.

6.2 Impairment testing of goodwill

Purchased goodwill is not amortised, but must be tested for impairment on an
annual basis. It cannot be tested for impairment directly. It is allocated to one or
more cash generating unit (IAS 36) and then the carrying amount of the cash
generating unit is compared to its recoverable amount.
The following discussion and examples assume that the subsidiary in question is
a cash generating unit (CGU).
Partial goodwill method (NCI at acquisition measured as a proportionate share of

subsidiary’s net assets
Recoverable amount of the CGU is based on the cash flows that its assets are
expected to generate (either through use or sale of the unit). These cash flows
will be a function of all of the assets of the unit including the NCI’s share of the
goodwill but this latter figure has not been recognised.
The carrying amount of the NCI is made up of:
 the total net assets of the unit (parent’s interest and NCI’s); and
 the parent’s interest in goodwill.
Any comparison of carrying amount to recoverable amount should compare like
to like but the cash flows from the NCI’s goodwill contribute to the recoverable
amount but this goodwill is not in the carrying amount. IAS 36 requires a working
that grosses up the carrying amount of the CGU’s assets by the NCI share of
goodwill. Note that this is only in a working; it is not part of the double entry.
This notionally adjusted carrying amount is then compared with the recoverable
amount of the unit to determine whether the cash-generating unit is impaired.
Any impairment is charged against the goodwill in the first instance with any
balance writing down other assets in the unit.
Only that part of any impairment loss attributable to the parent is recognised by
the entity as a goodwill impairment loss.

Corporate reporting
Example: Impairment of goodwill

X plc paid ₦1,600 for an 80% interest in Y plc on 01/01/X1.
On this date Y had identifiable net assets with a fair value of ₦1,500.
Goodwill on acquisition: ₦
Cost of acquisition 1,600
Share of net assets (80%  ₦1,500) (1,200)
Goodwill 400
The following amounts are recognised in the consolidated financial

statements at the date of acquisition:
₦
Goodwill 400
Asset 1,500
NCI (20%  1,500) 300
This cash-generating unit includes goodwill within its carrying amount, so it
must be tested for impairment annually (or more frequently if there is an
indication that it may be impaired).
31/12/X1 – Impairment test
X plc estimates that the recoverable amount of Y plc is ₦1,400.
The net assets of Y plc (after fair value adjustments) were still ₦1,520.
Carrying amount of Y plc: Goodwill Asset Total
As at 01/01/X1 400 1,500 1,900
Notional grossing up of goodwill
400  20/80 100 - 100
500 1,500 2,000
Recoverable amount (1,520)
Impairment loss 480
The whole loss (480) is covered by the goodwill of 500 but only 80% of this
is in the financial statements. Therefore only 80% of the loss is recognised
Allocation of impairment loss Notional X plc X plc write

write off share off
Goodwill (notional) 480 80% 384
Allocation of impairment loss Goodwill Asset Total

As at 31/12/X1 400 1,500 1,900
Impairment loss (384) (384)
16 1,500 1,516

Full goodwill method (NCI at acquisition measured at fair value

This is more straightforward.
If there is a NCI in a cash-generating unit to which goodwill has been allocated,
the carrying amount of that unit is made up of:
 both the parent’s interest and the NCI in the net assets of the unit; and
 both the parent’s interest in goodwill and the NCI’s interest in goodwill.
When non-controlling interests are valued by the fair value method, any
impairment in the total goodwill after acquisition should be shared between the
parent company shareholders and the NCI.
It is tempting to allocate the write off of goodwill between the parent and NCI in
proportion to the goodwill attributable to each. However, para C6, Appendix C to
IAS 36 says that the impairment should be “allocated between the parent and the
NCI on the same basis as that on which profit or loss is allocated”.
Example: Impairment of goodwill

S has 10 million shares of ₦1 each in issue. H acquired 80% of these shares at a
price of ₦11.6 million when the net assets of S were ₦10 million. Prior to the
acquisition, the shares of S had been trading in the stock market at ₦1.20 per
share.
Suppose that subsequently goodwill is impaired in value by ₦1.5 million, so that
it is now valued at just ₦2,500,000.
The impairment in the goodwill must be attributed to the parent company and
the NCI in the according to the proportions used to allocate profit or loss (80:20).
Goodwill
Total Parent NCI
₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Purchase consideration 11,600 11,600
Non-controlling interest
(2m shares @ ₦1.2) 2,400 2,400
14,000
Fair value of net assets of subsidiary at
acquisition (10,000) (8,000) (2,000)
Goodwill 4,000 3,600 400
Impairment of goodwill: (1,500) (1,200) (300)
2,500 2,400 100
Note that the impairment is allocated 80:20 not 3,600:400 which might have
been expected.

Corporate reporting
6.3 Negative goodwill and bargain purchases

A bargain purchase is a business combination in which the calculation of goodwill
leads to a negative figure.
When this happens the acquirer must then review the procedures used to
measure the amounts recognised at the acquisition date for all of the following:
 The identifiable assets acquired and liabilities assumed;
 The non-controlling interest in the acquiree (if any); and
 The consideration transferred.
Any amount remaining after applying the above requirements is recognised as a
gain in profit or loss on the acquisition date.
This means that in most cases when a bargain purchase occurs, the ‘negative
goodwill’ should be added to the consolidated profit for the group for the year.

7 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
Before moving on to the next chapter check that you know how to:
 Explain and discuss in detail the requirements of IFRS 3 with regard to the
calculation of goodwill
 Define using examples subsidiary, parent and control
 Explain the concept of control as set out in IFRS 10
 Describe situations when control is presumed to exist
 Identify and describe the circumstances in which an entity is required to prepare
and present consolidated financial statements
 Prepare a consolidated statement of financial position including the fair value
exercise and the elimination of inter-company balances and accounting for
unrealised profit
 Account for goodwill including impairment testing
 Account for gain on a bargain purchase (negative goodwill)

Corporate reporting

Solution (continued) 1
Workings:
W1 Net assets summary
At date of At date of
consolidation acquisition Post acqn
Retained earnings 100,000 50,000 50,000
Net assets 200,000* 150,000
W2 Non-controlling interest ₦
NCI’s share of net assets at the date of acquisition
(30%  150,000 (W1)) 45,000
NCI’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S
(30% of 50,000 (W1)) 15,000
NCI’s share of net assets at the date of consolidation 60,000
Alternative working
NCI’s share of net assets at the date of consolidation
(30%  200,000*) 60,000
W3 Goodwill ₦
Cost of investment 450,000
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (see W2) 45,000
495,000
Net assets at acquisition (W1) (150,000)
345,000
W4 Consolidated retained profits: ₦

All of P’s retained earnings 650,000
P’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S
(70% of 50,000 (W1)) 35,000
685,000

Solution 2
P Group: Consolidated statement of financial position at 31 December 20X1
Assets ₦
Goodwill (W3) 375,000
Other assets (500 + 350) 850,000
Total assets 1,225,000
Equity
Share capital (P only) 100,000
Consolidated retained earnings (W4) 685,000
785,000
Non-controlling interest (W2) 90,000
875,000
Current liabilities (200 + 150) 350,000
Total equity and liabilities 1,225,000
Workings:
Retained earnings 100,000 50,000 50,000
Net assets 200,000* 150,000
Fair value of NCI at the date of acquisition 75,000
(30% of 50,000 (W1)) 15,000
W3 Goodwill ₦
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (given) 75,000
525,000
Net assets at acquisition (W1) (150,000)
375,000

All of P’s retained earnings 650,000
(70% of 50,000 (W1)) 35,000
685,000

Corporate reporting
Solution 3
A consolidated statement of financial position as at 31 December 20X1 can be
prepared as follows:
₦
Assets
Brand (see working) 90,000
Goodwill (see working) 360,000
Property, plant and equipment (1,800 + 1000) 2,800,000
Other assets (400 + 300) 700,000
Equity
Consolidated retained earnings (see working) 3,212,000
3,312,000
Non-controlling interest 238,000
3,550,000
Workings:
Net assets summary of S
Retained earnings
Given in the question 1,000,000 600,000
Extra depreciation on brand
(100,000 × 2 years/20 years) (10,000) 
990,000 600,000 390,000
Consolidation reserve on
recognition of the brand 100,000 100,000
Net assets 1,190,000 800,000
Non-controlling interest ₦
(20%  800,000) 160,000
(20% of 390,000 (see above)) 78,000

Goodwill ₦
Cost of investment 1,000,000
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (20%  800,000) 160,000
1,160,000
Net assets at acquisition (see above) (800,000)
360,000

All of P’s retained earnings 2,900,000
P’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S (80%
of 390,000 (see above)) 312,000
3,212,000
Brand ₦
On initial recognition 100,000
Depreciation since acquisition (100,000 × 2 years/20 years) (10,000)
90,000
Solution 4
₦
Assets
Goodwill (see working) 200,000
PP and E (see working) 3,040,000
Other assets (400,000 + 300,000) 700,000
Equity
Consolidated retained earnings (see working) 3,172,000
3,272,000
Non-controlling interest 268,000
3,540,000

Corporate reporting
Retained earnings
Given in the question 1,000,000 600,000
Extra depreciation on fair
value adjustment (300 × 2
years/10 years) – see
explanation on next page (60,000) 

940,000 600,000 340,000
Fair value reserve 300,000 300,000
Net assets 1,340,000 1,000,000
Non-controlling interest ₦
(20%  1,000) 200,000
(20% of 340 (see above)) 68,000
Goodwill ₦
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (20%  1,000) 200,000
1,200,000
Net assets at acquisition (see above) (1,000,000)
200,000

P’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S (80%
of 340 (see above)) 272,000
3,172,000

Property plant and equipment ₦
Parent’s 1,800
Subsidiary’s
Given in question 1,000
Fair value adjustment 300
Extra depreciation on fair value adjustment
(300 × 2 years/10 years) (60)
1,240
To statement of financial position 3,040
Solution 5
Assets ₦
Goodwill (W3) 720,000
Other non-current assets (400 + (200 + 250  25)) 825,000
Other assets (500 + 350) 850,000
Equity
Consolidated retained earnings (W4) 1,757,500
1,857,500
Non-controlling interest (W2) 187,500
2,045,000

Corporate reporting
Solution 5
Workings:
Retained earnings
Given in the question 300,000 50,000
Extra depreciation on fair
value adjustment (250 × 1
years/10 years) (25,000) 
275,000 50,000 225,000
Fair value reserve 250,000 250,000
Net assets 625,000 400,000
(30%  400) 120,000
(30% of 225 (W1)) 67,500
W3 Goodwill ₦
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (W2) 120,000
1,120,000
720,000

(70% of 225 (W1)) 157,500
1,757,500

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
24
Consolidated statements of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income
Contents
1 Consolidated statement of profit or loss and other
2 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1 Preparing and reporting information for financial statements and
notes:
regulations.
1(d) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of an entity
preparing consolidated financial statements undertaking a variety of
transactions on the basis of chosen accounting policies and in accordance
with IFRS and local regulations.
the above competencies that involve new and existing investments in subsidiaries.
IFRS 3 and IFRS 10 are examinable documents.
Exam context
This chapter allows you to revise consolidated statements of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income. The content of this chapter is a vital foundation for understanding
more complex areas of consolidation for example disposals of a subsidiary and the
consolidation of subsidiaries the functional currency of which differs from that presentation
currency of the consolidated financial statements.

 Prepare a consolidated statement of comprehensive income
 Eliminate the results of inter-company transactions on consolidation
 Eliminate unrealised profit on consolidation
 Incorporate fair value adjustments during consolidation

Chapter 24: Consolidated statements of profit or loss and other comprehensive income
1 CONSOLIDATED STATEMENT OF PROFIT OR LOSS AND OTHER

COMPREHENSIVE INCOME
Section overview
 Consolidated statement of profit or loss: the basic rules

 Inter-company items
 Other adjustments
 Pre- and post-acquisition profits
1.1 Consolidated statement of profit or loss: the basic rules

A consolidated statement of profit or loss brings together the sales revenue,
income and expenses of the parent and the sales revenue, income and expenses
of its subsidiaries.
Similarly a consolidated statement of other comprehensive income brings
together the gains and losses of the parent and the gains and losses of its
subsidiaries.
In the consolidated statements, all items of income, expenses, gains and losses
are a straight cross cast of equivalent items in the individual financial statements
of the members of the group.
Consolidated financial statements must also disclose the profit or loss for the
period and the total comprehensive income for the period attributable to:
 owners of the parent company; and
 non-controlling interests.
The figure for NCI is simply their share of the subsidiary’s profit for the year that
has been included in the consolidated statement of comprehensive income.
The amounts attributable to the owners of the parent and the non-controlling
interest are shown as a metric (small table) immediately below the statement of
Illustration: Amounts attributable to the owners of the parent and the non-
controlling interest
Total comprehensive income attributable to: ₦
Owners of the parent (balancing figure) X
Non-controlling interests (x% of y) X
X
Where: x% is the NCI ownership interest

y is the subsidiary’s profit for the year that has been included
in the consolidated statement of comprehensive income

Corporate reporting
1.2 Inter-company items

Consolidated statements of profit or loss are prepared by combining the
information given in the statements of profit or loss of the individual companies.
It is usually necessary to make adjustments to eliminate the results of inter-
company trading. This includes adjustments to cancel out inter-company trading
balances and unrealised profit.
Inter-company trading
Inter-company trading will be included in revenue of one group company and
purchases of another. These are cancelled on consolidation.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Revenue X
Cost of sales (actually purchases within cost of sales) X
Unrealised profits on trading

If any items sold by one group company to another are included in inventory (i.e.
have not been sold on outside the group by the year end), their value must be
adjusted to lower of cost and net realisable value from the group viewpoint (as for
the consolidated statement of financial position).
This is an inventory valuation adjustment made in the consolidated financial
statements.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Closing inventory – Statement of comprehensive income X
Closing inventory – Statement of financial position X
The adjustment in the statement of comprehensive income reduces gross profit

and hence profit for the year. The NCI share in this reduced figure and the
balance is added to retained earnings. Thus, the adjustment is shared between
both ownership interests.
If the sale is from S to P the unrealised profit adjustment must be shared with the
NCI.

Inter-company management fees and interest

All other inter-company amounts must also be cancelled.
Where a group company charges another group company, management
fees/interest, there is no external group income or external group expense and
they are cancelled one against the other like inter-company sales and cost of
sales.
Illustration:
Debit Credit
Income (management fees) X
Expense (management charges) X
Inter-company dividends
The parent may have accounted for dividend income from a subsidiary. This is
cancelled on consolidation.
Dividends received from a subsidiary are ignored in the consolidation of the
statement of comprehensive income because the profit out of which they are paid
has already been consolidated.
1.3 Other adjustments
Fair value adjustments

Depreciation is charged on the carrying amount of assets.
If a depreciable asset is revalued on consolidation the depreciation stream that
relates to that asset will also need to be revalued.
This adjustment is carried out in the financial statements of the subsidiary. It will
affect the subsidiary’s profit after tax figure and therefore will affect the NCI.
Accounting for Impairment of goodwill

When purchased goodwill is impaired, the impairment does not affect the
individual financial statements of the parent company or the subsidiary. The
effect of the impairment applies exclusively to the consolidated statement of
financial position and the consolidated income statement.
If goodwill is impaired:
 It is written down in value in the consolidated statement of financial
position, and
 The amount of the write-down is charged as an expense in the
consolidated income statement (normally in administrative expenses).

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
P acquired 80% of S 3 years ago. Goodwill on acquisition was 80,000. The
recoverable amount of goodwill at the year-end was estimated to be 65,000. This
was the first time that the recoverable amount of goodwill had fallen below the
amount at initial recognition.
S sells goods to P. The total sales in the year were 100,000. At the year-end P
retains inventory from S which had cost S 30,000 but was in P’s books at 35,000.
The distribution costs of S include depreciation of an asset which had been
subject to a fair value increase of 100,000 on acquisition. This asset is being
written off on a straight line basis over 10 years.
The statements of profit or loss for the year to 31 December 20X1 are as follows:
P S
₦(000) ₦(000)
Revenue 1,000 800
Distribution costs (120) (75)
Administrative expenses (80) (20)
400 455
Dividend from S 80 -
Finance cost (25) (15)
Profit before tax 455 440
Tax (45) (40)
Profit for the period 410 400
Prepare the consolidated income statement for the year ended 31

December.
1.4 Pre- and post-acquisition profits

A change in ownership in the period will have an impact on the consolidated
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
The financial statements of a subsidiary must be consolidated from the date
control is achieved until the date that control is lost. In other words, the pattern of
ownership must be reflected in the statement of profit or loss and other
 All of an entity’s results are consolidated if it is controlled for the whole year
 If an entity is controlled for only part of the year, only those results that
relate to that part of the year are consolidated.
For example, if a parent acquires a subsidiary during a financial year, the profits
of the subsidiary have to be divided into pre-acquisition and post-acquisition and
only post acquisition profits are consolidated.

The following straightforward example is of a type that you have seen in previous
papers. Later chapters on step acquisitions and disposals will show more
complex applications of the principle.
Example: Consolidated statement of profit or loss (mid-year acquisition)

Entity P acquired 80% of S on 1 October 20X1.
The statements of profit or loss for the year to 31 December 20X1 are as follows:
P S
₦ ₦
Revenue 400,000 260,000
Cost of sales (200,000) (60,000)
Gross profit 200,000 200,000
Other income 20,000 -
Distribution costs (50,000) (30,000)
Administrative expenses (90,000) (95,000)
Profit before tax 80,000 75,000
Income tax expense (30,000) (15,000)
Profit for the period 50,000 60,000
A consolidated statement of comprehensive income can be prepared as follows:
Working
P S (3/12) Consolidated
₦ ₦ ₦
Revenue 400,000 65,000 465,000
Cost of sales (200,000) (15,000) (215,000)
Gross profit 200,000 50,000 250,000
Other income 20,000 – 20,000
Distribution costs (50,000) (7,500) (57,500)
Administrative
expenses (90,000) (23,750) (113,750)
Income tax expense (30,000) (3,750) (33,750)
Profit for the period 50,000 15,000 65,000
Total comprehensive income attributable to:

Owners of the parent (balancing figure) 62,000
Non-controlling interests (20% of 15,000) 3,000
65,000

Corporate reporting
2 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Prepare a basic consolidated statement of comprehensive income


Solutions 1
Consolidated statement of comprehensive income for the year ended 31 December.
Workings
P S Dr Cr Consol.
₦(000) ₦(000) ₦(000) ₦(000) ₦(000)
Revenue 1,000 800 (100) 1,700
Cost of sales (400) (250) 3(5) 100 (555)
Gross profit 600 550 (105) 100 1,145
Distribution costs (120) (75)
Fair value adjustment 1(10)
(120) (85) (205)

Administrative
expenses (80) (20) 2(15) (115)
400 445
Dividend from S 80 - (80)
Finance cost (25) (15) (40)
Profit before tax 455 430 785
Tax (45) (40) (85)
Profit for the period 410 390 (200) 100 700
Total comprehensive income attributable to: ₦(000)

Owners of the parent (balancing figure) 633
Non-controlling interests (20% of 390,000)  (20% of 35,000) 77
700
Notes:
1: Extra depreciation on fair value adjustment (100/10 years)
2: Goodwill impairment
3: Unrealised profit

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
25
Associates and joint ventures
Contents
1 IFRS 11: Joint arrangements
2 IAS 28: Investments in associates and joint ventures
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
1(a) Prepare and present extracts from the financial statements of a single entity
undertaking a variety of transactions on the basis of chosen accounting
regulations.
the above competencies that involve associates and joint ventures and transactions involving
associates and joint ventures.
Exam context
This chapter explains the accounting rules for joint operations, joint ventures and associates.

 Define and explain the differences between a joint operation, a joint ventures and an
associate
 Account for joint operations
 Explain equity accounting
 Measure investment in an associate or joint venture for inclusion in the statement of
financial position using equity accounting
 Measure share of profit of an associate or joint venture for inclusion in the statement of
 Account for unrealised profit on transactions between an associate or joint venture and
its parent or a member of the parent’s group

Chapter 25: Associates and joint ventures
1 IFRS 11: JOINT ARRANGEMENTS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Joint arrangements
 Types of joint arrangements
 Accounting for joint operations and joint ventures
1.1 Introduction
A controlling interest in an investee results in an investment (a subsidiary) which
is consolidated.
An interest in the equity shares of another company that gives no influence is
accounted for as follows:
 The shares are shown in the statement of financial position as long-term
assets (an investment) and valued in accordance with IAS 39 (IFRS 9); and
 Any dividends received for the shares are included in profit or loss for the
year as other income.
Other investments might result in joint control or significant influence. The rules
for accounting for these are given in:
 IFRS 11 Joint Arrangements: and
 IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint ventures.
This session introduces the rules on accounting for joint arrangements.
1.2 Joint arrangements
Definition
A joint arrangement is an arrangement of which two or more parties have joint
control.
Joint control is the contractually agreed sharing of control of an arrangement,
which exists only when decisions about the relevant activities require the
unanimous consent of the parties sharing control.
A joint arrangement has the following characteristics:

 The parties are bound by a contractual arrangement; and
 The contractual arrangement gives two or more of those parties joint
control of the arrangement.
Definition
A party to a joint arrangement is an entity that participates in a joint
arrangement, regardless of whether that entity has joint control of the
arrangement.

Corporate reporting
Contractual arrangement
Any contractual arrangement will usually be evidenced in writing, usually in the
form of a contract or documented discussions between the parties.
A joint arrangement might be structured through a separate vehicle in which case
some aspects of the contractual arrangement might be incorporated in its
articles, charter or by-laws.
Any contractual arrangement sets out the terms upon which the parties
participate in the activity that is the subject of the arrangement and would
generally deal with such matters as:
 the purpose, activity and duration of the joint arrangement;
 how the members of the board of directors, or equivalent governing body,
of the joint arrangement, are appointed;
 the decision-making process (the matters requiring decisions from the
parties, the voting rights of the parties and the required level of support for
those matters).
 the capital or other contributions required of the parties.
 how the parties share assets, liabilities, revenues, expenses or profit or loss
relating to the joint arrangement.
Joint control
IFRS 11 states that decisions about the relevant activities require unanimous
consent of all parties that collectively control the arrangement. It is not necessary
for every party to the arrangement to agree in order for unanimous consent to
exist. This requires agreement by only those parties that collectively control the
arrangement.
Day to day decision making might be delegated to a manager or to one of the
parties to the arrangement. In such cases, the situation would need to be
analysed to decide whether, in fact, decisions require the unanimous agreement
of the interested parties. Such an arrangement is still a joint arrangement when
the manager executes the policy decisions that have been agreed unanimously
by the investors.
Example: Joint control

In each of the following scenarios three entities A, B and C establish an
arrangement.
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3
Require the
Decisions Require at Require at least
unanimous
about relevant least 75% of 75% of voting
consent of A, B
activities voting rights rights
and C
Ownership
interest
A 50% 50% 50%
B 30% 30% 25%
C 20% 20% 25%
Required
For each scenario analyse whether a joint arrangement exists and which parties
have joint control.

Answer
Scenario 1
A, B and C have joint control of the arrangement and each must account for its
investment according to IFRS 11.
Scenario 2
Although A can block any decision, it does not control the arrangement because it
needs the agreement of B.
A and B have joint control of the arrangement. The terms of their contractual
arrangement requiring at least 75% of the voting rights to make decisions about
the relevant activities imply that A and B have joint control of the arrangement
because decisions about the relevant activities of the arrangement cannot be
made without both A and B agreeing.
A and B must each account for its investment according to IFRS 11.
C is a party to a joint arrangement but has no control.
Scenario 3
The arrangement can be controlled by A with B or by A with C. This means that no
party can be said to have joint control.
In order for this to be a joint arrangement the contractual terms would have to
specify which combination of parties is required to agree about the relevant
activities.
IFRS 11 does not apply to this investment.
1.3 Types of joint arrangements

There are two types of joint arrangement. A joint arrangement is either a joint
operation or a joint venture.
Definition
A joint operation is a joint arrangement whereby the parties that have joint
control of the arrangement have rights to the assets, and obligations for the
liabilities, relating to the arrangement. Those parties are called joint operators.
A joint venture is a joint arrangement where the parties that have joint control of
the arrangement have rights to the net assets of the arrangement. Those parties
are called joint venturers.
This classification depends on the rights and obligations of the parties to the
arrangement.
Investors may or may not establish a joint arrangement as a separate vehicle.
Definition
A separate vehicle is a separately identifiable financial structure, including
separate legal entities or entities recognised by statute, regardless of whether
those entities have a legal personality.

Corporate reporting
The application guidance to IFRS 11 says that if a joint arrangement is not

structured through a separate vehicle it must be a joint operation.
If a joint arrangement is structured through a separate vehicle it could be a joint
operation or a joint venture.
For a joint arrangement to be a joint venture it is the separate vehicle that must
have the rights to the assets and the obligations to the liabilities with the investor
only having an interest in the net assets of the entity. If an investor has a direct
interest in specific assets and direct obligation for specific liabilities of the
separate vehicle then the joint arrangement is a joint operation.
1.4 Accounting for joint operations and joint ventures

The method of accounting for an interest in a joint arrangement depends on what
type of joint arrangement it is.
Joint operations
A joint operator must recognise the following in its own financial statements:
 its assets, including its share of any assets held jointly;
 its liabilities, including its share of any liabilities incurred jointly;
 its revenue from the sale of its share of the output arising from the joint
operation;
 its share of the revenue from the sale of the output by the joint operation;
and
 its expenses, including its share of any expenses incurred jointly.
If an entity participates in, but does not have joint control of a joint operation but
has rights to the assets, and obligations for the liabilities, relating to the joint
operation it must also apply the above accounting treatment.
If an entity participates in, but does not have joint control of a joint operation and
also does not have rights to the assets, and obligations for the liabilities, relating
to the joint operation it must account for its interest in the joint operation in
accordance with the IFRSs applicable to that interest.
Amendment to IFRS 11
The amendment must be applied for annual periods beginning on or after 1
January 2016. Earlier application is permitted but must be disclosed.
When an entity acquires an interest in a joint operation in which the activity of the
joint operation constitutes a business (as defined in IFRS 3), it must apply the
principles on business combinations accounting in IFRS 3.
This applies to the acquisition of both the initial interest and additional interests in
a joint operation.
The principles on business combinations include:
 The measurement of identifiable assets and liabilities at fair value;
 Expensing acquisition-related costs;
 recognising goodwill; and
 impairment testing goodwill.

Joint ventures
A joint venturer must recognise its interest in a joint venture as an investment and
account for it using the equity method in accordance with IAS 28 Investments in
Associates and Joint Ventures unless the entity is exempted from applying the
equity method as specified in that standard.
If an entity participates in, but does not have joint control of a joint operation it
must account for its interest in the arrangement in accordance with IFRS 9
Financial Instruments, unless it has significant influence over the joint venture, in
which case it must account for it in accordance with IAS 28.
Example – Accounting for a joint operation

On 1 January 20X7, X and Y entered into a joint operation to purchase and
operate an oil pipeline.
Both entities contributed equally to the purchase cost of ₦20 million and this was
financed by a joint loan of ₦20,000,000.
Contract terms
Y carries out all maintenance work on the pipeline but maintenance expenses are
shared between B and C in the ratio 40%: 60%.
Both entities use the pipeline for their own operations and share any income from
third parties 50%: 50%. Sales to third parties are invoiced by Y.
The full interest on the loan is initially paid by X but the expense is to be shared
equally.
During the year ended 31 December 20X7
Y carried out maintenance at a cost of ₦1,200,000.
Income from third parties was ₦900,000, all paid to Y.
Interest of ₦1,500,000 was paid for the year on 31 December by X.
Required
Show the relevant figures that would be recognised in the financial statements of
X and Y for the year to 31 December 20X7.

Corporate reporting
Answer
In X In Y
Total financial financial
amount statements statements
Statement of financial position ₦ ₦ ₦
Jointly-controlled assets
Property, plant and equipment
Cost 20,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000
Share of liabilities incurred

Bank loan 20,000,000 10,000,000 10,000,000
Current: account with Y (owed by Y)
– see workings 720,000
Current: account with X (owed to X)
– see workings 720,000
Share of revenue
Income from third parties (50:50) 900,000 450,000 450,000
Share of expenses
Maintenance costs (40:60) 1,200,000 480,000 720,000
Interest on loan (50:50) 1,500,000 750,000 750,000
2,700,000 1,230,000 1,470,000
Workings
Income from third parties (50:50) 900,000 450,000 450,000
Maintenance costs (40:60) 1,200,000 480,000 720,000
Interest on loan (50:50) 1,500,000 750,000 750,000
(2,700,000) (1,230,000) (1,470.000)
(1,800,000) (780,000) (1,020.000)
Cash expense (1,500,000)(1,200,000)
Cash collected 900,000
Net cash expense (1,500,000) (300,000)
Cash due to X from Y 720,000 (720,000)

2 IAS 28: INVESTMENTS IN ASSOCIATES AND JOINT VENTURES
Section overview
 Associates and joint ventures

 Accounting for associates and joint ventures
 Trading with an associate or joint venture
2.1 Associates and joint ventures
Definition
An associate is an entity over which the investor has significant influence.
Significant influence
Significant influence is the power to participate in the financial and operating
policy decisions of the investee but is not control or joint control of those policies.
 IAS 28 states that if an entity holds 20% or more of the voting power
(equity) of another entity, it is presumed that significant influence exists,
and the investment should be treated as an associate.
 If an entity owns less than 20% of the equity of another entity, the normal
presumption is that significant influence does not exist.
Holding 20% to 50% of the equity of another entity therefore means as a general
rule that significant influence exists, but not control; therefore the investment is
treated as an associate, provided that it is not a joint venture.
The ‘20% or more’ rule is a general guideline, however, and IAS 28 states more
specifically how significant influence arises. The existence of significant influence
is usually evidenced in one or more of the following ways:
 Representation on the board of directors;
 Participation in policy-making processes, including participation in decisions
about distributions (dividends);
 Material transactions between the two entities;
 An interchange of management personnel between the two entities; or
 The provision of essential technical information by one entity to the other.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Accounting for associates and joint ventures

IAS 28 states that associates and joint ventures must be accounted for using the
equity method.
The equity method is defined as a method of accounting whereby the
investment is initially recognised at cost and adjusted thereafter for the post-
acquisition change in the investor’s share of the investee’s net assets.
The investor’s profit or loss includes its share of the investee’s profit or loss and
the investor’s other comprehensive income includes its share of the investee’s
other comprehensive income.
Statement of financial position: investment in the associate

In the statement of financial position of the reporting entity (the investor), an
investment in an associate is measured at:
Illustration: Equity method

₦
Cost of investment X
Plus/(Minus): Parent’s share of profits (losses) of the associate
(or JV) since acquisition X
Plus/(Minus): Parent’s share of OCI of the associate (or JV)
since acquisition X
Minus any impairment of the investment recognised (X)
X
There is no goodwill-recognised for an investment in an associate.

The accumulated profits of the reporting entity (or the consolidated accumulated
reserves when consolidated accounts are prepared) should include the investor’s
share of the post-acquisition retained profits of the associate (or JV), (minus any
impairment in the value of the investment since acquisition). This completes the
other side of the entry when the investment is remeasured.
Similarly any other reserve of the reporting entity (or any other consolidated
reserves when consolidated accounts are prepared) should include the investor’s
share of the post-acquisition movement in the reserve of the associate (or JV).
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income

In the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income, there should
be separate lines for:
 ‘Share of profits of associate (or JV)’ in the profit and loss section of the
statement
 ‘Share of other comprehensive income of associate (or JV)’ in the ‘other
comprehensive income’ section of the statement.

Example: Equity method

Entity P acquired 30% of the equity shares in Entity A during Year 1 at a cost of
₦147,000 when the fair value of the net assets of Entity A was ₦350,000.
Entity P is able to exercise significant influence over Entity A.
At 31 December Year 5, the net assets of Entity A were ₦600,000.
In the year to 31 December Year 5, the profits of Entity A after tax were ₦80,000.
The figures that must be included to account for the associate in the financial
statements of Entity P for the year to 31 December Year 5 are as follows:
Statement of financial position:
The investment in the associate is as follows:
₦
Investment at cost 147,000
Investor’s share of post-acquisition profits of A (W1) 75,000
Minus: Accumulated impairment in the investment (18,000)
Investment in the associate 204,000
W1 Retained post-acquisition profits of Entity A ₦

Net assets of the associate at 31 December Year 5 600,000
Net assets of Entity A at date of acquisition of shares (350,000)
Retained post-acquisition profits of Entity A 250,000
Entity P’s share of A 30%
Entity P’s share of A’s profits since the date of acquisition ₦75,000
Note: ₦75,000 will be included in the accumulated profits of Entity P

The journal to achieve the re-measurement is
Dr Cost ₦75,000 and Cr Accumulated profits ₦75,000

The share of the associate’s after-tax profit for the year is shown on a separate
line as:
Share of profits of associate (30% × ₦80,000): ₦24,000.

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
Entity P acquired 40% of the equity shares in Entity A during Year 1 at a
cost of ₦128,000 when the fair value of the net assets of Entity A was
₦250,000.
Since that time, the investment in the associate has been impaired by
₦8,000.
Since acquisition of the investment, there has been no change in the issued
share capital of Entity A, nor in its share premium reserve or revaluation
reserve.
On 31 December Year 5, the net assets of Entity A were ₦400,000.
In the year to 31 December Year 5, the profits of Entity A after tax were
₦50,000.
What figures would be included for the associate in the financial
statements of Entity P for the year to 31 December Year 5?

2.3 Trading with an associate or joint venture

There might be trading between a parent and an associate (or JV). If in addition
to the associate (or JV) the parent holds investments in subsidiaries there might
also be trading between other members of the group and the associate (or JV).
In such cases there might be:
 Inter-company balances (amounts owed between the parent (or group) and
the associate (or JV) in either direction); and
 Unrealised profit on inter-company transactions.
The accounting rules for dealing with these items for associate (or JVs) are
different from the rules for subsidiaries.
Inter-company balances
Inter-company balances between the members of a group (parent and
subsidiaries) are cancelled out on consolidation.
Inter-company balances between the members of a group (parent and
subsidiaries) and associates (or JVs) are not cancelled out on consolidation. An
associate (or JV) is not a member of the group but is rather an investment made
by the group. This means that it is entirely appropriate that consolidated financial
statements show amounts owed by the external party as an asset and amount
owed to the external party as a liability.
This is also the case if a parent has an associate (or JV) and no subsidiaries. The
parent must equity account for the investment. Once again, it is entirely
appropriate that consolidated financial statements show amounts owed by the
external party as an asset and amount owed to the external party as a liability.

Corporate reporting
Unrealised inter-group profit

Unrealised inter-company (intra-group) profit between a parent and a member of
a group must be eliminated in full on consolidation.
For unrealised profit arising on trade between a parent and associate (or JV)
only the parent’s share of the unrealised profit is eliminated.
IAS 28 does not specify the double entry to achieve this.
The following are often used in practice
Parent sells to associate (or JV):
 The unrealised profit is held in inventory of the associate (or JV). The
investment in the associate (or JV) should be reduced by the parent’s share
of the unrealised profit.
 The other side of the entry increases cost of sales
Illustration: Unrealised profit double entry when parent sells to associate

Debit Credit
Cost of sales X
Investment in associate X
Associate (or JV) sells to parent:

 The unrealised profit is held in inventory of the parent and this should be
reduced in value by the parent’s share of the unrealised profit.
 The other side of the entry reduces the parent’s share of the profit of the
associate (or JV).
Illustration: Unrealised profit double entry when associate sells to parent

Debit Credit
Share of profit of associate X
Inventory X
In both cases, there will also be a reduction in the post-acquisition profits of the
associate (or JV), and the investor entity’s share of those profits (as reported in
profit or loss). This will reduce the accumulated profits in the statement of
financial position.

Example: Unrealised profit

Entity P acquired 40% of the equity shares of Entity A several years ago. The cost
of the investment was ₦205,000.
As at 31 December Year 6 Entity A had made profits of ₦275,000 since the date
of acquisition.
In the year to 31 December Year 6, Entity P sold goods to Entity A at a sales price
of ₦200,000 at a mark-up of 100% on cost.
Goods which had cost Entity A ₦30,000 were still held as inventory by Entity A at
the year-end.
The necessary adjustments for unrealised profit, and the double entries are as
follows:
Unrealised profit adjustment ₦

Inventory sold by P to A 200,000
Profit on the sale ( 100%/200%) 100,000
Unrealised profit ( ₦30,000/₦200,000) 15,000
Entity P’s share (40%) 6,000
Double entries: Dr(₦) Cr(₦)

Investment in associate 110,000
Accumulated profits 110,000
Being: Share of post-acquisition profits (40% of ₦275,000)
Dr(₦) Cr(₦)
Cost of sales (hence accumulated profit) 6,000
Being: Elimination of share of unrealised profit (see above)
Investment in associate (see above for adjustments) ₦

Cost of the investment 205,000
Entity P’s share of post-acquisition profits of Entity A 110,000
Minus: Entity P’s share of unrealised profit in inventory (6,000)
309,000

Corporate reporting
Practice question 2
Entity P acquired 30% of the equity shares of Entity A several years ago at a
cost of ₦275,000.
As at 31 December Year 6 Entity A had made profits of ₦380,000 since the
date of acquisition.
In the year to 31 December Year 6, the reported profits after tax of Entity A
were ₦100,000.
In the year to 31 December Year 6, Entity P sold goods to Entity A for
₦180,000 at a mark-up of 20% on cost.
Goods which had cost Entity A ₦60,000 were still held as inventory by
Entity A at the year-end.
a) Calculate the unrealised profit adjustment and state the double
entry.
b) Calculate the investment in associate balance that would be
included in Entity P’s statement of fiancial position as at 31
December Year 6.
c) Calculate the amount that would appear as a share of profit of
associate in Entity P’s statement of profit or loss for the year
ending 31 December Year 6.

3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define and explain the differences between a joint operation, a joint ventures and
an associate
 Account for joint operations
 Explain equity accounting
 Measure investment in an associate or joint venture for inclusion in the statement
of financial position using equity accounting
 Measure share of profit of an associate or joint venture for inclusion in the
statement of comprehensive income
 Account for unrealised profit on transactions between an associate or joint
venture and its parent or a member of the parent’s group

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
The figures that must be included to account for the associate in the financial
statements of Entity P for the year to 31 December Year 5 are as follows:
The investment in the associate is as follows:
₦
Investment at cost 128,000
Investor’s share of post-acquisition profits of A (W1) 60,000
Minus: Accumulated impairment in the investment (8,000)
Investment in the associate 180,000
W1 Retained post-acquisition profits of Entity A ₦

Net assets of the associate at 31 December Year 5 400,000
Net assets of Entity A at date of acquisition of shares (250,000)
Retained post-acquisition profits of Entity A 150,000
Entity P’s share of A 40%
Entity P’s share of A’s profits since the date of acquisition ₦60,000

The share of the associate’s after-tax profit for the year is shown on a separate line as:

Solution 2
a) Unrealised profit adjustment ₦
Inventory sold by P to A 180,000
Profit on the sale ( 20%/120%) 30,000
Unrealised profit ( ₦60,000/₦180,000) 10,000
Entity P’s share (30%) 3,000
Double entry Dr(₦) Cr(₦)

Cost of sales (hence accumulated profit) 3,000
Being: Elimination of share of unrealised profit (see above)
b) Investment in associate (see above for adjustments) ₦

Cost of the investment 275,000
Entity P’s share of post-acquisition profits of Entity A (30% of
₦380,000) 114,000
Minus: Entity P’s share of unrealised profit in inventory (3,000)
386,000
c) Statement of profit or loss

The share of the associate’s after-tax profit for the year is shown on a
separate line as:

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
26
achieved in stages
Contents
1 Acquisitions achieved in stages
2 Pattern of ownership in the consolidated statement of
profit or loss
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
regulations.
Exam context
This chapter explains how an entity should account for an acquisition achieved in stage.
It also explains how an entity should account for purchase of further interests in a subsidiary
after control has been achieved.
 Explain and apply the requirements of IFRS 3 with regard to the calculation of goodwill
when a control of an entity is achieved by more than one purchase of shares.
 Explain and apply the requirements of IFRS 10 on how to account for a purchase of a
further interest in a subsidiary once control has been achieved.

Chapter 26: Business combinations achieved in stages
1 ACQUISITIONS ACHIEVED IN STAGES
Section overview
 Acquisitions achieved in stages

 Purchase of additional equity interest after control is achieved
1.1 Acquisitions achieved in stages

As well as being achieved in a single transaction control might be achieved
through a series of transactions. (These are known as step acquisitions,
successive share purchases or piecemeal acquisitions).
Example: Step acquisition

A company may purchase a 35% stake, and then a year later, purchase a further
40%.
When the second purchase is made the company’s interest in the subsidiary
increases from 35% to 75%.
This is a controlling interest.
In other words control is achieved at the date of the second acquisition.
This is the date of acquisition.
Consolidation is from the acquisition date which is the date that control is
achieved. Goodwill is calculated at the acquisition date with reference to the fair
value of the consideration:
IFRS 3 requires that, for a business combination achieved in stages, the parent
must remeasure any previously held equity interest in the new subsidiary to its
fair value at the date that control is achieved. This is added to the cost of the
investment that resulted in control. This figure is used to calculate goodwill.
Goodwill is measured as follows.
₦
The acquisition-date fair value of the acquirer’s previously
held equity interest in the entity X
X
assets acquired and liabilities assumed X
The resulting gain or loss on the remeasurement of the previously held equity
interest is recognised in profit or loss or other comprehensive income, as
appropriate.

Corporate reporting

H bought 10% of S 2 years ago for ₦45m. The balance on S’s retained earnings
was ₦150m at this date.
H bought 60% of S 1 year ago for ₦540m. The balance on S’s retained earnings
was ₦300m at this date and S held a non-current asset with a fair value of
₦150m more than its carrying amount.
The fair value of the original investment (10%) in S was ₦60m at this date.
Statements of financial position for H and S as at 31 December 20X1:
H S
Assets: ₦m ₦m
Investment in S: -
First holding (10%) 45 -
Second holding (60%) 540 -
585 -
Other assets 2,500 650
3,085 650
Equity
Share capital 100 100
Retained earnings 2,485 500
2,585 600
3,085 650
H Group: Consolidated statement of financial position at 31 December
20X1
₦m
Assets
Goodwill (see working) 215
Other assets (2,500 + (650 + 150)) 3,300
Total assets 3,515
Equity
Share capital (P only) 100
Consolidated retained earnings (see working) 2,640
2,740
Non-controlling interest (see working) 225
2,965
Current liabilities (500 + 50) 550

Example (continued): Net assets summary of S

Retained earnings 500 300 200
Fair value reserve 150 150
Net assets 750 550
Non-controlling interest ₦m
NCI’s share of net assets at the date of acquisition (30%  550) 165
(30% of 200 (see above)) 60
(30%  550) 225
Goodwill ₦m
Cost of investment
Cost of second purchase (60%) 540
Fair value of first purchase (10%) – (45 + 15) 60
600
Non-controlling interest at acquisition 165
765
Net assets at acquisition (see above) (550)
215
Consolidated retained profits: ₦m

H’s retained earnings
Per the question 2,485
Gain on remeasurement of previously held equity interest in S
(60  45) 15
2,500
H’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S (70% of
200 (see above)) 140
2,640

Corporate reporting
Practice question 1
Company P bought shares in Company T as follows:
Cost Retained
profits
$ $
1 January Year 1 40,000 shares 180,000 500,000
30 June Year 4 120,000 shares 780,000 800,000
No fair value adjustments arose on the acquisitions.

Company T had issued share capital of 200,000 $1 ordinary shares
and retained profits at 31 December Year 4 were $900,000. The fair
value of its initial investment in 40,000 shares of T was $250,000 at
30 June Year 4.
What is the value goodwill on acquisition.
Practice question 2
Company P bought shares in Company T as follows:
Cost Retained
profits
$ $
30 June Year 4 120,000 shares 780,000 800,000
No fair value adjustments arose on the acquisition. Between 1 January

Year 1 and 30 June Year 4, Company T was treated as an associate
and the investment in T was accounted for by the equity method. There
was no impairment in the investment.
Company T had issued share capital of 200,000 $1 ordinary shares.
The fair value of its initial investment in 40,000 shares of T was
$250,000 at 30 June Year 4.
What gain or loss should be recognised on 30 June Year 4 on the initial
investment in 40,000 shares of Company T?

1.2 Purchase of additional equity interest after control is achieved

A company may make a further purchase of shares after control has been
achieved.
This is a transaction between the owners of the subsidiary (the controlling
interest and the non-controlling interest) which will cause the non-controlling
interest to change.
Any difference between the purchase consideration and the change in the non-
controlling interest is recognised directly in equity.
The equity adjustment
Illustration: Equity adjustment
₦
Consideration paid X
Reduction in non-controlling interest at the date of the purchase (X)
Equity adjustment X
The reduction in non-controlling interest at the date of the purchase is the share
of net assets given up by the non-controlling interest at that date. This requires a
working to show the net assets of the subsidiary at that date.
This is very similar to the goodwill working but this figure is not goodwill. Goodwill
arises at the acquisition date (the date at which control is achieved).
Non-controlling interest (NCI)

The NCI in the statement of financial position at the reporting date is based on
the percentage holdings at that date.
Group policy might be to measure NCI as a proportionate share of net assets at
the acquisition date. In this case the NCI at the reporting date can be easily
measured as the NCI share of assets at that date.
If group policy is to measure NCI at fair value at the acquisition date the
calculation can be quite tricky. In this case, you have to start with the NCI at the
acquisition date and adjust it by the appropriate NCI share of profits since that
date. This must be adjusted by NCI share of profits sold at the date of the second
purchase by the parent.
Illustration: Non-controlling interest (NCI)

₦
NCI at the date of acquisition (Original NCI %  Net assets at that date) X
NCI’s share of retained earnings of S from the acquisition date to the
date of the second purchase (based on original NCI %) X
NCI’s share of retained earnings of S from the date of the second
purchase to the reporting date (based on the new NCI %) X
Share of profits disposed of at date of second purchase
NCI at the date of consolidation X

Corporate reporting
This is best demonstrated using figures and is shown in the following example.
Consolidated retained earnings

This must be calculated in the usual way by adding the parent’s share of the
subsidiary’s post acquisition retained profits to those of the parent but
remembering to make the equity adjustment.
The parent’s share of the subsidiary’s post acquisition retained profits must be
measured as two figures.
Illustration: parent’s share of the subsidiary’s post acquisition retained profits

₦
Parent’s share of retained earnings of S from the acquisition date
to the date of consolidation (Original % held) X
Parent’s share of retained earnings of S from date of second
purchase to the date of consolidation (Incremental NCI% held) X
Equity adjustment X/(X)
X
Again this is best demonstrated using figures and is shown in the following
example. Work through it carefully.
Example: Purchase of additional equity interest after control is achieved

H bought 60% of S 2 years ago for ₦540m. The balance on S’s retained earnings
was ₦150m.
H bought 10% of S 1 year ago for ₦45m. The balance on S’s retained earnings was
₦300m at this date.
Statements of financial position H and S as at 31 December 20X1:
H S
Assets: ₦m ₦m
Investment in S: 585 -
Other assets 2,500 650
3,085 650
Equity
Retained earnings 2,485 500
2,585 600
3,085 650
The NCI was 40% at the date of the first acquisition and remained the same
until the date of the second purchase at which time it changed to 30%;

Example (continued) : Purchase of additional equity interest after control is

achieved

H Group: Consolidated statement of financial position at 31 December
20X1
₦m
Assets
Goodwill (W3) 390
Other assets (2,500 + 650) 3,150
Total assets 3,540
Equity
Share capital (P only) 100
Consolidated retained earnings (see working) 2,710
2,810
Non-controlling interest (see working) 180
2,990
Current liabilities (500 + 50) 550
W1: Net assets summary of S

At date of
consolidation 1 year ago 2 years ago
Share capital 100 100 100
Retained earnings 500 300 150
Net assets 600 400 250
W2: Non-controlling interest ₦m

(30% of 600 W1 ) 180
A proof of this figure is shown at the end of the example

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Purchase of additional equity interest after control is

achieved
W3: Goodwill ₦m
Non-controlling interest at acquisition (40% of 250) 100
640
Net assets at acquisition (see above) (250)
390
W4: Equity adjustment ₦m

Non-controlling interest sold (10% of 400) (40)
5
Consolidated retained profits: ₦m

H’s retained earnings 2,485
Equity adjustment W4 (5)
H’s share of the post-acquisition retained earnings of S
(60% of (500  150) W1 210
(10% of (500  300) W1 20
2,710
Non-controlling interest (Proof) ₦m

NCI’s share of net assets at the date of acquisition (40%  250) 100
from date of acquisition to the date of the later purchase
((40% of 300  150) W1)) 60
160
Less movement in NCI at date of second purchase(10% of 400) (40)
from date of second purchase to the date of consolidation
((30% of 500  300) W1)) 60
(30% of 600) W1 180

Practice question 3
Company H bought shares in Company S as follows:
Cost Retained
profits
$ $
30 June Year 4 40,000 shares 270,000 800,000
No fair value adjustments arose on the acquisition.

Company S has issued share capital of 200,000 $1 ordinary shares.
What was the goodwill arising on the acquisition?
Practice question 4
Company H bought shares in Company S as follows:
Cost Retained
profits
$ $
30 June Year 4 40,000 shares 270,000 800,000
No fair value adjustments arose on the acquisition. There has been no

impairment of goodwill since the acquisition. No goodwill is attributed
to non-controlling interests.
Company S has issued share capital of 200,000 $1 ordinary shares.
What journal is required on the acquisition of the 40,000 shares in
Company S on 30 June Year 4?

Corporate reporting
2 PATTERN OF OWNERSHIP IN THE CONSOLIDATED STATEMENT OF

PROFIT OR LOSS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Step acquisition
 Purchase of additional equity interest after control is achieved
 Purchase turning significant influence into control
2.1 Introduction
The pattern of ownership must be reflected in the statement of profit or loss and
other comprehensive income.
A change in ownership in the period will have an impact on the consolidated
statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive income.
Illustration: Pattern of ownership
Date of
acquisition
Situation 1 is the basic situation which you will have seen before. The results
must be consolidated from the date that control is achieved.
Situations 2 to 4 are explained in more detail in the following sections

2.2 Step acquisition

Situation 2: In this case the parent had a previously held equity interest. This
gave the parent no influence. Control was achieved by the second acquisition
and consolidation commences from that point.

H has owned 10% of S for several years
H bought a further 60% of S on 30th September 20X1.
Statements of profit or loss for the year ended 31 December 20X1:
H S
₦m ₦m
Revenue 10,000 6,000
Cost of sales (7,000) (4,800)
Expenses (1,000) (300)
Profit before tax 2,000 900
Income tax (500) (160)
Profit after tax 1,500 740
Working
H S (3/12) Consolidated
₦ ₦ ₦
Revenue 10,000 1,500 11,500
Cost of sales (7,000) (1,200) (8,200)
Gross profit 3,000 300 3,300
Expenses (1,000) (75) (1,075)
Income tax expense (500) (40) (540)
Profit for the period 1,500 185 1,685

Non-controlling interests (30% of 185) 56
1,685

Corporate reporting
2.3 Purchase of additional equity interest after control is achieved

Situation 3: In this case the parent has a subsidiary for the whole year.
Therefore the results of that subsidiary must be consolidated for the whole year.
However, the pattern of ownership changes during the year. The pattern of
ownership is reflected in the statement of profit or loss by applying the
appropriate NCI to the results for that part of the year in which that NCI was valid.
Example:
H has owned 60% of S for several years
H S
₦m ₦m
Revenue 10,000 6,000
Cost of sales (7,000) (4,800)
Expenses (1,000) (300)
Profit after tax 1,500 740
Working
H S Consolidated
₦ ₦ ₦
Revenue 10,000 6,000 16,000
Cost of sales (7,000) (4,800) (11,800)
Gross profit 3,000 1,200 4,200
Expenses (1,000) (300) (1,300)
Profit before tax 2,000 900 2,900

Non-controlling interests
40%  9/12  740 222
30%  3/12  740 56
278
2,240

2.4 Purchase turning significant influence into control

Situation 4: In this case the parent had significant influence in the first part of the
years and then made an acquisition which achieved control. The results for the
year must be split into two parts. The results for the period in which the parent
had significant influence must be equity accounted. The results for the period in
which the parent had control must be consolidated.
Example: Step acquisition (associate to subsidiary)

H has owned 40% of S for several years. This holding gave H significant influence
over S.
H S
₦m ₦m
Revenue 10,000 6,000
Cost of sales (7,000) (4,800)
Expenses (1,000) (300)
Profit for the period 1,500 740
Working
H S (3/12) Consolidated
₦ ₦ ₦
Revenue 10,000 1,500 11,500
Cost of sales (7,000) (1,200) (8,200)
Gross profit 3,000 300 3,300
Expenses (1,000) (75) (1,075)
Share of profit of
associate
(40%  9/12  740) 222

Non-controlling interests (30% of 185) 56
1,907

Corporate reporting
3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
Before moving on to the next chapter check that you know how to:
 Explain and apply the requirements of IFRS 3 with regard to the calculation of
goodwill when a control of an entity is achieved by more than one purchase of
shares.
 Explain and apply the requirements of IFRS 10 on how to account for a purchase
of a further interest in a subsidiary once control has been achieved.


Solution 1
Goodwill is calculated when control is acquired (IFRS 3).
₦
Fair value of original investment 250,000
Cost of additional shares 780,000
Cost of investment to acquire T 1,030,000
Net assets acquired (160/200  (800 + 200)) 800,000
Goodwill 230,000
Goodwill is calculated when control is acquired (IFRS 3)
Solution 2
A step acquisition occurs in June Year 4. The original investment is re-valued at fair
value.
₦
Cost of original investment 180,000
Share of retained profits of associate (20%  (800 – 500) 60,000
240,000
Gain recognised in profit or loss 10,000
Goodwill is calculated when control is acquired (IFRS 3)
Solution 3
Goodwill is calculated when control is acquired (IFRS 3). This is on purchase of the
first investment.
₦
Net assets acquired (120/200  (500 + 200)) 420,000
Goodwill 180,000

Corporate reporting
Solution 4
Dr Cr
Equity attributable to parent $70,000
Non-controlling interest $200,000
Bank $70,000
The acquisition of the extra 40,000 shares does not affect control of Company S, and
it is therefore accounted for as an equity transaction between equity owners of the
company in their capacity as owners. IAS 27 states that any difference between
cash paid and the adjustment made to NCI is attributed to parent equity

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
27
Disposal of subsidiaries
Contents
1 Full disposals
2 Part disposals
3 Disposal of a subsidiary which does not contain a
business
4 IFRS 5 and disposals
5 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
regulations.
Exam context
This chapter explains how to account for a disposal of a subsidiary including how to deal with
a disposal that satisfies the IFRS 5, discontinued operations criteria.
 Calculate the profit or loss arising on disposal from the group viewpoint
 Complete a statement of profit or loss for a period in which there has been a disposal
of a subsidiary
 Complete a statement of profit or loss for a period in which there has been a disposal
of a subsidiary and that disposal constitutes a discontinued operation

Chapter 27: Disposal of subsidiaries
1 FULL DISPOSALS
Section overview
 Introduction
 Pattern of ownership
 Profit or loss on disposal
 Step by step approach
1.1 Introduction
A parent company might dispose of a holding in a subsidiary.
IFRS 10 Consolidated Financial Statements contains rules on accounting for
disposals of a subsidiary.
Accounting for a disposal is an issue that impacts the statement of profit or loss.
There are two major tasks in constructing a statement of profit or loss for a period
during which there has been a disposal of a subsidiary:
 The statement of profit or loss must reflect the pattern of ownership of
subsidiaries in the period.
 When control is lost, the statement of profit or loss must show the profit or
loss on disposal of the subsidiary.
The rules in IFRS 10 cover full disposals and part disposals.

When a parent makes a part disposal of an interest in a subsidiary it will be left
with a residual investment. The accounting treatment for a part disposal depends
on the nature of the residual investment.
If a part disposal results in loss of control the parent must recognise a profit or
loss on disposal in the consolidated statement of profit or loss.
A part disposal which does not result in loss of control is a transaction between
the owners of the subsidiary. In this case the parent does not recognise a profit
or loss on disposal in the consolidated statement of profit or loss. Instead the
parent recognises an equity adjustment.

Corporate reporting
1.2 Pattern of ownership

The pattern of ownership in a period is always reflected in the consolidated
IFRS 11 requires that an interest in a subsidiary is consolidated from the date of
acquisition to the date of disposal.
Illustration: Disposal during the year
An interest in an associate must also be equity accounted from the date that
significant influence is achieved to the date that it is lost.
Thus, the figures from the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income that relate to the period up to the date of disposal must be identified. In
practice, this would normally be achieved by constructing a set of accounts up to
the date of disposal. In exam questions we tend to use time apportionment.
There is another reason for consolidating up to the date of disposal. The
calculation of the profit on disposal involves comparing the sale proceeds to what
leaves the statement of financial positon as at the date of disposal. Therefore, the
results of the subsidiary must be consolidated up to the date of disposal in order
to establish the correct net assets figure.

1.3 Profit or loss on disposal

IFRS 11 specifies an approach to calculating the profit or loss on disposal.
This approach involves comparing the asset that is recognised as a result of the
disposal (i.e. the proceeds of the sale) to the amounts that are derecognised as a
result of the disposal.
The calculation is as follows:
Illustration: Profit (loss) on disposal

Recognise: ₦
Proceeds X
Fair value of residual interest (only for part disposals) X
X
Derecognise:
Net assets of subsidiary X
Non-controlling interest (X)
Share of net assets (X)
Unimpaired goodwill (X)
X
Example: Profit on disposal of a subsidiary

On 1 January Year 9, H plc acquired 90% of the equity shares of S Ltd for ₦120
million.
The fair value of the identifiable net assets in S Ltd at that date was ₦111
million. The fair value of the NCI at 1 January Year 9 was ₦9 million.
H plc uses the full goodwill method for consolidation leading to the recognition of
good will of ₦18m ((₦120m + ₦9m  ₦111m).
H plc subsequently sold the shares on 31 December Year 9 for ₦197 million. The
carrying value of the net assets of S Ltd at 31 December Year 9 was ₦124
million.
The gain on disposal recognised in profit or loss should be calculated as follows:
₦m
Consideration received for shares in S Ltd on 31 December 197.0
Net assets de-recognised in consolidated accounts
Net assets de-recognised 124.0
Value of NCI at 31 December (10%  124 million) (12.4)
111.6
Goodwill de-recognised: (120 + 9 – 111) 18.0
Net assets sold (129.6)
Gain on disposal, reported in profit or loss 67.4

Corporate reporting
The calculation of profit or loss on disposal must be supported by several other

calculations. These are:
 the goodwill arising on acquisition, which in turn needs the net assets of the
subsidiary at the date of acquisition; and
 the net assets of the subsidiary at the date of disposal, which in turn needs
a calculation of the equity reserves at the date of disposal.
Example:
At 1 January Year 9, H plc held 80% of the equity of S Ltd. The carrying value of
the net assets of S Ltd at this date was ₦570 million.
There was also goodwill of ₦20 million net of accumulated impairments relating
to the investment in S Ltd: all this goodwill is attributable to the equity owners of
H plc.
On 1 April Year 9, H plc sold its entire shareholding in S Ltd for ₦575 million in
cash.
H plc has a financial year ending 31 December. It was subsequently established
that the profit after tax of S Ltd for the year to 31 December Year 9 was ₦120
million.
S Ltd did not make any dividend payment during the year before the disposal of
the shares.
How should the disposal of the shares be accounted for? (Ignore deferred
taxation).
Answer
In the three months of the year to the date of disposal of the shares in S Ltd, the
after-tax profit of S Ltd was ₦30 million (₦120 million  3/12).
The carrying value of the net assets of S Ltd at the date that control was lost is
therefore ₦600 million (₦570 million + ₦30 million).
The gain on disposal of the shares is as follows:
₦ million
Consideration received from sale of shares 575
Net assets derecognised (including goodwill) 620
NCI removed/derecognised (120)
H plc’s share of assets derecognised (500)
Total gain 75

Practice question 1
P bought 80% of the issued ordinary shares of S twenty five years ago at a
cost of ₦330,000 when the net assets of S amounted to ₦280,000.
No goodwill is attributed to the non-controlling interests. Goodwill arising on
the acquisition has suffered an impairment of 80% of its original value.
On the final day of the current accounting period P sold its entire
shareholding in S for proceeds of ₦460,000. At this date the net assets of
S amounted to ₦400,000.
What is the profit or loss on disposal reported in consolidated profit or loss
for the current period?
1.4 Step by step approach

The following approach can be used to prepare answers to questions requiring a
consolidated statement of profit or loss when there is a disposal of a subsidiary
during the year.
Step 1: Reflect the pattern of ownership
Construct a pro-forma answer with columns for the parent, the subsidiary and the
consolidated figures.
Enter the figures to be consolidated remembering to prorate the subsidiary’s
figures up to the date of disposal and add across to give the consolidated figures.
The non-controlling interest can be calculated from the subsidiary’s column.
Step 2: Construct the following workings:
 Net assets summary as at the date of disposal and the date of acquisition
 Retained earnings as at the date of disposal (for the above);
 Goodwill arising on acquisition (using the net assets at the date of
acquisition from the net assets summary)
Step 3: Calculate the profit or loss on disposal
Step 4: Include the profit or loss on disposal into the consolidated statement of
profit or loss and finish it off.
Work through the following example carefully.

Corporate reporting
Example: Facts
Example: Disposal of subsidiary

The following financial statements are to the year-end 31 December 20X4
H S
Statements of profit or loss ₦000 ₦000
Revenue 22,950 8,800
Expenses (10,000) (5,000)
Operating profit 12,950 3,800
Tax (5,400 (2,150)
Profit after tax 7,550 1,650
Statement of changes in equity ₦000 ₦000

Retained earnings b/f 3,760 1,850
Retained earnings c/f 11,310 3,500
a. H plc bought 90% of S Ltd 4 years ago for ₦3,750,000 when the
retained earnings of S ltd were ₦500,000.
S Ltd has share capital of ₦3,000,000.
b. H plc sold its entire holding in S Ltd on 30 September 20X4 for
₦9,500,000.
c. S Ltd does not qualify to be treated as a discontinued operation
under IFRS5.
Prepare the consolidated statement of profit or loss for the year ended
31 December 20X4.

Answer
H S (9/12) Group
Statements of profit or loss ₦000 ₦000 ₦000
Revenue 22,950 6,600 29,550
Expenses (10,000) (3,750) (13,750)
Operating profit 12,950 2,850 15,800
Profit on disposal (W)
Profit before tax
Tax (5,400) (1,612) (7,012)
Profit attributable to: ₦000

Owners of the parent
Non-controlling interest (10% of 1,238) 124
Profit for the year

Corporate reporting
Step 2: Key workings
Answer
W1: Net assets summary
disposal acquisition
₦000 ₦000
Retained earnings (W2) 3,088 500
Net assets 6,088 3,500
W2: Retained earnings at date of disposal ₦000

Retained earnings at start of year 1,850
Profit for the period up to the date of disposal
(9/12  1,650,000) 1,238
W3: Goodwill ₦000

Non-controlling interest at acquisition
(10%  3,500,000 (W1)) 350
4,100
600
Step 3: Profit on disposal
Answer
W4: Profit on disposal ₦000
Sale proceeds 9,500
Derecognise:
Net assets at date of disposal (W1) 6,088
NCI at date of disposal (10%  6,088,000 (W1)) (609)
(5,479)
Goodwill (W3) (600)
3,421

Step 4: Complete the answer
Answer
H Plc: Consolidated statement of profit or loss for the year ended 31 December
20X4
H S (9/12) Group
Revenue 22,950 6,600 29,550
Expenses (10,000) (3,750) (13,750)
Profit on disposal (W) 3,421
Tax (5,400) (1,612) (7,012)
Profit after tax 7,550 1,238 12,209

Profit for the year 12,209

Corporate reporting
2 PART DISPOSALS
Section overview
 Part disposal with loss of control

 Part disposal with no loss of control
2.1 Part disposal with loss of control

As stated previously there are two major tasks in constructing a statement of
profit or loss for a period during which there has been a disposal of a subsidiary:
 The statement of profit or loss must reflect the pattern of ownership of
subsidiaries in the period.
 When control is lost, the statement of profit or loss must show the profit or
loss on disposal of the subsidiary.
When a parent makes a part disposal of an interest in a subsidiary it will be left
with a residual investment. The accounting treatment for a part disposal depends
on the nature of the residual investment.
If a part disposal results in loss of control the parent must recognise a profit or
loss on disposal in the consolidated statement of profit or loss.
The pattern of ownership must reflect the nature of the residual investment.
IFRS calculation of profit on disposal has been shown before but is repeated
here for your convenience.
Illustration: Profit (loss) on disposal

Recognise: ₦
Proceeds X
Fair value of residual interest (only for part disposals) X
X
Derecognise:
Net assets of subsidiary X
Non-controlling interest (X)
Share of net assets (X)
Unimpaired goodwill (X)
X

Example: Profit on part disposal of a subsidiary

H plc acquired 90% of the equity shares of S Ltd for ₦120 million.
Goodwill on consolidation was ₦18m
There had been no impairment of goodwill since the date of acquisition.
H plc sold a 50% holding (leaving it with a 40% holding) for ₦100 million. This
transaction resulted in H plc losing control of S ltd.
The fair value of the residual investment (i.e. the remaining 40%) was estimated
to be ₦70
The carrying value of the net assets of S Ltd at 31 December Year 9 was ₦124
million.
Recognised: ₦m
Consideration received for shares in S Ltd on 31 December 100.0
Fair value of residual investment 70.0
170.0
Derecognised:
Net assets de-recognised 124.0
NCI (10%  124 million) (12.4)
111.6
Goodwill derecognised 18.0
Net assets sold (129.6)
Gain on disposal, reported in profit or loss 40.4
Practice question 2
Paprika, the holding company of a large group, had bought 90% of the
issued capital Saffron several years ago.
Both companies prepare accounts to 31 December each year.
On 31 October Year 5 Paprika sold 50% of its shareholding in Saffron for
₦540,000.
At this date, the carrying value of the net assets of Saffron was ₦800,000
and the carrying value of the goodwill relating to the acquisition of Saffron
(all attributable to the parent company) was ₦100,000.
The fair value of the remaining investment in S is estimated at ₦500,000.
What gain or loss should be recognised on the disposal of the shares in
Saffron?

Corporate reporting
The same step by step approach shown earlier can be used to prepare answers
to questions requiring a consolidated statement of profit or loss when there is a
part disposal of a subsidiary during the year and that part disposal results in a
loss of control.
Work through the following example carefully.
Example: Facts
Example: Part disposal (loss of control but leaving significant influence)

H S
Revenue 22,950 8,800
Expenses (10,000) (5,000)
Tax (5,400 (2,150)

b. H plc sold 50% of S Ltd on 30 September 20X4 for ₦5,000,000.
c. The remaining 40% investment in S Ltd held by H plc resulted in H
plc having significant influence over S Ltd. This residual investment
was estimated to have a fair value of ₦3,500,000
d. S Ltd does not qualify to be treated as a discontinued operation
under IFRS5.
31 December 20X4.

Answer
H S (9/12) Group
Revenue 22,950 6,600 29,550
Expenses (10,000) (3,750) (13,750)
Share of profits of associate
(40%  3/12  1,650) 165
Profit on disposal (W)
Profit before tax
Tax (5,400) (1,612) (7,012)

Owners of the parent
Profit for the year

Corporate reporting
Answer
₦000 ₦000

(9/12  1,650,000) 1,238
W3: Goodwill ₦000

(10%  3,500,000 (W1)) 350
4,100
600
Step 3: Profit on disposal
Answer
Recognise
Sale proceeds 5,000
Fair value of residual investment 3,500
8,500
Derecognise:
Net assets at date of disposal (W1) 6,088
NCI at date of disposal (10%  6,088,000 (W1)) (609)
(5,479)
Goodwill (W3) (600)
2,421

Step 4: Complete the answer
Answer
20X4
H S (9/12) Group
Revenue 22,950 6,600 29,550
Expenses (10,000) (3,750) (13,750)
Share of profits of associate
(40%  3/12  1,650) 165
Tax (5,400) (1,612) (7,012)


Corporate reporting
2.2 Part disposal with no loss of control

A part disposal does which does not result in loss of control is a transaction
between the owners of the subsidiary. In this case the parent does not recognise
a profit or loss on disposal in the consolidated statement of profit or loss. Instead
the parent recognises an equity adjustment.
Example: Part disposal with no loss of control

H S
Revenue 22,950 8,800
Expenses (10,000) (5,000)
Tax (5,400 (2,150)

b. H plc sold 10% of S Ltd on 30 September 20X4 for ₦1,000,000.
31 December 20X4 and calculate the equity adjustment necessary to
reflect the change in ownership.

Step 1: Reflect the pattern of ownership and complete the statement of profit and
loss
This is straightforward as the parent has held a subsidiary for the whole year.
The only complication is that the results have to be time apportioned so that the
relevant NCI can be measured.
Profit on disposal is NOT recognised where there is no loss of control.
Answer
H S Group
Revenue 22,950 8,800 31,750
Expenses (10,000) (5,000) (15,000)
Tax (5,400) (2,150) (7,550)

Owners of the parent (as a balancing figure) 8,993
(10%  1,650  9/12) 124
(20%  1,650  3/12) 83
207

Corporate reporting
Answer
₦000 ₦000

(9/12  1,650,000) 1,238
W3: Goodwill ₦000

(10%  3,500,000 (W1)) 350
4,100
600
Step 3: Equity adjustment
Answer
Sale proceeds 1,000

Net assets sold to the NCI (10%  6,088,000 (W1)) (609)
391
The double entry to record the equity adjustment is as follows:

Debit Credit
Cash 1,000
Non-controlling interest 609
Retained earnings 391

3 DISPOSAL OF A SUBSIDIARY WHICH DOES NOT CONTAIN A

BUSINESS
Section overview
 Background
 New rules
3.1 Background
This section explains an amendment to IFRS 10 and IAS 28. The amendment
must be applied for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2016. Earlier
application is permitted but must be disclosed.
The amendment concerns a situation where a parent loses control of a subsidiary
that does not contain a business (as defined in IFRS 3) by selling an interest to
an associate (or joint venture) accounted for using the equity method.
Such a transaction is the same as selling an asset to the associate (or joint
venture).
Usually, if a parent loses control of a subsidiary, the parent must:
 derecognise the assets and liabilities of the former subsidiary from the
consolidated statement of financial position.
 recognise any investment retained in the former subsidiary at its fair value
when control is lost; and
 recognise the gain or loss associated with the loss of control in the
In the case of a part disposal, the parent must measure any residual investment
at its fair value with any gain or loss being recognised in the statement of profit or
loss.
3.2 New rules

If the subsidiary sold does not contain a business (as defined in IFRS 3) by
selling an interest to an associate (or joint venture) accounted for using the equity
method the gain or loss resulting from the transaction is recognised in the
parent’s profit or loss only to the extent of the unrelated investors’ interests in that
associate or joint venture.
The remaining part of the gain is eliminated against the carrying amount of the
investment in that associate or joint venture.
Also any residual investment must be revalued to fair value and usually the gain
or loss is recognised in profit or loss.
The residual investment might be an associate (or joint venture) accounted for
using the equity method. In that case the remeasurement gain or loss is
recognised in profit or loss only to the extent of the unrelated investors’ interests
in the new associate or joint venture.
The remaining part of that gain is eliminated against the carrying amount of the
investment retained in the former subsidiary.

Corporate reporting
Example: Loss of control of a subsidiary (that does not contain a business) by

selling it to an associate
H plc owns 100% of S Ltd (a company which does not contain a business).
H plc owns 20% of A Ltd.
H Plc sold 70% of S Ltd to A Ltd for ₦210 million.
The fair value of the identifiable net assets in S Ltd at the date of the sale was
₦100 million.
The fair value of the residual investment at the date of disposal was ₦90 million.
₦m
Consideration received for shares in S Ltd 210.0
Fair value of the residual interest 90.0
300.0
Net assets de-recognised (100.0)
Gain on disposal 200.0
H Plc recognises the gain to the extent of the unrelated investors’ interests.
H Plc’s interests and those of unrelated investors after the disposal are as
follows:
Interests in A Ltd:
H Plc 20%
Unrelated investors 80%
Total 100%
Interests in S Ltd:
H Plc
Direct interest 30%
Indirect interest (20% of 70%) 14%
44%
Unrelated investors (80% of 70%) 56%
Total 100%
The gain must be analysed into that part which relates to the actual sale and that
part which relates to the revaluation of the residual investment.
Total Sale Revaluation
₦m ₦m ₦m
Consideration received 210.0 210.0 90.0
Fair value of the residual interest 90.0
300.0
Net assets de-recognised (100.0) (70.0) (30.0)
Gain on disposal 200.0 140.0 60.0

Example (continued): Loss of control of a subsidiary (that does not contain a

business) by selling it to an associate
The recognition of the gain is based on the ownership interests.
Sale Revaluation
₦m ₦m
Gain on disposal 140.0 60.0
Interests in A Ltd:
H Plc (20%) 28.0
Unrelated investors (80%) 112.0
Interests in S Ltd:
H Plc (44%) 26.0
Unrelated investors (56%) 34.0
The double entry to account for the disposal may be summarised as:
Dr (₦ m) Cr (₦ m)
Cash 210.0
Net assets 100.0
Investment in S (90  26) 64.0
Investment in A 28.0
Gain on disposal (reported in profit or loss)
(112.0 + 34.0) 146.0
274.0 274.0

Corporate reporting
4 IFRS 5 AND DISPOSALS
Section overview
 IFRS 5: Discontinued operations

 Presentation of discontinued operations
 Discontinued operations and disposals
4.1 IFRS 5: Discontinued operations

This was covered in an earlier chapter but is repeated here for your convenience.
IFRS 5 Non-current assets held for sale and discontinued operations sets out
requirements for disclosure of financial information relating to discontinued
operations.
A discontinued operation is a disposal group that satisfies extra criteria. (IFRS 5
does not say as much but this is a helpful way to think of it).
Definition
Discontinued operation - A component of an entity that either has been disposed
of or is classified as held for sale and:
1. represents a separate major line of business or geographical area of
operations,
2. is part of a single co-ordinated plan to dispose of a separate major line of
business or geographical area of operations or
3. is a subsidiary acquired exclusively with a view to resale.
A component of an entity comprises operations and cash flows that can be

clearly distinguished, operationally and for financial reporting purposes, from the
rest of the entity.
A disposal group might be, for example, a major business division of a company.
4.2 Presentation of discontinued operations
Presentation in the statement of profit or loss

The following must be disclosed for discontinued operations:
 a single amount on the face of the statement of profit or loss comprising the
total of:
 the post-tax profit or loss of discontinued operations; and
 the post-tax gain or loss recognised on the measurement to fair value
less costs to sell or on the disposal of the assets or disposal group(s)
constituting the discontinued operation.

4.3 Discontinued operations and disposals

A disposal might satisfy the discontinued operations criteria.
This will not affect measurement but will affect presentation.
The consolidation of the subsidiary up to the date of disposal is not carried out on
a line by line basis. Instead, the profit after tax for this period combined with the
profit (loss) on disposal and shown as a single figure.
The answer to the previous example is used below to show the difference.
Example: Disposal of subsidiary – Not a discontinued operation (as seen before)

20X4
H S (9/12) Group
Revenue 22,950 6,600 29,550
Expenses (10,000) (3,750) (13,750)
Tax (5,400) (1,612) (7,012)


Corporate reporting
Example: Disposal of subsidiary – As a discontinued operation

H Plc:
Consolidated statement of profit or loss for the year ended 31 December 20X4
Group
Statements of profit or loss ₦000
Revenue 22,950
Expenses (10,000)
Tax (5,400)
Profit for the period from continuing operations 7,550
Profit for the year from discontinued operations

(1,238 + 3,421) 4,659


5 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Calculate the profit or loss arising on disposal from the group viewpoint
 Complete a statement of profit or loss for a period in which there has been a
disposal of a subsidiary
 Complete a statement of profit or loss for a period in which there has been a
disposal of a subsidiary and that disposal constitutes a discontinued operation

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
₦
Proceeds received 460,000
Net assets disposed of at carrying value 400,000

Attributable to non-controlling interests (20%) (80,000)
Unimpaired goodwill attributable to P 320,000
21,200
Gain to equity owners of P on disposal of S 341,200
Gain on disposal, reported in profit or loss 118,800
Goodwill on the acquisition attributable to P:

= ₦330,000 - (80%  ₦280,000) = ₦106,000
Goodwill remaining after accumulated impairment (20%  ₦106,000) = ₦21,200.
Solution 2
₦
Proceeds received from sale of shares 540,000
Fair value of remaining investment in S 500,000
1,040,000
Net assets disposed of at carrying value 800,000

Attributable to non-controlling interests (20%) (80,000)
720,000
Unimpaired goodwill attributable to P 100,000
Gain to equity owners of P on disposal of S (820,000)
Gain on disposal, reported in profit or loss 220,000

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
28
Other group standards
Contents
1 IAS 27 Separate financial statements
2 IFRS 12: Disclosure of interests in other entities
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the provisions of these standards. This chapter supplements the earlier
chapters on accounting for subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures.

 Describe the IFRS 12 disclosure requirement for investments in subsidiaries,
associates and joint ventures
 Explain the meaning of separate financial statements
 Describe the accounting treatment for subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures in
separate financial statements

Chapter 28: Other group standards
1 IAS 27 SEPARATE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Section overview
 Introduction to IAS 27
 Preparation of separate financial statements
 Disclosure
1.1 Introduction to IAS 27

IAS 27 contains accounting and disclosure requirements for investments in
subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates when an entity prepares separate
IAS 27 requires an entity preparing separate financial statements to account for
those investments at cost or in accordance with IFRS 9 Financial Instruments.
IAS 27 does say which entities must produce separate financial statements.
Definition
Separate financial statements: Those presented by a parent or an investor with
joint control of, or significant influence over, an investee, in which the
investments are accounted for at cost or in accordance with IFRS 9 Financial
Instruments
Separate financial statements are those presented in addition to consolidated

financial statements or in addition to financial statements in which investments in
associates or joint ventures are accounted for using the equity method.
However, if a company is exempt from the need to consolidate or account for an
investment using the equity method the separate financial statements are its only
1.2 Preparation of separate financial statements

Separate financial statements must be prepared in accordance with all applicable
IFRSs.
Investments in subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates must be accounted for
in separate financial statements, either:
 at cost; or
 in accordance with IFRS 9.
A company must apply the same accounting for each category of investments.
A recent amendment issued in August 2014 extends this choice to allow an entity
to use the equity method in addition to the other two methods. The amendment
applies for annual periods beginning on or after 1 January 2016. However, earlier
application is permitted but if used it must be disclosed.
Investments accounted for at cost are subject to the rules in IFRS 5 when they
are classified as held for sale.
IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint ventures allows a company to
measure its investments in associates or joint ventures at fair value through profit

Corporate reporting
or loss. Such investments must be accounted for in the same way in its separate
Dividends are recognised in profit or loss in separate financial statements when
the right to receive the dividend is established.
1.3 Disclosure
All applicable IFRSs apply when providing disclosures in separate financial
statements as well as the following requirements.
When a parent prepares separate financial statements, it must disclose:
 the fact that the financial statements are separate financial statements;
 a list of significant investments in subsidiaries, joint ventures and
associates, including:
 the name of those investees.
 the principal place of business (and country of incorporation, if
different) of those investees.
 its proportion of the ownership interest (and its proportion of the
voting rights, if different) held in those investees.
 a description of the method used to account for the investments listed.
In addition, if a parent is exempt from preparing consolidated financial statements
and elects not to do so, and instead prepares separate financial statements, it
must disclose:
 the fact that the financial statements are separate financial statements;
 that the exemption from consolidation has been used;
 the name and principal place of business (and country of incorporation, if
different) of the entity whose consolidated financial statements that comply
with IFRS have been produced for public use; and
 the address where those consolidated financial statements are obtainable.

2 IFRS 12: DISCLOSURE OF INTERESTS IN OTHER ENTITIES
Section overview
 Significant judgements and assumptions
 Interests in subsidiaries
 Interests in joint arrangements and associates
 Structured entities

The objective of IFRS 12 is to require companies to disclose information that
enables users of their financial statements to evaluate:
 the nature of, and risks associated with, its interests in other entities; and
 the effects of those interests on its financial position, financial performance
and cash flows.
This requires disclosure of:
 the significant judgements and assumptions it has made in determining the
nature of its interest in another entity or arrangement, and in determining
the type of joint arrangement in which it has an interest; and
 information about its interests in:
 subsidiaries;
 joint arrangements and associate); and
 structured entities that are not controlled by the entity (unconsolidated
structured entities).
IFRS 12 sets out required disclosures but disclosure of additional information
might be necessary to meet IFRS 12’s objective.
IFRS 12 must be applied by a company that has an interest in any of the
following:
 subsidiaries;
 joint arrangements (i.e. joint operations or joint ventures);
 associates;
 unconsolidated structured entities.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Significant judgements and assumptions

A company must disclose information about significant judgements and
assumptions it has made (and changes to those judgements and assumptions) in
determining:
 that it has control of another entity;
 that it has joint control of an arrangement or significant influence over
another entity; and
 the type of joint arrangement (i.e. joint operation or joint venture) when the
arrangement has been structured through a separate vehicle.
To comply with the above a company must disclose, for example, significant
judgements and assumptions made in determining that:
 it does not control another entity even though it holds more than half of the
voting rights of the other entity;
 it controls another entity even though it holds less than half of the voting
rights of the other entity;
 it does not have significant influence even though it holds 20% or more of
the voting rights of another entity;
 it has significant influence even though it holds less than 20% of the voting
rights of another entity.
2.3 Interests in subsidiaries

A company must disclose information that enables users of its consolidated
 to understand:
 the composition of the group; and
 the interest that non-controlling interests have in the group’s activities
and cash flows; and
 to evaluate:
 the nature and extent of significant restrictions on its ability to access
or use assets, and settle liabilities, of the group;
 the nature of, and changes in, the risks associated with its interests in
consolidated structured entities;
 the consequences of changes in its ownership interest in a subsidiary
that do not result in a loss of control; and
 the consequences of losing control of a subsidiary during the
reporting period.
When the financial statements of a subsidiary used in the preparation of
consolidated financial statements are as of a date or for a period that is different
from that of the consolidated financial statements, a company must disclose:
 the date of the end of the reporting period of the financial statements of that
subsidiary; and
 the reason for using a different date or period.

A company must disclose for each of its subsidiaries that have non-controlling
interests that are material to the reporting entity:
 the name of the subsidiary;
 the principal place of business (and country of incorporation if different) of
the subsidiary;
 the proportion of ownership interests held by non-controlling interests;
 the proportion of voting rights held by non-controlling interests, if different
from the proportion of ownership interests held;
 the profit or loss allocated to non-controlling interests of the subsidiary
during the reporting period;
 accumulated non-controlling interests of the subsidiary at the end of the
reporting period; and
 summarised financial information about the subsidiary.
The nature and extent of significant restrictions

A company must disclose:
 any significant restrictions on its ability to access or use the assets and
settle the liabilities of the group, such as:
 those that restrict the ability of a parent or its subsidiaries to transfer
cash or other assets to (or from) other entities within the group;
 guarantees or other requirements that may restrict dividends and
other capital distributions being paid, or loans and advances being
made or repaid, to (or from) other entities within the group; and
 the carrying amounts in the consolidated financial statements of the assets
and liabilities to which those restrictions apply.
Consequences of losing control of a subsidiary during the reporting period

A company must disclose the gain or loss arising on the loss of control of a
subsidiary during the period together with the line item(s) in profit or loss in which
the gain or loss is recognised (if not presented separately).

Corporate reporting
2.4 Interests in joint arrangements and associates

A company must disclose information that enables users of its financial
statements to evaluate:
 the nature, extent and financial effects of its interests in joint arrangements
and associates, including the nature and effects of its contractual
relationship with the other investors with joint control of, or significant
influence over, joint arrangements and associates; and
 the nature of, and changes in, the risks associated with its interests in joint
ventures and associates.
Nature, extent and financial effects of interests in joint arrangements and

associates
 for each material joint arrangement and associate:
 the name of the joint arrangement or associate.
 the nature of the entity’s relationship with the joint arrangement or
associate;
 the principal place of business (and country of incorporation, if
applicable and different from the principal place of business) of the
joint arrangement or associate.
 the proportion of ownership interest or participating share held by the
entity and, if different, the proportion of voting rights held (if
applicable).
 for each material joint venture and associate that is material to the reporting
entity:
 whether the investment in the joint venture or associate is measured
using the equity method or at fair value.
 summarised financial information about the joint venture or associate.
 if the joint venture or associate is accounted for using the equity
method, the fair value of its investment in the joint venture or
associate, if there is a quoted market price for the investment.
 financial information about the entity’s investments in joint ventures and
associates that are not individually material:
 in aggregate for all individually immaterial joint ventures and,
separately,
 in aggregate for all individually immaterial associates.
A company must also disclose:
 the nature and extent of any significant restrictions on the ability of joint
ventures or associates to transfer funds to the entity in the form of cash
dividends, or to repay loans or advances made by the entity.
 when the financial statements used in applying the equity method are as of
a date or for a period that is different from that of the entity:
 the date of the end of the reporting period of the financial statements
of that joint venture or associate; and
 the reason for using a different date or period.

 the unrecognised share of losses of a joint venture or associate, both for

the reporting period and cumulatively, if the entity has stopped recognising
its share of losses of the joint venture or associate when applying the equity
method.
Risks associated with an entity’s interests in joint ventures and associates

 commitments that it has relating to its joint ventures separately from the
amount of other commitments
 contingent liabilities incurred relating to its interests in joint ventures or
associates (unless the probability of loss is remote)
2.5 Structured entities
Definition
Structured entity: An entity that has been designed so that voting or similar rights
are not the dominant factor in deciding who controls the entity, such as when any
voting rights relate to administrative tasks only and the relevant activities are
directed by means of contractual arrangements.
A structured entity might be consolidated or unconsolidated depending on the

results of the analysis of whether control exists.
Consolidated structured entities

A company must disclose the terms of any contractual arrangements that could
require the parent or its subsidiaries to provide financial support to a consolidated
structured entity.
A company must also disclose any support given where there is no contractual
obligation and any intention to provide financial or other support to a consolidated
structured entity.
Unconsolidated structured entities

A company must disclose information that enables users of its financial
statements:
 to understand the nature and extent of its interests in unconsolidated
structured entities; and
 to evaluate the nature of, and changes in, the risks associated with its
interests in unconsolidated structured entities.

Corporate reporting
3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Describe the IFRS 12 disclosure requirement for investments in subsidiaries,
associates and joint ventures
 Explain the meaning of separate financial statements
 Describe the accounting treatment for subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures
in separate financial statements

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
29
Foreign currency
Contents
1 IAS 21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange
rates
2 The individual entity: accounting rules
3 The foreign operation: accounting rules
4 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains the rules on accounting for transactions denominated in a foreign
currency.

 Define functional currency and identify the functional currency of a company in simple
situations
 Account for direct transactions in a foreign currency and account for the exchange
differences
 Account for foreign operations

Chapter 29: Foreign currency
1 IAS 21: THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES
Section overview
 The scope of IAS 21

 The two main accounting issues
 Terms and definitions used in IAS 21: currency definitions
 Terms and definitions used in IAS 21: other definitions
1.1 The scope of IAS 21

Many businesses have transactions and investments that are denominated in a
foreign currency.
 Individual companies often enter into transactions in a foreign currency.
These transactions need to be translated into the company’s own currency
in order to record them in its ledger accounts. For example:
 a US company may take out a loan from a French bank in euros and
will record the loan in its ledger accounts in US dollars; or
 a German company may sell goods to a Japanese company invoiced
in yen and will record the sale and the trade receivable in euros in its
ledger accounts.
 Groups often contain overseas entities. A parent company might own a
foreign subsidiary or associate. This foreign entity will normally maintain its
accounting records and prepare its financial statements in a currency that is
different from the currency of the parent company and the group’s
consolidated accounts.
 For example, if a Japanese company has a US subsidiary, the
financial statements of the US subsidiary will be prepared in US
dollars, but will need to be translated into yen for the purpose of
preparing the group’s consolidated financial statements.
The rules on accounting for foreign currency items are concerned with translating
or converting items from one currency into another currency, at an appropriate
rate of exchange between the currencies. The rules are mostly contained in IAS
21 The effects of changes in foreign exchange rates. The rules in IAS 21 can be
divided into two areas:
 Transactions affecting individual entities. IAS 21 deals with the translation
of these transactions when they occur and at subsequent reporting dates
when re-translation at a different exchange rate may be necessary.
 Foreign operations (subsidiaries, associates etc) which affect the
consolidated financial statements. The rules in IAS 21 explain how to
translate the financial statements of the foreign subsidiaries, associates or
joint ventures. Once translated, the normal consolidation rules or equity
accounting rules will apply.
One area that IAS 21 does not deal with is the translation of any transactions and
balances that fall within the scope of IAS 39 on financial instruments. For
example, if a company takes out a forward foreign exchange contract to hedge
against foreign currency exposure, the accounting treatment is covered by the
rules in IAS 39, because a forward contract is a financial instrument.

Corporate reporting
1.2 The two main accounting issues

Transactions and assets and liabilities in foreign currencies are translated or
converted from the foreign currency into the currency of the reporting entity. The
process of translation would be quite simple if exchange rates between
currencies remained fixed. However, exchange rates are continually changing.
The translated valuation of foreign currency assets or liabilities in the statement
of financial position might therefore change if they are translated at different
times.
The two main accounting issues when accounting for foreign currency items are:
 What exchange rate(s) should be used for translation?
 How to account for the gains or losses that arise when exchange rates
change?
Before looking at these accounting rules in detail, it is important to understand the
precise meaning of some key terms used in IAS 21.
1.3 Terms and definitions used in IAS 21: currency definitions

IAS 21 identifies three types of currency: the presentation currency, the functional
currency and foreign currency.
Definitions
Presentation currency: The currency in which the financial statements of an entity
are presented
Functional currency: The currency of the primary economic environment in which
an entity operates.
Foreign currency: A currency other than the functional currency of the entity
Presentation currency
An entity is permitted to present its financial statements in any currency. This
reporting currency is often the same as the functional currency, but does not
have to be.
Functional currency
When a reporting entity records transactions in its financial records, it must
identify its functional currency and make entries in that currency. It will also,
typically, prepare its financial statements in its functional currency. This rule
applies to stand-alone entities, parent companies and foreign operations (such as
a foreign subsidiary or a branch). When financial statements prepared in a
functional currency are translated into a different presentation currency, the
translation of assets and liabilities must comply with the rules in IAS 21.
IAS 21 describes the functional currency as:
 The currency that mainly influences:
 sales prices for goods and services
 labour, material and other costs of providing goods or services.
 The currency in which funds are generated by issuing debt and equity

 The currency in which receipts from operating activities are usually

retained.
The functional currency is not necessarily the currency of the country in which the
entity operates or is based, as the next example shows.
Example: Presentation and functional currencies

P is a UK-registered mining company whose shares are traded on the London
Stock Exchange. Its operating activities take place in the gold and diamond
mines of South Africa.
(a) What is the presentation currency of P?
(b) What is its functional currency?
(c) P bought specialised mining equipment from the US, invoiced in US dollars.
What type of currency is the US dollar, using the IAS 21 definitions?
Answer
(a) The presentation currency (reporting currency) is sterling (UK pounds). This
is a requirement of the UK financial markets regulator for UK listed
companies.
(b) The functional currency is likely to be South African rand, even though the
company is based in the UK. This is because its operating activities take
place in South Africa and so the company will be economically dependent
on the rand if the salaries of most of its employees, and most operating
expenses and sales are in rand.
(c) The US dollars are ‘foreign currency’ for the purpose of preparing P’s
accounts.
IAS 21 requires P to prepare its financial statements in its functional currency
(rand).
However, P is permitted to use sterling as its presentation currency. If it does use
sterling as its presentation currency (which it will do, given the UK rules), the
translation of assets and liabilities from rand to sterling must comply with the
rules in IAS 21.

Corporate reporting
1.4 Terms and definitions used in IAS 21: other definitions
Exchange rate definitions

IAS 21 uses the following terms to describe which exchange rate should be used
in the translation.
Definitions
Exchange rate: The rate of exchange between two currencies
Spot rate: The exchange rate at the date of the transaction
Closing rate: The spot exchange rate at the end of the reporting period
For example, suppose that on 16 November a German company buys goods

from a US supplier, and the goods are priced in US dollars. The financial year of
the company ends on 31 December, and at this date the goods have not yet
been paid for.
 The spot rate is the euro/dollar exchange rate on 16 November, when the
transaction occurred.
 The closing rate is the exchange rate at 31 December.
Other definitions
IAS 21 also includes some other terms and definitions.
Definitions
Foreign operation: This is a subsidiary, associate, joint venture or branch whose
activities are conducted in a country or currency different from the functional
currency of the reporting entity.
Net investment in a foreign operation: The amount of the reporting entity's
interest in the net assets of a foreign operation.
Exchange difference: A difference resulting from translating the same assets,
liabilities, income or expenses from one currency into another currency at
different exchange rates.
Monetary items: Units of currency held, or assets and liabilities to be received or
paid (in cash), in a fixed number of currency units. Examples of monetary items
include cash itself, loans, trade payables, trade receivables and interest payable.
Non-monetary items are not defined by IAS 21, but they are items that are not
monetary items. They include tangible non-current assets, investments in other
companies, investment properties and deferred taxation (which is a notional
amount of tax rather than an actual amount of tax payable.)

2 THE INDIVIDUAL ENTITY: ACCOUNTING RULES
Section overview
 Initial recognition: translation of transactions

 Reporting at the end of each reporting period
 Gain or loss arising on translation
 Reporting at the settlement of a transaction
An individual company may have transactions that are denominated in a foreign

currency. These must be translated into the company’s functional currency for the
purpose of recording the transactions in its ledger accounts and preparing its financial
statements.
These transactions may have to be translated on several occasions. When a
transaction or asset or liability is translated on more than one occasion, it is:
 translated at the time that it is originally recognised;, and
 re-translated at each subsequent occasion.
Re-translation may be required, after the transaction has been recognised initially:
 at the end of a financial year (end of a reporting period);
 when the transaction is settled (which may be either before, or after the end of
the financial year)?
On each subsequent re-translation, an exchange difference will occur. This gives rise
to a gain or loss on translation from the exchange difference.
2.1 Initial recognition: translation of transactions

On initial recognition, a transaction in a foreign currency must be translated at the
spot rate on the date of the transaction.
If the company purchases goods on most days in the foreign currency, it might be
administratively difficult to record every transaction at the actual spot rate. For
practical reasons, IAS 21 therefore allows entities to use an average rate for a
time period, provided that the exchange rate does not fluctuate significantly over
the period. For example, an entity might use an average exchange rate for a
week or a month for translating all the foreign currency-denominated transactions
in that time period.
These rules apply when an entity:
 buys goods or services that will be paid for in another currency;
 sells goods or services invoiced in another currency;
 borrows or lends when the interest payments and repayments of principal
are in another currency;
 purchases or disposes of non-current assets in another currency; or
 receives dividends and other payments in another currency.

Corporate reporting
Example: Initial recognition

A UK company (with sterling as its functional currency) has a financial year
ending on 31 December.
It buys goods from a supplier in France (with euros as its functional currency) on
17 November 20X6 invoiced in euros €140,000. The French supplier is eventually
paid in March 20X7.
Exchange rates over the period were as follows:
17 November 20X6 €1 = £0.70
31 December 20X6 €1 = £0.75
Average for November €1 = £0.72
The purchase/inventory and the trade payable should be recorded initially by
translating the transaction at the spot rate of €1 = £0.70. This gives a translated
value of £98,000 for recording in the ledger accounts (€140,000  0.70).
For practical purposes, if the entity buys items in euros frequently, it may be able
to use an average spot rate for a period, for all transactions during that period.
2.2 Reporting at the end of each reporting period
Transactions in a foreign currency

Transactions in a foreign currency may still ‘exist’ in the statement of financial
position at the end of the financial period. They were recognised initially in the
accounts at the spot rate on the date of the transaction. However exchange rates
change over time and the exchange rate at the end of the reporting period will not
be the same as the spot rate on the date of the transaction.
For example, there may be a trade receivable in the statement of financial
position relating to a sale denominated in a foreign currency. The trade
receivable would have been translated at the spot exchange rate on the
transaction date. It is still a receivable in a foreign currency at the end of the
reporting period.
An important accounting question is therefore: Should a different exchange rate
now be used now to translate the asset into the functional currency of the entity,
for the purpose of preparing the financial statements for the year?
Revaluations of non-current assets

A non-current asset in a foreign currency might be re-valued during a financial
period. For example, a UK company might own an office property in the US. The
cost of the office would have been translated at the spot rate when the property
was originally purchased. However, it might subsequently be re-valued. The
revaluation will almost certainly be in US dollars, and this re-valued amount will
have to be translated into the functional currency of the entity (in this example,
sterling).
 What exchange rate should be used to record the revaluation?
 What exchange rate should be used at the end of the reporting period, and
at the end of any subsequent reporting period?

The rules
The rules in IAS 21 for reporting assets and liabilities at the end of a subsequent
reporting period make a distinction between:
 monetary items, such as trade payables and trade receivables, and
 non-monetary items, such as non-current assets and inventory.
The rules are as follows, for entities preparing their individual financial
statements:
Asset or liability Accounting treatment for the statement

of financial position:
Monetary items Re-translate at the closing rate.
Non-monetary items carried at No re-translation. The transaction is left at
cost the original spot rate.
Non-monetary items carried at Re-translate at the exchange rate ruling at
fair value the date of the fair value adjustment.
2.3 Gain or loss arising on translation

Any subsequent re-translation after the initial recognition of a transaction will give
rise to an exchange gain or loss if the exchange rate has changed since the initial
transaction date.
The gain or loss is the difference between the original and re-translated value of
the item.
 There is an exchange gain when an asset increases in value on re-
translation, or when a liability falls in value.
 There is an exchange loss when an asset falls in value on re-translation, or
when a liability increases in value.
A gain or loss arising on the re-translation of a monetary item should be recognised

in profit or loss in the period that it arises.
When a gain or loss on a non-monetary item is recognised in other
comprehensive income, any exchange rate gain or loss relating to it should also
be included in other comprehensive income. For example when a gain or loss on
revaluation of a non-current asset is reported in other comprehensive income, the
related exchange difference is also recognised in other comprehensive income
rather than in profit or loss for the period.

Corporate reporting
Example: Retranslation of monetary item

A UK company borrowed US$900,000 on 3 June when the spot rate was $1.80 =
£1. At 31 December the exchange rate was $1.90 = £1. An interest payment of
$18,500 was made on 3 December when the spot exchange rate was $1.85. The
loan is a monetary item, denominated in US dollars.
The loan is recognised initially as £500,000 ($900,000/1.80).
On 31 December, the loan is re-translated as £473,684 ($900,000/1.90). There
is an exchange difference on retranslation of £26,316 (£500,000 – £473,684).
As the liability has fallen in value, this represents an exchange gain. The loan is a
monetary item; therefore the gain will be reported in profit or loss for the year.
The interest payment of $18,500 is recognised at £10,000 ($18,500/1.85). This
item is translated at the spot rate on the date of the transaction.
Example:
A UK company bought a machine from a German supplier for €260,000 on 1
March when the exchange rate was €1.30 = £1. By 31 December, the end of the
company’s accounting year, the exchange rate was €1.20 = £1.
At 31 December, the UK company had not yet paid the German supplier any of
the money that it owed for the machine.
At the year end
The machine is recognised initially at £200,000 (€260,000/1.30). As it is a non-
monetary item, it will not be re-translated and there is no gain or loss.
However, the company purchased the machine on credit and had not settled the
account payable by the year-end. The amount payable should be re-translated at
the closing rate, because this is a monetary item. The payable would therefore be
re-translated to £216,667 (= €260,000/1.20).
The re-translation will give rise to an exchange difference. In this example the re-
translated amount of the liability is higher, and a loss of $16,667 should be
reported in profit or loss for the year.
2.4 Reporting at the settlement of a transaction

The settlement of a foreign currency transaction involves a receipt or payment in
foreign currency. Settlement in the foreign currency is made at the spot exchange
rate that applies on that date. (Note: This chapter ignores the possibility of using
a forward exchange contract to fix the exchange rate in advance: the accounting
effects of forward contracts are explained in another chapter.)
The exchange rate at the settlement date may be:
 different from the spot rate on the date of the original transaction, and
 different from the closing exchange rate at the end of the previous reporting
period (if there is a year-end between the original transaction and
settlement).

A gain or loss on translation may therefore occur:

 at the end of a reporting period and in addition
 at settlement of the transaction.
For example, suppose that a UK company buys goods, payable in US dollars,
from a US supplier on 10 December Year 1. Its year end is 31 December, and
the company pays the supplier on 9 February Year 2.
In this situation:
 The purchase transaction will be recorded in sterling at the spot rate on 10
December Year 1.
 The trade payable will also be recorded in sterling at the spot rate on 10
December Year 1.
 The trade payable will be re-translated on 31 December at the year-end,
because it is a monetary item. A gain or loss will arise on the re-translation,
and this will be recognised in profit or loss for the year ending 31 December
Year 1.
 The US supplier is paid on 9 February, and the cost of obtaining the dollars
to make the payment will be the exchange rate available on 9 February, the
settlement date.
If the cost of the settlement is different from the amount at which the transaction
is recorded in the ledger accounts (the amount at which the payable was re-
translated on 31 December Year 1), a further gain or loss will arise. This is the
difference between the translated value of the liability in the ledger accounts and
the actual cost of making the settlement. This settlement gain or loss should be
included in profit or loss for the year ended 31 December Year 2.
Example: Settlement of a transaction

A UK company sells goods to a customer in Saudi Arabia for $72,000 on 12
September, when the exchange rate was $1.80 = £1. It received payment on 19
November, when the exchange rate was $2 = £1. The financial year-end is 31
December.
The sale will be initially translated at the spot rate. This will give rise to revenue
and receivables of £40,000 ($72,000/1.80).
The receipt of the payment is recorded at £36,000 ($72,000/2.00).
The receivable has fallen in value over the two months: it was initially recorded at
£40,000 but at settlement it is only worth £36,000. The company has an
exchange loss on settlement of £4,000. This is recognised in profit or loss for the
year.

Corporate reporting
Example: Settlement of a transaction

A UK company buys goods from a US supplier for $30,000 on 30 November Year
1 when the spot exchange rate was $1.50. The company has a financial year that
ends on 31 December. At 31 December Year 1, the exchange rate is $1.80 = £1.
The payment for the goods is made on 16 March Year 2, when the exchange rate
was $1.60 = £1.
The transaction is recorded initially at £20,000 ($30,000/1.50).
Debit Purchases £20,000
Credit: Trade payables £20,000.
If the purchased inventory is still held at the end of the reporting period on 31
December Year 1, it is not re-translated because inventory is a non-monetary
item.
However, the amount payable at 31 December Year 1 is re-translated to the
closing rate, giving a revised balance of £16,667 ($30,000/1.80).
The re-translated amount of the liability is lower; so there is a gain on the re-
translation of £3,333. This gain is included in profit or loss for Year 1.
Debit: Trade payables £3,333
Credit: Profit or loss £3,333.
The payment on 16 March Year 2 is recorded at the exchange rate on settlement
date. The payment is therefore £18,750 ($30,000/1.60).
Debit: Trade payables £16,667
Credit: Cash £18,750
There is a loss on settlement of £2,083 (£18,750 – £16,667), arising from the
exchange difference between translating the foreign currency amount at the end
of the previous reporting period and at the settlement date. This gain or loss from
the exchange difference is included in profit or loss for Year 2.

3 THE FOREIGN OPERATION: ACCOUNTING RULES
Section overview
 Three stages in the consolidation process

 The translation stage
 The consolidation stage
 Consolidation example
 Exchange differences in other comprehensive income
 Disposal of a foreign subsidiary
3.1 Three stages in the consolidation process

If a company has a foreign operation (such as a foreign subsidiary) that prepares
its accounts in a functional currency that is different from the group’s presentation
currency, there are three stages in the accounting process, for the purpose of
preparing consolidated financial statements (or including the foreign associate or
joint venture in the financial statements of the reporting entity).
Stage Description
Adjust and update  Ensure that the individual financial statements of
the foreign entity are correct and up-to-date.
 If any adjustments are required to correct the
financial statements of the foreign entity, these
should be made in the statements of the foreign
entity and in its own functional currency.
Translate  The assets and liabilities of the foreign entity
should be translated into the presentation currency
of the parent company. (As explained earlier, the
presentation currency of the parent company might
be the same or might be different from its
functional currency.)
 The rules for translation are explained below.
Consolidate  After translation, all the financial statements are
now in the same currency.
 Normal group accounting principles are now used
to prepare the consolidated accounts of the group.

Corporate reporting
3.2 The translation stage

The rules set out below apply where the functional currency of the foreign entity
is not a currency suffering from hyperinflation. (Hyperinflation is where the
country’s rate of inflation is very high. When there is hyperinflation, IAS 29
provides special accounting rules, which are described later.)
The normal rules for translation, contained in IAS 21, are as follows:
(1) The statement of financial position
 The assets and liabilities of the foreign operation, for inclusion in the
consolidated statement of financial position, are translated at the
closing rate. (Comparative figures for the previous year are
translated at the same rate.)
 For foreign subsidiaries, this rule also applies to purchased goodwill
arising on the acquisition of the subsidiary.
(2) The statement of profit or loss
 Income and expenses for inclusion in the consolidated statement of
profit or loss are translated at the spot rates at the dates of each of
the transactions.
 For practical reasons, average rates for a period may be used, if they
provide a reasonable approximation of the spot rates when the
transactions took place.
(3) Exchange differences
 All resulting exchange differences are recognised in other
comprehensive income for the period and are credited (gain) or
debited (loss) to a separate reserve within the equity section of the
consolidated statement of financial position, and this reserve is
maintained within equity until the foreign operation is eventually
disposed of.
 Gains or losses are therefore reported as gains or losses in other
comprehensive income and movements in the separate reserve, and
not as a gain or loss in profit or loss and an increase or reduction in
retained earnings.
The gain or loss on translation

The exchange differences on translation (see (3) above) result in a gain or loss.
These gains or losses arise from a combination of two factors:
 Income and expense items are translated at the exchange rates ruling
during the period (or an average rate as an approximation) but assets and
liabilities are translated at closing rates. The profit is therefore calculated at
the actual (average) exchange rates, but the accumulated profit in the
consolidated statement of financial position is re-translated at the closing
rate.
 The net assets of the subsidiary were translated at last year’s closing rate
at the end of the previous financial year. These net assets have now been
retranslated and included in this year’s statement of financial position at this
year’s closing rate.

IAS 21 states that these differences on translation are not recognised in profit or
loss because changes in the exchange rates for these items have little or no
effect on cash flows from operations. It would therefore be misleading to include
them in profit or loss.
Example:
A UK parent company has a US subsidiary, which is 100% owned. The following
information is available about the subsidiary for the year to 31 December Year 5:
Opening net assets, 1 January $20,000
Profit for the year $10,000
Closing net assets, 31 December $30,000
Dividends paid $0
Relevant $/£ exchange rates are as follows:
1 January Year 5 $1.70 = £1
Average for the year $1.80 = £1
31 December Year 5 $1.90 = £1
Required
Calculate the total gain or loss on translation for the year, analysing it between:
a. the gain or loss on re-translating income and expenses
b. the gain or loss on re-translating the opening net assets.
Answer
The entire profit for the year is included in accumulated profit at the end of the
year, because no dividends were paid during the year.
Exchange difference: gain or (loss)
a On re-translating the opening net assets: £ £
$20,000 at opening rate 1.70 11,765
$20,000 at closing rate 1.90 10,526
––––––––––––––––
(1,239)
b On re-translating the profit for the year:
$10,000 at average rate 1.80 5,556
$10,000 at closing rate 1.90 5,263
–––––––––––––––––
(293)
––––––––––––––––
Exchange loss arising (1,532)

––––––––––––––––
The exchange loss should be recognised in other comprehensive income for the
year and taken to a separate reserve within equity in the consolidated statement
of financial position.

Corporate reporting
3.3 The consolidation stage

After the translation stage, the financial statements of the overseas entity are in
the presentation currency of the parent company.
The basic rule is that normal consolidation techniques can now be used.
However, a foreign exchange reserve must be included in the consolidated
statement of financial position for the cumulative exchange differences.
It is also necessary to comply with the requirements of IAS 21 for purchased
goodwill and foreign subsidiaries.
Purchased goodwill and foreign subsidiaries

IAS 21 requires that goodwill and any fair value adjustments arising on the
acquisition of a foreign subsidiary are to be treated as part of the assets and
liabilities of the foreign subsidiary. The rules already described apply to these
items.
This means that:
 Goodwill arising on the purchase of the foreign subsidiary (and also any fair
value adjustments to the value of assets of the subsidiary) should be stated
in the functional currency of the foreign subsidiary.
 The goodwill and fair value adjustments will therefore be translated each
year at the closing exchange rate.
A gain or loss on translation will therefore arise (as described above for other
assets and liabilities).
The effect of this rule is that goodwill and the acquisition of a foreign operation is
re-stated over time because it is re-translated every year at the new closing
exchange rate.
The rationale behind this accounting rule is that the amount paid for the
investment in the subsidiary has been based on the expected future earnings
stream. The goodwill relates to a business which operates in the economic
environment of another country and should therefore be expressed in the
functional currency of the foreign subsidiary.

Example: Retranslation of goodwill

A UK holding company acquired 100% of the capital of a US subsidiary on 30
September Year 6 at a cost of $8 million. The fair value of the net assets of the
subsidiary at that date was $3 million.
The holding company prepares financial statements at 31 December each year.
The company uses the partial goodwill method to account for non-controlling
interests, and no goodwill is attributed to NCI.
Relevant $/£ exchange rates are as follows:
30 September Year 6 $2.00 = £1
31 December Year 6 $1.90 = £1
Required
(a) Calculate the goodwill arising at the date of the acquisition, in £.
(b) Calculate the goodwill (in £) which will appear in the consolidated
statement of financial position as at 31 December Year 6.
Answer
(a) Goodwill arising on acquisition
All elements of the calculation are initially translated at the spot rate of
2.00
$ Rate £
Cost of investment 8m 2.00 4.0m
Minus: Net assets acquired 3m 2.00 1.5m
Goodwill 5m 2.00 2.5m
(b) Goodwill at 31 December Year 6
The goodwill must be re-translated to the closing rate of 1.90 The goodwill
is therefore re-valued to £2.632 million ($5m / 1.90).
An exchange gain of £0.132m (2.632m – 2.5m) has arisen on re-
translation.
This exchange gain is recognised in other comprehensive income and
credited to the foreign exchange reserve within equity in the consolidated
statement of financial position

Corporate reporting
3.4 Consolidation example

The following example looks at the whole process of foreign currency
consolidation, beginning with the translation of the foreign subsidiary’s accounts
and finishing with their consolidation into the parent group accounts.
Example:
AB owns 75% of JK which is located in a different country. The currency of this
country is the Florin (Fl). AB acquired its shares in JK on 1 May Year 6 for 240
million Florins when the retained earnings of JK were 160 million Florins. Their
statements of financial position are shown below:
Statements of financial position at 30 April Year 7:
AB JK
$m Fl m
Tangible non-current assets 594 292
Investment in JK 48 -
1,410 496

Share premium 100 40
940 294
1,410 496
Notes:
(i) The fair value of JK’s net assets at acquisition is the same as their carrying
value.
(ii) JK operates with autonomy in its business operations.
(iii) AB uses the partial goodwill method to account for non-controlling
interests, and NCI does not include an amount for goodwill.
(iv) The following exchange rates are relevant:
1 May Year 6 Fl 5.0 = $1
Average for the year Fl 4.0 = $1
30 April Year 7 Fl 4.2 = $1
Prepare a consolidated statement of financial position at 30 April Year 7

Answer
There are a number of steps that need to be followed in consolidating a foreign
currency operation.
Step 1
Deal with any adjustments to the accounts of the subsidiary and parent, e.g. inter-
company trading transactions and inter-company loans. Apply the normal rules
for dealing with these.
Step 2
When the financial statements of the subsidiary have been updated and adjusted
as necessary, translate the subsidiary’s accounts into the reporting currency (in
this example translate from Florins into $).
Step 3
Calculate goodwill, consolidated reserves and non-controlling interest (the usual
rules for preparing a consolidated statement of financial position apply).
Step 4
Consolidate the parent with the translated accounts of the subsidiary.
Answer
There are no adjustments to make in Step 1 so we can go straight to the
translation in Step 2.
Step 2
The subsidiary’s statement of financial position is translated at the closing rate.
JK Statement of financial position Florins Exchange $m
(m) rate
Non-current assets
Tangible assets 292 4.2 69.5
Current assets 204 4.2 48.5
496 118.0
Share capital 64 4.2 15.2

Share premium 40 4.2 9.5
Retained earnings at acquisition 160 4.2 38.1
Net assets at acquisition 264 62.8
Reserves – post acquisition 30 4.2 7.1
294 69.9
Non-current liabilities 82 4.2 19.5
Current liabilities 120 4.2 28.6
496 118.0

Corporate reporting
Answer (continued)
Step 3
Workings for consolidation
1 Goodwill:
Goodwill must be calculated and included in the consolidated statement of
financial position at the closing rate.
Florins Rate $m
(m)
Cost of investment 240 4.2 57.1
Less parent’s share of net assets
acquired
75% × 264 million Florins (198) 4.2 (47.1)
Goodwill at closing rate 42 4.2 10.0
We also have to deal with the exchange gain or loss on the parent’s cost of
investment.
In the goodwill calculation above, the cost of investment is translated at the
closing rate. When JK was purchased, AB recorded the cost of investment
at the rate at that date. The gain or loss on re-translation to the closing rate
will be recognised in other comprehensive income and recorded in the
reserves attributable to the parent entity.
$m
Cost of investment at historical rate: 240 /5.0 48.0
Cost of investment at closing rate: 240 /4.2 57.1
Exchange gain 9.1
2 Non-controlling interest
In $m, NCI = 25% × 69.9 = 17.5
3 Consolidated reserves attributable to owners of AB

$m
AB 720.0
JK: share of post-acquisition profits: 75%  7.1 5.3
Exchange gain (see above) 9.1
734.4

Answer (continued)
AB: Consolidated statement of financial position as at 31 May Year 7
$m
Non-current assets
Tangible assets (594 + 69.5) 663.5
Intangible assets: goodwill 10.0
Current assets (768 + 48.5) 816.5
Total assets 1,490.0

Equity attributable to owners of AB
Share capital 120.0
Share premium 100.0
Retained earnings 734.4
954.4
Non-controlling interests 17.5
Total equity 971.9
Non-current liabilities (60 + 19.5) 79.5
Current liabilities (410 + 28.6) 438.6
1,490.0
3.5 Exchange differences in other comprehensive income

Using the method of creating the consolidated statement of financial position
shown in the previous example, you do not need to worry about exchange
differences. By translating every balance in the subsidiary’s statement of financial
position at the closing rate, the exchange differences are automatically included
in reserves.
However, you may be asked to calculate exchange differences arising for
reporting in other comprehensive income and a separate equity reserve.
The easiest way to work out the exchange differences (excluding the gain or loss
on re-translation of goodwill) is to create the accounting equation for the foreign
subsidiary in its own currency. Once this is translated into the parent’s currency it
will not balance, and the exchange differences are the balancing figure. These
are the exchange differences arising from:
 re-translating the opening net assets of the subsidiary at the closing rate,
and
 re-translating the subsidiary’s post-acquisition profit at the closing rate.
An example will be used to demonstrate the calculation.

Corporate reporting
Example: Exchange difference on consolidation

The same example that was used above will be used here, with the exception that
the acquisition occurred one day earlier, at the end of the previous financial year.
AB owns 75% of JK which is located in a different country. The currency of this
country is the Florin (Fl). AB acquired its shares in JK on 30 April Year 6 for 240
million Florins when the retained earnings of JK were 160 million Florins. The
statement of financial position of JK as at 30 April Year 7 is shown below:
JK: Statement of financial position at 30 April Year 7:
Fl m
Tangible non-current assets 292
Current assets 204
496
Share capital 64
Share premium 40
Retained earnings 190
294
Non-current liabilities 82
496
Notes:
(1) AB measures non-controlling interest on acquisition as a proportionate
share of net assets.
(2) JK did not pay any dividends during the year.
(3) The following exchange rates are relevant:
Average for the year Fl 4.0 = $1

Example (continued): Exchange difference on consolidation
At 30 April Year 6, the consolidated financial position of the AB Group would

include the following items:
Florins Exchange
(m) rate $m
Parent’s share of net assets of JK
75%  (64 + 40 + 160) m 198
Goodwill 42.0 5.0 8.4
Net assets of JK: (64 + 40 + 160) m 264.0 5.0 52.8
Non-controlling interests: 25%  264m 66.0 5.0 13.2
During the year to 30 April Year 7, the post-acquisition profit of JK is 30 million

Florins (= $190 million - $160 million) retained reserves.
The consolidated profit for the year is reported as $7.5 million (= $30 million at
average rate 4.0). 75% of this is attributable to the parent company and 25% to
the NCI.
Florins (m) Exchange rate $m
Opening net assets of JK 264.0 5.0 52.8
Profit for the year 30.0 4.0 7.5
60.3
Closing net assets 294.0 4.2 70.0
Exchange gain 9.7
This total exchange gain is 75% attributable to the parent entity ($7.3 million)
and 25% to NCI ($2.4 million).
There is also an exchange gain or loss on the re-translation of goodwill (100%
attributable to the parent).
Florins Exchange $m
(m) rate
Opening goodwill 42.0 5.0 8.4
Closing goodwill (no impairment) 42.0 4.2 10.0
Exchange gain 1.6

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Exchange difference on consolidation
The change in the consolidated statement of financial position between 30 April

Year 6 and 30 April Year 7 arising from the consolidation of JK’s financial
statements can be summarised as follows.
Florins Exchange
(m) rate $m
Goodwill 42.0 4.2 10.0
Closing net assets of JK 294.0 4.2 70.0
80.0
Share of JK profit (75%) 22.5 4.0 5.6
Exchange gain on revaluation of goodwill 1.6
Other exchange gains (75%  9.7) 7.3
Increase in reserves attributable to parent 14.5
Non-controlling interest (25%  70) 17.5
32.0
The difference between the net assets side and the equity side is $48 million, the
cost of the investment of AB in JK.
The total exchange gain attributable to the owners of the parent entity is $8.9
million (1.6 + 7.3). This should be recognised in other comprehensive income for
the year and credited to a separate reserve in equity.
The closing balance of NCI is $17.5 million, which is the opening balance for NCI
(= $13.2 million) plus the NCI share of the recognised profit of JK for the year
($1.9 million, = 25%  $7.5 million) plus a 25% share of the exchange gains
recognised in other comprehensive income, excluding the gain on goodwill (=
25%  $9.7 million) = $2.4 million).
$m
Opening balance, NCI 13.2
Share of recognised profit for the year 1.9
Share of other comprehensive income 2.4
Closing balance, NCI 17.5

3.6 Disposal of a foreign subsidiary

Most of the accounting rules for the disposal of a foreign subsidiary, or for the
partial disposal of a foreign subsidiary, are set out in IFRS 10. Disposals are
explained in another chapter.
However IFRS 10 does not deal with the accounting treatment of the balance on
the separate equity reserve account when a foreign subsidiary is disposed of.
This matter is dealt with by IAS 21.
 When the entire investment in a foreign subsidiary is disposed of, the
cumulative balance in the separate equity reserve (which represents
amounts previously recognised in other comprehensive income) should
now be reclassified from equity to profit and loss.
 If there was a non-controlling interest in the subsidiary, the NCI is
derecognised in the consolidated statement of financial position. Amounts
previously recognised in other comprehensive income and attributed to NCI
must not be reclassified and recognised in profit or loss of the reporting
entity.
 When a proportion of an investment in a foreign subsidiary is disposed of, a
proportionate share of the amounts previously recognised in other
comprehensive income (the cumulative balance in the separate equity
reserve) should now be reclassified from equity to profit or loss.
When income previously recognised as other comprehensive income is
reclassified as a gain or loss to profit or loss as a re-classification adjustment,
there must be an offsetting loss or gain in other comprehensive income, to avoid
double-counting of the gain (or loss).
Example: Disposal
A company held 100% of the equity of a subsidiary S, but sold the entire
investment on 1 June when the carrying value of the net assets S and the
purchased goodwill were ₦30 million. The consideration received from selling the
shares was ₦37 million.
The company had previously recognised exchange gains of ₦2 million in other
comprehensive income on its investment in S.
Required
Show the amount to be recognised in the statement of profit or loss in respect of
this disposal.

Corporate reporting
Answer
The company should recognise ₦9 million in profit or loss f0r the financial period
when the disposal occurs as follows:
₦m
Consideration received from sale of shares 37.0
Carrying value of net assets of S 30.0
Gain 7.0
Exchange gain previously recognised in other comprehensive
income (reclassification adjustment) 2.0
Total gain recognised in profit or loss 9.0
A debit of ₦2 million should be recognised in other comprehensive income, to
avoid double counting of the income previously recognised as other
comprehensive income but now reclassified in profit or loss.
AB: Consolidated statement of financial position as at 31 May Year 7
$m
Non-current assets
Tangible assets (594 + 69.5) 663.5
Intangible assets: goodwill 10.0
Current assets (768 + 48.5) 816.5
Total assets 1,490.0

Share capital 120.0
Share premium 100.0
Retained earnings 734.4
954.4
Non-controlling interests 17.5
Total equity 971.9
Non-current liabilities (60 + 19.5) 79.5
Current liabilities (410 + 28.6) 438.6
1,490.0

4 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Define functional currency and identify the functional currency of a company in
simple situations
 Account for direct transactions in a foreign currency and account for the
exchange differences
 Account for foreign operations

Corporate reporting

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
30
IAS 7: Statements of cash flows
Contents
1 Statements of cash flows: Introduction
2 Cash flows from investing activities
3 Cash flows from financing activities
4 Consolidated statement of cash flows
5 Non-controlling interests and associates (or JVs) in
the statement of cash flows
6 Acquisitions and disposals of subsidiaries in the
statement of cash flows
7 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains how to prepare a statement of cash flow.
convenience.
The preparation of consolidated cash flow information is new to this level.

 Prepare extracts from a statement of cash flow
 Prepare a statement of cash flow
 Prepare extracts from a consolidated statement of cash flow
 Prepare a consolidated statement of cash flow

Chapter 30: IAS 7: Statements of cash flows
1 STATEMENTS OF CASH FLOWS: INTRODUCTION
Section overview
 Purpose of statements of cash flows

 Format
 Direct method: Accruals based figures
 Working capital adjustments: Introduction
1.1 Purpose of statements of cash flows

IAS 1 states that a statement of cash flows is a part of a complete set of the
financial statements of an entity. It provides information about:
 the cash flows of the entity during the reporting period, and
 the changes in cash and cash equivalents during the period.
A statement of cash flows groups inflows and outflows of cash under three broad
headings:
 cash from operating activities;
 cash used in (or obtained from) investing activities;
 cash paid or received in financing activities.
It also shows whether there was an increase or a decrease in the amount of cash
held by the entity between the beginning and the end of the period.
Illustration: Statement of cash flows
Cash from operating activities X/(X)

Cash used in (or obtained from) investing activities X/(X)
Cash paid or received in financing activities. X/(X)
Net cash inflow (or outflow) during the period X/(X)
Cash and cash equivalents at the beginning of the period X/(X)
Cash and cash equivalents at the end of the period X/(X)

Corporate reporting
A statement of cash flows reports the change in the amount of cash and cash
equivalents held by the entity during the financial period.
Cash and cash equivalents
Definition: Cash, cash equivalents and cash flows

Cash comprises cash on hand and demand deposits.
Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily
convertible to known amounts of cash and which are subject to an insignificant risk
of changes in value.
Cash flows are inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents.
1.2 Format
IAS 7 does not include a format that must be followed. However it gives illustrative
examples of formats that meet the requirements in the standard.
This section provides examples of these.
Illustration: Statement of cash flows
₦ ₦
Net cash flow from operating activities 75,300
Cash flows from investing activities:

Acquisition of shares (debentures, etc.) (5,000)
Purchase of property, plant and machinery (35,000)
Proceeds from sale of non-current assets 6,000
Interest received/dividends received 1,500
Net cash used in investing activities (32,500)
Cash flows from financing activities:

Proceeds from issue of shares 30,000
Proceeds from new loan 10,000
Repayment of loan (17,000)
Dividends paid to shareholders (25,000)
Net cash used in financing activities (2,000)
Net increase/decrease in cash/cash equivalents 40,800
Cash/cash equivalents at the beginning of the year 5,000
Cash/cash equivalents at the end of the year 45,800

Operating cash flows

IAS 7 permits two methods of presenting the cash flows from operating activities:
 the direct method, and
 the indirect method.
For clarity, what this means is that there are two approaches to arriving at the
figure of ₦75,300 in the above example.
IAS 7 allows entities to use either method of presentation. It encourages entities
to use the direct method. However, the indirect method is used more in practice.
The two methods differ only in the way that they present the cash flows for cash
generated from operations. In all other respects, the figures in the statement of
cash flows using the direct method are identical to the figures in a statement
using the indirect method – cash flows from investing activities and financing
activities are presented in exactly the same way.
The indirect method

The indirect method identifies the cash flows from operating activities by
adjusting the profit before tax figure. It arrives at the cash from operating
activities figure indirectly by reconciling a profit figure to a cash figure.
The starting point for the statement of cash flows for a company is the operating
profit after deducting interest but before taxation.
This profit figure is adjusted to calculate the amount of cash received by the
business or the amount of cash paid out as a consequence of its trading
operations.
The adjustments are to remove the effect of:
 Non-cash items, for example:
 Depreciation and amortisation (depreciation of intangible non-current
assets);
 Profit or loss on disposal of non-current assets; and
 Accruals based figures, for example:
 Interest expense or income;
 Movement on working capital items (receivables, payables and
inventory).
The following illustration shows how the net cash flow from operating activities
figure seen in the previous example was arrived at using the indirect method.

Corporate reporting
Illustration: The indirect method
Statement of cash flows: indirect method ₦ ₦

Cash flows from operating activities
Profit before taxation 80,000
Adjustments for:
Depreciation and amortisation charges 20,000
Interest charges in the statement of comprehensive
income 2,300
Gains on disposal of non-current assets (6,000)
Losses on disposal of non-current assets 4,500
100,800
Increase in trade and other receivables (7,000)
Decrease in inventories 2,000
Increase in trade payables 3,000
Cash generated from operations 98,800
Taxation paid (tax on profits) (21,000)
Interest charges paid (2,500)
The direct method

The direct method calculates the cash flow from operating activities by
calculating cash received from customers, cash paid to suppliers and so on.
The following illustration shows how the net cash flow from operating activities
figure seen in the previous example was arrived at using the direct method.
Illustration: The direct method
Statement of cash flows: direct method ₦

Cash receipts from customers 348,800
Cash payments to suppliers (70,000)
Cash payments to employees (150,000)
Cash paid for other operating expenses (30,000)
Interest charges paid (2,500)

The figures in the two statements are identical from ‘Cash generated from
operations’ down to the end. The only differences are in the presentation of the
cash flows that produced the ‘Cash generated from operations’.
IAS 7 allows some variations in the way that cash flows for interest and dividends
are presented in a statement of cash flows, although the following should be
shown separately:
 interest received
 dividends received
 interest paid
 dividends paid.
1.3 Direct method: Accruals based figures
Interest
The interest liability at the start of the year and the interest charge during the year
is the most the business would pay. If the business had paid nothing it would owe
this figure. The difference between this amount and the liability at the end of the
year must be the amount that the business has paid.
Example: Interest paid

A company had liabilities in its statement of financial position at the beginning and
at the end of 2014, as follows:
Interest (₦)
Beginning of 2014 4,000
End of 2014 22,000
During the year, interest charges in the income statement were ₦22,000.
The interest payment for inclusion in the statement of cash flows can be
calculated as follows:
₦
Liability at the start of the year 4,000
Total amount payable in the year 26,000
Liability at the end of the year (3,000)
Cash paid 23,000

Corporate reporting
Taxation
The tax paid is the last figure in the operating cash flow calculation.
Example: Taxation paid

Taxation (₦)
Beginning of 2014 53,000
End of 2014 61,000
During the year, taxation on profits was ₦77,000.
The tax payment (cash flows) for inclusion in the statement of cash flows
can be calculated as follows:
₦
Taxation liability at the start of the year 53,000
Total amount payable 130,000
Taxation liability at the end of the year (61,000)
Cash paid 69,000
Deferred taxation
A question might include deferred taxation.
A deferred tax balance might be an asset or a liability. Deferred tax liability is
more common (in practice and in questions) so this discussion will be about
liabilities.
A deferred tax liability is an amount that a company expects to pay in the future.
Therefore it has had no cash effect to date.
Any movement on the deferred tax liability will be due to a double entry to tax
expense in the profit or loss section of the statement of comprehensive income.
(There are double entries to other comprehensive income and directly to equity
but these are outside the scope of your syllabus).
There are two possible courses of action in dealing with deferred tax. Either:
 ignore it entirely and work with numbers that exclude the deferred tax (in
effect this was what happened in the example above where there was no
information about deferred tax); or
 include it in every tax balance in the working.
The second approach is usually used.

Example: Deferred tax

Taxation Deferred
(₦) taxation (₦)
Beginning of 2014 53,000 20,000
End of 2014 61,000 30,000
The tax expense for the year in the statement of profit or loss was
₦87,000. This was made up of the current tax expense of ₦77,000 and
the deferred tax of ₦10,000.
The tax payment (cash flows) for inclusion in the statement of cash flows
can be calculated as follows:
₦
Liability at the start of the year (53,000 + 20,000) 73,000
Charge for the year (77,000 + 10,000) 87,000
Total amount payable in the year 160,000
Liability at the end of the year (61,000 + 30,000) (91,000)
Cash paid 69,000
1.4 Working capital adjustments: Introduction
Definition
Working capital is current assets less current liabilities.
The previous section showed that taxation and interest cash flows can be
calculated by using a figure from the statement of comprehensive income and
adjusting it by the movement on the equivalent balances in the statement of
financial position.
This section shows how this approach is extended to identify the cash generated
from operations by making adjustments for the movements between the start and
end of the year for elements of working capital, namely:
 trade receivables and prepayments;
 inventories; and
 trade payables and accruals.

Corporate reporting
Assuming that the calculation of the cash flow from operating activities starts with
a profit (rather than a loss) the adjustments are as follows:
Increase in balance from start Decrease in balance from

Balance
to the end of the year start to the end of the year
Receivables Subtract from profit before tax Add back to profit before tax
Inventory Subtract from profit before tax Add back to profit before tax
Payables Add back to profit before tax Subtract from profit before tax
These are known as the working capital adjustments and are explained in more
detail in the rest of this section
Practice question 1
A company made an operating profit before tax of ₦16,000 in the year just
ended.
Depreciation charges were ₦15,000.
There was a gain of ₦5,000 on disposals of non-current assets and there
were no interest charges. Values of working capital items at the beginning
and end of the year were:
Receivables Inventory Trade payables

Beginning of the year ₦9,000 ₦3,000 ₦4,000
End of the year ₦6,000 ₦5,000 ₦6,500
Taxation paid was ₦4,800.
Required
Calculate the amount of cash generated from operations, as it would be shown in a
statement of cash flows using the indirect method.

2 CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES
Section overview
 Cash paid for the purchase of property, plant and equipment

 Cash from disposals of property, plant and equipment
 Cash paid for the purchase of investments and cash received from the sale of
investments
2.1 Cash paid for the purchase of property plant and equipment
This is the second part of a statement of cash flows, after cash flows from
operating activities.
The most important items in this part of the statement are cash paid to purchase
non-current assets and cash received from the sale or disposal of non-current
assets but it also includes interest received and dividends received on
investments.
Movement on non-current assets might be summarised as follows:
Illustration: Movement on non-current assets
₦
At cost or valuation, at the beginning of the year X
Disposals during the year (cost) (X)
Upward/(downward) revaluation during the year X/(X)
X
Additions to non-current assets (balancing figure) X
At cost or valuation, at the end of the year X
Alternatively carrying amount (NBV) can be used ₦

Non-current assets at the beginning of the year at NBV X
Depreciation (X)
Disposals during the year (NBV) (X)
Upward/(downward) revaluation during the year X/(X)
X
Additions to non-current assets (balancing figure) X
Non-current assets at the end of the year at NBV (X)

Corporate reporting
Example: Cash paid for property, plant and equipment

The statements of financial position of Grand Company at the beginning and end of
2014 include the following information:
Property, plant and equipment 2013 2014
₦ ₦
At cost/re-valued amount 1,400,000 1,900,000
Accumulated depreciation 350,000 375,000
Carrying value 1,050,000 1,525,000
During the year, some property was revalued upwards by ₦200,000. An

item of equipment was disposed of during the year at a profit of
₦25,000. This equipment had an original cost of ₦260,000 and
accumulated depreciation of ₦240,000 at the date of disposal.
Depreciation charged in the year was ₦265,000.
Example (continued): Cash paid for property, plant and equipment

Additions may be calculated as follows:
Cost NBV
Balance at the start of the year 1,400,000 1,050,000
Disposals during the year:
At cost (260,000)
At carrying amount: (260,000 – 240,000) (20,000)
Depreciation (265,000)
Revaluation 200,000 200,000
1,340,000 965,000
Additions (balancing figure) 560,000 560,000
Balance at the end of the year 1,900,000 1,525,000
The revaluation recognised in the year can be found by comparing the opening
and closing balances on the revaluation surplus account. There might also be
revaluation double entry recognised as a gain or loss in other comprehensive
income. You need to total revaluation recognised in the year so you may have to
add or net both amounts.

2.2 Cash from disposals of property plant and equipment

A statement of cash flows should include the net cash received from any
disposals of non-current assets during the period.
This might have to be calculated from the gain or loss on disposal and the
carrying amount of the asset at the time of its disposal.
Illustration: Disposal of property, plant and equipment
₦
At cost (or re-valued amount at the time of disposal) X
Accumulated depreciation, at the time of disposal (X)
Net book value/carrying amount at the time of disposal X
Gain or (loss) on disposal X
Net disposal value (= assumed cash flow) X
2.3 Cash paid for the purchase of investments and cash received from the sale
of investments
A statement of cash flows should include the net cash paid to buy investments in
the period and the cash received from the sale of investment in the period.
It is useful to remember the following relationship:
Illustration: Movement on investments

₦
Carrying amount at the start of the year X
Disposals (X)
Additions X
Revaluation X/(X)
Carrying amount at the end of the year X

Corporate reporting
3 CASH FLOWS FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES
Section overview
 Examples of cash flows from financing activities

 Cash from new share issues
 Cash from new loans/cash used to repay loans
 Dividend payments to equity shareholders
 Repayments on finance leases
3.1 Examples of cash flows from financing activities

Examples of cash flows from financing activities are listed below:
Cash payments Cash receipts

Cash payments to redeem/buy back Cash proceeds from issuing shares
shares
Cash payments to repay a loan or Cash proceeds from a loan or issue of
redeem bonds bonds
Cash payments to a lessor under a
finance lease agreement that
represent a reduction in the remaining
finance lease obligation (= a reduction
in the creditors for finance leases)
Dividends are also usually included within cash flows from financing activities, in
this part of the statement of cash flows. (Some entities may also include interest
payments in this section, instead of including them in the section for cash flows
from operating activities.)
3.2 Cash from new share issues

The cash raised from new share issues can be established by comparing the
equity share capital and the share premium in the statements of financial position
at the beginning and the end of the year.
Illustration: Cash from new share issues
₦
Share capital + Share premium at the end of the year X
Share capital + Share premium at the beginning of the year X
Cash obtained from issuing new shares in the year X

Example: Cash from new share issues

The statements of financial position of Company P at 1 January and 31 December
included the following items:
1 January 2014 31 December 2014
₦ ₦
Equity shares 600,000 750,000
Share premium 800,000 1,100,000
There was a 1 for 6 bonus issue during the year funded out of retained earnings.
The bonus issue was followed later in the year by a rights issue to raise cash for the
purchase of new plan.
(The information about the bonus issue means that for every 6 shares held at the
start of the year one new share was issued. Therefore, the share capital changed
from ₦600,000 to ₦700,000. The double entry to achieve this was Dr Retained
earnings and Cr Share capital).
The cash obtained from issuing shares during the year is calculated as follows.
₦
Share capital + Share premium at the end of 2014 1,850,000
Share capital + Share premium at the beginning of 2014 (1,400,000)
Bonus issue (600,000  7/6 ) (100,000)
Cash obtained from issuing new shares in 2014 350,000
If a bonus issue is funded out of share premium it can be ignored because the
balances on the two accounts are added together so the total would not be
affected.

Corporate reporting
3.3 Cash from new loans/cash used to repay loans

Cash from new loans or cash paid to redeem loans in the year can be calculated
simply by looking at the difference between the liabilities for loans and bonds at
the beginning and the end of the year.
 An increase in loans or bonds means there has been an inflow of cash.
 A reduction in loans or bonds means there has been a payment (outflow) of
cash.
Remember to add any loans, loan notes or bonds repayable within one year
(current liability) to the loans, loan notes or bonds repayable after more than one
year (non-current liability) to get the total figure for loans, loan notes or bonds.
Illustration: Cash from loans
₦
Loans at end of year (current and non-current liabilities) X
Loans at beginning of year (current and non-current liabilities) X
Cash inflow or outflow X
Note: The same calculation can be applied to bonds or loan notes that the
company might have issued. Bonds and loan notes are long-term debt.
3.4 Dividend payments to equity shareholders

These should be the final dividend payment from the previous year and the
interim dividend payment for the current year. The dividend payments during the
year are shown in the statement of changes in equity (SOCIE).
You might be expected to calculate dividend payments from figures for retained
earnings and the profit after tax for the year.
If there have been no transfers to the retained earnings reserve from the
revaluation reserve in the year, the equity dividend payments can be calculated
as follows:
Illustration:
₦
Retained earnings reserve at the beginning of the year X
Profit for the year after tax X
Increase in the retained earnings reserve X

Retained earnings reserve at the end of the year (X)
Equity dividend payments X

From the following information, calculate the cash flows from investing
activities for Company X in 2014.
Beginning of End of
2014 2014
₦ ₦
Share capital (ordinary shares) 400,000 500,000
Share premium 275,000 615,000
1,065,000 1,685,000
Loans repayable after more than 12 months 600,000 520,000
Loans repayable within 12 months or less 80,000 55,000
The company made a profit of ₦420,000 for the year after taxation.
Required
Calculate for 2014, for inclusion in the statement of cash flows:
(a) the cash from issuing new shares
(b) the cash flows received or paid for loans
(c) the payment of dividend to ordinary shareholders.
3.5 Repayments on finance leases

When non-current assets are acquired under a finance lease, the lessee makes
payments under the lease agreement. For accounting purposes, payments under
finance leases are treated:
 partly as interest payments; and
 partly as repayment of the lease finance.
For the purposes of the statement of cash flows:
 The interest element in the lease payments is treated as an interest
payment. It is included either as a cash flow from operating activities or a
cash flow from financing activities
 The repayment of the lease liability is treated as a repayment of a debt, and
is included as a cash flow from financing activities.

Corporate reporting
4 CONSOLIDATED STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS
Section overview
 The special features of a consolidated statement of cash flows

 Illustrative format
4.1 The special features of a consolidated statement of cash flows

A consolidated statement of cash flows is prepared largely from the consolidated
statement of financial position, statement of profit or loss and other
comprehensive income and statement of changes in equity. The rules for
preparing a group statement of cash flows are similar to the rules for a statement
of cash flows for an individual entity.
However, there are additional items in a consolidated statement of cash flows
that are not found in the statement of cash flows of an individual company. The
most significant of these are cash flows (or adjustments to profit before tax)
relating to:
 non-controlling interests;
 associates (or JVs);
 and acquiring or disposing of subsidiaries during the year.
Exchange rate differences

A gain or loss arising from exchange rate differences is not a cash flow item.
When the indirect method is used to present cash flows from operating activities,
it is therefore necessary to make an adjustment to get from ‘profit’ to ‘cash flow’.
 A loss arising from exchange rate differences (shown in the example above
as a ‘foreign exchange loss’) must be added back.
 A gain arising from exchange rate differences must be subtracted.
4.2 Illustrative format

It might be useful to look at the format of a consolidated statement of cash flows,
to see where these items appear. The indirect method is used here to present the
cash flows from operating activities.

Illustration: X Plc: Consolidated statement of cash flows for the year ended 31
December 20X7
₦000 ₦000
Profit before tax 440
Adjustments for:
Depreciation and amortisation charges 450
Loss on disposal of plant and machinery 50
Share of profit of associates and joint ventures (100)
Foreign exchange loss 40
Investment income (25)
Interest expense 25
880
Increase in trade and other receivables (80)
Increase in inventories (60)
Increase in trade payables 40
Cash generated from operations 780
Interest paid (30)
Income taxes paid (200)
Net cash from operating activities 550
Cash flows from investing activities
Acquisition of subsidiary, net of cash acquired (note 1) (450)
Purchase of property, plant and equipment (note 2) (220)
Proceeds from the sale of equipment 30
Interest received 25
Dividends received from associates 45
Net cash used in investing activities (570)
Cash flows from financing activities
Proceeds from the issue of share capital 500
Proceeds from long-term loan 100
Redemption of debt securities (150)
Payment of finance lease liabilities (80)
Dividends paid to non-controlling interests (70)
Dividends paid to parent company shareholders (200)
Net cash inflow from financing activities 100
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents 80
Cash and cash equivalents at the start of the year (note 3) 150
Cash and cash equivalents at the end of the year (note 3) 230

Corporate reporting
Notes to the statement of cash flows
Illustration: Notes to the statement of cash flows

Note 1: Acquisition of subsidiary
During the year, the group acquired a subsidiary A Limited. The fair value of
assets acquired and liabilities assumed were as follows:
₦000
Cash 50
Inventories 90
Trade receivables 60
Trade payables (70)
Long-term loan (200)
Total purchase price 800
Minus cash of A Limited (50)
750
Shares issued as part of the purchase price 300
Cash flow on acquisition net of cash acquired 450
Note 2: Property, plant and equipment

During the year, the group acquired property, plant and equipment with a total
cost of ₦400,000, of which ₦180,000 was acquired by means of finance leases.
Cash payments of ₦220,000 were made to acquire property, plant and
equipment.
Note 3: Cash and cash equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents consist of cash in hand, bank balances, and money
market investments. Cash and cash equivalents in the statement of cash flows
comprise the following amounts in the statement of financial position:
20X7 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Cash in hand and balances with banks 120 110
Short-term investments 210 80
Cash and cash equivalents as previously
reported 330 190
Effect of exchange rate changes - (40)
Cash and cash equivalents as re-stated 330 150

5 NON-CONTROLLING INTERESTS AND ASSOCIATES (OR JVS) IN THE

STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS
Section overview
 Obtaining the required figures for cash flows

 Non-controlling interests and the group statement of cash flows
 Dividends paid to non-controlling interests and foreign exchange adjustments
 Associates (or JVs) and the group cash flow statement
 Calculating dividends received from an associate
5.1 Obtaining the required figures for cash flows

The cash flows and adjustments in a group statement of cash flows are obtained
from the other group financial statements. You should expect an examination
question to provide you with an opening and closing consolidated statement of
financial position, together with the related consolidated statement of profit or
loss and other comprehensive income, and possibly a statement of changes in
equity. Other relevant information may also be provided.
A group statement of cash flows reports the cash flows that affect the group’s
consolidated cash (and cash equivalents). Any transactions not affecting the
group cash position should not be shown in the statement of cash flows , except
(with the indirect method) where a non-cash item is presented as an adjustment
to the profit before tax to calculate the ‘Cash generated from operations’.
5.2 Non-controlling interests and the group statement of cash flows

Unless there is an acquisition or a disposal of a subsidiary during the year, the
only cash flow relating to non-controlling interests is the amount of dividends paid
to the non-controlling interests by subsidiaries.
This might have to be calculated as a balancing figure, using the following
calculation:
Illustration: Dividends paid to NCI
₦
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the beginning of
the year X
Non-controlling interest in profits after tax for the year (X)
X
Dividends paid to non-controlling interests (balancing figure) (X)
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the end of the
year X
The dividends paid to non-controlling interests by subsidiaries are usually

included in the ‘Cash flows from financing activities’ part of the statement of
cash flows. (This is the same part of the statement of cash flows where dividends
paid to the parent company shareholders are usually shown.)

Corporate reporting
Example: Dividends paid to NCI

The following information has been extracted from consolidated financial
statements of P, a holding company which prepares accounts to 31 December. P
has a subsidiary Q, for which a final dividend is declared before the end of the
financial year.
20X7 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Non-controlling interest in group net assets 1,510 1,380
Non-controlling interest in consolidated profit after
taxation 250 470
What figure should appear in the consolidated statement of cash flows for the
year to 31 December 20X7 for the dividends paid to non-controlling interests?
Under what heading will this figure appear in the group statement of cash flows?
Answer
₦000
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the beginning of the
year 1,380
Non-controlling interest in profits after tax for the year 250
1,630
Dividends paid to non-controllinginterests (balancing figure) (120)
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the end of the year 1,510
The dividend paid of ₦120,000 will be disclosed as a cash flow from financing
activities.
Practice question 3
The following information has been extracted from the consolidated
financial statements of P, a holding company which prepares accounts to
31 December each year:
Year 4 Year 3
₦000 ₦000
Dividends payable to non-controlling
interests 200 320
Non-controlling interests in group equity 1,560 1,380
Non-controlling interest in profit for the
year 240 220
What figure will appear in the consolidated statement of cash flows for
the year to 31 December Year 4 for dividend paid to non-controlling
interests?

Practice question 4
financial statements of X Plc:
Year 4 Year 5
₦000 ₦000
NCI dividends payable at 31 December 20 25
NCI share of group profits after tax for
the year 270 300
NCI share in group net assets as at 31
December 600 630
the year to 31 December Year 5 in respect of non-controlling interests?
Practice question 5
The consolidated financial statements of Entity P for the year ended 31
March Year 6 showed the following balances:
Non-controlling interests in the consolidated statement of financial position
at 31 March Year 6 are ₦6 million (₦3.6 million at 31 March Year 5).
Non-controlling interests in the consolidated profit for the year ended 31
March Year 6 is ₦2 million.
During the year ended 31 March Year 6, the group acquired a new 75%
subsidiary whose net assets at the date of acquisition were ₦6.4 million.
On 31 March Year 6, the group revalued all its properties and the non-
controlling interest in the revaluation surplus was ₦1.5 million.
There were no dividends payable to non-controlling interests at the
beginning or end of the year.
What is the dividend paid to non-controlling interests that will be shown in
the consolidated statement of cash flows of Entity P for the year ended 31
March Year 6?
5.3 Dividends paid to non-controlling interests and foreign exchange

adjustments
If there is a gain or loss on translation for a foreign subsidiary, the non-controlling
interest has a share of this exchange gain or loss. This means that the amount
shown as the non-controlling interest in the consolidated statement of financial
position includes the non-controlling interest share of any foreign exchange gains
or is after deducting any foreign exchange losses.
A gain or loss arising from exchange rate differences is not a cash flow, but it
changes the amount for non-controlling interest in the consolidated statement of
financial position. When the figures for non-controlling interest in the opening and
closing statements of financial position are used to calculate dividend payments
to non-controlling interests, we must therefore remove the effect of exchange rate
differences during the year.

Corporate reporting
The calculation of the dividends paid to the non-controlling interests should then
be calculated as follows:
Illustration: Dividends paid to NCI
₦
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the beginning of
the year X
Non-controlling interest in profits after tax for the year X
Add non-controlling interest share of foreign exchange gain (or
subtract NCI share of a loss) X/(X)
X
Dividends paid to non-controlling interests (as a balancing
figure) X
Non-controlling interest in group net assets at the end of the
year X
5.4 Associates (or JVs) and the group statement of cash flows
When a group has an interest in an associate entity, the consolidated statement
of cash flows must show the cash flows that occur between the associate (or JV)
and the group. The consolidated statement of cash flows shows the effect on the
group’s cash position of transactions between the group and its associate (or JV).
The cash held by an associate (or JV) is not included in the group’s cash figure in
the consolidated statement of financial position. This is because the equity
method of accounting does not add the associate’s (or JV’s) cash to the cash of
the holding company and subsidiaries. As far as cash flows are concerned, the
associate (or JV) is outside the group. (The same principles apply to other
investments accounted for under the equity method, such as joint ventures
accounted for by the equity method).
Share of profit (or loss) of an associate (or JV)

In the consolidated statement of profit or loss, the group profit includes the
group’s share of the profits of associates (or JVs). These profits are not a cash
flow item. When the indirect method is used to present the cash flows from
operating activities, an adjustment is therefore needed to get from ‘profit’ to ‘cash
flow’.
 The group’s share of the profit of an associate (or JV) must be deducted
from profit.
 The group’s share of the loss of an associate (or JV) must be added to
profit.

Cash flows involving associates (or JVs)

The cash flows that might occur between a group and an associate (or JV), for
inclusion in the consolidated statement of cash flows are as follows:
 Investing activities
 cash paid to acquire shares in an associate (or JV) during the year
 cash received from the disposal of shares in an associate (or JV)
during the year
 dividends received from an associate during the year.
 Financing activities
 cash paid as a new loan to or from an associate (or JV) during the
year
 cash received as a repayment of a loan to or from an associate (or
JV) during the year.
Note that dividends received from an associate (or JV) are shown as cash flows
from investing activities; whereas dividends paid to non-controlling interests in
subsidiaries are (usually) shown as cash flows from financing activities.
5.5 Calculating dividends received from an associate (or JV)

In an examination, you may be required to calculate the dividends received from
an associate (or JV), using information in the opening and closing consolidated
statements of financial position and the consolidated statement of profit or loss.
The technique is similar to the calculation of dividends paid to non-controlling
interests.
Illustration: Dividends received from an associate (or JV)
₦
Group investment in net assets of associate (or JV) at the
beginning of the year X
Group share of associate’s (or JV’s) profits before tax (X)
X
Dividends received from associate (or JV) in the year (X)
Group investment in net assets of associate (or JV) at the end of
the year X

Corporate reporting
Example: Dividends received from an associate (or JV)

The following information has been extracted from the consolidated financial
statements of P for the year ended 31 December 20X7. The group has neither
purchased nor disposed of any investment during this period.
Group statement of profit or loss
₦000
Group operating profit 1,468
Share of associate’s profit after tax 136
1,604
Tax on profit on ordinary activities:
Income taxes: group (648)
Profit on ordinary activities after tax 956
Group statement of financial position at 31 December
20X7 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Investments in associates
Share of net assets 932 912
Required
(a) What figure should appear in the group statement of cash flows for the year
to 31 December 20X7 for the associate?
(b) Under which heading would you expect this figure to appear in the group
statement of cash flows?
Answer
(a) ₦000
Group investment in net assets of associate at the
beginning of the year 912
Group share of associate’s profits after tax 136
1,048
Dividends received from associate in the year (as a
balancing figure) (116)
Group investment in net assets of associate at the end of
the year 932
(b) The cash flow of ₦116,000 will be shown as a cash flow from investing
activities in the group statement of cash flows.

Practice question 6
financial statements of P, a holding company which prepares accounts to
31 December each year:
Consolidated statement of financial position (extract):
Year 4 Year 3
₦000 ₦000
Investments in associated undertakings 932 912
Current assets
Dividend receivable from associate 96 58
Consolidated statement of profit or loss (extract):

Investments in associated undertakings Year 4
₦000
Group operating profit 1,468
Share of operating profit of associate 136
1,604
Income taxes: (648)
Profit after tax 956
the year to 31 December Year 4 in respect of dividend received from
associates?

Corporate reporting
6 ACQUISITIONS AND DISPOSALS OF SUBSIDIARIES IN THE

STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS
Section overview
 Acquisition of a subsidiary in the statement of cash flows

 Note to the statement of cash flows on acquisitions
 Avoiding double counting when a subsidiary has been acquired
 Disposal of a subsidiary in the statement of cash flows
6.1 Acquisition of a subsidiary in the statement of cash flows

When a subsidiary is acquired:
 the group gains control of the assets and liabilities of the subsidiary, which
might include some cash and cash equivalents, and
 the group pays for its share of the subsidiary, and the purchase
consideration might consist partly or entirely of cash.
In the group statement of cash flows, a single figure is shown (under the heading
‘Cash flows from investing activities’) for the net effect of the cash flows from
acquiring the subsidiary. This net effect is:
Illustration: Cash paid for a subsidiary
₦
Cash element in the purchase consideration X
Minus: Cash assets of the subsidiary at the acquisition date (X)
Cash payment on acquisition of subsidiary, net of cash received X
This net cash payment is the amount shown in the group statement of cash
flows.
Example: Cash paid for a subsidiary

Blue Group acquired 80% of the shares in Green Entity on 5 September 20X6,
when the net assets of Green Entity were ₦800,000, including ₦25,000 in cash
and cash equivalents. The purchase consideration was ₦700,000, consisting of
₦500,000 in new shares of Blue (the holding company) and ₦200,000 in cash.
The cash flow shown in the group statement of cash flows for the year to 31
December 20X6 is:
₦
Cash element in the purchase consideration 200,000
Minus: Cash assets of the subsidiary at the acquisition date (25,000)
Cash payment on acquisition of subsidiary, net of cash received 175,000
Note that in the above example, even though only 80% of the shares in Green
Entity have been acquired, the full ₦25,000 of cash held by the subsidiary is
brought into the group statement of financial position at the acquisition date. The

figure deducted from the cash in the purchase consideration is therefore 100% of
the subsidiary’s cash and cash equivalents acquired.
6.2 Note to the statement of cash flows on acquisitions

In an examination, it is useful to prepare a statement summarising the cash flow
effects of an acquisition. This statement is actually required by IAS 7, and should
be presented as a note to the statement of cash flows.
The statement should be presented as follows:
Illustration: Note to the cash flow statements re acquisition

₦
Assets of the subsidiary at the acquisition date, at fair
value X
Liabilities of the subsidiary at the acquisition date (X)
Net assets of the subsidiary at the acquisition date X
Minus non-controlling interest in the subsidiary at this date
(% Non-controlling interest × Net assets) (X)
Purchased goodwill X
Fair value of net assets acquired X
Satisfied by:
New shares in holding company X
Cash X
Purchase consideration X
The total purchase consideration equals the fair value of the net assets acquired.
The cash of the subsidiary at the acquisition date (C2) is then deducted from the
cash paid (C1) to arrive at the figure that appears in the statement of cash flows
for the ‘Acquisition net of cash received’

Corporate reporting
Example: Note to the cash flow statements re acquisition

A typical note to the statement of cash flows, using illustrative figures, might
appear as follows for a subsidiary in which 80% of the shares are acquired:
₦000
Net assets acquired:
Cash 3
Inventories 139
Trade payables (68)
Bank loan (100)
480
Non-controlling interest (20% × 480) (96)
384
Purchased goodwill 76
Fair value of net assets acquired 460
Satisfied by:
Issue of shares 152
Cash paid 308
460
Extract from statement of cash flows
Investing activities
Acquisition of subsidiary net of cash received (₦308,000 – ₦3,000) ₦305,000
In the statement of cash flows itself, the cash payment on the acquisition of the
subsidiary is not ₦308,000, because the cash flow is shown as the payment
minus the cash held by the subsidiary at the acquisition date (which is cash
brought into the group by acquiring the subsidiary).
In this example, the cash brought into the group on acquisition, as a part of the
net assets of the subsidiary, is ₦3,000.
6.3 Avoiding double counting when a subsidiary has been acquired

Cash flow information is often calculated from information in the opening and
closing statements of financial position.
If there is an acquisition during the year, it is important to make an adjustment to
the calculation for the assets or liabilities in the subsidiary that were acquired.
Unless this adjustment is made, the assets and liabilities in the subsidiary at the
acquisition date will be counted twice and the calculations will be incorrect.
An adjustment will be needed for every item of asset or liability acquired, except
for cash and cash equivalents.

Inventory, trade receivables, trade payables

When the indirect method is used to present cash flows from operating activities,
the changes in receivables, inventory and trade payables are shown as
adjustments to the profit figure, to get to a figure for cash flow.
When preparing a statement of cash flows for an individual company, the
changes in these items are calculated by calculating the difference in the figure in
the closing statement of financial position and the corresponding value in the
opening statement of financial position.
However, when a subsidiary has been acquired, the working capital brought into
the group (receivables plus inventory minus trade payables of the acquired
subsidiary) is paid for in the purchase price to acquire the subsidiary. As we have
seen, this is treated as a separate item in the investing activities section of the
statement of cash flows.
To avoid double counting of the effects of the working capital in the subsidiary at
the acquisition date, we need to deduct from the value in the closing statement of
financial position, or add to the value in the opening statement of financial
position:
 the receivables in the net assets of the subsidiary acquired, as at the
acquisition date
 the inventory in the net assets of the subsidiary acquired, as at the
acquisition date, and
 the trade payables in the net assets of the subsidiary acquired, as at the
acquisition date.
Example: Adjustment to calculation

D Group is preparing a group statement of cash flows for the year using the
indirect method. In the group opening and closing statements of financial
position, inventories were:
At the beginning of the year ₦120,000
At the end of the year ₦190,000
During the year, the group acquired a 75% interest in a new subsidiary, Entity S,
which had inventories of ₦40,000 at the acquisition date.
Required
What figure should be shown in the group statement of cash flows as the
adjustment for the increase or decrease in inventories?

Corporate reporting
Answer
₦
Group inventories at the beginning of the year 120,000
Add: Inventories acquired in the subsidiary 40,000
160,000
Adjustment for increase in inventories on acquisition of new
subsidiary 30,000
Group inventories at the end of the year 190,000
Inventories have increased by ₦30,000 after allowing for the ₦40,000 of
inventories brought into the group when the subsidiary was purchased.
This would usually be shown as a working on the face of the answer as
(₦190,000  (120,000 + 40,000))
Purchases of non-current assets

When non-current assets are shown at their carrying amount (net book value)
and a subsidiary has been acquired during the year, purchases of non-current
assets (assumed to be cash payments) are calculated as follows.
Example: Cash paid to buy non-current assets
₦
Non-current assets at carrying amount, at the beginning of
the year 240,000
Net book value of disposals of non-current assets during
the year (30,000)
Depreciation charge for the year (40,000)
Cash paid to acquire non-current assets during the year
(second balancing figure) 55,000
Non-current assets acquired on acquisition of the
subsidiary 65,000
Total additions (first balancing figure) 120,000
Non-current assets at carrying amount, at the end of the
year 290,000

Other items
Similar principles can be applied to all other assets and liabilities to find the cash
effect, for example to calculate loan repayments and repayments of leasing
obligations
Example: Tax paid

The Spot Group had the following items in its opening and closing group
statements of financial position at the beginning and at the end of 20X6:
At 1 January 20X6 At 31 December 20X6

₦000 ₦000
Current tax payable 250 325
Deferred tax (liability) 136 165
The Spot Group acquired a 60% holding in a subsidiary, Entity B, on 7 May 20X6.
The total tax liability of Entity B at this date was ₦120,000. The total charge for
taxation in the consolidated statement of profit or loss of the Spot Group for the
year to 31 December 20X6 was ₦950,000.
Required
What was the cash payment for taxation during the year, for inclusion on the
group statement of cash flows?
Answer
The tax liability in the subsidiary when it was acquired should be deducted from
the closing tax liability for the group (or added to the opening tax liability for the
group) to avoid double counting.
₦000
Group tax liability at the beginning of the year 386
Tax liability acquired in the subsidiary 120
Group tax charge in the year 950
1,456
Tax paid in the year (966)
Group tax at the end of the year (325 + 165) 490
Note
To calculate the tax payment for the year, you should take the entire tax charge at
the beginning and at the end of the year – both current tax and deferred tax.

Corporate reporting
Example: dividends paid to non-controlling interest when a subsidiary has been

acquired
At 1 January At 31 December
20X6 20X6
₦000 ₦000
Non-controlling interest 350 415
The net assets of Entity B at this date were ₦800,000 at fair value. The profit
attributable to non-controlling interests in the group’s statement of profit or loss
for the year to 31 December 20X6 was ₦270,000.
Required
What dividends were paid to the non-controlling interests during the year to 31
December 20X6?
Answer
Again, to avoid double counting we need to:
a. deduct the non-controlling interest acquired from the value for non-
controlling interest in the closing consolidated statement of financial
position, or
b. (as shown below) add the non-controlling interest acquired to the non-
controlling interest in the opening consolidated statement of financial
position.
₦000
Non-controlling interest at the beginning of the year 350
Non-controlling interest acquired in the subsidiary
(40% × 800) 320
Non-controlling interest share of profits for the year 270
940
Dividends paid to non-controlling interest during the year (525)
Non-controlling interest at the end of the year 415
The cash outflow will be shown as a cash flow from financing activities.

Example: adjustment for the impairment of goodwill

At 1 January 20X6 At 31 December 20X6

₦000 ₦000
Goodwill 600 540
Purchased goodwill arising on the acquisition of Entity B was ₦110,000. The Spot
Group uses the indirect method to present its group statement of cash flows.
Required
What is the impairment to goodwill for the year, and where would it appear in the
group statement of cash flows?
Answer
The impairment of goodwill is a non-cash item that reduces profit. When the
indirect method is used to present cash flows from operating activities, any
impairment of assets during the year and charged against profit must be added
back to the profit figure (in the same way that depreciation and amortisation
charges are added back).
When a subsidiary is acquired during the year, the calculation of the impairment
must allow for the purchased goodwill in the newly-acquired subsidiary. An
adjustment is needed to avoid double-counting.
₦000
Goodwill at the beginning of the year 600
Goodwill acquired in the subsidiary 110
710
Impairment (170)
Goodwill at the end of the year 540

Corporate reporting
6.4 Disposal of a subsidiary in the statement of cash flows

The procedures for reporting the cash effect of disposals of subsidiaries in a
group statement of cash flows are similar to those used for acquisitions, except
that the process applies in reverse.
In the group statement of cash flows, the cash received from the disposal is the
cash actually received from the disposal, minus any cash in the subsidiary at the
disposal date.
A note to the statement of cash flows should show the details of the disposal,
including the cash received from the sale minus the cash in the subsidiary at the
disposal date.
The assets and liabilities disposed of, and the non-controlling interest leaves the
group on the disposal. To avoid double counting the other cash flow items in the
statement of cash flows.
Example: Disposal
Entity D disposed of its 80% interest in the equity capital of Entity S for a cash
sum of ₦550 million. The statement of financial position of Entity S at the date of
disposal showed the following balances:
₦000
Tangible non current assets 500
Inventories 200
Trade payables (200)
Taxation (including deferred taxation) (80)
Bank overdraft (320)
400
D acquired its interest in S at the date of incorporation of that company, so no
goodwill arose.
Required
Prepare a statement summarising the effect of the disposal as a note to the
consolidated statement of cash flows.

Answer
Cash received from the sale of the shares in the subsidiary is ₦550,000.
However, a note to the statement of cash flows should present the details of the
net assets disposed of, the proceeds from the sale, and the profit or loss on
disposal.
The profit or loss is the difference between the value of the net assets disposed of
and the proceeds from the sale. It is a balancing figure, in the same way that the
purchased goodwill is the balancing figure in a similar note to the statement of
cash flows when a subsidiary has been acquired.
In this example, the subsidiary had a bank overdraft when it was disposed of. The
cash in the subsidiary at the date of disposal was therefore a negative amount.
The group no longer has the bank overdraft, which means that its cash flow
position improved by selling off the subsidiary.
In the statement of cash flows itself, the cash proceeds from the disposal of the
subsidiary (net of cash ‘lost’) is the cash from the disposal proceeds plus the bank
overdraft that is no longer in the group (₦550,000 + ₦320,000 = ₦870,000).
₦000
Net assets disposed of:
Tangible non current assets 500
Inventories 200
Trade payables (200)
Taxation (80)
Bank overdraft (320)
400
Non-controlling interest (20% × 400) (80)
320
Profit on disposal 230
Proceeds 550
Satisfied by:
Cash 550
Extract from the statement of cash flows
Investing activities
Sale of subsidiary (550 + 320) 870

Corporate reporting
Example: Disposal
Suppose that the group in the previous example uses the indirect method of
computing the cash flow from operating activities. Inventories were ₦1,600,000
in the opening group statement of financial position at the beginning of the year
and ₦1,500,000 in the closing group statement of financial position.
Required
What figure in respect of inventories would be used as an adjustment in
calculating the cash flows from operating activities?
Answer
₦000
Group inventories at the beginning of the year 1,600
Inventories disposed of in the subsidiary (200)
1,400
Adjustment for increase in inventories 100
Group inventories at the end of the year 1,500

7 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Prepare extracts from a statement of cash flow
 Prepare a statement of cash flow
 Prepare extracts from a consolidated statement of cash flow
 Prepare a consolidated statement of cash flow

Corporate reporting

Solution 1
₦ ₦
Profit before taxation 16,000
Adjustments for:
Depreciation and amortisation charges 15,000
Gains on disposal of non-current assets (5,000)
26,000
Decrease in trade and other receivables 3,000
Increase in inventories (2,000)
Increase in trade payables 2,500

Solution 2
Workings
Proceeds from new issue of shares ₦
Share capital and share premium:
At the end of the year (500,000 + 615,000) 1,115,000
At the beginning of the year (400,000 + 275,000) 675,000
Proceeds from new issue of shares during the year 440,000
Repayment of loans ₦
Loans repayable:
At the end of the year (520,000 + 55,000) 575,000
At the beginning of the year (600,000 + 80,000) 680,000
Repayment of loans during the year 105,000
Payment of dividends ₦
Retained earnings at the beginning of the year 390,000
Profit after taxation for the year 420,000
810,000
Retained earnings at the end of the year 570,000
Dividends paid during the year 240,000
Cash flows from financing activities can now be presented as follows.
Cash flows from financing activities ₦ ₦
Proceeds from issue of shares 440,000
Repayment of loans (105,000)
Dividends paid to shareholders (240,000)
Net cash from financing activities 95,000
Solution 3
Dividend paid to non-controlling interest is as follows:
₦000
Opening balances (320 + 1,380) 1,700
Share of profit for the year 240
1,940
Closing balances (200 + 1,560) (1,760)
Dividend paid 180

Corporate reporting
Solution 4
₦000
Balances at start of Year 5 (20+ 600) 620
Attributable to NCI in profit or loss for the year 300
920
Balances at end of Year 5 (25 + 630) 655
Cash paid to NCI (265)
Solution 5
₦m
Opening balance, NCI 3.6
NCI in profit for the year 2.0
Effect of acquisition: addition to NCI (25%  ₦6.4) 1.6
Revaluation surplus: addition to NCI 1.5
8.7
Closing balance, NCI 6.0
Dividend paid to NCI (balancing figure) (2.7)
Solution 6
Dividend from associate is as follows:
₦000
Opening balances (912 + 58) 970
Share of profit after tax for the year 136
1,106
Closing balances (200 + 1,560) (1,028)
Dividend received 78

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
31
IAS 33: Earnings per share
Contents
1 P/E ratio and earnings per share
2 Calculating basic EPS
3 Diluted EPS
4 IAS 33: Presentation and disclosure requirements
5 Earnings per share as a performance measure
6 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

Exam context
This chapter explains how to calculate earnings per share
convenience.

 Explain why a standard calculation of earnings per share is important
 Calculate basic earnings per share
 Calculate diluted earnings per share

Chapter 31: IAS 33: Earnings per share
1 P/E RATIO AND EARNINGS PER SHARE (EPS)
Section overview
 The need for a standard on earnings per share

 IAS 33: Earnings per share
1.1 The need for a standard on earnings per share
Earnings per share

Earnings are profits available for equity (ordinary shareholders). Earnings per
share (EPS) is a measure of the amount of earnings in a financial period for each
equity share.
As its name implies, EPS is calculated as reported earnings divided by the
number of ordinary shares in issue.
The price/earnings ratio

The price/earnings ratio (P/E ratio) is a key stock market ratio. It is a measure of
the company’s current share price (market price) in relation to the EPS. The P/E
ratio is calculated as follows:
Formula: Price earnings ratio

Market value of share
P/E ratio =
Earnings per share
The P/E ratio can be used by investors to assess whether the shares of a
company appear expensive or cheap. A high P/E ratio usually indicates that the
stock market expects strong performance from the company in the future and
investors are therefore prepared to pay a high multiple of historical earnings to
buy the shares.
EPS is used by investors as a measure of the performance of companies in
which they invest – or might possibly invest. Investors are usually interested in
changes in a company’s EPS over time – trends – and also in the size of EPS
relative to the current market price of the company’s shares.
EPS should therefore be calculated by all companies in a standard way, so that
investors can obtain a reliable comparison between the EPS and P/E ratios of
different companies.
1.2 IAS 33: Earnings per share

The rules for calculating EPS are set out in IAS 33 Earnings per share
The concept of EPS is quite straightforward. It is simply the profit in the year
divided by the number of ordinary shares in that year.
IAS 33 specifies the profit figure that should be used and explains how to
calculate the appropriate number of shares when there have been changes in
share capital during the period under review.

Corporate reporting
IAS 33 also describes the concept of dilution which is caused by the existence of
potential ordinary shares.
Each of these issues is dealt with in later sections.
Objective of IAS 33
The objective of IAS 33 is to set out principles for:
 the calculation of EPS; and
 the presentation of EPS in the financial statements.
The purpose of standardising the calculation and presentation of EPS is to make
it easier for the users of financial statements to compare the performance of:
 different entities in the same reporting period; and
 the same entity for different reporting periods over time.
Scope of IAS 33
IAS 33 applies only to publicly-traded entities or those which are about to be
publicly traded. A publicly-traded entity is an entity whose shares are traded by
the investing public, for example on a stock exchange.
Most publicly-traded entities prepare consolidated financial statements as well as
individual financial statements. When this is the case, IAS 33 requires disclosure
only of EPS based on the figures in the consolidated financial statements.
Definition
Definition
An ordinary share is an equity instrument that is subordinate to all other classes
of equity instruments.
The ordinary shares used in the EPS calculation are those entitled to the residual
profits of the entity, after dividends relating to all other shares have been paid. As
stated earlier, if you are given an examination question on this topic, preference
shares are not ordinary shares because they give more rights to their holders
than ordinary shares.
Preference shares and EPS

Preference shares are not ordinary shares. Since EPS is a measure of earnings
per ordinary share in a financial year, preference shares are excluded from the
number of shares.
The dividends paid to preference shareholders must therefore be excluded from
the total earnings for the period. A broad definition of ‘earnings’ is therefore profit
after tax less preference dividends paid.

Basic and diluted earnings per share

IAS 33 requires entities to calculate:
 the basic earnings per share on its continuing operations
 the diluted earnings per share on its continuing operations.
Additional requirements apply to earnings relating to discontinued operations.
Diluted EPS and basic EPS will usually differ when there are potential ordinary
shares in existence.
Definition
A potential ordinary share is a financial instrument or other contract that may
entitle its holder to ordinary shares at some time in the future.
IAS 33 gives the following examples of potential ordinary shares:

 financial liabilities or equity instruments that are convertible into new
ordinary shares at some time in the future (convertible debentures,
convertible preference shares);
 share options and warrants. Options and warrants are financial instruments
that give the holder the right (but not the obligation) to purchase new
ordinary shares at some time in the future, at a fixed price;
 shares that will be issued if certain contractual conditions are met, such as
contractual conditions relating to the purchase of a business.
The chapter explains the calculation of basic EPS and then the calculation of
diluted EPS.

Corporate reporting
2 CALCULATING BASIC EPS
Section overview
 Basic EPS
 Total earnings
 Changes in the number of shares during a period
 Issue of shares at full market price
 Bonus issues of shares
 Rights issues of shares
2.1 Basic EPS

Basic earnings per share is calculated by dividing the profit or loss on continuing
operations by the weighted average number of ordinary shares in issue during
the period.
The calculation of the basic EPS is as follows:
Formula: Basic EPS

Net profit (or loss) attributable to ordinary shareholders during a period
weighted average number of shares in issue during the period
As you can see above IAS 33 gives guidance on:

 the earnings figure that must be used being the net profit (or loss)
attributable to ordinary shareholders during a period (commonly referred to
as total earnings); and
 the number of shares to be used in the calculation being the weighted
average number of shares in issue during the period. Changes in share
capital during a period must be taken into account in arriving at this
number. IAS 33 provides guidance on how to do this.
2.2 Total earnings

The total earnings figure is the profit or loss from continuing operations after
deducting tax and preference dividends (and in the case of consolidated financial
statements, after excluding the earnings attributable to non-controlling interests
or minority interests). Total earnings include any income from associates (i.e. any
share of profits or losses of associates).
When there is a net loss, total earnings, and therefore, the EPS are negative.
Earnings from discontinued operations are dealt with separately. An EPS from
any discontinued operations must also be disclosed, but this does not have to
be disclosed on the face of the statement of profit or loss. Instead, it may be
shown in a note to the financial statements.
Preference shares
Preference shares must be classified as equity or liability in accordance with the
rules in IAS 32: Financial Instruments: Presentation.

If a class of preference shares is classified as equity, any dividend relating to that

share is recognised in equity. Any such dividend must be deducted from the profit
or loss from continuing operations as stated above.
If a class of preference shares is classified as liability, any dividend relating to
that share is recognised as borrowing cost in the statement of profit or loss. It is
already deducted from the profit or loss from continuing operations and no further
adjustment need be made.
Example: Basic EPS

In the year ended 31 December Year 1, Entity G made profit after tax of
₦3,500,000.
Of this, ₦3,000,000 was from continuing operations and ₦500,000 from
discontinued operations.
It paid ordinary dividends of ₦150,000 and preference dividends of ₦65,000.
The preference shares were correctly classified as liabilities in accordance with
IAS 32.
Entity G had 1 million ordinary shares in issue throughout the year.
Entity G’s basic EPS for the year ended 31 December Year 1 is calculated as
follows:
Net profit (or loss) attributable to ordinary shareholders during a
EPS = period
₦3,000,000
= = ₦3 per share
1,000,000
Example: Basic EPS

In the year ended 31 December Year 1, Entity G made profit after tax of
₦3,500,000.
Of this, ₦3,000,000 was from continuing operations and ₦500,000 from
discontinued operations.
It paid ordinary dividends of ₦150,000 and preference dividends of ₦65,000.
The preference shares were correctly classified as equity in accordance with IAS
32.
follows:
EPS = period
₦3,000,000  ₦65,000
= = ₦2.94 per share
1,000,000

Corporate reporting
Cumulative preference shares

There is a further complication concerning preference shares. Some preference
shares are cumulative preference shares. This means that if a company fails to
declare a preference dividend in a period the holders are entitled to receive the
missed dividend sometime in the future. In other words, their right to receive a
dividend accumulates when a dividend is not declared. If there are cumulative
preference shares in issue the dividend must be deducted from profit or loss from
continuing operations regardless of whether the dividend has been declared or
not.
Example: Cumulative preference shares

In the year ended 31 December Year 1, Entity G made profit after tax from
continuing operations of ₦3,500,000.
Entity G has ₦1,000,000 10% preference share capital in issue. (This would
entitle investors to receive a dividend of ₦100,000 10% of ₦1,000,000) if
declared).
follows:
EPS = period
₦3,500,000  ₦100,000
= = ₦3.4 per share
1,000,000

2.3 Changes in the number of shares during a period

IAS 33 gives guidance on how to incorporate changes in share capital during a
period into the calculation of the weighted average of shares that must be used in
the EPS calculation.
There are different ways in which the number of shares may change:
 Issues for full consideration (issue (or redemption) of shares at a full market
price).
 Issues for no consideration (issue (or redemption) of shares with no change
in net assets), for example:
 Bonus issues
 Share splits (where one share is split into several others)
 Reverse share splits
 Bonus elements in other issues (see later discussion on rights issues)
 Rights issues (issue of shares for consideration but at less than the full
market price of the share).
IAS 33 gives guidance on each of these.
Overall approach
At this point we will provide an overall approach designed to enable you to deal
with complicated situations where there has been more than one capital change
in the period.
Step 1: Write down the number of shares at the start of the year.
Step 2: Write down the date of the first capital change and the number of shares
in existence after that capital change. Repeat this step until all capital changes
have been dealt.
Step 3: Multiply each number of shares by the fraction of the year that it was in
existence.
Step 4: Add up the results from step 4 to give the weighted average number of
shares.
Note: If any capital change is due to or contains a bonus issue multiply each
preceding number of shares by the bonus fraction.
This will not make much sense to you at first but it will become clear as you study
later examples.

Corporate reporting
Example: Time apportionment to find weighted average

On 1 January a company had 5,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
On 1 April, 1,000,000 new shares were issued.
On 1 July an extra 1,000,000 shares came into existence
On 1 November 500,000 more shares were issued.
(All issues were at full market price – the implication of this will be explained in
more detail in the next section).
The weighted average number of shares is calculated as follows.
Weighted
Number of Time average
Date shares factor number
1 January to 31 March 5,000,000  3/12 1,250,000
New issue on the 1 April 1,000,000
1 April to 30 June 6,000,000  3/12 1,500,000
New issue on the 1 July 1,000,000
1 July to 31 October 7,000,000  4/12 2,333,333
New issue on the 1 November 500,000
1 November until 31 December 7,500,000  2/12 1,250,000
6,333,333

2.4 Issue of shares at full market price

The consideration received is available to boost earnings. Therefore, the shares
are included from the date of issue to ensure consistency between the numerator
(top) and denominator (bottom) of the EPS calculation.
As explained above, the starting point for the weighted average number of shares
is the number of shares in issue at the beginning of the period. This is then
adjusted for any shares issued during the period and a time weighting factor must
then be applied to each figure.
There is no adjustment to comparatives resulting from an issue at full price.
Example: Issue of shares at full market price

Company A has a financial year ending 31 December.
On 1 January Year 1 there were 6,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
On 1 April, it issued 1,000,000 new shares at full market price.
Total earnings in Year 1 were ₦27,000,000.
EPS in Year 1 is calculated as follows.

Weighted
1 January to 31 March 6,000,000  3/12 1,500,000
New issue on the 1 April 1,000,000
1 April to 31 December 7,000,000  9/12 5,250,000
6,750,000
EPS = ₦27,000,000/6,750,000 shares = ₦4
Practice question 1
Company B has a financial year ending 31 December.
On 1 January Year 3, there were 9,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
On 1 May, Company B issued 1,200,000 new shares at full market price.
On 1 October, it issued a further 1,800,000 shares, also at full market
price.
Calculate the EPS for the year to 31 December Year 3.

Corporate reporting
Partly paid shares

The number of ordinary shares is calculated based on the number of fully paid
shares. In order to do this partly paid shares are included as an equivalent
number of fully paid shares.
Example: Issue of shares at full market price

Company A has a financial year ending 31 December.
On 1 January Year 1 there were 6,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
1,000,000 of these shares were partly paid to 75% of their value.
On 1 April, the remaining 25% of the value of the partly paid shares was received.
EPS in Year 1 is calculated as follows.

Weighted
1 January to 31 March 6,000,000  3/12 1,500,000
Receipt of partly of balance on
partly paid shares (25% of
1,000,000) 250,000
1 April to 31 December 6,250,000  9/12 4,687,500
6,187,500
EPS = ₦24,750,000/6,187,500 shares = ₦4

2.5 Bonus issues of shares

A bonus issue of shares (also called a scrip issue or a capitalisation issue) is an
issue of new shares to existing shareholders, in proportion to their existing
shareholding, for no consideration. In other words, the new shares are issued
‘free of charge’ to existing shareholders.
The new shares are created by converting equity reserves in the statement of
financial position, often some or all of the share premium account, into ordinary
share capital.
No cash is raised from a bonus issue, therefore is no earnings boost from the
issue. Bonus issued shares are treated as if they have always been in issue.
The new number of shares (i.e. the number of shares after the bonus issue) can
be found by multiplying the number of shares before the bonus issue by the
bonus issue fraction.
The bonus issue fraction is
Formula: Bonus issue fraction

Number of shares in holding after the bonus issue
Number of shares in holding before the bonus issue
Example: Bonus fraction

A company has 4,000,000 shares in issue.
It made a 1 for 4 bonus issue
The bonus fraction is
Number of shares in holding after the bonus issue
Number of shares in holding before the bonus issue
4+1 5
=
4 4
Number of shares in issue after the bonus issue:

4,000,000  5/4 = 5,000,000
The above example is very straightforward but it illustrates an approach of wider

applicability.

Corporate reporting
Example: Bonus issue

Company C has a 31 December financial year end.
On 1 January Year 5 it has 4,000,000 shares in issue.
On 1 July Year 5 it made a 1 for 4 bonus issue.
The financial results for Company C in Year 4 and Year 5 were as follows.
Year 5 Year 4
Total earnings ₦20,000,000 ₦20,000,000
There were no share issues in Year 4.
Basic EPS in Year 4 was: ₦20,000,000/4,000,000 shares = ₦5 per share.
could be calculated for the Year 5 financial statements as follows, by taking as
the number of shares for the current period and the previous period the total
number of shares after the bonus issue.
The weighted average number of shares in the current year (using the method
explained earlier) is calculated as:
Weighted
Number of Time Bonus average
Date shares factor fraction number
1 January to 30 June 4,000,000 × 6/12 × 5/4 2,500,000
Bonus issue on 1 July 1,000,000
1 July to 31 December 5,000,000 × 6/12 2,500,000
5,000,000
Remember that if a capital change is due to a bonus issue each preceding

must be multiplied by the bonus fraction.
This must be done so that the new shares issued are not time apportioned.
The new shares are included from 1 July to 31 December so they must also
be included in the period(s) before this.
There is a much easier way to arrive at the number of shares in this
example. It is simply the number in issue at the end of the year. However,
this only works if the bonus issue is the only capital change in a year. In
such cases do it this way but if there is more than one capital change in a
period you must use the longer method shown above.
Basic EPS in Year 5 is: ₦20,000,000/5,000,000 shares = ₦4 per share.

In the above example nothing changed between Year 4 and Year 5 except for the
number of shares, yet the EPS figures calculated indicate deterioration from ₦5
per share to ₦4 per share.
Comparatives
There is no time apportionment for a bonus issue. This means that all
comparative figures must be restated into the same terms to take account of the
bonus. Unless a suitable adjustment is made to the EPS calculation, the
comparison of EPS in the current year (after the bonus issue) with EPS in the
previous year (before the bonus issue) would be misleading.
In order to ensure that the EPS in the year of the bonus issue is comparable with
the previous year’s EPS, IAS 33 requires that the weighted average number of
shares should be calculated as if the bonus shares had always been in issue.
This means that:
 the current period’s shares are adjusted as if the bonus shares were issued
on the first day of the year; and
 the comparative EPS for the previous year is restated on the same basis.
The restatement of the comparatives is easily achieved by multiplying it by the
inverse of the bonus fraction.
Example (continued): Bonus issue – restatement of comparatives

Company C made a 1 for 4 bonus issue in Year 5.
Basic EPS in Year 4 was: ₦20,000,000/4,000,000 shares = ₦5 per share.

This is restated by multiplying it by the inverse of the bonus fraction as follows:
₦5 per share 4/5 = ₦4 per share
The figures presented in Company C’s Year 5 accounts would be:
Year 5 Year 4
Earnings per share ₦4 ₦4
Practice question 2
Company D has a 31 December year end and had 2,000,000 ordinary
shares in issue on 1 January Year 2.
On 31 March Year 2, it issued 500,000 ordinary shares, at full market price.
On 1 July Year 2, Company D made a 1 for 2 bonus issue.
In Year 1, the EPS had been calculated as ₦30 per share.
In Year 2, total earnings were ₦85,500,000.
Calculate the EPS for the year to 31 December Year 2, and the comparative
EPS figure for Year 1.

Corporate reporting
2.6 Rights issues of shares

A rights issue of shares is an issue of new shares for cash, where the new
shares are offered initially to current shareholders in proportion to their existing
shareholdings.
The issue price of the new shares in a rights issue is always below the current
market price for the shares already in issue. This means that they include a
bonus element which must be taken into account in the calculation of the
weighted average number of shares. Also note that any comparatives must be
restated by multiplying them be the inverse of the rights issue bonus fraction.
The rights issue bonus fraction is calculated as follows:
Formula: Rights issue bonus issue fraction

Actual cum rights price
Theoretical ex rights price
The actual cum-rights price is the market price of the shares before the rights
issue.
The theoretical ex-rights price is the price that the shares ought to be, in
theory, after the rights issue. It is a weighted average price of the shares before
the rights issue and the new shares in the rights issue.
The calculation of the theoretical ex rights price looks a little complicated at first
but it is always done this way. This is demonstrated in the following example.

Example:
Company E had 3,600,000 shares in issue on 1 January Year 2.
It made a 1 for 4 rights issue on 1 June Year 2, at a price of ₦40 per share. (After
the rights issue, there will be 1 new share for every 4 shares previously in issue).
The share price just before the rights issue was ₦50.
Total earnings in the financial year to 31 December Year 2 were ₦25,125,000.
The reported EPS in Year 1 was ₦6.4.
EPS for the year to 31 December Year 2 and the adjusted EPS for Year 1 for
comparative purposes are calculated as follows:
Theoretical ex-rights price ₦
4 existing shares have a ‘cum rights’ value of (4 × ₦50) 200
1 new share is issued for 40
5 shares after the issue have a theoretical value of 240
Therefore, the theoretical ex-rights price = ₦240/5 = ₦48
Rights issue bonus fraction:
Actual cum rights price/Theoretical ex rights price = 50/48.
Weighted average number of shares
Weighted
average
Number of Time Rights number of
Date shares factor fraction shares
1 January to 31 May 3,600,000 × 5/12 × 50/48 1,562,500
Rights issue on 1 June 900,000
1 June to 31 December 4,500,000 × 7/12 2,625,000
4,187,500
Calculation of EPS
EPS Year 2 = ₦25,125,000/4,187,500 = ₦6 per share
Comparative EPS in Year 1 = ₦6.4 × (₦48/₦50) = ₦6.14 per share

Corporate reporting
Practice question 3
Company F had 3 million ordinary shares in issue on 1 January Year 7.
On 1 April Year 7, it made a 1 for 2 rights issue of 1,500,000 ordinary
shares at ₦20 per share.
The market price of the shares prior to the rights issue was ₦50.
An issue of 400,000 shares at full market price was then made on 1
August Year 7.
In the year to 31 December Year 7, total earnings were ₦17,468,750. In
Year 6 EPS had been reported as ₦3.5.
Required
Calculate the EPS for the year to 31 December Year 7, and the adjusted
EPS for Year 6 for comparative purposes.

3 DILUTED EPS
Section overview
 The meaning of dilution

 IAS 33 and diluted EPS
 Diluted EPS: convertible preference shares and convertible bonds
 Diluted EPS: options and warrants
 Diluted EPS: Employee share options
 Potential ordinary shares that are not dilutive
 Contingently issuable shares
 Actual conversion during the year
3.1 The meaning of dilution

‘Dilution’ means ‘watering down’ or ‘reduction in strength’.
An entity might have potential ordinary shares in issue. There is a possibility that
these will become actual ordinary shares at some time in the future.
For example, if an entity has issued some convertible bonds or convertible
preference shares, these might be converted into ordinary shares at some time in
the future.
Similarly, holders of share options or warrants might exercise their right at a
future date to subscribe for new shares at a fixed price.
If potential shares become actual ordinary shares, the earnings figure will be
shared with a larger number of ordinary shares. This would dilute the EPS.
3.2 IAS 33 and diluted EPS

IAS 33 requires publicly-traded companies to calculate a diluted EPS in addition
to their basic EPS for the current year (with a comparative diluted EPS for the
previous year), allowing for the effects of all dilutive potential ordinary shares.
Potential ordinary shares might not dilute the EPS. The diluted EPS calculation
only includes potential ordinary shares that would be dilutive. Note: potential
ordinary shares are ‘dilutive’ when there might have been a reduction or ‘dilution’
in EPS if they had been actual ordinary shares during the financial period.
Diluted EPS is calculated by adjusting the earnings and number of shares figures
used in the basic EPS calculation.
Earnings is adjusted to remove the effect of dividends or interest that have been
recognised during the year for the potential ordinary shares, and for any other
income or expense that would alter as a result of the conversion of the potential
ordinary shares into actual ordinary shares.
The main items of dividend or interest to adjust for are dividends on convertible
preference shares and interest on convertible debentures (convertible bonds).
The dividend or interest reduces total earnings. However, if they had already
been converted into ordinary shares (and the calculation of diluted EPS is based
on this assumption) the dividends or interest would not have been payable. Total
earnings would therefore have been higher. To calculate the diluted EPS, total
earnings are adjusted to allow for this.

Corporate reporting
The weighted average number of shares must also be adjusted. The method of
making this adjustment is different for:
 convertible bonds or convertible preference shares; and
 share options or warrants.
3.3 Diluted EPS: convertible preference shares and convertible bonds

When there are convertible bonds or convertible preference shares, diluted EPS
is calculated as follows, by making adjustments to total earnings and the number
of shares in issue used in the basic EPS calculation.
Total earnings
Total earnings are adjusted because the entity would not have to pay the
dividend or interest on the convertible securities.
 For convertible preference shares, add back the preference dividend
paid in the year. Total earnings will be increased by the preference dividend
saved.
 For convertible bonds, add back the interest charge on the bonds in the
year less the tax relief relating to that interest. Total earnings will increase
by the interest saved less tax.
Number of shares
The weighted average number of shares is increased, by adding the maximum
number of new shares that would be created if all the potential ordinary shares
were converted into actual ordinary shares.
The additional number of shares is normally calculated on the assumption that
they were in issue at the beginning of the year.

Example: Diluted EPS (convertible bonds)

Company G has 12,000,000 ordinary shares and ₦4,000,000 5% convertible
bonds in issue.
As at 31 December Year 2, there have been no new issues of shares or bonds for
several years.
The bonds are convertible into ordinary shares in Year 3 or Year 4, at the
following rates:
At 30 shares for every ₦100 of bonds if converted at 31 December Year 3
At 25 shares for every ₦100 of bonds if converted at 31 December Year 4
Total earnings for the year to 31 December Year 2 were ₦36,000,000.
Tax is payable at a rate of 30% on profits.
The basic EPS and diluted EPS for Year 2 are calculated as follows:
Basic EPS:
Year to 31 December Year 2: ₦36,000,000/12 million = ₦3 per share
Diluted EPS:
Number of
shares Earnings (₦) EPS (₦)
Basic EPS figures 12,000,000 36,000,000 3
Dilution:
Number of shares 1,200,000
4,000,000  30/100
Add back interest:
5%  ₦4,000,000 200,000
Less tax at 30% (60,000)
Adjusted figures 13,200,000 36,140,000 2.74
Diluted EPS: ₦36,140,000/13.2 million = ₦2.74 per share
Note: The number of potential shares is calculated using the conversion rate of
30 shares for every ₦100 of bonds, because this conversion rate produces more
new shares than the other conversion rate, 25 shares for every ₦100 of bonds.

Corporate reporting
New issue of convertibles in the year

If new convertibles are issued during the course of the year, the additional
number of shares and the earnings adjustment are included only from the time
that the convertibles were issued.
Example: Diluted EPS (New issue of convertibles in the year)

Company H has 10,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
There has been no new issue of shares for several years. However, the company
issued ₦2,000,000 of convertible 6% bonds on 1 April Year 5.
These are convertible into ordinary shares at the following rates:
On 31 March Year 10 25 shares for every ₦100 of bonds
On 31 March Year 11 20 shares for every ₦100 of bonds
Tax is at the rate of 30%.
In the financial year to 31 December Year 5 total earnings were ₦40,870,000.
The Year 5 basic EPS and diluted EPS are calculated as follows:
Basic EPS
Year 5 = ₦40,870,000/10,000,000 = ₦4.087 per share
Diluted EPS:
Number of
Basic EPS figures 10,000,000 40,870,000 4.087
Dilution:
Number of shares
2 million  25/100  9/12 375,000
Add back interest:
6%  ₦2,000,000  9/12 90,000
Less tax at 30% (27,000)

3.4 Diluted EPS: options and warrants

A different situation applies with share options and share warrants.
Options (warrants) are contracts issued by a company which allow the holder of
the option to buy shares off the company at some time in the future at a pre-
agreed price.
If the option holder exercises this right the number of shares would increase and
the company would receive the cash paid for the shares and this would be
available to invest in the business and in turn this would be expected to boost its
earnings. However, it is impossible to predict how total earnings will be affected
when the cash is eventually received.
This presents a problem. Including the shares in the diluted EPS calculation
without adjusting the earnings would be inconsistent but it is not possible to
adjust the earnings.
IAS 33 solves this problem in quite a neat way. The amount that would be
received on exercise of the options is treated as cash received from selling
shares at full price with the remaining shares having been given away. The
shares sold at full price are not considered to be dilutive as any cash would be
invested to earn the same return as earned in the period. It is only the free
shares that are dilutive.
The following steps must be taken:
Step 1: Calculate the cash that would be received if the options are exercised.
Step 2: Calculate the number of shares that could be sold at full market price to
raise the same amount of cash. (Divide the figure from step 1 by the average
share price in the period).
Step 3: Identify the number of shares that will be issued if all the options are
exercised.
Step 4: Subtract the number of shares in step 2 from the number at step 3.
These shares are treated as having been given away for free and is added to the
existing number of shares in issue, to obtain the total shares for calculating the
diluted EPS.

Corporate reporting
Example: Diluted EPS (options)

Company J had total earnings during Year 3 of ₦25,000,000.
It has 5,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
There are outstanding share options on 400,000 shares, which can be exercised
at a future date, at an exercise price of ₦25 per share.
The average market price of shares in Company J during Year 3 was ₦40.
The diluted EPS for Year 3 may be calculated as follows:

Step 1: Cash proceeds from exercise of the
options
400,000  ₦25 ₦10,000,000
Step 2: Divide by the average share price in the
period ₦40
Shares issued at full price 250,000
Step 3 Number of shares issued on exercise of
the option 400,000
Step 4 Shares issued for free 150,000
Diluted EPS calculation

Number of
Dilution:
Number of shares 150,000
Options are only included in the diluted EPS calculation if the average share
price in the year is greater than the exercise price of the option. If this were not
the case the option would not be exercised. (Nobody would pay an exercise price
of ₦100 for something worth only ₦80).
 When the exercise price of the option is less than the share price they are
said to be in the money.
 When the exercise price of the option is more than the share price they are
said to be out of the money.
In the money options are always dilutive. Out of the money options are always
not dilutive (or antidilutive as IAS 33 describes them).

3.5 Diluted EPS: Employee share options

Employee share options that have vested are treated in exactly the same way as
any other option as explained above.
Unvested options
The situation in respect of unvested options is a little more complicated. When a
company issues options to its employees it recognises an expense for options
over the vesting period in accordance with IFRS 2. This means that the company
will recognise an expense in the future for those options which are unvested at
the reporting date.
This expense represents the service of the employee that will be consumed and
used by the company in the future.
Thus, the company will receive cash when the option is exercised and service
until it vests. IAS 33 requires that the future “service” received per share be
added to the exercise price for the purpose of calculating the number of dilutive
shares.
The following steps must be taken:
Step 1: Calculate the cash that would be received if the options are exercised
and the future expense that is expected to be charged to profit or loss.
Step 2: Calculate the number of shares that could be sold at full market price to
raise an amount of cash equal to the future benefit identified at step 1. (Divide the
figure from step 1 by the average share price in the period).
Step 3: Identify the number of shares that will be issued if all the options are
exercised.
Step 4: Subtract the number of shares in step 2 from the number at step 3.
These shares are treated as having been given away for free and is added to the
existing number of shares in issue, to obtain the total shares for calculating the
diluted EPS.

Corporate reporting
Example: Diluted EPS (employee share options)

Company K had total earnings during Year 5 of ₦30,000,000.
It has 6,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
There are unvested employee share options on 500,000 shares, which can be
exercised at a future date, at an exercise price of ₦210 per share.
The future expense that the company expects to recognise in respect of these
options up to the vesting date is ₦15,000,000.
The average market price of shares in Company J during Year 5 was ₦300.
The diluted EPS for Year 3 may be calculated as follows:

Step 1: Estimate the future benefit
Cash proceeds from exercise
500,000  ₦210 ₦105,000,000
Future employee service ₦15,000,000
₦120,000,000
Step 2: Divide by the average share price in the

period ₦300
Shares issued at full price 400,000
Step 3 Number of shares issued on exercise of
the option 500,000
Step 4 Shares issued for free 100,000
Diluted EPS calculation

Number of
Dilution:
Number of shares 100,000

3.6 Potential ordinary shares that are not dilutive

Only dilutive potential ordinary shares are included in the dilutive EPS
calculation.
When there are several types of potential ordinary share in issue, they should be
ranked in order of dilution, with the most dilutive potential ordinary shares ranked
first. In order to carry out the ranking the earnings per incremental share is found
for each potential ordinary share. This is the earnings adjustment that would be
necessary divided by the number of shares that would come into being if the
share were included in the calculation of diluted EPS.
Note that in the money options always rank first as they increase the number of
shares in the calculation without affecting the earnings.
A diluted EPS should then be calculated in stages, taking in one potential
ordinary share at a time, to establish whether any of them are not dilutive.
The following example illustrates the technique.
Example: Order of dilution

The following information relates to Company L for the year ended 31 December
Year 5.
Number of ordinary shares in issue 5,000,000

Reported earnings in the year ₦15,000,000
Average market price of shares during
the year ₦80
Potential ordinary shares:

Options 600,000 options, with an
exercise price of ₦60
4% convertible bond: ₦5,000,000 Each bond is convertible in Year
10 into ordinary shares at the
rate of 40 new shares for every
₦100 of bonds
100,000 7% convertible preference Each preference share is
shares of ₦10 each convertible in Year 9 into
ordinary shares at the rate of 1
ordinary share for every 20
preference shares
Tax rate = 30%
Diluted EPS for the year to 31 December Year 5 can be calculated as follows.

Corporate reporting
Example (continued): Order of dilution

If all the options are exercised, the cash received will be 600,000 × ₦60 =
₦36,000,000.
This would purchase 450,000 shares (₦36,000,000/₦80) at the average market
price in Year 5.
The dilutive increase in the number of shares would therefore be (600,000 –
450,000) = 150,000.
Increase Increase in Earnings per
in number of incremental
earnings. shares share Ranking
₦ ₦
Options 0 150,000 0.00 1st
Convertible bonds
4% × ₦5,000,000 200,000
less tax 30% (60,000)
140,000
₦5,000,000  40/100 2,000,000
140,000 2,000,000 0.07 2nd
Preference shares
7% × ₦1,000,000 70,000
100,000  1/20 5,000
(7% × ₦1,000,000) 70,000 5,000 14.0 3rd
Diluted EPS is calculated as follows (taking these three dilutive potential ordinary
shares in order of their ranking):
Earnings Number of EPS
shares
₦ ₦
As reported, basic EPS 15,000,000 5,000,000 3.000
Options 0 150,000
Diluted EPS, options
only 15,000,000 5,150,000 2.913 Dilutive
Convertible bonds 140,000 2,000,000

Diluted EPS, options
and convertible bonds 15,140,000 7,150,000 2.12 Dilutive
Convertible preference
shares 70,000 5,000
Diluted EPS, options Not
and all convertibles 15,210,000 7,155,000 2.13 dilutive
The convertible preference shares are not dilutive, and the reported diluted EPS
should be ₦2.12 (and not ₦2.13).

3.7 Contingently issuable shares

A company might enter into a contract where it will issue shares on the
occurrence of some future event. Such shares have no effect on the basic EPS
calculation until the condition is actually met.
They are taken into account in the diluted EPS only if the conditions leading to
their issue have been satisfied. For this purpose the reporting date is treated as
the end of the contingency period.
Contingently issuable shares are included in the diluted EPS calculation from the
later of the beginning of the period or the date of the contingently issuable share
agreement.
Example: Contingently issuable shares

Company M has 12,000,000 ordinary shares in issue.
As at 31 December Year 2, there have been no new issues of shares or bonds for
several years.
Company M acquired a new business during Year 1. As part of the purchase
agreement Company M would issue a further 1,000,000 shares to the vendor on
30 June Year 3 if the share price was ₦500 at that date.
The share price was ₦600 on 31 December Year 2.
Earnings for the year to 31 December Year 2 were ₦100,000,000.
Basic EPS:
Year to 31 December Year 2: ₦100,000,000/12 million = ₦8.33 per share
Diluted EPS:
Number of
Dilution:
Number of shares 1,000,000
Diluted EPS: ₦100,000,000/13 million = ₦7.69 per share
Shares that are issuable after a period of time are not contingently issuable
shares because passage of time is a certainty. When there is an agreement to
issue shares at a point of time in the future they must be included in the diluted
EPS calculation.

Corporate reporting
3.8 Actual conversion during the year

If a conversion right is exercised during the year, interest paid to the holders of
the convertible bond stops from the date upon which they exercise their right to
the shares and the new shares are included as part of the weighted average
number of shares used in the basic EPS calculation.
When this happens, the new shares issued and the resulting interest saving must
be included in the diluted EPS calculation as an adjustment for the period before
the right was exercised.
Example: Diluted EPS (Conversion right exercised in the year)

Company N has 10,000,000 ordinary shares and ₦2,000,000 of convertible 6%
bonds in issue at the start of the year.
The conversion right was exercised on 1 April resulting in the issue 500,000 new
shares.
Tax is at the rate of 30%.

In the financial year to 31 December total earnings were ₦40,870,000.
The basic EPS and diluted EPS are calculated as follows:

Basic EPS
Number of
shares
At start of the year 10,000,000
Conversion:
Number of shares
500,000  9/12 375,000
Weighted average 10,375,000
Diluted EPS:
Number of
Dilution:
Number of shares up to the
date of conversion
500,000  3/12 125,000
Add back interest up to the
date of conversion
6%  ₦2,000,000  3/12 30,000
Less tax at 30% (9,000)

This is difficult to understand but imagine two identical convertible bonds that
allow conversion at any time over a period.
 Bond A is converted during the year.
 Bond B is held for a future conversion.
The conversion of Bond A has an impact on the basic EPS from the date of
conversion.
An adjustment is made in respect Bond B for the whole period in the diluted EPS
calculation.
If no further adjustment is made Bond A is shown as being less dilutive than
Bond B because it is only included from the date of conversion. How can actual
shares be less dilutive than potential shares?
In order to correct this anomaly, an adjustment must be made in respect of Bond
A in the diluted EPS calculation for the part of the year before conversion.

Corporate reporting
4 IAS 33: PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS
Section overview
 Presentation requirements
 Alternative measures of earnings per share
4.1 Presentation requirements

An entity should present in the statement of profit or loss:
 the basic EPS and
 the diluted EPS
 for the profit or loss from continuing operations.
For consolidated accounts, this is the EPS and diluted EPS attributable to the
owners of the parent company.
The basic EPS and diluted EPS should be presented with equal prominence for
all the periods presented (the current year and the previous year). These figures
are presented at the end of the statement of profit or loss.
If the entity presents a separate statement of profit or loss:
 the EPS and diluted EPS should be shown in this statement, and
 not in the statement of comprehensive income.
If there is a discontinued operation, the basic EPS and diluted EPS from
discontinued operation should be shown either on the face of the statement of
profit or loss or in a note to the financial statements.
The basic and the diluted EPS should be presented, even if it is a negative figure
(= even if it is a loss per share).

IAS 33 also requires disclosure in a note to the financial statements of the
following:
 The total amounts used as the numerators (= total earnings figures) to
calculate the basic EPS and diluted EPS, and a reconciliation of these
numerator figures to the profit or loss for the period
 The total amounts used in the denominators (= weighted average number
of shares) to calculate the basic EPS and diluted EPS, and a reconciliation
of these two denominator figures to each other.
4.3 Alternative measures of earnings per share

IAS 33 allows an entity to disclose an alternative measure of EPS in addition to
the EPS calculated in accordance with IAS 33. For example, EPS could be
calculated after adjusting earnings for large and unusual items.

If an alternative EPS figure is presented, IAS 33 states that:

 a reconciliation must be shown between the earnings figure used in the
alternative measure and the amounts shown in the statement of profit or
loss
 the alternative EPS must use the same weighted average number of
shares as the IAS 33 calculation
 basic and diluted EPS should both be disclosed with equal prominence,
and
 the alternative figure must only be shown in the notes, not on the face of

Corporate reporting
5 EARNINGS PER SHARE AS A PERFORMANCE MEASURE
Section overview
 Earnings per share and trends

 Limitations of earnings per share
5.1 Earnings per share and trends

Investors and their advisers pay close attention to an entity’s net profit for the
period. However, profit for the period can include large and unusual items and
also the results of discontinued operations. This may make it volatile: liable to
fluctuate rapidly up and down. Users can then find it difficult to assess trends in
the profit figure or to use the current year’s profit to predict an entity’s
performance in future years.
The trend (improvement or deterioration) in an entity’s published EPS figure can
sometimes be a more reliable indicator of future performance. There are a
number of reasons for this.
 The standard version of both basic and diluted EPS is based on profit from
continuing operations. This means that the results of discontinued
operations (which may distort total profit) are excluded.
 An entity may also choose to present one or more alternative versions of
EPS. These normally exclude large or unusual items so that EPS is based
on ‘normal’ recurring earnings.
 EPS measures an entity’s performance from the viewpoint of investors. It
shows the amount of earnings available to each ordinary shareholder. This
means that EPS takes the effect of preference dividends (if any) into
account. It also takes share issues into account.
 Diluted EPS can provide an ‘early warning’ of any changes to an investor’s
potential return on their investment due to future share issues.
5.2 Limitations of earnings per share

EPS is probably the single most important indicator of an entity’s performance. It
is a very useful measure when it is used as the starting point for a more detailed
analysis of an entity’s performance.
However, EPS can have serious limitations:
 Not all entities use the same accounting policies. It may not always be
possible to make meaningful comparisons between the EPS of different
entities.
 EPS does not take account of inflation, so that growth in EPS over time
might be misleading.
 EPS measures an entity’s profitability, but this is only part of an entity’s
overall performance. An entity’s cash flow can be just as important as its
profit (and more essential to its immediate survival). Changes in the value
of assets (holding gains) can also be an important part of performance for
some entities.

 Diluted EPS is often described as an ‘early warning’ to investors that the

return on their investment may fall sometime in the future. However, diluted
EPS is based on current earnings, not forecast earnings. This means that it
may not be a reliable predictor of future EPS.
One of the main problems with EPS can be the way that it is used by investors
and others. Users often rely on EPS as the main or only measure of an entity’s
performance. Management know this and try to make EPS appear as high as
possible. They may attempt to manipulate the figure by using ‘creative
accounting’. They may also make decisions which increase EPS in the short term
but which damage the entity in the longer term.

Corporate reporting
6 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Explain why a standard calculation of earnings per share is important
 Calculate basic earnings per share
 Calculate diluted earnings per share


Solution 1
Weighted
1 January to 30 April 9,000,000 × 4/12 3,000,000
New issue on 1 May 1,200,000
1 May to 30 September 10,200,000 × 5/12 4,250,000
New issue on 1 October 1,800,000
1 October to 31 December 12,000,000 × 3/12 3,000,000
10,250,000
EPS = ₦36,900,000/10,250,000 = ₦3.6
Notes
(1) The first new share issue is in May, after 4 months. Therefore the number of
shares at the beginning of the year is given a time factor of × 4/12.
(2) There are 5 months between the two share issues, therefore the time factor to
apply to the number of shares after the first issue is × 5/12.
(3) The total number of shares in issue from 1 October to the end of the year (three
months) is 12,000,000. These are given a time weighting of × 3/12.
Solution 2
The weighted average number of shares in Year 2 is calculated as follows.
Weighted
Number of Time Bonus average
Date shares factor fraction number
1 January to 31 March 2,000,000 × 3/12 × 3/2 750,000
Issue at full price on 31 March 500,000
1 April to 30 June 2,500,000 × 3/12 × 3/2 937,500
Bonus issue on 1 July 1,250,000
1 July to 31 December 3,750,000 × 6/12 1,875,000
3,562,500
EPS in Year 2 = ₦85,500,000/3,562,500 = ₦24 per share.
The Year 1 EPS restated as: ₦30 × 2/3 = ₦20.

Corporate reporting
Solution 3
After the rights issue, there will be 1 new share for every 2 shares previously in issue
Theoretical ex-rights price ₦
2 existing shares have a ‘cum rights’ value of (2 × ₦50) 100
1 new share is issued for 20
3 shares after the issue have a theoretical value of 120
Theoretical ex-rights price = ₦120/3 = ₦40.
Rights issue bonus fraction:
Actual cum rights price/Theoretical ex rights price = 50/40
Weighted average number of shares
Weighted
average
Number of Time Rights number of
Date shares factor fraction shares
×
1 January to 31 March 3,000,000 × 3/12 50/40 937,500
Rights issue on 1 April 1,500,000
1 April to 31 July 4,500,000 × 4/12 1,500,000
Issue at full price on 1 August 400,000
1 August to 31 December 4,900,000 × 5/12 2,041,667
4,479,167
Calculation of EPS
EPS Year 7 = ₦17,468,750/4,479,167 = ₦3.9 per share
EPS Year 6 = ₦35 × 40/50 = ₦2.

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
32
Analysis and interpretation of
Contents
1 Purpose of financial ratio analysis
2 Return on capital, profitability and asset turnover
3 Working capital efficiency ratios
4 Liquidity ratios
5 Debt ratios
6 Investor ratios
7 Limitations of interpretation techniques
8 Financial ratios and examination technique
9 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION
Competencies
D Analysis and interpretation
2 Financial and business analysis:
2(a) Identify and calculate suitable performance, position and prospect measures
using key indicators, financial statement ratios, stock market ratios,
comparisons, trend analyses and other representations of relationships that
support a meaningful financial and business analysis of a private sector entity.
2(b) Identify and comment upon limitations of your analysis.
2(c) Draw conclusions and report on the analysis undertaken from a business
perspective.
Exam context
This chapter explains interpretation of financial statements.

 Calculate and interpret return on capital employed and similar ratios
 Calculate and interpret profitability ratios, working capital ratios, liquidity ratios, debt
ratios and gearing ratios
 Analyse performance of a company from information provided
 Explain the limitations of financial statements and interpretation

Chapter 32: Analysis and interpretation of financial statements
1 PURPOSE OF FINANCIAL RATIO ANALYSIS
Section overview
 Introduction to interpretation
 Ratio analysis as a tool
 Categories of financial ratios
 Users and their information needs
1.1 Introduction to interpretation

Financial statements are used to make decisions. They are used by a number of
different groups including shareholders and investors, and also by lenders, as
well as by management. The financial statements contain a large number of
figures, but the figures themselves do not necessarily have much meaning to a
user of the financial statements. However, the figures can be analysed and
interpreted by calculating financial ratios.
Financial ratios can help the user of the financial statements to assess:
 the financial position of the entity; and
 its financial performance.
Using ratios: comparisons

Financial ratios can be used to make comparisons:
 Comparisons within financial statements. (For example if revenue has
increased by 10% it might be expected that gross profit increase by a
similar amount).
 Comparisons over a number of years. By looking at the ratios of a company
over a number of years, it might be possible to detect improvements or
deterioration in the financial performance or financial position of the entity.
Ratios can therefore be used to make comparisons over time, and to
identify changes or trends
 Comparisons with the similar ratios of other, similar companies for the
same period.
 In some cases, perhaps, comparisons with ‘industry average’ ratios.
Categories of financial ratios

The main financial ratios can be classified as:
 financial performance: return on capital, profitability and use of assets
 working capital ‘turnover’ ratios;
 liquidity ratios;
 debt ratios;
 investor ratios.
This is discussed in far more detail in the following sections

Corporate reporting
1.2 Ratio analysis as a tool

It is difficult to assess a company’s financial performance by analysing the
financial results for one year. Better information is obtained by making
comparisons with financial performance in the previous year, or perhaps over
several periods (trend analysis).
Ratio analysis is a key tool used for performance analysis, because ratios
summarise financial information, often by relating two or more items to each
other, and they present financial information in a more understandable form.
Ratios also identify significant relationships between different figures in the
Illustration: Good or bad?

For example, knowing that the profit of a company is ₦50,000 is not particularly
useful information on its own, because the expected amount of profit should be
dependent on the size of the business and the amount of its sales turnover.
If the company generated a profit of ₦50,000 from ₦150,000 of sales, then it
has performed well.
However, if a profit of ₦50,000 has been made from sales of ₦5 million, then the
profit level is much weaker.
The profit margin (the ratio of profit to sales) is a basic and widely-used ratio for
analysing the strength of a company’s financial performance.
A ratio on its own does not provide useful information. Ratios are useful because
they provide a basis for making comparisons. Comparisons might indicate that
performance or the financial position is better or worse than it should be, or is
getting better or worse than in the past.
Illustration: Comparisons
For example, suppose that a company measures its profit margin in the current
year as 20%. Is this good or bad? To evaluate performance, the current year profit
margin of 20% should be interpreted, by comparing it with:
a. last year’s profit margin, or the company’s profit margin for the past few
years
b. the budgeted profit margin (available to investors, perhaps, through
company announcements)
c. the industry average (the average profit margin for companies in the
industry)
d. the profit margin reported by individual competitors.
For example, if the budgeted profit margin was 25%, an actual profit margin of
20% might suggest that management have under-performed in the period
.
Note that a ratio does not explain why any under-performance or out-
performance has occurred. Ratios are used to indicate areas of good or weak
performance, but management then have to investigate to identify the cause.

Example: Possible explanations

A company achieved a profit margin of 6% in the year just ended. This was less
than the budgeted profit margin of 10%, and less than the profit margin in the
previous year, which was 8%.
The actual profit margin of 6% indicates disappointing performance, but
management should investigate the cause or causes.
For example, they might find that any of the following reasons might explain the
low profit margin:
a. Increased competition has forced down sales prices and so reduced profit
margins.
b. Advances in technology have lowered costs but prices have come down
even more.
c. Raw material costs have risen and the higher costs could not be passed on
to the customers.
d. There have been higher employment costs due to pay rises for
manufacturing employees, but these could not be passed on to the
customers.
e. The company buys most of its supplies from foreign countries, and adverse
movements in exchange rates for its purchases have increased costs and
reduced profit margins.
f. There has been a change in the company’s sales mix, and the company has
sold a larger proportion of cheaper and lower-margin products than
expected.

Corporate reporting
1.3 Categories of financial ratios

The basic financial ratios should already be familiar to you. Ratios can be divided
into five categories:
Illustration:
Ratios
Profitability Financial position Efficiency
 ROCE  Inventory turnover

 ROSF  Receivables turnover
 Gross profit margin  Payables period
 Overheads %
Short-term liquidity Long-term solvency Investor ratios
 Current ratio  Gearing  EPS

 Quick ratio  Interest  PE
 Dividend yield
 Dividend cover
The main ratios will be considered in more detail. For the purpose of your
examination, you need to know how to calculate each ratio, but you must also
understand why each ratio, or each category of ratios, might be of particular
interest to a specific user group.
An examination question may ask you to provide an analysis of financial
statements for a particular user. It will not tell you which ratios to calculate.
Instead, you will have to decide for yourself which ratios may provide useful
information for that user. Therefore you should learn to identify and select the
appropriate ratios for each user group, and then analyse what the ratio appears
to show, from the point of view of that user.

1.4 Users and their information needs

There are several groups of people who may use financial statements. They
include:
 investors and potential investors;
 lenders;
 employees;
 suppliers;
 customers;
 government and government agencies;
 the general public.
Each user group has different information needs, but as a general rule financial
statements prepared in accordance with IFRSs should provide all user groups
with most of their needs. Each group is interested in financial performance,
financial position and cash flows, but some users are mainly interested in
performance and profitability, while others may be more interested in liquidity and
gearing or other matters.
For example:
 A private investor needs to know whether to continue to hold shares or to
sell them. He or she will tend to be most interested in profitability ratios
(such as gross and net profit margin and return on capital employed) and
investor ratios (such as earnings per share, dividend cover and price
earnings ratio).
 A potential acquirer needs information about an entity’s profitability and
probably also information about whether or not the entity is managed
efficiently. The acquirer’s management is likely to focus on profit margins,
return on capital employed, asset turnover and working capital ratios.
 A bank that has been approached to lend money to an entity needs to know
whether it will receive interest payments when these are due and whether
the money that it lends will eventually be repaid. A bank manager will
normally be most interested in cash flows and liquidity ratios (current ratio,
acid test ratio) gearing and interest cover. A potential lender will also be
interested in predicting future performance as without sales there will be no
cash.
Any analysis should focus on the needs of the user. What do they need to know?
What are they interested in? What decision do they need to make?

Corporate reporting
The table below lists the user groups, indicates the information that they require
from published reports and accounts, and suggests which items in the financial
statements will be of most interest to each group.
User Information needs Items of interest

Investors/  Risks and returns relating to  Trend analysis: changes
potential their investment in revenue, costs and
investors  Security of dividend profits over the past few
payments years
 Information to make  Dividend cover
decisions about buying,  Events and
selling or holding shares announcements after the
 Future growth prospects. reporting period
 Share price
 Corporate governance
reports. Narrative
business review.
Employees  Stability of the company (job  Profitability and cash
security and job prospects) position
 Information about the  Increases in salaries (%)
company’s ability to pay relative to increases in
bonuses or higher salaries. profit and dividends
 Directors’ remuneration
Lenders  Whether the entity has  Cash flow
(banks, sufficient cash flow to repay  Total borrowing by the
bondholders) loans entity: financial gearing
 The entity’s ability to pay  Interest cover
interest
 New charges created
 The adequacy of collateral/ over the entity’s assets
security for loans and bonds
Suppliers  The entity’s ability to settle  Net current assets
its liabilities  Growth record
 The entity’s ability to survive
and continue as a customer
Customers  The entity’s ability to survive  Growth record
and continue as a supplier  Cash flow
Government  The entity’s contribution to  Revenue and profit
the economy  Market share
 Regulation of activities
 Taxation
 Obtaining government
statistics
General public  Environmental and social  Environmental and social
awareness reports
 Contributions to the local  Directors’ report
economy  Narrative business review

Management are not included as a user group because they should have access
to much more detailed information about the company’s financial position and
performance, from internal reports and budgets.

Corporate reporting
2 RETURN ON CAPITAL, PROFITABILITY AND ASSET TURNOVER
Section overview
 Return on capital employed

 Return on shareholder capital
 Return on assets
 Analysing return: profitability and asset utilisation
 Profit/sales ratio (and cost/sales ratios)
 Asset turnover ratio
 Percentage annual growth in sales
2.1 Return on capital employed

The aim of ‘profitability ratios’ is to assess the financial performance of a profit-
making entity and the return that it makes on the capital invested.
Profit-making companies should try to make a profit that is large enough in
relation to the amount of money or capital invested in the business. The most
important profitability ratio is probably return on capital employed or ROCE.
For a single company:
Formula:
Profit before interest and taxation
ROCE = (Share capital and reserves + long-term debt capital X 100%
+ preference share capital)
Capital employed is the share capital and reserves, plus long-term debt capital
such as bank loans, bonds and loan stock.
Where possible, use the average capital employed during the year. This is
usually the average of the capital employed at the beginning of the year and end
of the year.

Example: Return on capital employed

The following figures relate to Company X for Year 1.
Year 1 Year 1
₦ ₦
Bank loans 200,000 500,000
1,000,000 1,400,000
₦
Income tax expense (65,000)
Interest charges on bank loans were ₦30,000.
ROCE is calculated as follows:

ROCE = 240,000 (W1)/1,200,000 (W2)  100 = 20%
W1 Profit before interest and tax ₦

Add back interest deducted 30,000
Profit before interest and tax 240,000
W2 Capital employed ₦
Capital employed at the beginning of the year 1,000,000
Capital employed at the end of the year 1,400,000
2,400,000
÷2
Average capital employed 1,200,000
This ROCE figure can be compared with the ROCE achieved by the
company in previous years, and with the ROCE achieved by other
companies, particularly competitors.
Groups of companies and ROCE

To calculate the ROCE for a group of companies, it is necessary to decide what
to do with any non-controlling interest (minority interest). Since capital employed
includes all the debt capital in the group, it makes sense to include the non-
controlling interest (minority interest) in the capital employed.
ROCE should therefore be measured as profit before interest and tax as a
proportion of total capital employed, including the non-controlling interest.

Corporate reporting
2.2 Return on shareholder capital

Return on shareholder capital (ROSC) measures the return on investment that
the shareholders of the company have made. This ratio normally uses the values
of the shareholders’ investment as shown in the statement of financial position
(rather than market values of the shares).
Formula: Return on shareholder capital

Profit after taxation and preference dividend
ROSC =  100
Share capital and reserves
The average value of shareholder capital should be used if possible. This is the
average of the shareholder capital at the beginning and the end of the year.
Profit after tax is used as the most suitable measure of return for the
shareholders, since this is a measure of earnings (available for payment as
dividends or for reinvestment in the business).
Example: Return on shareholder capital

Year 1 Year 1
₦ ₦
Shareholder capital 800,000 900,000
Bank loans 200,000 500,000
1,000,000 1,400,000
₦
ROSC is calculated as follows:

ROSC = 145,000/850,000 (W2)  100 = 17.06%
W1 Shareholder capital ₦
Shareholder capital at the beginning of the year 800,000
Shareholder capital at the end of the year 900,000
1,700,000
÷2
Average shareholder capital 850,000

Groups of companies and ROSC

When calculating the ROSC for a group of companies, the main focus of
attention is normally the return on the investment of the shareholders in the
parent company. The ROSC should therefore be calculated as:
Formula: Return on shareholder capital of a group

Profit after taxation and non-controlling interest
ROSC = Equity attributable to equity holders of the  100
parent company
The share capital and reserves should not include the non-controlling interest in
the equity reserves.
Using ROCE or ROSC

 It is not necessary to calculate both these ratios. The ratio that you
calculate should be the ratio that is of the greatest interest to the particular
user or user group. For example, management may be most interested in
ROCE, but an equity investor would be interested in ROSC.
 ROCE or ROSC could be compared to real interest rates that are currently
available to investors in the market. For example, if a company has a
ROCE of 3% when interest rates of 5% are available in the bond markets, a
shareholder might be advised to consider selling his shares. However, it is
important to remember that bond yields are returns calculated from the
market price of bonds; whereas ROCE and ROSC are calculated from
financial statements and are not market rates of return.
 Bank overdrafts might be included as part of capital employed in the ROCE
ratio, because many companies ‘roll over’ their overdraft facility and use it
as long-term funding. When a bank overdraft is large, the interest cost of
the overdraft might be high, and it would therefore be appropriate to include
the bank overdraft ‘below the line’ in capital employed, because the
overdraft interest is included ‘above the line’ in profit before interest and
tax.
 A company may be able to ‘manipulate’ its ROCE or ROSC ratios by using
accounting policies or financing strategies, such as:
 using operating leases or finance leases
 choosing to re-value non-current assets or choosing the historical
cost model
 timing the acquisition of non-current assets or the timing of new
financing so as to have the minimal adverse impact on ROCE.

Corporate reporting
2.3 Return on assets
Formula: Return on assets

Profit before interest and taxation
ROA = X 100%
Assets
The normal convention is to use ‘total assets’ which includes both current and
non-current assets. However, other variations are sometimes used such as non-
current assets only.
2.4 Analysing return: profitability and asset utilisation

The size of the return on capital employed, or the size of the return on
shareholders’ capital, depends on two factors:
 the profitability of the goods or services that the entity has sold
 the volume of sales that the entity has achieved with the capital and assets
it has employed: this is known as asset utilisation or asset turnover.
2.5 Profit/sales ratio (and cost/sales ratios)

The profit/sales ratio is the ratio of the profit that has been achieved for every ₦1
of sales.
Formula: Profit/sales ratio

Profit
Profit/sales ratio =  100
Sales
Profit/sales ratios are commonly used by management to assess financial

performance, and a variety of different figures for profit might be used.

The definition of profit can be any of the following:

 Profit before interest and tax
 Gross profit (sales minus the cost of sales) = ‘gross profit ratio’
 Net profit (profit after tax) = ‘net profit ratio’.
It is important to be consistent in the definition of profit, when comparing
performance from one year to the next.
The gross profit ratio is often useful for comparisons between companies in the
same industry, or for comparison with an industry average.
It is also useful to compare the net profit ratio with the gross profit ratio. A high
gross profit ratio and a low net profit ratio indicate high overhead costs for
administrative expenses and selling and distribution costs.
Example: Profit to sales ratios

₦
Sales during the year were ₦5,800,000.
Profit to sales ratios are calculated as follows:
a) If profit is defined as profit before interest and tax:
= 240,000 (W1)/5,800,000  100 = 4.14%
b) If profit is defined as profit after interest and tax:
= 145,000 (W1)/5,800,000  100 = 2.5%
W1 Profit before interest and tax ₦
Add back interest deducted 30,000
Profit before interest and tax 240,000
It is also useful to monitor the ratio of different types of cost to sales. The
following ratios can be useful to highlight an unexpected change in a period or to
indicate a difference between the company and another in a similar industry:
 Cost of sales/Sales) × 100%
 Administration costs/Sales) × 100%
 Selling and distribution costs/Sales) × 100%

Corporate reporting
2.6 Asset turnover ratio

The asset turnover ratio is the ratio of sales to capital employed.
It measures the amount of sales achieved during the period for each ₦1 of
investment in assets.
Formula: Asset turnover ratio

Asset Sales
turnover =  100
ratio Share capital + reserves + long term debt
It is measured as a multiple (so many times a year).

The asset turnover ratio is also the ratio of sales to (assets – current liabilities).
This is because capital employed = total assets minus liabilities excluding long-
term debt.
Example: Asset turnover ratio

Average capital employed (as given before) ₦1,200,000
Profit before interest and tax = 240,000 (as given before)

Sales during the year were ₦5,800,000.
ROCE = 240,000 /1,200,000  100 = 20% (as given before)
Asset turnover
Asset turnover ratio = ₦5,800,000/₦1,200,000 = 4.83 times.
Note that: ROCE = Profit/sales ratio × Asset turnover ratio (where profit is defined
as profit before interest and taxation).
Using the figures shown earlier:
Sales/capital
ROCE = Profit/sales ×
employed
240,000 240,000 5,800,000

= ×
1,200,000 5,800,000 1,200,000
20% = 4.14% × 4.83 times
2.7 Percentage annual growth in sales

It can be useful to measure the annual growth (or decline) in sales, measured as
a percentage of sales in the previous year.
For example, if sales in the year just ended were ₦5,800,000 and sales in the
previous year were ₦5,500,000, the annual growth in sales has been
(₦300,000/₦5,500,000) × 100% = 5.45%.

3 WORKING CAPITAL EFFICIENCY RATIOS
Section overview
 Purpose of working capital efficiency ratios

 Average time to collect (receivables days or days sales outstanding)
 Average time for holding inventory (inventory turnover)
 Average time to pay suppliers
 Cash operating cycle/working capital cycle
3.1 Purpose of working capital efficiency ratios

Working capital efficiency ratios measure the efficiency with which the entity has
managed its receivables, inventory and trade payables. The ratios are usually
measured in terms of an average number of days.
The working capital ratios are a useful measure of whether the entity has too
much or too little invested in working capital.
Excessive investment in working capital is indicated by a long cash cycle (a
long working capital cycle) that appears to be getting even longer. When too
much is invested in working capital, the return on capital employed and ROSC
will be lower than they should be.
Under-investment in working capital is an indication of possible liquidity
difficulties. When working capital is low in comparison with the industry average,
this might indicate that current assets are being financed to an excessive extent
by current liabilities, particularly trade payables and a bank overdraft.
(The cash cycle, also called the operating cycle and the working capital cycle) is
explained later).
3.2 Average time to collect (receivables days or days’ sales outstanding)

This ratio estimates the time that it takes on average to collect the payment from
customers after the sale has been made. It could be described as the average
credit period allowed to customers or the ‘average collection period’.
Formula: Average time to collect (average collection period or average

receivables days)
Trade receivables
Average time to collect =  365 days
Credit sales
Trade receivables should be the average value of receivables during the year.
This is the average of the receivables at the beginning of the year and the
receivables at the end of the year.
However, the value for receivables at the end of the year is also commonly used.
Sales are usually taken as total sales for the year. However, if sales are analysed
into credit sales and cash sales, it is probably more appropriate to use the figure
for credit sales only.

Corporate reporting
The average time to collect money from credit customers should not be too long.
A long average time to collect suggests inefficient collection of amounts due from
receivables.
3.3 Average time for holding inventory (inventory turnover)

This ratio is an estimate of the average time that inventory is held before it is
used or sold.
Formula: Average time for holding inventory (Inventory holding period or average
inventory days)
Inventory
Average inventory days =  365 days
Cost of sales
In theory, inventory should be the average value of inventory during the year.
This is the average of the inventory at the beginning of the year and the inventory
at the end of the year.
However, the value for inventory at the end of the year is also commonly used,
particularly in examinations.
3.4 Average time to pay suppliers

The average time to pay suppliers may be calculated as follows:
Formula: Average time to pay suppliers (Average payables days)

Trade payables
Average time to pay =  365 days
Purchases
Trade payables should be the average value of trade payables during the year.
This is the average of the trade payables at the beginning of the year and the
trade payables at the end of the year.
However, the value for trade payables at the end of the year is also commonly
used
When the cost of purchases is not available, the cost of sales should be used
instead. This figure is obtained from the profit and loss information in the
statement of comprehensive income.

Example: Working capital efficiency ratios

The following information is available for Company Y for Year 1.
1 January Year 1 31 December Year 1

₦ ₦
Inventory 300,000 360,000
Trade receivables 400,000 470,000
Trade payables 150,000 180,000
Sales in Year 1 totalled ₦3,000,000 and the cost of sales was ₦1,800,000.
The Working capital efficiency ratios are calculated as follows:

Efficiency ratios
Average days to collect = [435,000/3,000,000] × 365 days = 52.9 days
Inventory turnover period = [330,000/1,800,000] × 365 days = 66.9 days
Average time to pay = [165,000/1,800,000] × 365 days = 33.5 days.
Workings
Average inventory = [₦300,000 + ₦360,000]/2 = ₦330,000
Average trade receivables = [₦400,000 + ₦470,000]/2 = ₦435,000
Average trade payables = [₦150,000 + ₦180,000]/2 = ₦165,000.
Turnover ratios (multiples)

Turnover ratios can be used as an alternative way of telling the same story as the
efficiency ratios. These show the number of times a balance in the statement of
financial position is turned over in the period.
They are multiples which provide the same insight as the efficiency ratios but in a
different way.
Formulae: Working capital turnover ratios

Credit sales
Receivables turnover =
Trade receivables
Cost of sales Inventory

Inventory turnover =
Inventory
Purchases
Payables turnover =
Trade payables

Corporate reporting
3.5 Cash operating cycle/working capital cycle

The cash operating cycle or working capital cycle is the average time of one
cycle of business operations:
 from the time that suppliers are paid for the resources they supply
 to the time that cash is received from customers for the goods (or services)
that the entity makes (or provides) with those resources and then sells.
A cash cycle or operating cycle is measured as follows.
Illustration: Cash operating cycle

Days/weeks/
months
Average inventory holding period X
Average trade receivables collection period X
X
Average period of credit taken from suppliers (X)
Operating cycle X
The working capital ratios and the length of the cash cycle should be monitored
over time. The cycle should not be allowed to become unreasonable in length,
with a risk of over-investment or under-investment in working capital.

Example: Constructing a cash operating cycle

The following figures have been extracted from a company’s accounts:
Statement of profit or loss ₦
Sales 1,200,000
Cost of sales:
Opening inventory 250,000
Purchases 1,000,000
1,250,000
Closing inventory (250,000)
Cost of sales (1,000,000)
Gross profit 200,000

Trade receivables 400,000
Trade payables 166,667
Average inventory holding period:
Average receivables collection period:
Average payables period:
Cash operating cycle: Days

Average inventory holding period 91
Average trade receivables collection period 122
Average period of credit taken from suppliers (61)
152

Corporate reporting
4 LIQUIDITY RATIOS
Section overview
 The meaning of liquidity

 Current ratio
 Quick ratio or acid test ratio
 Liquidity ratios and consolidated accounts
4.1 The meaning of liquidity

Liquidity means having cash or access to cash readily available to meet
obligations to make payments.
For the purpose of ratio analysis, liquidity is measured on the assumption that the
only sources of cash available are:
 cash in hand or in the bank, plus
 current assets that will soon be converted into cash during the normal cycle
of trade.
It is also assumed that the only immediate payment obligations faced by the
entity are its current liabilities.
There are two ratios for measuring liquidity:
 current ratio
 quick ratio, also called the acid test ratio.
The more suitable ratio for use depends on whether inventory is considered a
liquid asset that will soon be used or sold, and converted into cash from sales.
4.2 Current ratio

The current ratio is the ratio of current assets to current liabilities.
Formula: Current ratio

Current assets
Current ratio =
Current liabilities
The amounts of current assets and current liabilities in the statement of financial
position at the end of the year may be used. It is not necessary to use average
values for the year.
It is sometimes suggested that there is an ‘ideal’ current ratio of 2.0 times (2:1).
However, this is not necessarily true and in some industries, much lower current
ratios are normal. It is important to assess the liquidity ratios by considering:
 changes in the ratio over time
 the liquidity ratios of other companies in the same period
 the industry average ratios.
Liquidity should be monitored by looking at changes in the ratio over time.

4.3 Quick ratio or acid test ratio

The quick ratio or acid test ratio is the ratio of current assets excluding inventory
to current liabilities. Inventory is excluded from current assets on the assumption
that it is not a very liquid item.
Formula: Quick ratio

Current assets excluding inventory
Quick ratio =
Current liabilities
The amounts of current assets and current liabilities in the statement of financial
position at the end of the year may be used. It is not necessary to use average
values for the year.
This ratio is a better measurement of liquidity than the current ratio when
inventory turnover times are very slow, and inventory is not a liquid asset.
It is sometimes suggested that there is an ‘ideal’ quick ratio of 1.0 times (1:1).
However, this is not necessarily true and in some industries, much lower quick
ratios are normal. As indicated earlier, it is important to assess liquidity by looking
at changes in the ratio over time and comparisons with other companies and the
industry norm.
4.4 Liquidity ratios and consolidated accounts

Liquidity ratios are more informative when they are calculated for individual
companies. When liquidity ratios are calculated from a consolidated statement of
financial position, they are average measures for all the companies in the group.
The average liquidity ratios for the group might hide the fact that there may be
poor liquidity in some of the subsidiaries in the group.

Corporate reporting
5 DEBT RATIOS
Section overview
 Gearing ratio (leverage)

 Interest cover ratio
Debt ratios are used to assess whether the total debts of the entity are within control
and are not excessive.
5.1 Gearing ratio (leverage)

Gearing, also called leverage, measures the total long-term debt of a company
as a percentage of either:
 the equity capital in the company, or
 the total capital of the company.
Formula: Debt to equity ratio

Long term debt
Debt to equity ratio =  100
Share capital + reserves
Alternatively:
Formula: Gearing ratio

Long term debt
Gearing ratio =  100
Share capital + reserves + long term debt
It is usually appropriate to use the figures from the statement of financial position
at the end of the year. However, a gearing ratio can also be calculated from
average values for the year.
When there are preference shares, it is usual to include the preference shares
within debt capital.
A company is said to be high-geared or highly-leveraged when its debt capital
exceeds its share capital and reserves. This means that a company is high-
geared when the gearing ratio is above either 50% or 100%, depending on which
method is used to calculate the ratio.
A company is said to be low-geared when the amount of its debt capital is less
than its share capital and reserves. This means that a company is low-geared
when the gearing ratio is less than either 50% or 100%, depending on which
method is used to calculate the ratio.
A high level of gearing may indicate the following:
 The entity has a high level of debt, which means that it might be difficult for
the entity to borrow more when it needs to raise new capital.
 High gearing can indicate a risk that the entity will be unable to meet its
payment obligations to lenders, when these obligations are due for
payment.

The gearing ratio can be used to monitor changes in the amount of debt of a
company over time. It can also be used to make comparisons with the gearing
levels of other, similar companies, to judge whether the company has too much
debt, or perhaps too little, in its capital structure.
Gearing and consolidated accounts

The gearing ratio for a group of companies is difficult to interpret, because the
debt will be spread over several entities in the group.
When measuring gearing, the total capital or equity capital (the denominator in
the ratio) should include non-controlling interests (minority interests).
5.2 Interest cover ratio

Interest cover measures the ability of the company to meet its obligations to pay
interest.
Formula: Interest cover

Profit before interest and tax
Interest cover =
Interest charges in the year
Profit before interest and taxation is calculated by adding the interest charges for
the year to the figure for profit before taxation.
An interest cover ratio of less than 3.0 times is considered very low, suggesting
that the company could be at risk from too much debt in relation to the amount of
profits it is earning.

Corporate reporting
Example: Gearing ratios

The following information is available for Company Z for Year 6
At 31 December Year 6
₦000
Total assets 5,800
Share capital 1,200

Reserves 2,400
3,600
Long-term liabilities (Bank loans) 1,500
5,100
5,800
For the year to 31 December Year 6 ₦000

Profit before interest and taxation 700
Interest (230)
470
Taxation (140)
Profit after taxation 330
The following ratios can be calculated to shed light on the company’s gearing in
Year 6 (compared to previous years or to other companies).
Gearing ratio: 1,500/5,100  100 = 29.4%
Debt to equity ratio: 1,500/3,600  100 = 41.7%
Interest cover: 700/230 = 3.04 times

6 INVESTOR RATIOS
Section overview
 Earnings per share (EPS)

 Price earnings ratio (P/E ratio)
 Dividend yield
 Dividend cover
Investor ratios are of interest to investors in shares and bonds and their advisers.
Some of these measure stock market performance. Earnings per share (EPS) and the
price earnings ratio (P/E ratio) were described in an earlier chapter.
6.1 Earnings per share (EPS)

EPS is normally viewed as a key measure of an entity’s financial performance. It
measures the profit earned for each equity share of the entity.
Basic EPS is calculated as follows:
Formula: Basic EPS

Net profit (or loss) attributable to ordinary shareholders during a period
6.2 Price-earnings ratio (P/E ratio)

The price/earnings (P/E) ratio measures how expensive or cheap a share is in
relation to its annual earnings. A P/E ratio of 10, for example, means that
investors are prepared to pay a price for the share equal to 10 years of earnings
(at the level of EPS in the previous year). A high P/E ratio is usually a sign of
confidence in an entity, because it suggests that its earnings are expected to
grow in future years. A low P/E ratio usually means that an entity’s future
prospects for EPS growth are expected to be poor, so that investors do not put a
high value on the shares.
The P/E ratio is calculated as follows:
Formula: Price earnings ratio

Market value of share
P/E ratio =
Earnings per share

Corporate reporting
6.3 Dividend yield

The dividend yield measures the dividend paid by an entity in relation to its price.
It is calculated as follows:
Formula: Dividend yield

Dividend per share
Dividend yield =  100
Current market price per share
This is a measure of the return that a shareholder can obtain (the dividend
received) in relation to the current value of the investment in the shares (the price
of the shares). A high dividend yield might seem attractive to investors, but in
practice companies with a high dividend yield might have a relatively low share
price.
There are two things to note:
 Dividend yield reflects the dividend policy of the entity, not its actual
performance. Management decides on the amount of the dividend and this
may not only depend on earnings, but on the amount that must be retained
for future investment in EPS growth.
 The ratio is based on the most recent dividend, but the current share price
may move up and down in response to the market’s expectations about
future dividends. This may lead to distortion in the ratio.
6.4 Dividend cover

The dividend cover ratio measures the number of times that an entity’s dividends
are ‘covered’ by profits (how many times an entity could pay the current level of
dividend from its available profits).
It is calculated as follows:
Formula: Dividend cover

Earnings per share
Dividend cover =
Dividend per share
or
Earnings
=
Dividends
A low dividend cover (for example, less than 2), suggests that dividends may be
cut if there is a fall in profits.

Example: Dividend yield and dividend cover

The following amounts relate to Entity Q.
The current market price of its equity shares is ₦5.50 per share.
Profit for the most recent period was ₦1.4 million and equity dividends paid were
₦450,000.
There are 1.2 million ₦1 equity shares in issue.
1,400,000
Earnings per share = = ₦1.17.
1,200,000
5.50
P/E ratio = = 4.7
1.17
450,000
Dividend per share = = 0.38c
1,200,000
0.38
Dividend yield =  100% = 6.9%
5.50
1,400,000 1.17
Dividend cover = = 3.1 times or = 3.1 times
450,000 0.38

Corporate reporting
7 LIMITATIONS OF INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES
Section overview
 Introduction
 Differences in accounting policy
 Current cost accounts and current purchasing power accounts
 Other limitations in the use of financial ratios
 Using historical information
 Creative accounting
 Related party relationships and transactions
 Using figures from the statement of financial position
 Non-financial information
 Other information
7.1 Introduction
There are several limitations or weaknesses in the use of interpretation
techniques for analysing the financial position and financial performance of
companies. Some of these are limitations of ratio analysis (the method of
interpretation most often used) and some are limitations of financial statements
and financial information.
Most of the data for calculating financial ratios comes from the financial
statements.
 The reliability of ratios is therefore affected by the reliability of the financial
statements themselves.
 In addition, when ratios are used to compare different companies, the
comparability is affected if companies use different accounting policies to
prepare their financial statements.
In addition, when comparing a ratio against that of a competitor or the industry
average, it is important to remember that, even within an industry, companies can
have different characteristics. It is very important to remember this when you are
analysing the financial statements of a company, and possibly comparing its
performance and financial position with other companies.
7.2 Differences in accounting policy

One of the uses of financial ratios is to compare the financial position and
performance of one company with those of similar companies for the same
period.
Comparisons between companies might not be reliable, however, when
companies use different accounting policies, or have different judgements in
applying accounting policies or making accounting estimates. For example:
 Entities might have different policies about the revaluation of non-current
assets.
 Entities might use different methods of depreciation.

 Entities might use different judgements in estimating the expected

profitability on incomplete construction contracts.
 Entities might use different judgements in assessing whether a liability
should be treated as a provision or a contingent liability.
IAS 8 states that an entity should not change its accounting policies unless the
change is required by an accounting standard or it will result in more relevant and
reliable information. Therefore changes should not happen often.
Where there has been a change in an accounting policy, IAS 8 also requires
comparative figures to be restated and information to be disclosed. However,
changes in accounting policies and accounting estimates can still make it difficult
to compare the financial statements of an entity over time, particularly if analysis
is based on extracts rather than the full published financial statements.
7.3 Current cost accounts and current purchasing power accounts

Historical cost accounts can also be misleading because they do not accurately
show the effects of inflation over time. They do not take into consideration
changes in the real value of money.
The biggest problem is the valuation of non-current assets. Companies have
different policies towards the revaluation of non-current assets. Some companies
revalue some categories of non-current assets regularly, and in particular land
and buildings. However, not all categories of non-current assets are revalued.
When the rate of inflation is quite high, many non-current assets are probably
under-valued in the financial statements, in comparison with their current net
replacement value.
In addition, when the rate of inflation is high, the reported profit with historical
cost accounting will be higher than it would be using an ‘inflation accounting’
system such as current cost accounting (CCA) or current purchasing power
(CPP) accounting.
With CCA and CPP accounting, particularly during a period of high inflation:
 The reported profit will be less (or the loss will be higher) than with
historical cost accounting (HCA).
 The asset turnover or asset utilisation will be lower, because asset
valuations are higher with CCA and CPP than with historical cost
accounting (even when some non-current assets are re-valued in HCA).
 The return on capital employed will be lower, because the reported profit
will be lower and the value of capital employed will be higher.
7.4 Other limitations in the use of financial ratios

There are other problems with the use of financial ratios, particularly where these
are used to compare the performance and position of different entities or of an
entity with an industry average.
 It is possible to calculate the same ratio in different ways. For example,
there are several variations of return on capital employed (ROCE) and
gearing. Comparisons can be misleading if different calculations are used.
 Even where two entities operate in the same industry, comparisons can be
misleading. Entities can operate in different markets (for example, high
volume/low margin sales and low volume/high margin sales). The size of an

Corporate reporting
entity can affect the way it operates and therefore its ratios. For example,
large entities can often negotiate more favourable terms with suppliers than
small ones.
 Financial statements are published infrequently. If ratios are used to study
trends and developments over time, they are only useful for trends or
changes over one year or longer, and not changes in the short term.
 Ratios can only indicate possible strengths or weaknesses in financial
position and financial performance. They might raise questions about
performance, but do not provide answers. They are not easy to interpret,
and changes in financial ratios over time might not be easy to explain.
It can be argued that financial position and financial performance should be
analysed using market values rather than accounting values. For example, it can
be argued that investment yield is more relevant for the assessment of financial
performance than return on capital employed.
7.5 Using historical information

Financial statements are often used to predict the future performance of an
entity. Where comparative figures are available for several years it may be
possible to extrapolate trends and to base forecasts on these. If comparative
figures are only available for one or two years, predictions may be unreliable.
There may be some limited information about future transactions in the notes to
the financial statements. For example, details of contingent liabilities and non-
adjusting events after the reporting period must be disclosed. However,
published financial statements present historical information.
Generally, financial statements do not reflect future transactions or events. They
do not anticipate the effect of significant changes to the entity after the financial
statements have been authorised for issue. These may include events beyond
the control of management (for example, the liquidation of a major customer) or
events that could not possibly have been foreseen at the time the most recent
financial statements were issued.
It should also be remembered that financial statements are not normally
published until several months after the year end. The financial statements are
often out of date by the time that they become available.
7.6 Creative accounting

Management may use various forms of creative accounting to manipulate the
view given by the financial statements while complying with all applicable
accounting standards and regulations.
Some of the techniques that can be used have been discussed in earlier
chapters. They include:
 Window dressing: an entity enters into a transaction just before the year
end and reverses the transaction just after the year end. For example,
goods are sold on the understanding that they will be returned immediately
after the year end; this appears to improve profits and liquidity. The only
reason for the transaction is to artificially improve the view given by the
 ‘Off balance sheet’ finance: transactions are deliberately arranged so as
to enable an entity to keep significant assets and particularly liabilities out
of the statement of financial position (= ‘off balance sheet’). This improves

gearing and return on capital employed. Examples include sale and

repurchase agreements and some forms of leasing.
 Changes to accounting policies or accounting estimates: for example,
an entity can revalue assets (change from the cost model to the revaluation
model) to improve gearing or change the way in which it depreciates assets
to improve profits.
 Profit smoothing: manipulating reported profits by recognising (usually)
artificial assets or liabilities and releasing them to profit or loss as required.
 Aggressive earnings management: artificially improving earnings and
profits by recognising sales revenue before it has been earned.
 Capitalising expenses: recognising ‘assets’ which do not meet the
definition in the IASB Conceptual Framework or the recognition criteria.
Examples include: human resources, advertising expenditure and internally
generated brand names.
Most of these are now effectively prevented by accounting standards. However,
management may still attempt ‘creative accounting’, especially if the entity is
suffering falling profits or poor cash flow.
If directors’ salaries or bonuses are based on profits or on particular measures,
(such as earnings per share), they may try to manipulate that particular measure
so that it is as favourable to them as possible.
7.7 Related party relationships and transactions

A user of financial statements will normally expect the financial statements to
reflect transactions that have taken place on normal commercial terms (‘at arm’s
length’). The user of the financial statements would want to be informed if:
 transactions have taken place that were not at ‘arm’s length’, or
 there are parties that could enforce transactions on the entity that are not
on an ‘arm’s length’ basis.
For example, an entity might sell an asset such as a property to another
company owned by one of its directors on more favourable terms than it would
sell to a third party.
In this situation, the financial performance or financial position reported by the
financial statements would be misleading. There is a special relationship between
the parties to the business transactions. This is referred to as a ‘related party
relationship’.
Related parties of an entity can include:
 parents, subsidiaries and fellow subsidiaries
 associates
 key management personnel (such as directors)
 close family members of any of the above.
A related party transaction is:
 a transfer of resources, services, or obligations between related parties
 whether or not a price is charged.

Corporate reporting
Examples of related party transactions include:

 purchases or sales of goods
 purchases or sales of property and other assets
 rendering or receiving of services
 leases
 finance arrangements (such as loans or contributions to equity).
Related party relationships and transactions are a normal part of business and
there is nothing wrong with entering into them. However, a related party
relationship can have an effect on the profit or loss, or on the financial position of
an entity, because related parties might enter into transactions with each other on
terms that other entities or individuals (unrelated parties) would not. For example,
where an entity sells goods to a related party, its profits may not be comparable
with those of a similar entity that only trades with third parties on normal
commercial terms.
7.8 Using figures from the statement of financial position

In practice, ratio calculations are often based on figures in the year-end
statement of financial position. These may be very similar to average values for
the period, but this is not always the case.
Some businesses are seasonal and make a high proportion of their sales at a
specific time of year (for example, in the few months before a national holiday
period). Seasonal businesses often arrange their year-ends so that they fall when
inventories and receivables are at their lowest (probably just after the main period
for sales). Where this happens, ratios such as inventory turnover will be lower
than they would be if they were based on the average figure for the year. This
means that ratios may not be strictly comparable with those of other businesses
or with industry averages.
Major purchases of assets can have a significant effect on figures in the
statement of financial position and on ratios if they take place near the end of the
accounting period.
 The carrying value of non-current assets is unusually high, because cost
has increased, but a full year’s depreciation has not been charged.
 Return on capital employed and asset turnover are reduced, because
assets have increased but revenue and profits have not. New assets
should generate increased profits, but they have not yet been owned for
long enough to do so.
7.9 Non-financial information

One of the most serious limitations of traditional financial statements is that they
only reflect the financial effects of transactions. Items are not recognised unless
they can be measured reliably in money terms.
There are two problems here:
 Businesses and the transactions that they enter into are becoming
increasingly complex. Much information that is relevant to users cannot be
expressed easily in monetary terms or in numbers.
 Businesses increasingly accept that they are not only accountable to
investors and lenders, but to a much wider group of people, or

‘stakeholders’. Stakeholders can include customers, suppliers, employees,

the local community as a whole and (for some large public entities) society
as a whole. These groups are often more interested in the non-financial
effects of an entity’s activities, (for example, its effect on the natural
environment), than in its financial performance.
Most large and listed entities now include a Business Review, or an Operating
and Financial Review (sometimes called Management Discussion and Analysis)
in their published financial statements. This is a narrative report which sets out
management’s analysis of the business. Such a review is a legal requirement for
many companies within the European Union.
At present entities reporting under IFRSs do not have to publish any non-financial
information of this kind. Recently the IASB issued a non-mandatory “Practice
Statement on Management Commentary”. It is up to companies or individual
legal jurisdictions to decide whether to follow this guidance.
Useful non-financial information

Useful non-financial information could include the following:
 a description of the business, objectives and strategies of the entity
 a narrative review of the performance of the business during the period
 a description of the main risks and uncertainties facing the entity and the
ways in which these risks are managed
 details of any significant factors or events that may have an impact on the
entity’s performance in future
 details of any significant factors or events that may have an impact on the
entity’s cash flows in future
 information about key relationships with other entities and transactions with
related parties, including management
 a description of the entity’s research and development activities (if any) and
of any material intangible assets, including internally generated intangible
assets that have not been recognised in the balance sheet
 additional explanations of amounts included in the financial statements,
where appropriate (for example, where these are based on estimates)
 information about the entity’s policies in relation to environmental matters,
in relation to its employees and on social and community issues.
7.10 Other information
Size of company
Large companies should be able to benefit from economies of scale and so
should be more profitable than smaller companies in the same industry and
market. Larger companies should also attract better management, so (in theory)
the business should be run more efficiently, and so should achieve higher profit
margins.
Market area
Companies operating in the same industry may achieve very different results
because they operate in different sectors or segments of the market. For
example, two companies selling furniture might have very different profit margins

Corporate reporting
because they operate in different parts of the market. One company may be
selling antique furniture at high profit margins and the other may be selling self-
assembly furniture in larger volumes but with lower profit margins.
Stage in the supply chain

Companies operating in the same industry may operate at different stages in the
supply chain. A supplier of raw materials, a manufacturer and a retailer would be
expected to have very different financial ratios, even though they may operate in
the same industry.
For example, it would be difficult to compare the financial ratios of a timber
supplier, a furniture manufacturer and a furniture retailer.
Timing of transactions
The timing of a key transaction can distort financial ratios. For example, a
company may acquire a subsidiary at the end of the financial year. The
subsidiary would then be consolidated in the group statement of financial position
but its profits would not be included in group profit or loss because they are all
pre-acquisition profits.
Ratios that compare profit figures with items in the statement of financial position
will therefore be distorted, unless a suitable adjustment is made to allow for the
transaction.
Year-end date
In most countries, companies are allowed to decide for themselves what their
financial year-end date should be. The choice of dates can affect the financial
ratios. For example a manufacturer of ski equipment will probably have some
very busy trading months (during the ski-ing holiday season) and some very quiet
months. If it selects the end of the high-selling season as its year-end, its
inventory levels will be abnormally low and its receivables balance may be
abnormally high.
Such ‘distortions’ in the financial statements can be eliminated by calculating
ratios using a monthly average for any measures taken from the statement of
financial position, such as inventory, receivables and trade payables.
Management strategy
Financial ratios should be interpreted in the context of all other relevant
information that is available about the company. For example, management may
have decided on a strategy of cutting profit margins in the short term in order to
win market share. This would affect the current profit margin, but in the long run
should result in higher sales and more profits.

8 FINANCIAL RATIOS AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE
Section overview
 Introduction
 Approach to questions
 Avoiding pitfalls
8.1 Introduction
Examination questions on financial ratio analysis usually require sound
examination technique to construct a good answer. The following guidelines
suggest the approach you should take and indicate the mistakes and pitfalls to
avoid.
At this level, you are unlikely to get a question that asks you just to calculate
ratios. It is more likely that you will get a question that asks you to consider the
accounting treatment of particular items in the financial statements and the effect
that this will have on the entity’s ratios.
For example, if an entity has incorrectly treated a sale and repurchase
transaction as a ‘genuine’ sale and not as a loan secured on an asset, then there
will be a significant effect on the entity’s ratios. For example, the gearing ratio will
not show the true position of the entity’s debt as it will exclude the secured loan.
Return on capital employed will also be affected as the incorrect treatment of the
transaction removes the asset from the statement of financial position, thus
increasing ROCE.
Additionally, consider the points below which provide specific guidance on
aspects of the question that you may have to answer.
8.2 Approach to questions
Analyse the requirement

Start by recognising the person or organisation who has asked for the financial
analysis.
 Who is the user?
 What information is the user interested in? Why has the user requested the
report?
 How should the information be presented to the user – in the form of a
memo or a more formal report? Don’t forget there are presentation marks
available for well-presented reports.
Background information
Establish some of the basic ‘background’ information.
 What industry does the company operate in?
 Note the financial year end. This may possibly be significant.
 Is the business seasonal? If so, seasonal trading may ‘distort’ the year-end
figures in the statement of financial position, particularly for inventory,
receivables, cash and payables.

Corporate reporting
 Have there been any key transactions during the year that may affect
comparisons with previous years? For example, has the company raised a
substantial amount of new finance, or has it acquired a major new
subsidiary, entered a new market with a new product, or disposed of a
business operation?
Review of the financial information

Before calculating any financial ratios, perform a thorough review of the financial
information provided. Look for items that will affect the measurement of key
financial ratios.

 Non-current assets.
(1) Have there been any revaluations? Check the revaluation reserve.
Has it changed since the previous year? (This can also be checked
by looking at the statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive
income.)
(2) Capital expenditure. Has the company incurred significant capital
expenditure? Look at the increase in non-current assets since the
previous year. How has the expansion been financed? Look at share
capital and reserves, and at levels of debt.
 Investments.
(1) Has the company invested in a new industry?
(2) Has the company acquired a new subsidiary or invested in a new
associate or joint venture? If so, consider the timing of the acquisition
– if an acquisition happened in mid-year the subsidiary’s profits will
have been included in profit or loss for only six months but it will be
included in full in the year-end group statement of financial position.
 Working capital.
(1) Has the total working capital increased or decreased in proportion
with the increase or decrease in sales turnover (compared with the
previous year)?
(2) Look at the amounts of current assets and current liabilities. Does the
company have net current assets or net current liabilities?
 Loans.
(1) Have any loans been repaid in the year? If so, how was the
repayment financed?
 Share capital and reserves
(1) Have there been any new issues of shares during the year? If so, is it
clear why the new shares were issued? For example, have new
shares been issued to raise money to repay debt? Or to finance an
expansion of the business?
(2) Have there been any significant changes in reserves during the year?


Compare sales growth with profit growth. Are they about the same rates of
growth? If not, you may need to think about reasons for the different growth
rates.
 Interest. Is the interest charge high in relation to the amount of debt in the
statement of financial position? If it is high, has any debt been repaid in the
year?
 Dividends. Look at the amount of dividend payments, the dividend cover,
and the trend in dividend payments over the past few years.
 Did the company make a profit or a loss?
 Are there any unusual ‘one-off’ items in profit or loss? If so, what are they?
You should have an expectation in your mind about the measurements and ratios
that you should expect to find. If the actual measurements or ratios are different
from what you expect, you may need to think about the reasons for the
unexpected results.
For example, you may expect the company to be profitable. If it made a loss, you
will need to look for the reasons.
Calculate financial ratios

Having reviewed the financial information, you should calculate relevant key
ratios.
 Present the ratios you have calculated as an appendix to your memo or
report.
 Show the formulae and numbers you have used to calculate the ratios. Do
not just write down the ratio by copying it from your calculator. The
examiner will want to see where your figure came from, to make sure that
you understand what you are doing.
 Be selective. Only calculate a ratio if it will add to your answer. Do not
simply calculate as many ratios as possible.
 Go for variety in the ratios you select.
 If the examination question provides some financial ratios, look for ratios
that have not been given. Could any of the ‘missing’ ratios be significant?
Further information
An examination question might ask for suggestions about what further
information might be helpful. If so, set up your answer as an appendix to your
memo or report, and build your answer as you work through your answer to the
question. Examples of information that might be ‘missing’ include the following:
 Additional information to calculate further ratios, such as the share price for
calculating the P/E ratio or dividend yield
 Segmental analysis
 Industry average figures, for making comparisons with similar companies in
the same industry
 Changes in management policy (such as changes in the credit terms
offered to customers)
 The accounting policies used

Corporate reporting
 Reasons for specific changes not explained by the information given in the
question.
Writing your answer

Make comments that are relevant to the question. Always think about the
requirements of the question when you write your answer. You will not earn
marks for anything that is not relevant.
 Make sure you answer all the requirements of the question. If you don’t you
will lose marks.
 Use short sentences and bullet points.
8.3 Avoiding pitfalls

There are a number of common mistakes in writing answers to an interpretation
question.
 Most marks in the exam are likely to be for specific, relevant comments
rather than solely for computations. Do not calculate too many ratios as it
is time-consuming and you will not have time to write your answer. Be
selective and only calculate a ratio if it will add value to your answer.
 Good points can be identified by looking at absolute changes in the figures
between one year and the next. For example, if sales have increased 25%,
it would be expected that inventory, receivables and payables should have
increased in line with the increase in sales.
 Use all the information. Some valuable information about the company is
usually given in the introductory paragraph in an examination question.
Make sure that you read and use this information.
 When making comparisons, make sure that the ‘benchmark’ you select for
the comparison is suitable. For example, if two companies are being
compared:
 Are they the same size?
 Do they operate in exactly the same area of the market?
 Are their financial statements for the same time period?
 When making an observation about differences (such as differences in
comparison with another company, or the previous year), suggest reasons
for the difference. Don’t just make an observation without making a
comment. For example, stating that “There has been a fall in non-current
asset” has no value on its own. A better answer would be “Non-current
assets have decreased despite a rise in sales.” You might then go on to
comment that non-current assets are being over-used and are not being
replaced, perhaps because of the poor cash position of the company.
 The highest marks will be awarded for linking together the information that
you analyse. For example: “Interest charges have remained more or less
the same as in the previous year, despite a decrease in the debt in the
statement of financial position. This may be explained by the company
repaying a large amount of debt shortly before the year end.”
 Structure your answer around each of the requirements in the question. In
many cases, profitability and long term solvency could be used as main
headings within your answer.

 Use the company name in your answer. This will help you to focus your
mind on the circumstances of the company, and avoid writing about
financial ratios in general terms (and so failing to answer the question).

Corporate reporting
9 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
 Calculate and interpret return on capital employed and similar ratios
 Calculate and interpret profitability ratios, working capital ratios, liquidity ratios,
debt ratios and gearing ratios
 Analyse performance of a company from information provided
 Explain the limitations of financial statements and interpretation

Professional level
CHAPTER
Corporate reporting
33
IFRS 1: First time adoption of IFRS
Contents
1 Accounting for the transition to IFRS
3 Chapter review

Corporate reporting
INTRODUCTION

IFRS 1 is an examinable document.
Exam context
This chapter explains the rules that must be applied when a company adopts IFRS for the
first time.

 Define and explain the meaning of the terms first IFRS financial statements, opening
IFRS statement of financial position and date of transition to IFRSs
 Explain full retrospective application
 Explain permitted exceptions to the requirement for full retrospective application of
IFRS
 Explain mandatory exceptions to the requirement for full retrospective application of
IFRS
 Explain the presentation and disclosure requirements concerning first time adoption

Chapter 33: IFRS 1: First time adoption of IFRS
1 ACCOUNTING FOR THE TRANSITION TO IFRS
Section overview
 Introduction and terminology

 Opening IFRS statement of financial position
 Full retrospective application of IFRS
 Permitted exceptions to full retrospective application of IFRS
 Mandatory exceptions to full retrospective application of IFRS
1.1 Introduction and terminology

Changing from one GAAP to another is a major undertaking which has wide
reaching implications for the company undertaking this step.
IFRS 1 First Time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards
explains how the transition to IFRS should be accounted for.
Definitions
First time adopter: An entity that presents its first IFRS financial statements
First IFRS financial statements: The first annual financial statements in which an
entity adopts IFRS by an explicit and unreserved statement of compliance with
IFRS.
The first IFRS financial statements will include the current year, which is the first
period published entirely according to IFRS and comparatives, which were
originally published under previous GAAP, and have been restated into IFRS
A first-time adopter must prepare an opening statement of financial position
according to IFRS as at the date of transition to IFRS.
Definitions
Date of transition to IFRSs: The beginning of the earliest comparative period for
which an entity presents full comparative information under IFRS in its first IFRS
Opening IFRS statement of financial position: An entity’s statement of financial
position at the date of transition to IFRSs.
In Nigeria, the date of transition was established by the provisions in the National
Road Map on adoption of IFRS.
The opening IFRS statement of financial position is prepared by full retrospective
application of all IFRS extant at the first IFRS reporting date.
Definition
First IFRS reporting date: The latest reporting date covered by the entity’s first
IFRS financial statements.

Corporate reporting
Example: Terminology
A company is preparing its first IFRS financial statements for the year ending 31
December 2015.
The company operates in a regime that requires a single period of comparative
information.
First IFRS reporting date 31 December 2015
First IFRS financial statements: Financial statements prepared to
the above year-end
All IFRSs extant at this date are
applied retrospectively (subject to
permitted exemptions and
mandatory exceptions).
Date of transition to IFRSs 1 January 2014 (the start of the

comparative period)
Opening IFRS statement of An IFRS statement of financial
financial position: position prepared as at the above
date.
1.2 Opening IFRS statement of financial position

As stated above, the opening IFRS statement of financial position is prepared by
full retrospective application (subject to permitted exemptions and mandatory
exceptions) of all IFRS extant at the first IFRS reporting date. The standards
extant at the reporting date are used to reconstruct the statement of financial
position as at the date of transition. This means that if a rule in existence at the
date of transition was changed by the first IFRS reporting date, it is the new rule
that is applied in building the opening IFRS statement of financial position.
The opening IFRS statement of financial position becomes the basis for
accounting moving forward. It is constructed at the start of the comparative
period. The company will already have prepared and filed financial statements for
this period under its previous GAAP. These have to be restated to IFRS to
become the IFRS comparatives to the first IFRS financial statements.
Example: Terminology
December 2015.
information.
The company drafts its opening IFRS statement of financial position as at 1
January 2014.
It will have published financial statements under its previous GAAP to cover the
year end 31 December 2014.
These are restated to become comparatives in the first IFRS financial statements.

1.3 Full retrospective application of IFRS

Full retrospective restatement means that all of the figures from the previous
GAAP statement of financial position should be restated to what they would have
been if IFRS had always been applied.
This means that in the opening IFRS statement of financial position, a first-time
adopter must:
 recognise all assets and liabilities whose recognition is required by IFRSs
 not recognise assets or liabilities if IFRSs do not permit such recognition
 re-classify items recognised under the previous GAAP as one type of
asset, liability or component of equity if IFRSs require that they should be
classified differently
 apply IFRSs in measuring all assets and liabilities.
These adjustments are made at the date of transition and lead to restructuring of
the comparative statement of financial position
Full retrospective restatement is a difficult task. IFRS must be applied in its
entirety from the date of transition but there are two categories of exception to full
retrospective restatement before this. These are:
 exceptions which are permitted; and
 exceptions which are mandatory.
1.4 Permitted exceptions to full retrospective application of IFRS

A first-time adopter may elect to use one or more available exemptions from the
application of IFRSs.
There are possible exemptions to full retrospective application in a number of
areas including the following:
 business combinations;
 cost of non-current assets (deemed cost);
 cumulative translation differences;
 investments in subsidiaries, associates and jointly controlled entities (IAS
27); and
 designation of previously recognised financial instruments.

Corporate reporting
The “business combination” exemption is actually a series of exemptions relating
to:
 IFRS 3: Business combinations;
 Consolidation, equity accounting and joint arrangements (IFRS 10, IFRS 11
and IAS 28);
 IAS 21: The effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
The rules on business combinations must be applied to all transactions arising
after the date of transition but do not have to be applied retrospectively.
However, IFRS 1 allows the rules to apply from any date before the date of
transition. In effect, this means that a company could pick any date before the
date of transition from which to start applying IFRS and if this is the case both
IFRS 3 and IFRS 10 must be applied to all subsequent combinations.
This is not allowed in Nigeria. All subsidiaries must be accounted for under
Nigerian GAAP until the date of transition.
Alternative rules apply if IFRS 3 is not applied retrospectively (Appendix C to
IFRS 1). These include:
 assets and liabilities recognised under previous GAAP forms the basis for
the recognition of assets and liabilities under IFRS at the date of transition
(subject to adjustments);
 the carrying amount of assets and liabilities under previous GAAP is
deemed cost for IFRS;
 goodwill written off is not reinstated;
 goodwill at transition is subject to impairment test.
IAS 21 requires that goodwill and fair value adjustments arising on acquisition of
a foreign operation are retranslated at each reporting date. IFRS 1 allows that
this requirement does not have to be applied to business combinations before the
date of transition.
Deemed cost
This exemption applies to:
 Property, plant and equipment;
 Intangible assets (conditions apply);
 Investment property; and
 Exploration and evaluation assets for oil and gas under IFRS 6, and assets
recorded in respect of rate-regulated activities
It might be difficult to retrospectively construct the IFRS cost of non-current
assets at the date of transition.

IFRS 1 allows the use of one of the following to establish the IFRS cost of an
asset at the date of transition:
 fair value;
 cost adjusted by changes in an inflation index;
 a fair value established at a date before the date of transition in accordance
with previous GAAP;
 cost as determined under previous GAAP (oil and gas, rate-regulated
activities).
In Nigeria, a previous revaluation can only be used to as a deemed cost if it was
carried out by duly certified and professionally qualified/registered valuer.
Cumulative translation differences

IAS 21 requires cumulative translation differences (CTDs) arising on translation
of foreign operations to be classified as a separate component of equity and
recycled through the statement of profit or loss on disposal of the subsidiary.
A first time adopter does not have to identify CTDs that arose before the date of
transition
Investments in subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates

If an entity prepares separate financial statements IAS 27 Separate Financial
Statements requires it to account for investments in subsidiaries, jointly ventures
and associates either:
 at cost; or
 in accordance with IAS 39.
IFRS 1 allows one of the following amounts to be used to establish a cost for
IFRS in the separate opening IFRS financial statements:
 cost determined in accordance with IAS 27; or
 deemed cost:
 fair value (determined in accordance with IAS 39) at the date of transition;
or
 previous GAAP carrying amount at that date
Designation of previously recognised financial instruments

IAS 39 Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement allows classification
on initial recognition of:
 a financial asset as fair value through profit or loss (conditions) or as
available for sale; and
 a financial liability as fair value through profit or loss (conditions)
IFRS 1 allows such designation to be made at the date of transition

Corporate reporting
1.5 Mandatory exceptions to full retrospective application of IFRS

IFRS 1 prohibits the retrospective application of some IFRSs for the opening
IFRS statement of financial position.
Exceptions that must be used concern the following:
 estimates;
 derecognition of financial assets and liabilities;
 hedge accounting;
 non-controlling interests;
 embedded derivatives; and
 government loans
Estimates
An entity must not apply hindsight to estimates at the date of transition (unless
there is evidence that they were wrong)
The statement of financial position at the date of transition and restated
comparatives must be constructed using estimates current as at those dates
Estimates might include:
 market values;
 exchange rates;
 interest rates;
Example: Estimates
December 2015.
information. This means that its date of transition is 1 January 2014.
The company had recognised a warranty provision in its previous GAAP financial
statements for the year ended 31 December 2013.
This provision was based on an expectation that 5% of products would be
returned.
During 2014 and 2015 7% of products were returned.
The opening IFRS statement of financial position includes a provision recognised
and measured in accordance with IAS 37. This provision is based on estimated
returns of 5% as this was the estimate current at that date.
The company is not allowed to base the measurement of the provision on 7%
returns.

Derecognition
If an asset was derecognised under previous GAAP but would not have been
under IFRS, full retrospective application would bring it back onto the statement
of financial position. This is not allowed by IFRS 1.
The IAS 39/IFRS 9 derecognition rules must be applied prospectively for
transactions occurring on or after the date of transition to IFRSs.
 non-derivative financial assets and liabilities derecognised in a period
beginning before transition are not re-recognised; however
 an entity may apply the rules retrospectively from any date of its choosing
but only if the information needed to apply IAS 39 was obtained at the date
of the transaction.
Note that some financial assets that were derecognised before the date of
transition might still be brought back onto the opening IFRS statement of financial
position due to the rules requiring consolidation of special purpose vehicles. If a
financial asset had been derecognised in a sale or transfer to an entity which
would be defined as a subsidiary under IFRS, that financial asset would be
brought back into the opening IFRS statement of financial position by
consolidation.
Hedge accounting
Hedge accounting relationships cannot be designated retrospectively
At transition;
 all derivatives are measured at fair value;
 deferred gains/losses previously reported as assets and liabilities are
eliminated;
 hedge accounting can only be used if the hedge qualifies under rules in
IFRS.
IFRS 10 contains rules:
 on accounting for changes in ownership of a subsidiary that do and do not
result in a loss of control; and
 that require total comprehensive income to be attributed to the parent and
to the non-controlling interests even if this results in the non-controlling
interests having a deficit balance;
These rules must be applied prospectively from the date of transition
If a first-time adopter elects to apply IFRS 3 retrospectively to past business
combinations, it must also apply IFRS 10 from the same date

Corporate reporting
Section overview
 Presentation by a first time adopter

 Disclosure by a first time adopter
2.1 Presentation by a first time adopter

IFRS 1 requires that a first-time adopter must include at least one year of
comparative information in its first IFRS financial statements. (This is why the
date of transition to IFRS cannot be later than the beginning of the previous
financial year).
Presentation
To comply with IAS 1 the first IFRS financial statements must include at least:
 3 statements of financial position:
 Current year (the date to which the first IFRS financial statements are
prepared);
 Last year (the comparatives to the first IFRS financial statements which
were originally published under the previous GAAP);
 Start of last year (date of transition).
 2 statements of profit and loss and other comprehensive income (current
year with comparatives);
 2 statements of cash flows (current year with comparatives);
 2 statements of changes in equity (current year with comparatives); and
 2 sets of related notes to the financial statements (current year with
comparatives).

2.2 Disclosure by a first-time adopter

The company must explain how the transition to IFRS affected its reported:
 financial position;
 financial performance; and
 cash flows.
IFRS 1 requires that a company publish reconciliations of amounts in the
previous GAAP financial statements to those in the IFRS financial statements.
The first IFRS financial statements must include:
 reconciliations of equity (net assets):
 at the date of transition; and
 at the end of latest period presented under previous GAAP;
 a reconciliation of the profit or loss for the latest period presented under
previous GAAP
Illustration: Reconciliations
SofFP = Statement of financial position

Total CI = Total comprehensive income
IFRS 1 provides an illustrative example in columnar form.

The adjustment to each previous GAAP figure must be explained in notes to the
A simple example follows to show the presentation for the reconciliation of net
equity.

Corporate reporting
Example: Reconciliation of equity

A simplified example of a reconciliation of equity is shown below.
Previous IFRS
GAAP adjustments IFRSs
Property, plant and equipment 2,000 300 2,300
Intangible assets 400 (50) 350
Total non-current assets 2,400 250 2,650
Trade and other receivables 1,200 0 1,200
Inventory 800 (70) 730
Cash 50 0 50
Total current assets 2,050 (70) 1,980
Total assets 4,450 180 4,630
Loans 800 0 800
Trade payables 415 0 415
Current tax liability 30 0 30
Deferred tax liability 25 220 245
Total liabilities 1,270 220 1,490
Total assets less total
liabilities 3,180 (40) 3,140
Issued capital 1,000 0 1,000

Revaluation reserve 0 190 190
Retained earnings (balance) 2,180 (230) 1,950
Total equity 3,180 (40) 3,140

3 CHAPTER REVIEW
Chapter review
You should now be able to:

 Define and explain the meaning of the terms first IFRS financial statements,
opening IFRS statement of financial position and date of transition to IFRSs
 Explain full retrospective application
 Explain permitted exceptions to the requirement for full retrospective application
of IFRS
 Explain mandatory exceptions to the requirement for full retrospective application
of IFRS
 Explain the presentation and disclosure requirements concerning first time
adoption

Corporate reporting

Professional level
Corporate reporting
I
Index
a b
About the IFRS for SMEs 658 Bargain purchase option 395
Accounting concepts 51 Bargain purchases 708
Accounting estimates 155 Barter transactions 181
Accounting for depreciation 253 Basic EPS 878
Accounting for revaluation 258 Bearer plant 244, 646
Accounting standards 3 Bid /Offer prices 68, 582
Accruals basis 52 Biological asset 645
Acid test ratio 933 Biological transformation 645
Acquisition of a subsidiary in the Bonus issues of shares 885
statement of cash flows 858 Business review 114, 127
Active market 66, 582
Actuarial method 406
Adjusting events after the reporting
period 103
c
Adoption of IFRS in Nigeria 16
Agricultural activities 645 Call option 575
Agriculture 645 Capital maintenance 57
Amortised cost 579, 584 Carrying amount 252
Analysis of expenses 80 Cash flow hedge 598
Assets 45 Cash flow statements 833
Associates and the group statement Cash operating cycle 930
of cash flows 854 Cash-generating units 348
Available-for-sale financial assets 578 Changes in accounting estimates 156
AVCO 236 Changes in accounting policies 151
Average time for holding inventory 928 Commencement of a lease 383
Average time to collect 927 Companies and Allied Matters Act
Average time to pay suppliers 928 (CAMA) 2004 13

Corporate reporting
Company law 3
Comparability
Components of tax expense
43
511
d
Compound instruments 619
Conceptual framework 35 Days sales outstanding 927
for financial reporting 36 Debt ratios 934
Condorsement 12 Decommissioning liabilities and
similar provisions 462
Consistency of presentation 51
Defaults and breaches 632
Consolidated income statement 719
Deferred consideration 691
Consolidated statement of
Deferred tax: business combinations 506
cash flows 848
Defined benefit pension plans 528
profit or loss and other
comprehensive income 719 Defined contribution pension plans 528
Consolidation stage 818 Depreciation of a re-valued asset 263
Construction contracts: IAS 11 203 Depreciation 252
Constructive obligation 446 Derecognition of financial
instruments 591, 610
Contingent asset 472
Development costs 321
Contingent consideration 691
Diluted EPS 891
Contingent liabilities 693
options and warrants 895
Contingent liability 471
Direct method 835, 836
Contingently issuable shares 901
Directorate of Accounting Standards 16
Contract costs 204
Disclosures: mandatory and voluntary 109
Contract revenue 203
Discontinued operations 372
Control 677
Discussion paper: A Review of the
Convergence 5 Conceptual Framework for
Conversion costs 233 Financial Reporting 70
Convertible Disposal of a foreign subsidiary 827
bonds 892 Disposal of a subsidiary in the
preference shares 892 statement of cash flows 866
Core inventories 276 Dividend cover 938
Corporate social responsibility 125 Dividend yield 938
Correction of prior period errors 158 Dividends received from an associate 855
Cost bases 63 Dividends 104
Cost constraint on useful information 44 Due Process Oversight Committee
Cost formulas for inventory 236 (DPOC) 7
Cost model for investment property 303
Cost 232
Cost/sales ratios 924
Costs of acquisition: transaction costs 690
e
Creative accounting 37, 168, 942
Credit risk 634 Earnings per share (EPS) 875, 937
CSR reporting 128 Earnings per share and trends 906
Current ratio 932 ED/2013/1: Recoverable amount
Current value 55, 63 disclosures for non-financial
assets 352
ED/2013/6: Leases 436
ED/2013/9: IFRS for SMEs 668
ED/2014/1: Disclosure initiative 85

Index
ED/2014/2: Investment entities: Faithful representation 43

Applying the consolidation FASB and the IASB 11
exemption 684 Finance income 416
ED/2014/3: Defined benefit plans: Finance lease accounting 400
Employee contributions 540
Financial asset 578, 603
ED/2014/4: Measuring quoted
Financial capital maintenance 57
investments in subsidiaries, joint
ventures and associates at fair Financial instruments 573
value 686 Financial liability 579, 605, 617
Effective rate 584 Financial ratios 916
Elements of cost 246 Financial Reporting Council of
Elements of financial statements 45 Nigeria 15
Embedded derivatives 587, 608 Financial 577, 603
Employee benefits 523 Financing activities 844
Employee share option 547 First-in, first-out method (FIFO) 236
End-of-year adjustments for inventory 231 Foreign currency 805
Enhancing qualitative characteristics 43 Foreign operation: accounting rules 815
Environmental Report 128 Forward contracts 573
EPS: convertible preference shares Functional currency 806
and convertible bonds 892 Fundamental principles 21
Equity instrument 617 Future operating losses 460
Equity method 736 Futures 574
Equity 46
Errors 158
Estimates
Ethics and Conduct
155
21
g
Events after the reporting period:
IAS 10 102 GAAP 35
Exchange differences in other Gain or loss arising on translation 811
comprehensive income 823 Gain or loss on disposal 266
Exchange differences 816 Gain or loss on translation 816
Exchange of goods or services 181 Gearing ratio 934
Exchange rate differences Global Reporting Initiative 133
(statement of cash flows) 848 Going concern assumption 104
Exchange transactions 246 Government grants 294, 647
Expenses 47 Grants related to assets 296
Exposure Draft 12 Grants related to income 295
Gross investment in the lease 414
Gross profit ratio 925
f Guaranteed residual value 385
Fair presentation
Fair value hedge
61
597
h
Fair value hierarchy 69, 583
Fair value model for investment Harmonisation 5
property 303 Hedge accounting 596
Fair value through profit or loss 578, 579 Hedge effectiveness 596
Fair value 56, 63, 580, 694

Corporate reporting
Hedges of a net investment in a ICGN Corporate Risk Oversight

foreign operation 602 Guidelines 116
Hedges of a net investment in a Identifying a finance lease 394
foreign operation 594 IFRIC 1: Changes in existing
Hedging with derivatives 575 decommissioning, restoration
Hedging 594 and similar liabilities 271
Held to maturity investments 578 IFRIC 2: Members shares in
High-geared 934 cooperative entities and similar
instruments 625
Historical cost 55
IFRIC 5: rights to interests arising
Holding company 676, 677
from decommissioning,
restoration and environmental
rehabilitation funds 468
i IFRIC 6: Liabilities arising from
participating in a specific market:
waste electrical and electronic
IAS 1: Presentation of Financial equipment 470
Statements 79 IFRIC 12: Service concession
IAS 8: Accounting policies, changes arrangements 669
in accounting estimates and IFRIC 13: Customer loyalty
errors 62, 149 programmes 195
IAS 10: Events after the reporting IFRIC 15: Agreements for the
period 102 construction of real estate 198
IAS 11: Construction contracts 203 IFRIC 17: Distributions of non-cash
IAS 16: Property, plant and assets to owners 627
equipment 257 IFRIC 18: Transfers of assets from
IAS 17: Leases 426 customers 200
IAS 18: Revenue 179 IFRIC 19: Extinguishing financial
IAS 19: Employee benefits 523 liabilities with equity instruments 629
IAS 21: The effects of changes in IFRIC 20: Stripping costs in the
foreign exchange rates 805 production phase of a surface
IAS 23: Borrowing costs 289 mine 275
IAS 26: Retirement benefit plans 639 IFRIC 21: Levies 466
IAS 28: Investments in associates IFRS 1: First Time Adoption of
and joint ventures 735 International Financial Reporting
Standards 955
IAS 32: Financial instruments:
Presentation 571, 617 IFRS 2: Share-based payment 545
IAS 33: Earnings per share 875 IFRS 4: Insurance contracts 648
IAS 34: Interim financial reporting 87 IFRS 5: Non-current assets held
for sale and discontinued
IAS 36: Impairment of assets 341
operations 372, 788
IAS 38: Intangible assets 313
IFRS 6: Exploration for and
IAS 39: Financial instruments: evaluation of mineral resources 651
Recognition and measurement 571
IFRS 7: Financial instruments:
IAS 41: Agriculture 645 Disclosure 631, 571
IAS 1 and group accounts 675 IFRS 11: Joint arrangements 729
IAS 39 and hedge accounting 594 IFRS 13: Fair Value Measurement 65
IAS 33 and diluted EPS 891 IFRS 14: Regulatory Deferral
IASB Conceptual Framework 38 Accounts 655
IASB Framework 35 IFRS 15: Revenue from contracts
with customers 218

Index
IFRS Advisory Council (IFRSAC) 8

IFRS for Small and medium-sized
entities (SMEs) 656
l
IFRS Interpretations Committee
(IFRSIC) 8 Lease payments made in advance 409
IFRSs and measurement 63 Lease term 384
Impairment loss on a disposal group 369 Lease 381
Impairment of assets 341 Leaseback 430
Impairment of financial instruments 589 Leases of land and buildings 398
Impairment of goodwill 721 Legal obligation 446
Inception and commencement 383 Lessor accounting 414
Inception of the lease 383 Lessee's incremental borrowing rate
Income 46 of interest 389
Indirect method 834 Leverage 934
Initial direct costs of a lease 389 Liabilities 46
Institute of Social and Ethical Liquidity ratios 932
Accountability 137 Liquidity risk 634
Insurance contracts 648 Listing rules 3
Integrity 22 Loans and receivables 578
Interest cover ratio 935 Low-geared 934
Interest rate implicit in the lease 388
Interim financial reporting and
impairment
Interim financial reporting
351
87
m
Internally-generated intangibles 319
International Accounting Standards Management commentary 114, 115
Board (IASB) 8 Manufacturer/dealer leases 420
International GAAP 61 Market risk 634
Inventory turnover 928 Material items 80
Investing activities 841 Material non-adjusting events 103
Investment property 300 Materiality and aggregation 51
Investor ratios 937 Measurement of inventory 232
IOSCO 9 Measurement of revenue 179
Irredeemable non-cumulative Measurement 48
preference shares 618 Memorandum of Understanding 11
Minimum lease payments 386
Modified historical cost accounting 63
j Monitoring Board
Most advantageous market
7
66
Multi-employer plans 540
Joint arrangements 729
Joint control 730
Joint operation
Joint venture
731
731
n
Negative goodwill 708
Net investment in the lease 414
Net profit ratio 925

Corporate reporting
Net realisable value (NRV) 56, 63, 232 Proposed dividends 104
Nigerian Accounting Standards Board Purchase cost 232
(NASB) 14 Purchased goodwill and foreign
Non-adjusting events after the subsidiaries 818
reporting period 103 Put option 575
Non-controlling interests and the
group statement of cash flows
Non-financial information
851
944
q
Non-monetary items 808
Norwalk Agreement 11 Qualifying asset 289
Qualitative characteristics of useful
financial information 42
o Qualitative disclosures
Quantitative disclosures
633
633
Quantitative thresholds (segments) 98
Objectivity 22 Quick ratio 933
Off balance sheet finance 168
Off balance sheet finance 942
Offsetting
Onerous contracts
51, 623
459
r
Operating and Financial Review 114
Operating leases 426 Ratio analysis 914
Operating segments 97 Realisable value 55
Options 575 Receivables days 927
Ordinary share 876 Recognition criteria for intangible
Other comprehensive income 675 assets 316
Over-estimate or under-estimate of Recognition of financial instruments577, 603
tax 484 Recognition 48
Recoverable amount 343
Redeemable preference shares 618
p Regulation
Related party transaction/s
3
94, 943
Related party 93
Parent entity 677 Relevance 43
Percentage annual growth in sales 926 Repayments on finance leases 847
Percentage of completion method 186 Reportable segments 98
Physical capital maintenance 58 Restructuring costs 693
Post-employment benefits 527 Restructuring 460
Potential ordinary share 877 Retirement benefit plans 639
that are not dilutive 899 Retrospective application 152
Pre- and post-acquisition profits 722 Return on capital employed 920
Preference shares: debt or equity? 617 Return on shareholder capital 922
Present value 55 Revaluation model 265
Presentation: taxation 509 Revaluation of property, plant and
Price/earnings ratio 875 equipment 257
Price-earnings ratio (P/E ratio) 937 Revenue recognition and substance 185
Principal market 66 Revenue recognition from providing a
Profit/sales ratio 924 service 186

Index
Revenue recognition from the sale of

goods
Revenue
181
179
t
Reversal of an impairment loss 350
Rights issues of shares 888 Tax base 483
Risk management 116 Tax computation 481
Tax reconciliation 512
s Taxation of profits
Sustainability Accounting Standards
481
Board (SASB) 136

Sale and leaseback transactions 430 Sustainable Stock Exchanges 137
Sale and operating leaseback 431
Segmental information 97
Self-review threats
Separate vehicle
24
731
t
Settlement of a transaction 812
Settlement value 55 Timeliness 44
Share options 895 Transaction costs 690
Share warrants 895 Transactions in a foreign currency 810
SIC 10: Government assistance – no Transactions in own equity 622
specific relation to operating Transitional provisions 151
activities 298 Translation of transactions 809
SIC 15: Operating lease incentives 428 Translation stage 816
SIC 29: Service concession Transparency 126
arrangements: disclosures 671 Treasury shares 622
SIC 31: Revenue – Barter Triple bottom line reporting 138
transactions involving advertising True and fair view 61
services 194 Types of lessors 382
SIC 32: Intangible assets – Web site
costs 323
Small and medium-sized entities
(SMEs) 656 u
Social and Environmental Report 128
SOCIE 82
UK Strategic Report 142
Split accounting for compound
Understandability 44
instruments 619
Unguaranteed residual value 385
Stage of completion of a contract 205
Users and their information needs 39
Statements of cash flows 833
Subsequent expenditure 250
Subsidiary 677
Substance over form 400 v
Sustainability Accounting Standards
Board (SASB) 136
Value in use 343
Sustainability Reporting Guidelines 133
Verifiability 44
Sustainability reporting 131
Sustainability reporting 132
Sustainable Stock Exchanges 137
Swaps 574

Corporate reporting
w
Weighted average cost (AVCO)
method 236
Weighted average cost 236
Window dressing 168, 942
Working capital adjustments 833, 839
Working capital cycle 930
Working capital efficiency ratios 927

ICAN
Institute of Chartered
Accountants of Nigeria

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Corporate Reporting

© Emile Woolf International, December 2014

© Emile Woolf International ii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International iii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International iv The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Content and competencies - overview

© Emile Woolf International v The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Contents and competencies Chapter

A Current issues in reporting framework

© Emile Woolf International vi The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Contents and competencies Chapter

C Preparation and presentation

© Emile Woolf International vii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Contents and competencies Chapter

D Analysis and interpretation

© Emile Woolf International viii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

The following competencies listed above require a detailed knowledge of IFRS.

B Formulation of accounting policies

C Preparation and presentation

© Emile Woolf International ix The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International x The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International xi The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International xii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Exposure drafts Chapter

Discussion papers Chapter

© Emile Woolf International xiii The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International xiv The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

© Emile Woolf International 1 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

© Emile Woolf International 2 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

1 THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

 The need for regulation

1.1 The need for regulation

1.2 Sources of regulation

© Emile Woolf International 3 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

1.3 Principles and rules

© Emile Woolf International 4 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

2 CONVERGENCE WITH IFRS

 Convergence of accounting standards

2.1 Convergence of accounting standards

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of harmonisation

© Emile Woolf International 5 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

2.3 International Accounting standards (International Financial Reporting)

© Emile Woolf International 6 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

Published by the IASC Published by the IASB

2.4 The IFRS Foundation

The objectives of the IFRS Foundation

Structure of the IFRS Foundation

© Emile Woolf International 7 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB)

The IFRS Interpretations Committee (IFRSIC)

The IFRS Advisory Council (IFRSAC)

2.5 Support from international organisations

© Emile Woolf International 8 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

The influence of IOSCO

2.6 International adoption of IFRS

© Emile Woolf International 9 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

2.7 National standard setters and the IASB

© Emile Woolf International 10 The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria

 the IASB and the UK Accounting Standards Board worked together to