Vedic Age

1500 BCE- 600 BCE

Overview
• The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 BCE. Consequently, their
economic and administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period, the Aryans
entered the north-west India probably from the Indo-Iranian region. The word ‘Arya’
means ‘noble’.
• Aryans migrated to India in several waves through the passes in the northwestern
mountains. Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a
secondary occupation. We know about the Aryans from the Rig Veda. Aryan names also
appear in Kassite inscriptions of about 1600 BCE from Iraq and in Mitanni inscriptions of
the 14th century BCE from Syria.
• They initially settled in the valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later,
they moved into the Indo-Gangetic plains. They led a nomadic life and were mainly in
search of pastures. By 6th century BCE, they occupied the whole of North India, which
was referred to as Aryavarta.
• The period between 1500 BCE and 600 BCE may be divided into:
• The Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BCE–1000 BCE)
• The Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE–600 BCE)
Original Home of the Aryans

• The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and different scholars have
identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans.
• Some historians say that the original home of the Aryans was Central Asia.
• A c c o r d i n g t o B a l Gangadhar Tilak, Aryans original ly inhabited Siberia, but due to
the falling temperature, they had to leave Siberia for greener pastures.
• The other view is that their original home was in southern Russia (near the Caspian Sea)
or in the Southeast Europe (in Austria and Hungary). From there, they had migrated to
the European countries, Persia and India.

• However, the theory of southern Russia appears to be more probable and widely accepted
by historians. From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe. They
entered India in about 1500 BCE and came to be known as Indo-Aryans. They spoke the
Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Tribal Conflicts

• The first group of Aryans fought against the Dravidians and other inhabitants whom they
defeated and are supposed to have been pushed down towards south India. The enemies
were described by Aryans as Panis and Dasas. The Panis were cattle-thieves. Dasas were
held to be inferior because of their dark skin and flat facial features. The word Dasa later
came to denote a slave.
• The term dasyuhatya (slaughter of the dasyus) is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
However, the Aryans also fought among themselves and thus many intra-tribal conflicts
were common among the Aryan communities.
The country, ‘Bharatvarsha’ is named after the Bharata tribe, which is mentioned in the
Rig Veda. The famous Battle of Ten Kings or the Dasrajan Yudha was fought between the
tribe Bharatas, led by king Sudas and the Confederacy of the other ten tribes – Puru, Yadu,
Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin. The former five are
said to be Aryan tribes while the latter five are said to be Non-Aryan tribes. The Bharatas
emerged victorious in the battle which was fought on the banks of river Parushni (present
Ravi).
Vedic Literature

• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means ‘to know’. In other words, the term ‘Veda’
signifies wisdom, knowledge or vision. There are four Vedas and Rig Veda was composed in the early Vedic
period while the other three Vedas were written in the later Vedic period.
The Rig Veda: It is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of ten mandalas or books and 1028 hymns.
The hymns were sung in praise of Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other Gods. It contains the famous
Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas, i. e., Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra were born
respectively from the mouth, arms, thighs and the feet of the Creator. The universally famous Gayatri mantra
(Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.
The Sama Veda: It is a collection of melodies. It contains stanzas taken from the Rig Veda and set to the tune
for the purpose of singing. Samaveda is important in tracing the history of Indian music.
The Yajur Veda: It consists of not only hymns, but also rituals that have to accompany their recitation.
Various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice are mentioned in this Veda. The rituals reflect
the social and political milieu in which they arose. There are two main texts of the Yajurveda: Shukla
Yajurveda or Vajasaneyi (Madhyandina and Kanva) and Krishna-Yajurveda (Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani
and Kapisthal).
• The Atharva Veda: It contains details of rituals. It also contains charms and spells to ward off evils and
diseases. The content of this Veda also throws light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans.
•
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)

• During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined to the Indus region. The Rig
Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of
Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswati. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people can be traced from
the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization

• Early Vedic age had a tribal polity in which the tribal chief led wars (for cattle) and was also a
protector of the entire group. Instead of a standing army, the entire village participated in wars.
Kingship was hereditary. The king or the chief enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe.
He was required to be ‘Indra’ in valour, ‘Mitra’ in kindness and ‘Varuna’ in virtues.
Administrative Divisions
The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family or kula. A number of
families bound together by kinship ties of blood formed a clan.
The ‘grama’ consisted of several families. It was under a headman known as ‘gramani’. Several
villagers formed a ‘vis’. It was placed under a ‘visapati’. He was a military leader.
• A group of ‘vishes’ formed a ‘jana’ (tribe) whose members were bound together by real or
supposed ties of kinship. ‘Gopa’ was the head of one ‘jana’.
• Several janas formed a ‘janapada’ or ‘kingdom’. The ‘Rajan’ or the king was the head of the
Janapada. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period, such as Bharatas,
Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
•
Administration

• The tribal chief or the Rajan was at the centre of the administrative machinery of the Aryans.
In the work of administration, the king was assisted by a number of functionaries like the
Purohita (priest), the Senani (General of the Army), the Gramani (village headman) and the
spsa (spies). Purohita was the most important officer of the state.
The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but during times of war he mustered
militias. The military element was strong in the tribal system of the government. The army mainly
consisted of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariot warriors). The weapons used by the soldiers
were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of iron. The soldiers
were organised into units known as Sardha, Vrata and Gana.
• We do not come across any officer responsible for tax collection. There was a very limited role
for collection of regular tax as the economy was mainly pastoral and not food producing.
• However, bali, the voluntary offerings from the people, was probably received by the chiefs.
Presents and spoils of war were perhaps distributed among some Vedic assemblies.
• There was no special officer for justice. But spies were employed to keep an eye on theft or
burglary.
• Vrajapati was the officer who enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground.
• He led Gramanis to the battle. Gradually Gramani became identical to Vrajapati.
Popular Assemblies

• The Aryans had their own folk assembly known as Vidhata meant for the economic, social
and military purpose. Though the king enjoyed substantial power, yet he was not an
autocrat. In the work of administration, he consulted two bodies and acted according to
their decision. These were:
• Sabha: It was a select body of elders and advised the king on administration. It also
functioned as a court of law and tried criminal cases. The head of the sabha was known
as ‘Sabhapati’.
• Samiti: It was the most popular assembly and included common people. The Samiti
mainly dealt with the political business of the state. It also used to elect the king. The
head of Samiti was known as ‘Pati’.
•
Society

Kinship was the basis of the social structure and the identity of the man was decided by
his clan. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe or jana.
• There are indications which point towards the consciousness of physical appearance
among the people. Varna was the term used for colour which provided the identity mark
for the social orders. Rig Veda mentions arya and dasa varna.
• It seems that Aryan people were fair in colour while the indigenous population were dark.
The dasas and the dasyus conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves.
• Slaves and mainly women slaves meant for domestic purposes, were given as gifts to
priests.
• Social inequality in the tribes emerged as tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a large
share of booty at the cost of their kinsmen. Gradually, the society came to be divided into
three groups – warriors, priests and the people.
• However, differentiation of society based on occupation was not very sharp. The society
was largely tribal and egalitarian.
Family

• The family was patriarchal and was regarded as the social and the political unit. The
father was the head of the family and he was known as “grihapati”.
• Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and
noble families. There are few indications of polyandry. There are also indications of
matrilineal traces. The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major
ceremonies.
• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual
development. There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Lopamudra and
Gargi during the Rig Vedic period.
• Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child marriage and the
practice of sati was absent. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17.
• Women could offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
• Widow remarriage and the practice of levirate was present in the Rig Vedic society.
Clothing

• The Aryans wore dresses made from cotton, wool and deer skin.
• The garments consisted of three parts—an undergarment called ‘Nivi’, a garment called
‘Vasa’ or ‘Paridhan’ and a mantle known as ‘adhivasa’.
• Both men and women wore gold ornaments. The women used earrings, necklace, bangles
and anklets.
Food

• Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were
the chief articles of food.
• Fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food.
• Slaughter of the cow was prohibited since it was considered a sacred animal. People also
drank intoxicating liquor, “Sura”.
Caste System

In the early Vedic age, there was no caste system. Instead, they were divided into classes.
• Member of the same family could pursue different occupations, arts, crafts and trades
and could change it at will. There was hardly any restriction in intermarriage and change
of occupation.
Education
• There were Gurukulas which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread
ceremony. Entire instruction was given orally.
• The disciples were taught about ethics, art of warfare, art of metal and concept of Brahma
and philosophy, and basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts.
Economic Condition
• The Aryans did not live in cities, but possibly in a kind of fortified mud settlements.
Painted Grey Ware has been found in the Bhagwanpura and other sites in Punjab, along
with late Harappan pottery.
Later Vedic Age 1000-600 BCE

• The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the
dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes
went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance
of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. 500 B.C.E. onward, more or less seamlessly
blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources.
Kingdoms

• The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the 16 Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature.
The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one
ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed
sacrifices like rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance
over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice).
• The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries, in addition to the purohita and
the senani, took part. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such
was greatly decreased.
• Although the Vedas are not widely studied in contemporary India except by scholars, they continue to impact
on many aspects of life, especially on ethics and on obligations within the family and society. Many aspects of
Hindu practice is still derived from or taken wholly from the Vedas. One definition of a Hindu is someone
who reveres the Vedas, even if they have little else in common.
Connectedness
• The possibility that the ancient world was a more inter-connected world, with links stretching across several
continents, may also merit scholarly investigation. An inter-connected world may also have been an inter-
dependence world.
• The development of human civilization as the result of the mixing and mingling of ideas across geo-political
borders weakens race-based claims that some ethnic groups.
• have contributed more than others to this process. Some argue in favor of an ancient global civilization that
stretched around the world, offering this as an explanation of similarities in architecture, technology and
myth; "The fact that the standardized mythos and ritual are found in detail around the world begs the
explanation of at least one such global civilizations long ago" and according to one writer such similarities are
more similar the further back we go.
Later Vedic Society

• The greatest change which the later Vedic period saw in the Aryan society was the rise of the rigid caste
system. It destroyed the values of human equality of the earlier days and created distinction between man and
man.
• Cast System: It was natural that there should be different kinds of works in any society at any time. Generally,
the people were required to perform four sets of duties. Some were bound to perform worships, prayers and
religious rites. The second group of men had to learn arts of warfare to fight battles against the enemies or the
invaders.
• The third set of people were called upon to cultivate lands, carry on trade and commerce and to produce
necessary goods for the need of the society. The fourth group of people had to perform various social-service
works from sweeping or cleaning to other works of personal needs. Any man could do any such work
according to his own free choice or ability.
• In course of time, these four main works led to the rise of four main castes. Those who performed religious
duties formed the priestly caste known as the Brahmana. Those who fought battles formed the warrior class
called the Kshatriya. Those who looked to agriculture, trade or other productive works came to be known as
the Vaisya. And finally, those who performed social and menial services to the society formed the lowest caste
and were called the Sudra.
Sub Castes
• The supreme tragedy of this division of labour was that the castes became hereditary. The son of a Kshatriya,
even if learned, could not be a Brahmana. The son of a Sudra, even if brave, could not be a Kshatriya.
• Secondly, the Brahmana and the Kshatriya regarded themselves as higher classes, and made a monopoly of
social privileges. They looked down upon the other classes. Inter-marriage among the castes stopped.
• Two more evils followed. First, some castes broke into several subcastes. For example, among the Vaisya
caste, several divisions rose up according to hereditary professions. Cultivators, merchants, smiths,
carpenters, and artisans formed distinct castes. The Sudras were also divided into many sections.
• Secondly, the Sudras, because of their menial works, came to be regarded as impure. The upper castes needed
their services in most matters, but denied them many social privileges. The non-Aryan tribes who were taken
into society became the members of the Sudra caste. That also was a reason for considering the Sudras as
inferior.
• The caste system became more and more rigid. The evils of inequality became more painful to the lower
castes. A time therefore came when Buddhism and Jainism appeared as strong movements against such evils.
Women
• During the later Vedic age, the women also lost their earlier status. Polygamy or marrying several wives by
man became a social vice.
• The higher castes practiced this system because of their wealth. Child marriage also appeared. Dowry system
was practiced. Women gradually lost their right to property.
• Of course, the women still enjoyed their equal position with men in religious matters. They still received
education and could show their talent.
• Celebrated women like Gargi and Maitreyi showed their merit in the spheres of highest learning. On the
whole, the Later Vedic Society became the forerunner of the social systems of the future Hindu India.
Later Vedic Political Organization

• As the Aryan expansion continued, the size of the states became larger and larger. With this, the power of the
king grew more and more. The administration of the kingdom also became more elaborate. The kings of the
later Vedic period ruled their subjects almost as absolute masters. They could set aside the advice of the
Brahmins or Priests. They established their rights to take tributes from the people. Their power to punish
(Danda) became unlimited.
• Powerful kings adopted pompous titles. The most powerful ones wanted to be the sole ruler or the Ekarat or
Samrat and, lord of the earth or Sarvabhauma. To establish their greatness they performed ceremonies like the
Rajasuya and the Ashvamedha.
• The kings came from the race of the warriors or the Kshatriya. His officers were many. Sachiva or minister,
Samgrahitri or treasurer, Suta or charioteer, and Bhagadugha or tax collector were among his noted officers,
besides the Purohita and Senani of the earlier days. With the growth of the king’s power, the power of the
‘Sakha’ and ‘Samiti’ of the earlier days began to decline.
• In spite of the growth of royal power, however, the later Vedic kings were not autocrats. They paid respect to
superiors and seers. They took oath to protect people as well as the laws of the land. They upheld the
traditional virtues and standards of morality. They restrained themselves in fear of sins and of the curses of the
Brahmanas.
Later Vedic Religion

• During the later Vedic period, much of the simplicity of the Rig-Veda religion was lost. The hold of the
priestly class became more absolute. The priests developed complicated modes of worship. Sacrifices became
more common. The rites and rituals became more difficult. Superstitions entered in the name of religion. Fear
of evil spirits and witches came in. Philosophical and theological speculations became more complex.
• In spite of such developments, the later Vedic sages laid greater emphasis on the faith in the Supreme Being,
the Absolute. The concept of the Param Brahma or the Paramatma dominated the man’s mind. The supreme
gods like Vishnu or Siva were paid greater devotion.
• The later Vedic period produced many religious doctrines to influence the Indian thought forever. The
doctrine of Karma or results according to deeds, Maya or illusion, Mukti or the supreme release, Janmantara
or the transmigration of souls etc. made deep impact on the Aryan mind.
• The individual soul or Jiva came from the universal soul or Brahman and could go back to that origin. This
was possible through the most correct ways of life and thought. Tat Tvam Asi or That Thou Art- it was the
identification of the individual Atman with the universal Atman.
• The Supreme goal of life was the Moksha or the liberation when the individual soul was absorbed in the
universal soul. Thus, on one side, there developed deep spiritual ideas in the later Vedic age which had no
parallel elsewhere in the world. On the other side, deep-rooted superstitions began to dominate the mind of
the common man making religious practices mostly meaningless. Amid such developments future Hinduism
was beginning to take its shape.
Economic Life

• In the later Vedic age, the economic activities of the Aryans grew greatly. The population began to increase
and so also the number of Aryan settlements. New kinds of works and efforts appeared side by side. New
means of livelihood were discovered and developed.
• Agriculture :
• The Aryans became more concerned with the progress of agriculture. In the fertile soil of the Gangetic valley
they cultivated many types of crops. They improved the modes of cultivation. For example, for using heavy
ploughs in fields, they even engaged as many as 24 bullocks in each plough. The Aryans learnt more and
more about the use of different metals. They made different types of weapons, ornaments, agricultural
implements, various tools for work and other equipment’s.
Trade and Commerce

• With the expansion of Aryan settlements and the rise of bigger kingdoms, roads and communication systems
began to develop. As a result, the volume of trade and commerce increased. It is known from the Atharva
Veda that there were different types of roads in those days. There were ordinary paths for walking, wider
roads for bullock carts, and better roads for swift-running chariots.
• The traders and merchants carried their goods to distant places for better communication facilities. Side by
side, travel by boats in rivers became more common. Trade relation between distant places on the river banks
developed rapidly. Both by land and water routes, the merchants carried on their economic activities. It was
during this time that the Aryan traders ventured into the seas for external trade. This was a notable feature of
the later Vedic age.
Cottage Industry

• It was during the later Vedic age that the Aryans improved the art of weaving to a remarkable extent. Various
types of costly and attractive dresses and clothes were made to meet the new social demands. As the people
became richer, there were greater demands for gold ornaments. Goldsmiths of that time were more advanced
in their profession than in earlier times. They made ornaments in new designs and in good many number. The
art of pottery also developed. The blacksmiths, too, enlarged the scope of their work to meet new demands.
• We have regarded our nation as our Motherland "Bharat Mata" and our patriotism has grown up from the seed
Mantra "Vande Mataram". Position of ladies in the public eye is the list to the standard of social association.
In antiquated India lady delighted in break even with status with man in all fields of life, she got a similar
instruction like man, numerous Hindu religious books like Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata have
said the names of a few ladies who were incredible researchers, artists and logicians of the time. Spouse was
viewed as „Ardhangini‟ which implies she is half of her significant other. An unmarried man was thought to
be inadequate man. All religious functions were performed by the spouse alongside the wife. The position of
ladies in modem India has changed significantly. Her position in present day India is equivalent to that of
men, socially, financially, instructively, politically and legitimately. Her sufferings from Sati, Pardah System,
Dowry System and Child Marriage do never again exist.
The Epic Age

• It was the epic age in which the Aryan tribes established themselves all over North India. The land between
the Himalayas and Narmada River was divided into 16 independent states. Information about the socio-
religious life of the people is derived from the two great epics of this period—the Mahabhamta and the
Ramayana.
• The victory of good over evil is epitomised in the epic Ramayana (The Travels of Rama or Ram in the
preferred modem form) while another epic, Mahabhamta (Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata), spells
out the concept of dharma and duty.
• The Mahabhamta records the feud between the Aryan cousins the Pandavas and the Kauravas, which
culminated in an epic battle in which both gods and mortals from tnanC lands allegedly, fought to death. The
Ramayana recounts the kidnapping of Sita. Rama’s wife, by Ravana, the demonic king of Lanka (Sri Lanka),
her rescue by her husband (aided by Hanuman and the Vanar Sena) and Rama’s coronation leading to a period
of prosperity und justice.
Ramayana
• Originally, the Ramayana included 12,000 verses. With the passage of time, the number of verses was raised
to 24,000. Just like the Mahabharata, me Ramayana also grew by accumulation as the time passed through
many years. Its development started nearly by 300 BC and continued for the around next 500 years.
The Mahabharata

• It is believed that the composition of the Mahabharata began as early as 500 BC. Its development went on for
the next 900 years. Finally, it reached its present form nearly by 400 AD, under the rule of the Gupta rulers.
Originally, it was of Kshatriyan origin; however, over the years it became specifically a Brahman work.
• It grew in an accumulative manner and is clear from the fact that its authors name has been given as Vyasa,
meaning ‘arranger’ in Sanskrit.
• Initially, the epic Mahabharata was a description of a feud between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, two
prominent Aryan tribes. Both the tribes claimed to be the descendents of the mighty Bharata.
• Therefore, they were known as the Maha Bharata or Great Bharata tribes. It gave the epic Its name. It is from
Bharata that the modern name of India has been derived Perhaps the Mahabharata was the earliest Indian
endeavour to write history.
• Its significance as a historical source is still to be critically examined despite the fact that scholars agree that
the basis of the epic story is based on facts. The epic is useful for rebuilding the social and cultural history of
the era. Originally, the epic had had 8,800 verses and it was named as JayaSamhita. These verses increased to
24 000 and were renamed as Bharata. Its final compilation raised the number of verses to 100,000 and it came
to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita.