Laboratory Manual

Physics of Engineers
Engr. Danielle Joy L. Alcantara
 GUIDELINES FOR THE EXPERIMENTS AND REPORT PREPARATION

1. Preparation for the experiment

The student must have read the experiment background and method from the experiment
handbook and studied the associated theory before doing the experiment. During the
experiment, the lab teacher may ask students questions about the technique and theory.
An unprepared student may receive negative marks or possibly be barred from doing the
experiment by the lab teacher.

2. Laboratory Teams
The class will be separated into three or four groups of three or four students. The
students' preferences for team composition (which students will partner up) are taken into
consideration, but the lab teacher makes the final choice.

A report is required for each lab experiment. The next lab meeting is when the lab reports
are due. A week following the last lab meeting, the lab report for the final experiment is
due.

Per experiment, each team produces one report (unless otherwise required). Everyone on
the team receives a grade for the report. Late reports are penalized by deducting 5 points
for each day the report comes late. The students are provided the other grade
components of the experiments on an individual basis.

3. Preparation of Report
The report must be produced electronically (e.g. using MS-WORD). Tables displaying data or
results, as well as figures and graphs, should be created electronically and integrated into the main
body of the document (e.g. using MS-Excel or MS-Vision). Figures, graphs, and tables should all
include captions and names, as well as numbers for equations. The present tense and third person
are the preferred language styles. The following sections must be included in the report:

a) Cover page: Include number and title of the experiment, date the experiment was performed and
the names of the team members.
b) Objective: Give a short description of the purpose of the experiment.

c) Theoretical background: Give a brief description of the relevant theory.

d) The experimental procedure: For each experiment technique, provide a summary of what was
done. Do the method description from the lab handbook should not be copied or repeated. Report
the results of the measurement as well as any additional experimental data. If required, make a
chart of the measurements. Over the tables, include the table number and title.

(e) Analysis of experimental data: Analyze the data. Compare the findings to those predicted by
theory. Create graphs in MS-Excel and insert the graph figure into the report's main body. Include
the figure number as well as a caption. Axis should be labeled. Show your units. Tables and graphs
should be included in the text near and in the same section as where they are first discussed. If
required, add notes and calculations to each step.

f) Conclusions: Summarize the experiment and the results. Discuss the factual knowledge gained.

Physics for Engineers

 Engineering physics is the study of the combined disciplines of engineering, physics, and
math in an effort to more readily understand concepts such as the dynamics of electricity,
magnetism, statics, material durability, thermodynamics, and fluid dynamics. In addition,
engineering physics also builds on the principle fundamentals of subjects such as space science,
superconductivity, optical materials, and nuclear engineering ( My Career Tool, n.d).

List of Laboratory Exercises Objectives

1. Learn the concept of mass density and practice proper use of significant figures.
2. Verify Archimedes' Principle and to determine the specific gravity of certain substances.
3. Verify the constancy of acceleration of a disc rolling down an inclined plane.
4. To measure the acceleration due to gravity in this room using the simple pendulum as a gravity
sensor.
5. To study the law of heat exchange by the method of mixtures and to apply the law of heat
exchange to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal.

ON ERRORS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

ERRORS:
We could distinguish among three different kinds of "errors" in your lab measurements:
1. Mistakes or blunders. We all make these. But with any kind of luck, and some care, we catch
them and then repeat the measurement.
2. Systematic Errors. These are due either to a faulty instrument (a meter stick that shrank) or by
an observer with a consistent bias in reading an instrument.
3. Random Errors. Small accidental errors present in every measurement we make at the limit of
the instruments precision.

After mistakes have been removed, a measurement's accuracy can be increased by minimizing
random errors (by statistical means or by substituting a more precise instrument, i.e., one that yields
more significant figures for the same measurement.) Reduce systematic mistakes and increase
precision to improve accuracy.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

No measurement of a physical quantity can ever be made with infinite accuracy. As an

honest experimentalist, you should relay to the reader just how good you think your measurement
is. One simple way to relay this information is by the number of significant figures you quote. For
example, 3.4 cm says one thing, 3.40 cm tells a different story. The last digit you write down can be
your best estimate made between the markings of a scale, but it still represents a willfully reported
number, it still is a significant figure.

The placement of the decimal point does not change the number of significant figures. For
example, 20.8 grams and 0.00208 grams each have three significant figures; each is assumed to
be uncertain by at least ±1 in the last figure, i.e., ±1 part in 208, which is about ½ %.

Normally, figuring out how many significant figures are in a stated number gives no
problems, except when zeros are involved. For example, is it obvious how many significant figures
are expressed in 5500 feet, 250 years, or $1,300,000? A good way to tell the reader which is, in
fact, the last significant figure is by using scientific notation. For example, 5.50 x 103 feet, 2.5 x 102
years, and 1.300 Megabucks, telegraph that the number of digits in which any confidence can be
placed was three, two, and four, respectively

COMPUTATIONS USING RAW DATA

How do you combine your carefully gathered data with other numbers in an expression? With a little
common sense, and a hand calculator, you can verify that the following rules should be followed:

Multiplication and Division:

Report only as many significant figures in your final answer as there were in the least precise value.
For example,

3.481 x 1.75 gets reported as 6.09, not 6.092.

Of course, you should only round off the final answer. If a number is used again in another
computation, you should not round it off in between, or you may make a small but significant error.

Addition and Subtraction:

Again, common sense rules: 1.11 x 103 + 3.33 x 104 is, unfortunately, just 3.44 x 104 .

Note: To see this you have to write it out in ordinary notation (even better: line-up one under the
other):

1,110 + 33,300 = 34,410, mathematically

But the tens position is not significant in one of the terms, so it cannot be significant in the final
sum. The answer is 34,400, or 3.44 x 10 4.

MEASUREMENTS IN PHYSICS

System of Units
 According to More (2020) system of units is a collection of units in which certain units
chosen as fundamental and all others are derived from them. This system is also called an
absolute system of units. In the most of the system, the mass, the length, and the time are
considered to be fundamental quantities, and their units are called as fundamental units. The
following are some systems of units which are in common use.

• c.g.s system of units: The Unit of length centimeter (cm).The unit of mass gram (g).The
unit of time second (s)

• m.k.s system of units: The unit of length meter (m). The unit of mass (kg).The unit of time
second (s).

• f.p.s system of units: The unit of length is a foot (ft).The unit of mass is pound (lb). The unit
of time is second (s)

The Metric System

According to MathBits (n.d) the metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system
of measurement created in France in 1799. The International System of Units (SI), the official
system of measurement in almost every country in the world, is based upon the metric system.

In the metric system, each basic type of measurement (length, weight, capacity) has one
basic unit of measure (meter, gram, and liter). Conversions are quickly made by multiplying or
dividing by factors of 10. It is as simple as moving the decimal point to the right (for smaller
prefixes) or to the left (for larger prefixes).
 Conversions of Units by Arneson (2015)

The English System

According to MathBits (n.d) while the metric system was lawfully accepted for use in the
United States in 1866, the US has not adopted the metric system as its "official" system of
measurement. The US English System of measurement grew out of the manner in which people
secured measurements using body parts and familiar objects. For example, shorter ground
distances were measured with the human foot and longer distances were measured by paces,
with one mile being 1,000 paces. Capacities were measured with household items such as cups,
pails (formerly called gallons) and baskets.

Obviously this system allowed for discrepancies between measurements obtained by different
individuals. A standard was eventually set to ensure that all measurements represented the same
amount for everyone. Examples of English unit system are pounds, feet, inches, btu, etc.

Conversion Ratio
According to MathBits (n.d) a conversion ratio (or unit factor) is a ratio equal to one. This
ratio carries the names of the units to be used in the conversion. It can be used for conversions
within the English and Metric Systems, as well as for conversions between the systems. The
conversion ratio is based upon the concept of equivalent values.
Conversion of Units and Constants

Conversion of Units from Petrov (2015)

Newton (N) – kg.m/s2 Joules (J) – N.m
Pascal (Pa) – N/m2 Watts (W) – J/s
Length

1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeter (cm)= 3.28 ft
1 centimeter (cm) = 10-2m 1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3m
1 micron (μ) = 10-6m 1 millimicron (mμ) = 10-9m
1 angstrom (A) = 10-10m 1 inch (in.) = 2.54 cm
1 foot (ft) = 30.48 cm = 12in 1 mile (mi) = 1.609 km
1 mil = 10-3 in. 1 centimeter = 0.3937 in.
1 meter = 39.37 in. 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile
1 yard = 3 feet 1 mile = 5280 ft

Area
1 square meter (m2) = 10.76 ft2 1 square mile (mi2) = 640 acres
1 square foot (ft2) = 929 cm2 1 acre = 43,560 ft2

Volume
1 liter (L) = 1000cm3 = 1.057 quart (qt) = 61.02 in3 = 0.03532 ft3
1 cubic meter (m3) = 1000 L = 35.32 ft3
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 7.481 U.S.gal = 0.02832 m3 = 28.32 L
1 U.S. gallon (gal) = 231 in3 = 3.785 L
1 British gallon = 1.201 U.S.gallon = 277.4 in3
Mass
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb) = 0.06852 slug;
1 lb = 453.6 gm = 0.03108 slug
1 slug = 32.174 lb = 14.59 kg
1 ton = 907.18 kgm = 2000lbm
Speed
1 km/h = 0.2778 m/sec = 0.6214 mi/h = 0.9113 ft/sec
1mi/h = 1.467 ft/sec = 1.609 km/h = 0.4470 m/sec

Density

1 gm/cm3 = 103 kg/m3 = 62.43 lb/ft3 = 1.940 slug/ft3

1 lb/ft3 = 0.01602 gm/cm3
1 slug/ft3 = 0.5154 gm/cm3

Force
1 Newton (N) = 105 dynes = 0.1020 kgf = 0.2248 lbf
1 pound weight (lbwt) = 4.448 N = 0.4536 kg f = 32.17 poundals
1 kilogram force (kgf) = 2.205 lbf = 9.807 N
1 U.S.short ton = 2000 lbf
1 long ton = 2240 lbf
1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2200 lb f
1 Kip = 1000 lbf

Energy
1British Thermal Unit (Btu) = 1.055 Kilojoules (KJ) = 251.89 Calories (Cal) = 778 ft-lb = 0.293 watt-
h
1 KJ = 1 Newton – meter (N.m) = 101.92 kg – m
1 Joule (J) = 1 Watt-second (W.s) =107 Erg.
1 Kcal = 4.187 KJ
1 kilowatt hour (kw hr) = 3.60 × 10 6 joules = 860 kcal = 3413 Btu
1 electron volt (ev) = 1.602 × 10 -19 joule
Power
1 Horse Power (Hp) = 42.4 Btu/min = 550 ft-lb/s = 33000 ft-lb/min = 2545 btu/hr
1 Kilowatts (KW) = 1 KJ/s = 56.87 Btu/min = 3600KJ/hr = 737.562 ft-lb/s = 3412.2 Btu/hr
1 watt = 1 joule/sec = 107 ergs/sec = 0.2389 cal/sec= 860 Cal/hr

Pressure
1 Atmospheric Pressure (atm) =1.01325 Bar = 1.0332 kg/cm 2 = 14.7 psi = 29.92 in hg (0⁰) = 33.934
dt H2O (60⁰F) = 101.325 KPa =406.79 in H2O (39.2⁰F) =760mm Hg (0⁰) = 760 Torre = 2116.8 psf.

1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 in H2O = 0.0361 psi
1 mmHg = 1 Torr
1 Torr = 133.3 N/m2

Acceleration due to gravity (g)

g = 9.81m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2

Water
Specific Weight (ꝩ) 62.4 lb/ft3 9800 N/m3 980 dynes/cm3
Mass Density(ρ) 1.94 Slug/ft3 1000kg/m3 1gm/cm3

Time
The standard units of time are
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds (60 × 60)
1 day = 24 hrs
Example of Conversions:

1. Covert 84 inches to feet

To be able to cancel the unit, put
From Conversion Table 1 ft = 12 inches the desired unit above and the
1 Foot
84 inches × = 7 ft same unit below. Follow rules in
12 inches
Algebra.

2. Convert 34 meters to inches

From Conversion Table Conversions sometimes requires,

1 ft = 12 inches two conversion ratio

1 m = 3.28 ft
3.28ft 12in
34meters × × = 1338.24 in.
1m 1ft

3. Convert 3ft2 to m2
In Conversion of Area you can
From Conversion Table (Area):
directly use conversion ratio for
1 square meter (m2) = 10.76 ft2
Area or use conversion ratio for
length, since Area unit is (m2), you
1m2
3ft 2 × 10.76ft2 = 0.28m2 , or
just have to square the value and
the unit
Use Length Conversion
Same for Conversion of volumes,
1m = 3.28ft
you just have to cube the value and
the unit.
(1)2 m2
3ft 2 × = 0.28m2
(3.28)2 ft 2

LABORATORY EXERCISE 1
 DENSITY
Objectives:

The objective of this laboratory exercise is to learn the concept of mass density and practice
proper use of significant figures. Another aim is to become familiar with instruments to measure
length (meter stick, vernier calipers, micrometer) and to appreciate the difference between accuracy
and precision of experimental measurements.

Introduction

You will measure the density of various different substances in this experiment. As you go through
this, I hope you have a better understanding of the concepts of SIGNIFICANT FIGURES. To
succeed in this laboratory course, you must understand the concept of significant figures.

The MASS DENSITY of a body measures the amount of mass per unit volume of that body
Definition: (Density of a body) = (body's mass)/(body's volume) or D = M / V

The density of a substance is independent of the shape or the particular amount of that
substance. For example, the density of a small gold ring and the density of a large gold brick should
be the same number, i.e., the density of gold.

As part of your density calculations you will need to compute the volume of a regular solid
from its linear dimensions. The quality of your volume measurements will thus depend on how
precisely you can measure lengths. You will use three progressively more precise instruments: a
wooden “meter stick,” vernier calipers, and a micrometer. Your instructor will demonstrate how to
use each one. In each case, read the instrument to the smallest division plus one more digit by
estimation. So, a meter stick with millimeter markings can be used to estimate a length to the nearest
tenth of a millimeter, e.g., 12.4 mm, or 1.24 cm. This estimate by “eye” is often good only to ±2 or
3, as you can verify by repeating the measurement or asking your partner to do the estimating. A
vernier is an invention that removes the uncertainty in reading to the nearest tenth between adjacent
markings, thus increasing the precision of the final measurement. Your instructor will demonstrate
how this is done with the vernier model, prominently displayed in the front of the laboratory room.
On Errors and Uncertainty in a measurement:

When you work out a math computation, the numbers are usually considered exact, e.g.,
1.1 x 1.2 x 1.3 = 1.716. But when a number represents a physical measurement it is never exact
because of the limitations of the instrument used, or the way it was employed, etc. It is essential,
therefore, that each experimental result be presented in a way that indicates its reliability. A very
simple way to do this is by the use of significant figures .As an example, consider how different the
following three cases are, even though they refer to exactly the same steel block:
a) 1.1 cm x 1.2 cm x 1.3 cm = 1.7 cm 3
b) 1.13 cm x 1.20 cm x 1.29 cm = 1.75 cm 3

c) 1.127 cm x 1.195 cm x 1.293 cm = 1.741 cm 3

What is different about these three reports is the precision with which the data was measured. (By
the 10 way, all three workers used significant figures correctly.)
Now, how accurate are the results? This concept reports on how close the reported answer is to
the "accepted answer". What determines accuracy? Examples are the calibration of the measuring
instruments or systematic errors on the part of whoever is taking the data. The following somewhat
oversimplified table may be useful in thinking about these concepts:

Problem Remedy

Mistakes and blunders Repeat measurements several times to check yourself

Systematic errors Use calibrated instruments properly and carefully

Random errors Treat data statistically and report on the average

magnitude of errors

Instrumentation
Balance, metric ruler, wood blocks, metal blocks and cylinders, an aluminum block marked with
identifying letter, liquid samples and a graduated cylinder.

Procedure

Measuring the density of a block of maple wood.

Al. Familiarize yourself with the balance as you measure the mass of a maple wood block. Record
the mass of the block on the page labeled LAB 1: DATA SHEET.

A2. Measure the dimensions (length, width, thickness) of the maple wood block. Estimate to
nearest 0.01cm by interpolating between millimeter markings. Record your data on the data sheet.
11

A3. Repeat the measurements carried out in A2 and record your data on the data sheet. Repeat
the measurements again and record. Do not forget units and the use of significant figures.

A4. Perform the computations required on the data sheet and obtain the best (or average)
dimensions, volume, density and percent deviation. A5. Write your result for the density on the
blackboard under the heading "Density of Maple Wood" in a column of results provided by your
classmates. Initial your own re

Density of other Solids

Bl. You should be getting good by now at extracting maximum precision from the platform balance
and the metric scale. Follow the Data Sheet and make the necessary measurements in order to
compute the density of an aluminum block and cylinder. If time permits, continue with a brass block
or cylinder and an iron block. In each case, compute the percent deviation from the expected value.

B2. Attempt your most careful measurement on a block of aluminum. The aluminum block will be
marked with an identifying letter (A to Z). For this part of the lab exercise, do the work individually
(without a partner).

Density of Liquids
Cl. Obtain the density of water by the following procedure. Determine the mass of the DRY
graduated cylinder and record. Add about 50 cc (cubic cm) of tap water. Read and record the actual
volume of water in the graduated cylinder as precisely as you can, using the bottom of the meniscus
as your reference level. Obtain the combined mass of the graduated cylinder and water. From these
data compute the net mass of the water and, finally, the density of the water.

C2. Use the same procedure as in C1 to obtain the density of the colored alcohol solution that is
provided. CAUTION: Return all liquids to their proper containers.

LABORATORY EXERCISE 1
DENSITY DATA SHEET
Name____________________ Date:_______________ Instructor:___________________________
Partners:________________________

A) Density of wood block.

B) Density of other solids. Take all necessary data, and present both data and computed results in
tabular form below. Think about the layout of your tables, perhaps guided by the above example.
C) Density of liquids.

QUESTIONS

1. To within what percent did you show that the density of aluminum is a constant and is
independent of the shape of the sample?

2. How do substances that float in water differ from those that do not? (Hint: Name the property of
the substance you will use for the comparison.)

3. Compare your result for the density of maple wood to the average value of the density
obtained by your classmates. Your answer should be expressed as a percent deviation. Is the
spread in values on the blackboard consistent with the number of significant figures each has
reported? Give the criteria you used to answer this last question.

LABORATORY EXERCISE 2
ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE
Objectives:
The purpose of this experiment is to verify Archimedes' Principle and to determine the specific
gravity of certain substances.

Introduction
ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE states that a body, partially or completely submerged in a fluid, is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. The buoyant force B is then
expressed as the body's apparent loss of weight.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water.
An equivalent definition of this dimensionless quantity is: the ratio of the weight of a body to the
weight of an equal volume of water.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY of a chunk = Weight in air / Weight of water displaced

= Weight in air / Buoyant force
= Density of substance / Density of water

Instrumentation:
Test samples made of marble, metal and wood; balance, overflow can with spout, beaker, metal
can, 1000 cc (cm3 ) graduated cylinder, metric ruler and some thread.

Procedure

A. Measuring the specific gravity of an odd-shaped chunk of marble

Al. Measure and record the weight of a dry chunk of marble. If marble is wet, dry it with paper
towels.

NOTE: To obtain the weight of an object in the proper units (i.e., units of force) simply multiply the
mass by g, the constant acceleration due to gravity (w=mg, where m represents mass and g is a
constant equal to 9.8 m/s2 ).

A2. Measure the volume of the marble chunk by the following method. Fill the ‘overflow can with
spout’ so that an initial overflow runs out into the beaker. When the spout stops dripping, measure
and record the weight of the beaker containing the initial overflow water. Now, replace this same
beaker and gently lower the marble chunk into the overflow can. By doing so you will have collected
the additional water displaced by the chunk. The thread comes in handy in gently lowering the
marble; if you had thought of using your fingers, think again. Record the weight of the beaker with
the additional overflow water. Compute the net weight of water displaced by the chunk of marble.
From the known density of water, you can now compute the volume of the displaced water, and
thus, the volume of the marble chunk. Finally, compute the specific gravity of the marble chunk and
record the result on the DATA SHEET.

Measuring the buoyant force on a submerged object

Bl. Pick a metal sample and record the weight and type of metal. Ask for help if you cannot
distinguish the various materials from each other.

B2. Determine the apparent weight of the metal when completely immersed in water. Do this by
suspending it with thread under the left-hand side of the platform balance, while it dangles fully
immersed in the water can.

B3. Use paper towels to dry both the metal sample and your can. Now repeat procedure B2 using
the alcohol solution instead of water.

Specific gravity of a floating object (wood, in this case)

C1. Measure and record the weight and length of the block of wood.
C2. Fill the graduated cylinder with enough water so the block will float upright. Record the water
level before immersing the block.
C3. Place the block upright in the cylinder and record the water level. You can now compute the
volume and the weight of water displaced by the block.
C4. Measure the average length of the part of the block remaining ABOVE the water level and
determine the length that is submerged.
C5. You can now compute the volume of the whole block using the following proportion: Total
volume divided by submerged volume equals the total length divided by the submerged length.
C6. What is the weight of water that has a volume equal to the volume of the block; i.e. how much
water is displaced?
C7. The specific gravity of the wooden block is now just the ratio of its weight in air to the weight
of an equal volume of water.

LABORATORY EXERCISE 2
ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE DATA SHEET

Name____________________ Date:_______________ Instructor:___________________________

Partners:________________________
A. Measuring the specific gravity of a chunk of marble.

B. Measuring the buoyant force on a submerged object

C. Specific gravity of a floating object (block of wood)

 LABORATORY EXERCISE 3
MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE
Objectives:
The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to verify the constancy of acceleration of a disc rolling
down an inclined plane and to experimentally verify the equation displayed above.

Introduction
The distance d traveled by an object accelerating from rest is given by the expression

d=1/2at2

Where a is the acceleration and t is the time required for the object to travel a distance d starting
from rest.

In this experiment you will measure the time it takes an object to roll 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100
cm for two slightly different inclined plane angles. Each measurement of the time will enable you to
compute a value of the acceleration. Then, for each inclined plane, you will present all your data on
a graph of d versus the square of t. The equation above predicts that the points will fall on a straight
line of slope (a/2).

The apparatus provided is designed to generate small accelerations, so that the times for trips of a
distance of a meter or so are sufficiently long to be measured by a hand-operated clock. The effect
of gravity is decreased by using the inclined plane and by allowing the disks to roll on a thin axle.
(This trick was first realized by Galileo.)

Instrumentation:
Inclined plane, disk mounted on axle, timer.
Procedure

1. Using the inclined plane with both supports on the lab bench, make 3 determinations of the time
required for the disk to roll a distance of 20 cm starting from rest. Practice first until you can start
the disk in a repeatedly uniform fashion. Calculate the average time required for the three
determinations, the square of this time and the average acceleration. Make proper use of significant
figures and record your results on the data sheet provided.

2. Repeat for trips of 40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm and 100 cm. Compute the average of the five values of
acceleration and the average of the percent deviations.

3. Increase the angle of inclination by letting the lower support of the plane extend over the edge of
the bench. Then repeat Procedures l and II.
 LABORATORY EXERCISE 3
MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE DATA SHEET

Name____________________ Date:_______________ Instructor:___________________________

Partners:________________________

Data for smaller inclination angle:

Compute the average acceleration, = _________

Compute the average percent deviation: ___________
Data for larger inclination angle:

Compute the average acceleration, = _________

Compute the average percent deviation: ___________

 LABORATORY EXERCISE 4
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

Objectives
The objective of this Laboratory Exercise is to measure the acceleration due to gravity in this room
using the simple pendulum as a gravity sensor.

Introduction

A pendulum is called simple if all the mass is concentrated at a point at the end of a mass less
string. We get a good approximation of a simple pendulum by using a heavy “bob” of mass m
suspended by a light string. The pendulum length L is taken to be the distance from the support to
the center of the pendulum bob. The period T of a simple pendulum of length L oscillating with small
amplitude is given as:

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity: Note that the mass of the bob does not appear in the
equation. For our purposes, “small amplitude” means an angular displacement of less than 10°.
Solving the above equation for g, we find
Instrumentation:
Pendulum bob and string, sturdy support, vernier calipers, metric ruler, and electric clock

Procedure:
1. Set up the pendulum with a length of about 50 cm. On the data sheet provided record your
measured value of L. Note that L, the length of the pendulum, isthe sum of the length of the string
plus the length of the hook on the bob plus the radius of the bob. You may find the vernier calipers
useful in measuring the radius of the bob.

2. Set the pendulum swinging through small angles, and check that the pendulum support point
from which you measured L is in fact the one that the pendulum uses. If not, correct your
measurement of L in Procedure 1.

3. Measure the time required for 50 complete oscillations (oscillation is complete when the
pendulum has returned to its starting point). Then repeat this measurement of the time required for
50 oscillations twice more. Enter the results of your three measurements on the data sheet.

4. Repeat Procedure 3 for pendulums with lengths of about 1meter and 2 meters. If the support is
not tall enough to allow for a 2 meter length, get as close to 2 meters as possible. On the data sheet,
record the actual length, L, measured for each pendulum.
5. For each pendulum length, compute the average period, T, for the oscillations. Then complete
the remaining columns on data sheet for each pendulum length.

6. Average the three determinations of g that you have now completed. Write this value in the table
on the blackboard, along with your initials. To within what percent is your result in agreement with
the accepted value?
 LABORATORY EXERCISE 4
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM DATA SHEET

Name____________________ Date:_______________ Instructor:___________________________

Partners:________________________

Computed average value of g: __________

Accepted value of g = 9.80 m/sec2 = 980 cm/sec2

Percent deviation: __________

 LABORATORY EXERCISE 5
HEAT EXCHANGE

Objectives
The object of this Laboratory Exercise is to study the law of heat exchange by the method of
mixtures and to apply the law of heat exchange to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal.

Introduction

When bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact, heat energy is transferred until a
common, or equilibrium, temperature is reached. Since heat is a form of energy, it can be neither
created nor destroyed in the process. The total heat of a system remains constant, but it may take
on different forms. This principle of heat energy transfer can be stated as follows:

THE AMOUNT OF HEAT GAINED BY THE INITIALLY COLDER BODY IS EQUAL TO THE
AMOUNT OF HEAT LOST BY THE INITIALLY HOTTER BODY.

We introduce a quantity called the specific heat capacity, c. The specific heat of a substance is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass one degree Celsius. The
amount of heat (Q) required raising the temperature of a substance of mass m and specific heat c
through a temperature difference "T is given by the equation:

The specific heat capacity of a substance is in fact fairly specific to that substance, and is
independent of its temperature. For instance, the specific heat capacity of water is 1.00
calorie/gram °C.
Instrumentation:
Two thermometers, calorimeter, glass beaker, hot and cold running water, double boiler, metal
pellets and platform balance with weights.

Procedure

When taking the temperature of a liquid, first stir thoroughly, and then read the thermometer
carefully to the nearest tenth of a degree.

A1. Record the mass and specific heat capacity of the inner calorimeter can and stirrer on the
LAB 7: DATA SHEET. Fill this can about one-third full of cold tap water. Measure the total mass of
the inner calorimeter can, stirrer and water. Determine the mass of the cold water. Now,
reassemble the calorimeter and insert the thermometer and the stirrer into the calorimeter.

A2. Fill the glass beaker half full of hot tap water. Let the tap run a while so you get really hot
water. Warning: Hot water burns are dangerous.

A3. Stir the cold water in the calorimeter thoroughly, and record its temperature. Stir the hot water
in the beaker well and record its temperature. Immediately after recording these temperatures,
pour the hot water into the calorimeter until it is about two thirds full. Cover at once, stir vigorously
for about 15 seconds and read the temperature of the mixture within the next few seconds. The
idea is to read the temperatures before heat loss to the environment becomes a factor that will
affect the accuracy of your data and computation.

A4. Determine the mass of the calorimeter (with stirrer) and water whose final temperature you
obtained in A3.

A5. Perform the computations requested on the data sheet. Note that in determining the heat
gained, you need to do two computations - one for the cold water, and one for the calorimeter can
and stirrer.

B1. Begin heating the water in the double boiler. Fill the boiler cup about two-thirds full with dry
aluminum pellets. Insert a thermometer in contact with the pellets and cork the opening closed.
You will have to heat up the dry aluminum pellets to about 95 °C.

B2. While the metal is heating, prepare the inner calorimeter can by filling it about two-thirds full
of cold tap water. Try to get a water temperature several degrees below room temperature, using
ice if necessary. The outside of the can should be dry, or that extra water will introduce an error.

B3. When the aluminum pellets are close to 95 °C, record the actual temperature of the pellets
and the temperature of the cold water. Then, carefully add the pellets to the calorimeter water. (Be
careful not to splash.) Replace the calorimeter cover, stir well, and record the highest temperature
to which the water and pellet mixture rises.

B4. Measure the mass of the calorimeter can with stirrer and all contents. Record the value on
the data sheet. Complete all the required computations.
 LABORATORY EXERCISE 5
HEAT EXCHANGE DATA SHEET

Name____________________ Date:_______________ Instructor:___________________________

Partners:________________________

PROCEDURE A

Specific heat of the calorimeter (inner can and stirrer):

Mass of the calorimeter inner can and stirrer:

Mass of calorimeter inner can and stirrer and cold tap water:

Compute the mass of the cold tap water:

Temperature of the cold water: Temperature of the hot water:

Equilibrium temperature of the stirred hot and cold water (now tepid):

Mass of the calorimeter, stirrer and tepid water:

Compute the mass of the tepid water:

Compute the mass of the hot water you added:

Increase in the temperature of the cold water:

Decrease in the temperature of the hot water

Heat gained by the cold water: Heat gained by the calorimeter can and stirrer:

Total heat gained by the cold system: Heat lost by the hot water:
Heat unaccounted for (difference in the two computations above):

To what percent have you verified the conservation of energy in your experiment, i.e., the heat
unaccounted for is what percent of the (average) heat transferred in your experiment?

______________%

PROCEDURE B

Mass of the calorimeter (inner can and stirrer) from Part A:

Combined mass of calorimeter and cold water:

Compute the mass of cold water alone:

Temperature of cold water: Temperature of the hot metal pellets:

Highest temperature reached by mixture:

Mass of the calorimeter with the final contents:

Compute the mass of the aluminum pellets alone:

Compute the temperature change of the pellets:

Write an expression for the heat lost by the pellets in terms of the unknown specific heat capacity,
Change in temperature of the calorimeter and cold water:

Mass of the calorimeter (inner can and stirrer) from Part A:

Specific heat capacity of the calorimeter (can and stirrer):

Heat gained by the calorimeter alone:

Heat gained by the cold water alone:

Heat gained by the calorimeter and water:

Compute experimentally determined specific heat of the pellets:

Correct specific heat of the pellets (ask Lab Instructor):

Percent deviation between computed and correct values: ______________%

References

Arneson (2015) Conversion of Unit Photo, Mrs.Arnesonblog.com

http://mrsarnesonmath.blogspot.com/2012_02_05_archive.html

Hunter University (1998, July) Physics Laboratory 101

http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/physics/courses/physics-
101/repository/files/PHYS%20101%20Lab%20manual.pdf

More H. (2020, March 3) System of Units

https://thefactfactor.com/facts/pure_science/physics/system-of-
units/9316/#:~:text=A%20system%20of%20units%20is,an%20absolute%20system%20of
%20units.

My Career Tool (n.d ) “What is Physics for Engineers?”

https://mycareertools.com/what-does-a-physics-engineer-do/

Petrov Y.(2015) Conversion of Units, Math10.com

https://www.math10.com/author.html