CHAPTER-1

1.1INTRODUCTION

In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the
crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a simple mechanism that converts linear
motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also convert rotating motion into linear
motion. Historically, before the development of engines, they were first used in this way driving
machinery from water wheels. As a connecting rod is rigid, it may transmit either a push or a pull
and so the rod may rotate the crank through both halves of a revolution, i.e. piston pushing and
piston pulling. Earlier mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines,
the connecting rod is only required to push.

Today, connecting rods are best known through their use in internal combustion piston engines,
such as car engines. These are of a distinctly different design from earlier forms of connecting
rods, used in steam engines and steam locomotives.

History

The earliest evidence for a connecting rod appears in the late 3rd century AD Roman
Hierapolis sawmills. It also appears in two 6th century Eastern Roman saw mills excavated at
Ephesus respectively Gerasa. The crank and connecting rod mechanism of these Roman
watermills converted the rotary motion of the waterwheel into the linear movement of the saw
blades.

The first steam engines, Newcomen’s atmospheric engine, were single-acting: its piston only did
work in one direction, and so these used a chain rather than a connecting rod. Their output
rocked back and forth, rather than rotating continuously.
1.1.1 Internal combustion engines

Fig 1.1Failure of a connecting rod is one of the most common causes of catastrophic engine
failure.

In modern automotive internal combustion engines, the connecting rods are most usually made
of steel for production engines, but can be made of T6-2024 and T651-7075 aluminum
alloys(forlightness and the ability to absorb high impact at the expense of durability) or titanium
(for a combination of lightness with strength, at higher cost) for high performance engines, or of
cast iron for applications such as motor scooters. They are not rigidly fixed at either end, so that
the angle between the connecting rod and the piston can change as the rod moves up and down
and rotates around the crankshaft. Connecting rods, especially in racing engines, may be called
"billet" rods, if they are machined out of a solid billet of metal (this being forge into the rough
shape), rather than being cast, The forged steel having a better internal grain structure for
strength.

The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin or wrist pin, which is currently most often
press fit into the connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a "floating wrist pin" design. The
big end connects to the bearing journal on the crank throw, in most engines running on
replaceable bearing shells accessible via the connecting rod bolts which hold the bearing "cap"
onto the big end. Typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing and the big end of the
connecting rod so that pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto the thrust side of the
cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of the pistons and piston rings. Most small two-stroke
engines and some single cylinder four-stroke engines avoid the need for a pumped lubrication
system by using a rolling-element bearing instead, however this requires the crankshaft to be
pressed apart and then back together in order to replace a connecting rod.
The connecting rod is under tremendous stress from the reciprocating load represented by the
piston, actually stretching and being compressed with every rotation, and the load increases to
the square of the engine speed increase. Failure of a connecting rod, usually called "throwing a
rod" is one of the most common causes of catastrophic engine failure in cars, frequently putting
the broken rod through the side of the crankcase and thereby rendering the engine irreparable; it
can result from fatigue near a physical defect in the rod, lubrication failure in a bearing due to
faulty maintenance, or from failure of the rod bolts from a defect, improper tightening. Re-use of
rod bolts is a common practice as long as the bolts meet manufacturer specifications. Despite
their frequent occurrence on televised competitive automobile events, such failures are quite rare
on production cars during normal daily driving. This is because production auto parts have a
much larger factor of safety, and often more systematic quality control.

When building a high performance engine, great attention is paid to the connecting rods,
eliminating stress risers by such techniques as grinding the edges of the rod to a smooth radius,
shot peening to induce compressive surface stresses (to prevent crack initiation), balancing all
connecting rod/piston assemblies to the same weight and Magnafluxing to reveal otherwise
invisible small cracks which would cause the rod to fail under stress. In addition, great care is
taken to torque the connecting rod bolts to the exact value specified; often these bolts must be
replaced rather than reused. The big end of the rod is fabricated as a unit and cut or cracked in
two to establish precision fit around the big end bearing shell. Therefore, the big end "caps" are
not interchangeable between connecting rods, and when rebuilding an engine, care must be taken
to ensure that the caps of the different connecting rods are not mixed up. Both the connecting rod
and its bearing cap are usually embossed with the corresponding position number in the engine
block.

A major source of engine wear is the sideways force exerted on the piston through the
connecting rod by the crankshaft, which typically wears the cylinder into an oval cross-section
rather than circular, making it impossible for piston rings to correctly seal against the cylinder
walls. Geometrically, it can be seen that longer connecting rods will reduce the amount of this
sideways force, and therefore lead to longer engine life. However, for a given engine block, the
sum of the length of the connecting rod plus the piston stroke is a fixed number, determined by
the fixed distance between the crankshaft axis and the top of the cylinder block where the
cylinder head fastens; thus, for a given cylinder block longer stroke, giving greater engine
displacement and power, requires a shorter connecting rod (or a piston with smaller compression
height), resulting in accelerated cylinder wear.

1.1.2 Compound rods

Fig 1.2 Articulated connecting rods

Many-cylinder multi-bank engines such as a V12 layout have little space available for many
connecting rod journals on a limited length of crankshaft. This is a difficult compromise to solve
and its consequence has often led to engines being regarded as failures (Sunbeam Arab, Rolls-
Royce Vulture).

The simplest solution, almost universal in road car engines, is to use simple rods where cylinders
from both banks share a journal. This requires the rod bearings to be narrower, increasing
bearing load and the risk of failure in a high-performance engine. This also means the opposing
cylinders are not exactly in line with each other.

In certain engine types, master/slave rods are used rather than the simple type shown in the
picture above. The master rod carries one or more ring pins to which are bolted the much smaller
big ends of slave rods on other cylinders. Certain designs of V engines use a master/slave rod for
each pair of opposite cylinders. A drawback of this is that the stroke of the subsidiary rod is
slightly shorter than the master, which increases vibration in a vee engine, catastrophically so for
the Sunbeam Arab.
Radial engines typically have a master rod for one cylinder and multiple slave rods for all the
other cylinders in the same bank.

Fig 1.3 BMW 132 radial aero engine rods

Fig 1.4 Connecting rod parts

Fig 1.5 Master connecting rod

1.2 SPECIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

Problem Definition: As Connecting rod undergoes repetitive loads during it service life,
fatigue performance and durability of this component has to be considered in the Design
Process. The stresses and weight for carbon steel(c45) are more and life can be improved,
hence it necessitates to find the alternative material at given loading conditions .

In this project the material (carbon steel) of connecting rod replaced with developed
Aluminum alloy. The model of connecting rod was created in NX 11.0 and imported in
Ansys 16.0 workbench for static and fatigue analysis. After analysis a comparison is made
between existing steel connecting rod for the given dimensions for Von misses stress,
equivalent strain and total deformation.

Objectives of the work: The objective of the present work is the static and fatigue analyses of
a connecting rod made of Aluminum Alloy reinforced with Beryllium (B4C) to compare the
stress distribution ,deformation and fatigue life with carbon steel and aluminum to check
whether a steel connecting rod can be replaced with a developed composite connecting rod.
Chapter II

. LITERATURE SURVEY

Various research papers are studied to find the new method and new area of study that
increases the efficiency, performance and life of connecting rod. So various design are
studied to reach the appropriate conclusion.

B. Anusha et al [1] presented work on " Comparison of materials for Two wheeler
Connecting Rod using ANSYS. The modeled connecting rod imported to ANSYS software
for analysis. Analysis is done to determine von misses stresses, shear stresses and strain. In
this study two materials are selected and analyzed. The result is helpful and utilize in
designing the connecting rod.

Singh [2] had conducted a study in which the conventional material of connecting rod i.e.
steel or cast iron is replaced with composite material (E-Glass/Epoxy). By using FEA method
von misses stresses, distortion and other effective parameters are ascertained. There was
reduction of 33.9% of stresses when comparing with present material replaced with (E-
Glass/Epoxy).

Leela Krishna Vegi [3] had carried out a study in which the present material of the
connecting rod is replaced by forged steel material. By comparing both the material on
ANSYS the result indicates the factor of safety and stiffness increases comparable to carbon
steel connecting rod. Also, there is a reduction in weight and an increase in life cycle of
connecting rod having forged steel material.

Ramakrishna and Venkat [4] had carried out a study of connecting rod of petrol engine of
LML freedom. The work focused on optimization of the material in which current 4340 alloy
steel connecting rods are replaced by AlSiC 9 results in a 61.65 % reduction in weight. A.

Prem Kumar [5] had carried out a study in which the present material Al 6061 is replaced by
Al 6061 + B4C. When compared with present material, Al 6061 + B4C have lower
deformation and also sustain a low Von misses strain. Thus result in high hardness.

Bin Zheng, Yongqi Lou and Ruixiang Liu [6] had carried out a study in which the material
utilized for connecting rod in small commercial vehicle is 40Cr. It was analysis that
maximum compression condition increases and factor of safety of connecting rod increases
by 59%. K.
Sudershan Kumar et al. [7] “Modelling and Analysis of Two Wheeler Connecting Rod,” In
this paper connecting rod material is replaced by Aluminium coated with Boron carbide. A
model is design by using PRO-E software and analysis is done on ANSYS software. G.

Naga MalleshwaraRao et al. [8] “Design Optimization and Analysis of a Connecting Rod
using ANSYS” The aim of this work is to find opportunities for weight reduction by
analyzing various material like Genetic Steel, Aluminium, Titanium and Cast Iron. Prof.
Vivek C.

Pathade (2013) [9] worked on the stress analysis of connecting rod by Finite Element Method
using Pro/E Wildfire 4.0 and Ansys Workbench 11.0 software. Experimental method of
Photoelastic is used for comparison and verification of the results obtained in FEA.From the
FEA and Photoelastic Analysis he found that the stresses induced in the small end of the
connecting rod are higher than the stresses induced at the big end. It is also found from the
photoelastic that the stress concentration effect exist at both small end and big end and it is
negligible in the middle portion of the connecting rod. Therefore, the connecting rod fails
may be at fillet section of both ends. G.

M. Sayeed Ahmed [10] worked on “Design Fabrication and Analysis of a Connecting Rod
with Aluminium Alloys and Carbon Fibre” he replaced a forged steel connecting rod with
Aluminium alloy and Carbon fibre. The Connecting Rod is modelled on Pro/E. Connecting
rod of materials aluminium 6061, aluminium 7075, aluminium 2014 and carbon fibre 280
GSM are used and analysis is done.

Bagri & Telang [11] focus his work on optimization of shank fillet radius to reduce
maximum equivalent von misses stress. In optimization it is found that shank fillet radius has
big influence on the stress distribution on the shank portion of the connecting rod. Modal
analysis is done with changed shank fillet radius and reduced deformation was observed in
the model and compared with the initial model.

Nagaraju K L (2016) [12] In his thesis, a connecting rod is demonstrated utilizing Catia v5,
discretization utilizing HyperMesh and analysis utilizing Nastran. The outcome predicts the
most extreme buckling load and basic locale on the interfacing pole. It is imperative to find
the basic territory of concentrated stress for fitting adjustments. He discovered the stresses
created in interfacing pole under static loading with various stacking states of compression
and tension at crank end and pin end of connecting rod. The displacement plot shows a very
small value which does not affect the performance of the connecting rod. The linear static
analysis of the connecting rod shows that the stress generated in the model is within the
acceptable limits or maximum allowable stress. The buckling mode analysis gives the
buckling factor greater than 1 and hence it can be concluded that the connecting rod can
withstand the load applied.

Akbar H Khan. (2017) [13] studied existing connecting rod is manufactured by using steel
16MnCr5. His paper describes Design, modeling and analysis of connecting rod. In his work
connecting rod is replaced by steel alloy SAE 8620 and Aluminum alloy 360 for Discover
100cc motorbike. A 2D drawing is drafted from the calculations. A parametric model of
connecting rod is modeled using Creo 2.0 software. Analysis is carried out by using Ansys
15.0 software. By comparing the von mises stresses in the materials of connecting rod he
concluded that stresses occurs in the aluminium alloy 360 connecting rod are very less as
compared to the steel 16mnCr5 and steel alloy SAE 8620. Instead of using the material Steel
16mnCr5 we can use the either aluminium alloy 360 or steel alloy SAE 8620 to reduce the
weight and cost of the material and for better stiffness.

Mohammed Mohsin Ali Ha (2015) [14] modeled Connecting rod using CATIA software and
FE analysis is carried out using ANSYS Software. Load distribution plays important role in
fatigue life of the structure. Bush failure changes the loading direction and distribution. His
study is concentrated around the fatigue life due to concentrated load and cosine type load
distribution on the bigger end. The connecting rod analysis is carried out to check the fatigue
life and alternating stress development due to service and assembly loads with variation in
load distribution. The results are summarized as follows, Initially the connecting rod is built
to the actual dimensions using Catia software. Axi-symmetric analysis is carried out to find
interference effect on the stress behavior in the joint. 8 noded plane82 element with quadratic
displacement variation is used for accurate results. The contact pair is created with Target69
and Contact72 elements. Interference is created through geometric built up. The result shows
contact pressure development at the interface and higher compressive stress in the bush and
tensile stress development in the small end. The results are plotted for radial, hoop and
vonmises stresses. Also a three dimensional views are obtained through ansys axisymmetric
options.
Akbar H Khan (2017) [15] research work investigated Static structural and experimental
stress analysis of two wheeler connecting rod using by theoretically, Finite element analysis
and using Photoelasticity method. Connecting rod of two wheeler 100 cc petrol engine is
taken for the analysis, Finite element analysis includes the Design and modeling of
connecting rod using Creo 2.0 and Ansys 15.0 for the Static Structural analysis.
Photoelasticity analysis method includes the casting of Photoelastic sheet using Araldite AY
103 and Hardener HY 991 and then connecting rod model is prepared by laser cutting
machine. In his research paper static structural analysis is carried out to find the von mises
stresses and Stress analysis is carried out to find maximum principle stress and reason behind
the failure of connecting rod. Conclusion drawn from his study, It is been observed that the
maximum stresses are induces at the fillet section of both ends of the connecting rod and
chances of the failure of the connecting rod is found at the fillet sections of both ends of
connecting rod. Therefore, to avoid that stresses and failure material need to be added at the
fillet sections of connecting rod. By observing the different fringes developed in the
connecting rod specimen and by calculating the maximum principle stress at that section we
can say that the stresses induced in the small end of the connecting rod are greater than the
stresses induced at the big end. Form the Photoelasticity analysis it is found that the stress
concentration effect exist at both small end and big end and it is negligible in the middle
portion of the connecting rod. Therefore, the chances of failure of the connecting rod may be
at fillet section of both ends

Mohd Nawajish, Mohd Niamuddin, Mayank (2015) [16] studied connecting rods are made up
of carbon steel and nowadays aluminum alloys are also used for manufacturing the
connecting rods. In this work a comparison study is made between the results of different
materials for connecting rod. And the 3D modeling and FEA analysis was carried out by
considering materials Al360, beryllium alloy25, Titanium alloy Ti-13v11Cr-3Al. They
developed solid 3D model of Connecting rod using SOLIDWORKS software and an analysis
was also carried out by using SOLIDWORKS Software and useful factors like von mises
stress, von mises strain and displacement were obtained. Results and comparison it can be
noticed that Titanium alloy (Ti-13v11Cr-3Al) may be used for connecting rod. It is a suitable
material for manufacturing of connecting rod. In their work it is noteworthy that the
economic consideration is not incorporated. From their study it may be concluded that (1)
Maximum von mises stress is developed at small end and minimum von mises stress at big
end of the connecting rod. (2) Maximum von mises stress is minimum in connecting rod of
Titanium alloy. (3) Connecting rod of Titanium alloy is safer than AL360 and Alloy 25 based
on the yield strength. Suraj

Pal (2012) [17] taken single cylinder four stroke petrol engines for the study of finite element
analysis of connecting rod. Model is developed using cad software Pro/E Wildfire 4.0, static
analysis is done to determine the von Misses stress, shear stress, elastic strain, total
deformation in the connecting rod for the given loading conditions using finite element
analysis software ANSYS v12. After that the work is carried out for safe design. Based on the
observations of the static FEA and the load analysis results, the load for the optimization
study was selected. The results were also used to determine of various stress and the fatigue
model to be used for analyzing the fatigue strength. Outputs of the fatigue analysis of include
fatigue life, damage, factor of safety, stress biaxiality indication. Then results in ANSYS are
compared with the results of existing design in the reference paper. The results obtained are
well in agreement with the similar available existing results. The model he presented, is well
safe and under permissible limit of stresses. Conclusion is based on his work that the design
parameter of connecting rod with modification gives sufficient improvement in the existing
results. The weight of the connecting rod is also reduced by 0.477g. Thereby, reduces the
inertia force. Fatigue strength is the most important driving factor for the design of
connecting rod and it is found that the fatigue results are in good agreement with the existing
result. The stress is found maximum at the piston end so the material is increased in the
stressed portion to reduce stress.

Ram Bansal (2013) [18] conducted a Dynamic simulation was on a connecting rod made of
Aluminium Alloy using finite element analysis. The connecting rod is one of the important
part of an engine. Connecting rod of the single cylinder four stroke diesel engine is used.
After measurements were taken, connecting rods were modeled using CATIA software and
saved in 'IGES' format. Then, the model of connecting rod (IGES format) imported into
ANSYS software. In his analysis of connecting rod was performed under Dynamic load for
Stress analysis, and optimization. The pressure-volume diagram was used to calculate the
load boundary condition in dynamic simulation model, and other simulation inputs were
taken from the engine Specification chart. The data obtained at engine run were plotted on
graph by Enginesoft Software. The maximum deformation, maximum stress point and
dangerous areas are found by the stress analysis of connecting rod. This analysis uses a
different mesh to get more precise results. The relationship between the stress and the nodal
displacement is explained by the modal analysis of connecting rod. The results would provide
a valuable theoretical foundation for the optimization and improvement of connecting rod.
Dynamic load analysis was performed to determine the in service loading of the connecting
rod and FEA was conducted to find stresses at critical locations. The maximum deformation
appears at the center of big end & small end bearings inner fiber surface. The areas subjected
to crushing due to crank shaft & gudgeon pin is shown through analysis after implementing
boundary conditions. The connecting rod deformation was mainly bending due to buckling
under the critical loading. And the maximum deformation was located due to crush & shear
failure of the big & small end bearings. So these areas prone to appear the fatigue crack. Base
on the results, we can forecast the possibility of mutual interference between the connecting
rod and other parts. The results provide a theoretical basis to optimize the design and fatigue
life calculation.

C.Juarez, F.Rumiche, A.Rozas, J.Cuisano, P.Lean (2016) [19] presents the results of a failure
analysis investigation conducted on a connecting rod from a diesel engine used in the
generation of electrical energy. The investigation included an extensive analysis of the con-
rod material as well as the fracture zone. The investigation involved the following
experimental procedures and testing techniques: visual inspection, fractography, magnetic
particle inspection, chemical analysis, tensile and hardness testing, metallography, and
microanalysis. The connecting rod was fabricated from an AISI/SAE 4140 low alloy steel;
chemical composition, mechanical properties and microstructure were appropriate for the
application. The connecting rod fractured at the body in a section close to the head; the origin
of the fracture was located at the con-rod lubrication channel. The lubrication channel
exhibited an area containing a tungsten based material, presumably from a machining tool,
embedded in its surface as a result of a deficient manufacturing process. This area acted as
nucleation site for cracks that propagate through the connecting rod section by a fatigue
mechanism, reducing its section and finally producing its catastrophic failure. Failure
occurred at the body of the con-rod, close to the head, and involved the propagation by a
fatigue mechanism of cracks nucleated at the lubrication channel. A layer of a tungsten based
material embedded in a portion of the lubrication channel served as the area for crack
nucleation. The W layer was possibly generated during the connecting rod fabrication
process, particularly, during the lubrication channel machining.

Kuldeep B (2013) [20] analyzed the connecting rod by replacing Al360 material by
aluminium based composite material reinforced with silicon carbide and fly ash. He also
described the modeling and analysis of connecting rod. FEA analysis was carried out by
considering two materials. The parameters like von misses stress, von misses strain and
displacements were obtained from ANSYS software. Compared to the former material the
new material found to have less weight and better stiffness. It resulted in reduction of 43.48%
of weight, with 75% reduction in displacement. K.

Sudershn Kumar (2012) [21] describes modeling and analysis of connecting rod. Existing
connecting rod is manufactured by using Carbon steel. In his project connecting rod is
replaced by Aluminum reinforced with Boron carbide for Suzuki GS150R motorbike. A 2D
drawing is drafted from the calculations. A parametric model of connecting rod is modeled
using PRO-E 4.0 software. Analysis is carried out by using ANSYS software. Finite element
analysis of connecting rod is done by considering two materials, viz. Aluminum Reinforced
with Boron Carbide and Aluminum 360. The best combination of parameters like Von misses
stress and strain, Deformation, Factor of safety and weight reduction for two wheeler
connecting rod were done in ANSYS software. Compared to carbon steel, aluminum boron
carbide and aluminum 360, Aluminum boron carbide is found the working factor of safety is
nearer to theoretical factor of safety in aluminum boron carbide. Percentage of reduction in
weight is same in Aluminum 360 and aluminum boron carbide. Percentage of increase in
stiffness in aluminum boron carbide is more. Percentage of reduction in stress aluminium
boron carbide and aluminum 360 is same.
CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD

3.1 .1 Introduction to Solid works

SolidWorks is one of the products of SolidWorks Corporation, which is powered by

Dassault Systemes 3D experience platform. SolidWorks mechanical design automation
software is a feature-based, parametric solid modeling design tool that lets designers
quickly sketch out ideas, experiment with features and dimensions, and produce models
and detailed drawings. It takes advantage of the easy to learn Windows graphical user
interface in which designers can use simple drag and drop (DD), copy paste
functionality same as in the Windows. Many of the icons such as print, open, cut and
save are also part of the SolidWorks application which is familiar with Windows
functions. When designing a model using SolidWorks, you can visualize it in three
dimensions, the way the model exists once it is manufactured.

SolidWorks is structured in three basic types: part mode, assembly mode and drawing
mode. Part mode is the basic building block in this software. For example, you must
have to create a part before you create assembly.  Assembly mode contains parts or
other assemblies, called sub assemblies. These three modes are discussed below one by
one.
PART MODE
The part mode is very first and basic mode of SolidWorks in which a 3D model is created. To
create any design you have to sketch from sketching environment. First, you need to select
sketching plane to create sketch for the base feature. Three default planes are provided named
as Front Plane, Top Plane and Right Plane. After completion of drawing sketches, you can
give proper dimensions and apply the required relations in the same sketching environment.
The Sheet Metal and Surface Modeling tools are also present in this mode for special design
of the part. You can create core and cavity in the part mode by using mold design tools and
also design welded structures in this mode by using related tools. 
You can analyze the part model for various stresses applied to it in the real physical
conditions by using tool called Simulation Xpress. It helps you to reduce the cost and time in
testing your design in real physical testing conditions. 

ASSEMBLY MODE

In Assembly Mode, the assembly is created by assembling the components created earlier in
the part mode to form complete model. You can also create model by creating parts in the
assembly mode. Assembly is created by mating relations between parts. These relations are
termed as Mate tool. 
In Assembly Mode, after assembling the components you can also animate the model with
the use of Motion Study Tab. The Evaluate Command Manager Tab is provided in the
assembly mode. This mode consists of tools like measure, Collision Detection, Interference
Checking etc. In Motion Study Tab we can assign motors, actuators, force and gravity to the
components and can physically simulate the motion of an assembly with different graphs and
results.

DRAWING MODE

The Drawing Mode is used for the detailing of any created part or assembly. All the detailing
or documentation is done in 2D format in this mode. The documentation consists of different
drawing views and the details in the drawing views. You can detail all the views by simply
dragging and dropping parts or assemblies that you created in Part Mode or Assembly Mode.
Drawing Mode provides all the tools required to generate and modify the drawing views and
add dimensions and annotations to them.
SolidWorks has a property of Bi-directional Associativity, which gives major advantage to
this software. As this property ensures that any change in the dimensions of a part in the
drawing view will lead to the change in the design of part in the part as well as in the
assembly mode, and vice versa.

It is used, among other tasks, for:

 Design (parametric and direct solid/surface modeling)

 Engineering analysis (static; dynamic; electro-magnetic; thermal, using the finite
element method; and fluid, using the finite volume method).
 Manufacturing finished design by using included machining modules.

NX is a direct competitor to CATIA, Creo, Autodesk Inventor, and SolidWorks.

3.1.2 KEY FUNCTIONS

 Computer-aided design (CAD) (Design)

o Parametric solid modeling (feature-based and direct modeling)
o Freeform surface modeling, class ‘A’ surfaces.
o Reverse engineering
 o Styling and computer-aided industrial design
o Engineering drawing (Drafting)
o Product and manufacturing information (PMI)
o Reporting and analytics, verification and validation.
o Knowledge reuse, including knowledge-based engineering
o Sheet metal design
o Assembly modeling and digital mockup
o Routing for electrical wiring and mechanical piping
 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) (Simulation)
o Stress analysis / finite element method (FEM)
o Kinematics
o Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and thermal analysis
 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) (Manufacturing)
o Numerical control (NC) programming
 CHAPTER IV

4.1 ANALYSIS BY ANSYS

Ansys Inc. is an American public company based in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. It develops

and markets engineering simulation software. Ansys software is used to design products and
semiconductors, as well as to create simulations that test a product's durability, temperature
distribution, fluid movements, and electromagnetic properties.

Ansys was founded in 1970 by John Swanson. Swanson sold his interest in the company to
venture capitalists in 1993. Ansys went public on NASDAQ in 1996. In the 2000s, Ansys
made numerous acquisitions of other engineering design companies, acquiring additional
technology for fluid dynamics, electronics design, and other physics analysis.

The idea for Ansys was first conceived by John Swanson while working at the Westinghouse
Astronuclear Laboratory in the 1960s. At the time, engineers performed finite element
analysis (FEA) by hand. Westinghouse rejected Swanson's idea to automate FEA by
developing general purpose engineering software, so Swanson left the company in 1969 to
develop the software on his own. He founded Ansys under the name Swanson Analysis
Systems Inc. (SASI) the next year, working out of his farmhouse in Pittsburgh.

Swanson developed the initial Ansys software on punch-cards and used a mainframe
computer that was rented by the hour. Westinghouse hired Swanson as a consultant, under the
condition that any code he developed for Westinghouse could also be included in the Ansys
product line. Westinghouse also became the first Ansys user.

Ansys develops and markets finite element analysis software used to simulate engineering
problems. The software creates simulated computer models of structures, electronics, or
machine components to simulate strength, toughness, elasticity, temperature distribution,
electromagnetism, fluid flow, and other attributes. Ansys is used to determine how a product
will function with different specifications, without building test products or conducting crash
tests. For example, Ansys software may simulate how a bridge will hold up after years of
traffic, how to best process salmon in a cannery to reduce waste, or how to design a slide that
uses less material without sacrificing safety.

Most Ansys simulations are performed using the Ansys Workbench software, which is one of
the company's main products. Typically Ansys users break down larger structures into small
components that are each modeled and tested individually. A user may start by defining the
dimensions of an object, and then adding weight, pressure, temperature and other physical
properties. Finally, the Ansys software simulates and analyzes movement, fatigue, fractures,
fluid flow, temperature distribution, electromagnetic efficiency and other effects over time.

Version 15 of Ansys was released in 2014. It added new features for composites, bolted
connections, and better meshes tools. In February 2015, version 16 introduced the AIM
physics engine and Electronics Desktop, which is for semiconductor design. The following
year, version 17 introduced a new user interface and performance improvement for
computing fluid dynamics problems. In January 2017, Ansys released version 18. Version
18 allowed users to collect real-world data from products and then incorporate that data into
future simulations.

4.2 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CONNECTING ROD

Dimensions of Width and height of the connecting rod is For C.S = 12.8mm and For AL
360 = 16.4 mm (from calculations). A 3D model of connecting is used for analysis in
ANSYS 16.0. The loading conditions are assumed to be static. Analysis done with pressure
load applied at the piston end and restrained at the crank end or other load applied at the
crank end and restrained at the piston end. The element chosen is SOLID model connecting
rod it was used with the tetrahedral option, making it a 10-node element with 3 degrees of
freedom at each node. The finite element analysis is carried out on carbon steel connecting
rod as well as on three different materials of carbon steel, aluminum ,Beryllium360.

4.2.1 FORCES ACTING ON THE CONNECTING ROD

1. The combined effect (or joint effect) of,

a) The pressure on the piston, combined with the inertia of the Reciprocating parts.
b) The friction of the piston rings, piston, piston rod and the cross head.
2. The longitudinal component of the inertia of the rod.

3. The transverse component of the inertia of the rod. 4. The friction of the
two end bearings. Axial forces:

Axial forces resulting from gas pressure and inertia of piston assembly modified by the side
thrust arising in consequence of the connecting rod crank angle.

The maximum axial load is compressive (at TDC). ➢ Tensile stresses occur after firing, due to

piston inertia.

>Bending stresses also occur after firing.

Transverse forces:

Transverse forces Known as whip are caused by inertia effects of the rod mass. Fortunately
axial & transverse forces do not occur at the same time
ANALYSIS: To do the ansys we have chosen the workbench of 16 version. Then import
the saved connecting rod model to the workbench by saving as part file, as it is easy to
import easily for doing meshing and further process.

Fig 3.2 Ansys workbench window

Then go to static structural and insert the data and type of material used for analysis

Fig 3.2.1 workbench data section

Go to engineering data and give the density, poisson’s ratio and young’s modules values .
 Fig 3.2.2 workbench data upload

Next go to geometry and import the part file of connecting which was saved before in
software. Then double click on the model now the actual workbench window opens
MODELING AND MESHING

According to the structure of crankshaft, the main dimension parameters are considered
while preparing model in SOLID WORKS. The materials for crankshaft are shown in
Table. II.

Table. II Materials for Crankshaft

Importing External Geometry;

Mesh Generation.:

Mesh generation is an important step in the pre-processing of finite element

method, and it is time-consuming. The correct and reasonable meshing is the key to
numerical simulation of finite element method. The quality of the mesh will directly
determine the speed, accuracy and accuracy of the final analysis. This step plays a global role
in the validity and reliability of the finite element analysis. When the brake drum is meshed,
the 3D entity Solid 187 tetrahedron element is selected, and each unit has 10 nodes. The
brake drum is meshed by the free meshing method.

Statistics
Nodes 84498
Elements 19405
Adding Constraints and Solving Calculations.

The brake drum modal test can get natural frequency of brake drum under free
condition, and the brake drum is usually connected with other parts, so the displacement
constraints in the bolt hole of cylinder brake drum and other parts connected on both axial
and normal. Because the external excitation frequency of the brake drum is low, the low
order vibration mode plays a decisive role in the dynamic performance of the brake drum.
Therefore, the first 10 natural frequencies and vibration modes of the brake drum are solved
by Block Lanczos method. The advantage of the method is that the mesh quality is low and
the running speed is fast

Fixed
Object Name Force
Support
State Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry 1 Face
Definition
Type Fixed Support Force
Suppressed No
Define By   Vector
Applied By   Surface Effect
Magnitude   4319. N (ramped)
Direction   Defined
Aluminium:

Aluminum Alloy > Constants

Density 2.77e-006 kg mm^-3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 2.3e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 8.75e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1

Aluminum Alloy > Isotropic Elasticity

Young's Modulus MPa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa Temperature C
71000 0.33 69608 26692
Total deformation
Strain :
Stress:

Safety factor
Beryllium

Density 1.844e-006 kg mm^-3

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1.2e-005 C^-1
Specific Heat 4.34e+005 mJ kg^-1 C^-1
Thermal Conductivity 6.05e-002 W mm^-1 C^-1
Resistivity 1.7e-004 ohm mm

Beryllium > Isotropic Elasticity

Young's Modulus MPa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus MPa Shear Modulus MPa Temperature C
3.03e+005 0.18 1.5781e+005 1.2839e+005

Total Deformation :
Strain
CONCLUSION:

Result : Total Equivalent Weight(kg)

Safety
Deformation Stress Strain
factor
(MPa)
aluminium 4.3064e-002 kg
0.56845 146.61 2.0649e-003 1.9098
(AI5083)
Berylluim 0.1335 mm 147.89 4.8809e-004 1.6228 2.8668e-002 kg

Finite Element analysis of the four cylinder crankshaft has been done using FEA tool SOLID
WORKS. The results obtained from FE analysis, many discussions have been made.

1. Results show the improvement in the strength of the connecting rod as the maximum
limits of stresses as per weight of components
2. The value of von-misses stresses that comes out from the analysis is far less than
material yield stress so our design is safe.

So Berylluim which give good life and strength to crank shaft