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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

In this chapter presents literature and studies from both local and foreign resources that

relates to the variables investigated in the study.

Age

As a worker ages, the worker becomes more experienced by which the work quality

increases. Same goes with the teacher: as the teacher ages, the teacher gains more experience

by which various studies (Zafer and Aslihan, 2012; Nyagah and Gathumbi, 2017; Alufohai and

Ibhafidon, 2015; and Ismail and et al., 2018) implicates that the older the instructor, the higher

the teaching efficiency and classroom management skills that results to the higher performance

of students at a face-to-face setting. However, it is for a fact that with age comes the decline of

skills and abilities (Institute of Medicine, 2012) which is supported by a published study on

the effect and implication of the aging population to the economy by the National Academy of

Sciences (2012), that performance of certain tasks will be affected overtime and vary over the

life cycle of the person.

Age becomes an impeding factor to instructors during online classes when their skills

and trainings become out of date and irrelevant (Berk and Weil, 2015) to pedagogical changes

like the sudden shift from traditional classrooms towards virtual classes. This could provide

the explanation why 1,084 of 2,462 teachers surveyed, aged 55 and older find themselves not

confident with the use digital technologies in teaching (Purcell et al., 2013) as well as the

teachers who were surveyed with the same age range who responded that they find virtual
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technology frustrating and difficult (Heubeck, 2020). Older instructors tends to have a negative

acceptance, preferences and perceptions on online classes. The faculty participants in state

universities (Moralista and et al., 2020) have been found that their age has correlation to the

level of favorability to online classes as they perceive it as an ineffective means of instruction

given the fact that teachers are much more accustomed to traditional classrooms (Chin et al.,

2022).

To contrast, the study by McConnell (2011) had found that age has nothing to do with

technological preference and integration to education. Additionally, Tweed (2013) found that

age has no correlative significance on integrating technology in teaching. These findings are

found to be in congruence with the theory of self-efficacy on physiological feedback wherein

the person can be obstructed physiologically as older teachers find technology stressful to

adapt. However, the remainder of the components of self-efficacy, particularly on mastery and

vicarious experience, could support the findings of McConnell (2011) and Tweed (2013) as

older teachers could adapt and integrate technology in their instruction granted that they have

prior experience on technology use.

Sex

There were literatures that delved on how sex affect work performance. During the

pandemic, Kraft et al. (2021) found that both male and female teachers are faced with difficulty

in being efficient at remote teaching as they struggle to meet the needs of their personal lives.

However, it has been widely reported that women have borne the brunt of childcare and home

schooling during lockdown (Power, 2020) and this is supported by the study of Kweon et al.
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(2020) wherein the female teachers have expressed that the level of difficulty in distant

teaching due to how they are simultaneously working and taking care of their children. People

during the pandemic are trying to manage work and family responsibilities at the same time

(Oppenheim, 2020). Furthermore, it was assumed that COVID-19 has the potential to be

disastrous for gender equality work-wise (Savage, 2020). Moreover, the burden of juggling

home and work life throughout this crisis has clear potential implications for work-related

anxiety, with many families having the same amount of time to cope with more responsibilities.

Francisco et al (2020) has explored how the personal demographic profile of teachers

is correlated to a better academic performance of students. The study concludes that there is a

slight influence of the demographic characteristic, like gender, to the effectiveness in teaching.

Anderson (2011) conducted a study in Danish schools wherein he aimed to find whether gender

has influence on self-efficacy and job satisfaction. The study concluded that females had higher

self-efficacy and job satisfaction than male teachers. Female teachers as well are found to be

much more empathetic than males. Females were found to have stronger self-regulation than

males, which also led to their significantly more positive in online teaching than males

(Alghamdi, 2020). However, no significant gender differences were revealed in teaching

because males were more stable in attitudes, while females performed well in engagement

(Nistor, 2013). Furthermore, no significant sex differences in teaching were found based on

teaching styles. There were also no significant sex differences in the teaching satisfaction.

Workload/Number of Units
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Johnson (2021) asserted that factors like workload must be considered for teachers to

be effective in delivery instruction. Nuere and de Miguel (2021) found that teachers are

handling much more subject units at the onset of the pandemic. Teachers as well who are

surveyed in Australia expressed that they have received much more work prior the pandemic.

The participants indicated that they are working an additional 20 hours weekly from the

increase in workload (Ziebell et al., 2021). Unfortunately, this workload increase is found to

result to unproductivity, stress, and exhaustion for teachers and it has been reported to cause

them to be inefficient in teaching online classes (Ryan et al., 2017; Von der Embse et al., 2019;

Prado-Gasco et al., 2020).

Income

Financial resources is one of the important factors to support and maintain quality

teaching (Johnson, 2021). Constraints in finances could impede the aforementioned (Hero,

2020). Acquisition of the technology such as laptops, tablets, or smartphones is necessary for

the implementation of online classes and the shift towards the virtual pedagogy in the 21st

Century (Fryer, 2006) However, for a third world country like the Philippines, the DepEd

survey revealed that most of teachers does not have the necessary technologies to utilize for

online classes (ABS-CBN News, 2020). To cope, teachers have to spend out-of-pocket to

acquire basic technologies of which were laptops and smartphones in majority (Daquioag,

2021).

In terms of online classes, aside from the issue of increase workload, teachers

emphasized that they are not compensated well to justify their efforts and to cover their
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personal expenses (Patkotak, 2020; Long, 2021). In the light of the Adaptation model, financial

constraints are appropriated as a contextual stimuli by which implies that financial issues can

influence work performance, as supported by a study of Stanford University (2020) wherein

financial stress is linked to job performance of teachers.

Technology Adeptness

To be adept with technology and competently utilize it for teaching is regarded as one

of the 21st Century knowledge and skills that a contemporary educator must have (Valerie,

2010). The findings of a conducted survey asserted that the challenges of online classes are

directly associated with preparedness (India Today, 2021). Teachers who had prior experiences

in online teaching are found to be competent in the pedagogical use of technology and have

greater self-efficacy (Al-Awidi and Alghazo, 2012; Carril et al., 2013; and Han et al., 2017;

Winter et al., 2021) of which equips them to be ready for the transition to virtual classes. Low

levels in preparedness imputes to the level of technological competency of which will affect

the quality education delivered in online classes (Hero, 2020). These deficiencies in

preparedness for educational technology is attributed to both on technology training,

technology support and access (Johnson et al., 2016; Winter et al., 2021). Accordingly, the

acknowledgment of teachers experiencing challenges that were linked to inadequacy in digital

skills have been expressed in various literatures (Morris, 2013; Alshuaibi, 2020; Kallunki et

al., 2022).

Time Management
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Teaching online requires a lot of time in preparation than the usual face to face

classes depending to the program and to the lesson prepared by the instructor or teacher. It has

been also emphasized that during online classes, they spent 155 hours, while during face to

face classes they have only spent 62 hours. There is a difference between the two ways of

teaching as it has been highlighted in the said literature that in online classes, regardless of how

small or big the population of the class they are handling, they still spend the same long hours

and even extend more as they need to secure and emphasize that each students have followed

the instructions and guidelines in a particular task as they cannot see their students physically.

Instructors suggested and preferred more on collaborative activities during online

classes to increase convenience and reduced grading burden among instructors; and to reduce

school projects that requires individual grading as it will provides instructors with more time

to provide constructive feedback Rezaei, (2017). To contrast, instructors believe that one of

the contributory factors affecting there challenge in time managements are in managing

students’ queries and complaints. LaBeouf et al., (2016) expressed that students complain a lot

during collaborative activities due to issues in cooperation and such. Teachers then in response

avoid collaborative activities due to how some complaints are too much time consuming

(Zygouris-Coe, 2012).

According to Watermeyer et al., 2021), one of the factor affecting teacher’s time

management during virtual classes is the limited use or inability to access online platforms or

programs that can make work more convenient which it is due to lack of technological trainings

nor competencies of a certain instructor (Le et al., 2018). While online classes continues to be

necessary, time management on the instructors’ work-life aspects and needs tends to also
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contribute to instructors challenges in time management as from a traditional instructor.

Challenges of using technology in conducting an online teaching such as the lack of interaction

and difficulty to teach skills online (Beltran-Sanchez et al., 2020 ; Torda, 2020; and Farrokhi

et al., 2021) could be attributed as well to the perception and experience that use of technology

is time-consuming and is unsuitable (Adov and Mäeots, 2021).

E-Learning Resource

According to the study, “Availability of online learning tools and the readiness of

teachers and students towards E-learning” (Afolabi, et al., 2014), Instructors' capacity to access

available resources that assist with E-learning is influenced by a number of factors. As the

outcomes of this study show, there are significant resources for STEM related courses with a

concentration on the sciences, as most publications focus on quantifiable analysis of clinical

findings. Another study delegated on “Assessing the Utilization Level of E-Learning

Resources among ODL Based Pre-Service Teacher Trainees E- learning performance and

environment “(Oliniran, et al., 2017), Access to technological devices and scientific journals,

according to the author, is one of the most crucial things that aids instructors' effectiveness.

Higher access to resources led to a broader instructor performance, as seen by the study's

findings. The study entitled, “Access to Education with Online Learning and Open Educational

Resources: Can They Close the Gap?” (Geith et al., 2012) According to the author, there are a

variety of ways that access to educational resources might lead to a reformative type of

educational instruction, particularly in nations undergoing modernization as a result of

increased technology access. Education and academic learning become more inclusive and

accessible for students with limited financial resources as a result of their capacity to access

resources. It also means that instructor training for practicing professionals is improved, which

is a crucial aspect of educational reform.

There are multiple correlations between access to resources and instructor performance

as found by a study in Ireland which showed that expansive access to online available resources

could lead to the ability of the instructor to provide additional examples and simplified

diagrams of complicated concepts for their students especially those in a more information and

data based programs such as medicine and medical practice (Samkange, Wellington., 2013).

Another study, “Models for sustainable open educational resources” (Downes, 2017) found

that there are multiple factors at play that affects the ability of E-learning resources to become

widely utilized by instructors. One important factor that was highlighted in this study was the

ability of the instructor to adapt new forms of technological advancements and integrate it to

his/ her instructing style and method. According to the study availability would be of less

significant use and advantage if instructor adaptability is not present.

According to the findings of one study, extensive resources especially in the ever-

changing landscape of medicine is not only an advantage but rather a necessity. Continually,

students are medically trained using outdated resources and this makes them ultimately

unprepared for the real-world challenges of medicine, in online learning where practical

teachings are lessened significantly, resources should be intensified in order to ensure that the

education of learners would not be compromised (Swanes, 2015). In the study by Ni, A.Y.
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(2013), it was proven that different forms of online learning resources are ideal in terms of

ensuring the expansiveness of access. However, having said that according to this study some

resources are unreliable and further media literacy is needed in order to increase the ability of

students to discern ideal and proficient resources amongst other unreliable ones.

According to another study, developing countries have limited access to resources due

to two major factors. Fund and research availability constraints, from which most resources

are obtained. According to the conclusions of the study, most instructors vow to create their

own types of materials from outsourced research findings in order to ensure that their pupils

have continued access to quality education. This is why educators in the field of medicine find

it difficult to communicate the framework of medical ethics and management. (Ikyumen, wt

al., 2011). A study entitled, “Effect of computer aided instruction package on the performance

of technical educators” showed that being able to provide forms of computerized or digital

resource provisions for instructors in technical fields significantly assist performance and

quality of instruction since resources have the tendency to be more analytical, simplified and

easily compressible making it a useful instrument for instruction and teaching (Ikyumen,

2017).

A study on the skills of instructors working in field of medicine found that educators

in developing countries have instructors that are not as qualified and knowledgeable in the

courses that they teach because of the lack of sufficient access to resources that are important

especially in the context of distance or online learning which is a rising advent amongst

academic institutions (Pityana 2017).

Environment

There are multiple forms of environmental factors that affect the performances of E-

learning Nursing Instructors as shown in the study, “External Factors That Impact Online

Instructor Performance: A Study Measuring the Impact of Decision Fatigue & Quality Matters

Recognition of Courses on Online Instructor Evaluation” (Taylor, 2015), one of the important

factors that affect the quality of performance of online instructors are the temperament in their

respective homes, the lack of a “for work” environment in their homes makes it hard for them

to commit to their classes and professional responsibilities.

Another study shows that multitude of workload and digital access to fast internet

affects the ability of teachers or instructors to perform well during online classes. According

to the study internal and external factors both play an equal part in affecting responsibility,

some of the external factors highlighted in the study are time management and home or familial

responsibilities (Izei, 2016).

According to the study focusing on variables affecting performance, environment is

one of the key variables that has a significant relationship with the quality of performance and

instructor motivation. According to this study environmental factors are defined and identified

as the working space and the external realities that have a directive affect to time and fatigue

when working. It is important to specify that this pertains to the educational policies and

working hours implemented by the institution an instructor is working for (Chukwuemeka,

2013).
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According to the study, “The relationship between academic discipline and dialogic

behavior in open university course forums.” (Gorsky, 2011) Academic discipline, or study

habits, is one of the most essential elements impacting performance. However, the educator's

surroundings and the amount of his or her "work permissibility" have a significant impact on

these factors, which is why online forums for educators have proven to be an effective tool for

improving professional discipline and dedication among educators.

It was found by the study by (Joosen, 2011) that they are indeed numerous forms and

factors that affect and determine the ability of educators to instruct and perform-well through

E-learning, professional fatigue is a challenge that they must first overcome especially after

going through a personal or society crisis related to health or finance. This study recommends

that online orientations should be provided for instructors in order to revitalize their teaching

motivational drive. One of the most prominent variables inhibiting nursing educators from

pursuing an effective type of education is the setting, according to a study concentrating on the

effectiveness of mix or E-leaning for nursing programs in the midst of the pandemic. This is

typically characterised by elements such as a lack of work space and, most importantly,

inefficient internet connectivity, which hinders their online interaction with their pupils. (Sáiz-

Manzanares, et al., 2020).

“Interprofessional Problem-Based Learning Project Outcomes Between Prelicensure

Baccalaureate of Science in Nursing and Doctor of Pharmacy” (Hodges, 2015) showed that

there are multiple problems and hindrances that affect the instruction outcomes of programs in

Nursing and other medical related course-offering though online or distance learning. The lack
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of professional environment on the instructor’s part produces and causes lack of

professionalism this hinders them from maximizing their ability to instruct students or learners

effectively.

According to the results of an experimental study of online learning in the nursing

program, there are multiple environmental factors that needs mitigation in order to enhance the

state of educational instruction through computer-mediated education (Oh, et al., 2016) this

was proven through the qualitative analysis of the state of learning experience and instructional

experience and performance of both learners and educators that both equally responded

negatively to the lack of professional connection and engagement brought upon by distance.

“Online Learning in Nursing Education During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Stress,

Satisfaction, and Academic Performance” (Oducado, et al., 2020) showed and proved that

there are multiple environmental factors that affect the effectivity of online learning in Nursing

education especially in the context of the pandemic. This study showed that multiple forms of

negativities lead to the lack of satisfaction out of the online learning experience caused by

intensified stress leading to lower academic performance.

Finally, another study on nursing instructors show that there are multiple forms of

environmental configurations that affect the level of efficiency that instructions are able to

showcase in the line of professional duty especially amidst the stress that the pandemic has

caused health care workers and the pressure-high working hours that they have to complete on

a daily basis (Subba et al., .2020).

Work Performance
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The purpose of performance management is to improve quality teaching by enhancing

the professional facets of the teacher (Corso et al., 2019; Benadusi and Giancola, 2016).

Teacher performance evaluations of students at core measures their effectiveness as agents of

instruction (Freddano, 2016; Corso et al., 2019). The outcomes of the teacher performance

evaluations of students is measured to teacher quality (Sirait, 2016) and is linked to student

achievement. Even if there are issues of validity of evaluations of which are attributed to the

perceived biases of students (Flaherty, 2020) and how students could use evaluations to

retaliate strict instructors (Stroebe, 2020), it is found that evaluations have profound impact to

teachers as positive teacher ratings increases the self-efficacy of teachers (Selvarajan et al.

(2018) and further improve their teaching qualities (Gruman and Sacks, 2011; Taylor and

Tyler, 2012) while negative assessments result to low competence in balancing between work

and personal life, feelings of unworthiness, and low self-efficacy and work motivation (Chtena,

2014).