Writing Skills
Writing Skills
Writing Skills
Writing Skills
Robert Todd Carroll
Student Success Guide Writing Skills
1990 by Robert T. Carroll. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form or by any means, including electronic storage and retrieval, or translated into a
foreign language without prior agreement and written consent from the author as governed
by United States and International Copyright Law.
e-mail rtc@skepdic.com
Author: Robert Todd Carroll
Website: The Skeptics Dictionary at www.skepdic.com
Other books by Robert T. Carroll
The Common-Sense Philosophy of Religion of Bishop Edward Stillingfleet, 1635-
1699. (1975). (International Archives of the History of Ideas / archives
internationales d'histoire des ides). Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague
Student Success Guide: Study Skills (1990).
www.skepdic.com/refuge/studyskills1.pdf
The Skeptics Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions,
and Dangerous Delusions. (2003). Wiley and Sons.
Becoming a Critical Thinker A Guide for the New Millennium. (2005). 2
nd
edition. Pearson Custom Publishing.
Preface
The Student Success Guide: Writing Skills is a companion to the Student Success Guide: Study
Skills book. The purpose of each is to provide a systematic approach to learning the skills needed by every
successful student. The study skills text focuses on vocabulary building, time management, listening and
concentration, reading and studying textbooks, taking notes, reviewing and preparing for tests. The writing skills
text focuses on building those skills needed by the college student to fulfill typical writing assignments.
The Student Success Guides may be used independently by the student who wishes to improve his or
her chances of success in humanities and social science courses. The books could also be used as the sole text
in a College Success course or as an adjunct text in an English or Humanities course.
The driving idea behind the Student Success Guides is that methodical and purposive studying is the
most effective and efficient. I don't claim that my methods are the only ones. In fact, I can't even call them my
methods, since I have taken the work and suggestions of many people and applied them as I saw fit.
To do well in college the student does not have to be an excellent writer, but a certain competence is
expected and is essential. This text is designed to help the student develop sufficient writing competency to
produce papers and exams acceptable in any college level course.
Robert T. Carroll
Sacramento City College
May 1990
Acknowledgment and dedication. For the first half of my teaching career at Sacramento City College I
was fortunate to have had Les Read as my colleague in the philosophy department. Les was one of my
closest friends until his sudden death at age 48. Ed Stupkawho taught college success classesLes,
and I spent many fruitful hours discussing, arguing, and evaluating various teaching techniques and ideas.
Without their insights and criticisms, this guide would not have been written.
The Los Rios Community College Board of Trustees granted me a sabbatical leave in the spring of
1986 to complete this project.
STUDENT SUCCESS GUIDE: WRITING SKILLS
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 WRITING - BASIC CHECKLIST 2
Exercise 1 - Writing : Checking the Basics 3
2. ELEMENTS OF SATISFACTORY WRITING 4
2.1 CLARITY 4
Exercise 2 - Clarity in Writing 6
2.2 COHERENT AND FOCUSED WRITING 7
2.2.1 TITLES 8
2.2.2 INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPHS 9
Exercise 3 - Checking Titles & Introductions 11
2.2.3 BODY PARAGRAPHS 13
Exercise 4 - Checking Points & Support 15
2.2.4 TRANSITIONS 16
Exercise 5 - Checking Transitions 18
2.2.5 CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH 18
Exercise 6 - Checking Conclusions 18
2.2.6 WRITING ESSAYS - A CHECKLIST 19
2.3 A METHOD FOR WRITING ESSAYS 20
Exercise 7 - Grouping Ideas 25
Exercise 8 - Listing, Grouping & Outlining 30
2.3.1 SUMMARY - USING THE SLOOWER METHOD 32
2.4 WRITING THE IN-CLASS ESSAY 33
2.4.1 PREPARING FOR THE EXAM 33
2.4.2 WRITING THE ESSAY 33
2.4.3 SUMMARY : WRITING THE IN-CLASS ESSAY 35
2.5 GENERAL WRITING TIPS 36
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 1-6 38
1
1. INTRODUCTION
ithout a doubt, the most
important invention in human
historv is writing. lt provides a
relativelv permanent record of
information, opinions, beliefs,
feelings, arguments, explanations, theories,
etc. Writing allows us to share our
communication not onlv with our
contemporaries, but also with future
generations. lt permits people from the near
and far-distant past to speak to us. Whv then,
given all of the beautv and benefits of writing,
do so manv students hate it'
Part of the distaste for writing must be
accounted for bv the associations students
make with it. Writing is often taught in such a
wav that student failures, rather than
successes, are focused on. 1he writing process
is learned, bv and large, in an environment of
constant criticism and repeated failure.
Creative use of language, inventive thinking,
and critical reasoning often evoke not praise
but hostilitv. Some teachers even use writing
as a form of punishment. ln addition, manv
students remember their earliest writing
experiences as involving dull or irrelevant
topics (similar to their first reading
experiences).
lurthermore, manv students were never
required to learn proper spelling or grammar.
1hese poor students come to think that
"lnglish" and "writing" are nothing but spelling
and grammar. 1o them, writing means
inevitable failure. Oood writing is something
thev believe thev will never be able to achieve,
because thev not onlv identifv good writing
with proper spelling and grammar, but thev are
governed bv the self-serving and false notion
that thev can't learn how to spell correctlv or
how to construct grammaticallv correct
sentences.
However, good writing is not equivalent to
good spelling and grammar. ln fact, there will
be no advice or instruction in those areas here.
1his text presupposes that the student knows
both that correct spelling is expected and how
to find the correct spelling of anv word. lt also
presupposes that knowledge of a language's
grammar and correct word usage are necessarv
conditions for good writing in that language.
ln short, this text assumes that the student
knows:
(1) how to properlv construct a sentence,
(2) that subjects and verbs must agree in
number (singular subjects require singular
verbs, plural subjects require plural verbs),
(3) that the reference of pronouns should
not be ambiguous,
(1) that there should be consistencv of
person and tense in writing (no shifts from first
to third person writing or from present tense
to past tense writing, unless there is a verv
good reason to do so), and
(5) that correct spelling, punctuation,
capitalization and word usage are required.
2
WRITING - BASIC CHECKLIST
Before turning in a writing assignment, go through this basic checklist.
1. Is every sentence complete, not a fragment?
2. Do the subject and predicate agree in number in each sentence?
3. Is every word spelled correctly?
4. Are sentences punctuated correctly?
5. Are words capitalized properly?
6. Does each pronoun unambiguously refer to its antecedent?
7. Do you stay in the same tense and person throughout?
8. Are all words used correctly?
3
XRCIS 1. CHCKINC TH BASICS
Use the WRl1lNO - BASlC CHlCKllS1 to check the following essav. Correct anv errors.
Check vour corrections against the corrected version printed in the ANSWlRS 1
lXlRClSlS, pages 3o-39.
CAPl1Al PUNlSHMlN1
1hroughout historv the question of capitol punishment has been a cause of much
controversv. l believe that capital punishent is not moralv justifvable on the grounds that it is
immoral to kill a human being. And, the affect of killing criminals is too encourage violence.
1hose in favor of capital punishment claim that it is a deterant to crime. 1hev also logicallv
claim that it help to alleviate the over-crowded situation in most fedral and state institutions.
Another often heard defense is that executing criminals could of saved the taxpavers manv
dollars that could of been spent on food, shelter and clothing during a lifetime sentence.
1heir has actuallv been little to substantiate the deterant theorv because few criminals
consider getting caught when planning an illegal action. 1he theorv is, for the most part, archaic
and irrevalent to the question of capital punishment. lt is, in fact, another question in it's self.
While it is true that are penal institution our over-crowded, this is not a reason to kill people.
lf this logic is excepted, it would be permissible to kill three quarters of New York citv. Crowded
conditions and criminal punishment should not be confused with each other. 1hevr'e seperate
problems whose existance indicates that there is to much confusion.
As to the third claim, that much monev would be saved, l ask vou to value the worth of a
dead man. While it is true that the criminal who has been executed will no longer commit
crimes, a person who is helped to become a useful citizen can become quite viable.
lt is true, that there mav be incorigable people, who manv people will think should be killed:
but that person has the same right as evervone else. He need, perhaps, more help than
others--but l do not believe that its reallv a sound reason to kill him--or having him killed. 1he
hole of societv is effected in a bad wav when we start killing in the name of law and order. 1he
countries attitude better start changing or we'll all be in a mess.
lf it is wrong to kill one man, its twice as wrong to kill two.
1
2. LMNTS OI SATISIACTORY
WRITINC
o one likes to be reminded of
their shortcomings or failures.
Constant criticism isn't good for
the ego or self-confidence.
Checking vour writing for
correct sentence structure, mechanics, word
usage, spelling, punctuation and
capitalization--and making the needed
corrections--will reduce the amount of adverse
criticism vou'll receive on vour writing
assignments. lverv writing assignment done at
home ought to be nearlv error-free.
Writing in class, without the benefit of
surplus time, dictionaries, writing texts, and
the like poses special problems for some
students. Some teachers allow students to use
dictionaries during exams. lf vour teacher
allows this, make sure vou bring vour
dictionarv to school on the dav of the test. (lt
is a good idea to carrv a small dictionarv with
vou while at school.)
lf, however, vou are unable to write
basicallv proper and correct in-class
assignments, then vou should not enroll in a
course which requires a significant amount of
in-class writing. You will need to work on vour
basic writing skills before vou attempt such a
course. (Most likelv, vou will need to enroll in
a developmental writing course.)
Assuming that vou are able to write
basicallv proper and correct in-class
assignments, there are still three elements vou
should check before turning in anv written
assignment: CLARlTY, COHLRLNCL anJ
IOCLS.
Most student writing failures in
mainstream (i.e., non-developmental)
courses are due to lack of claritv, coherence
and/or focus.
You do not need to become an excellent
writer in order to do well on writing
assignments in vour non-lnglish courses. But
vou must be able to write well enough to
communicate to vour teachers that vou
understand vour assignments and have learned
the material. However, vou can't demonstrate
what vou know if vou can't focus on a subject
and write clearlv and coherentlv about it.
2.1 CLARITY
Insufficient claritv mav be due to
vagueness, ambiguitv or obscuritv.
Vagueness is usuallv a matter of using a word
or expression whose meaning is not precise or
definite enough. Referring to a philosophical
argument as 'stupid', without explaining in
what wav the argument fails, would be an
example of vague writing. ften, qualitative
terms are vague. lor example, we all want to
get rid of 'ncompetent' teachers, but just what
is meant bv 'incompetent teacher'' r, we
want to get rid of the 'jat' in government, but
just what is meant bv 'fat''
ften, too, quantitative expressions
regarding amounts, dates, times, etc. are
vague, e.g., 'not very much monev will be
needed to build a new national defense
svstem'. (]ust how much is 'not verv much'')
ften, a good example or illustration will
reduce or eliminate vagueness. With
auanttatve terms, however, the best wav to
reduce or eliminate vagueness is to substitute
the vague expression with one which is more
precise. With qualitative terms it will usuallv
be necessarv to provide a precsng Jejnton,
i.e., a list of conditions which an item must
fulfill to have the term correctlv applied to it.
Ambiguitv occurs when a word or
5
expression is used in such a wav that it can
be understood in more than one wav.
Ambiguitv is usuallv a matter of carelessness
and often involves using a pronoun whose
referent is unclear. lor example, "laws involve
commands, duties and sanctions. 1hev are
interrelated." lt is not clear what 'thev' refers
to. ften, the onlv wav to eliminate pronoun
reference ambiguitv is to not use the pronoun.
l.g. "laws involve the interrelated concepts of
commands, duties and sanctions" (rather than
the two sentences used in the previous
example).
Sometimes it is not what a word refers to
that is unclear, but what sense the word has in
a particular context. lor example, if a sign bv a
lake said IIN IOR IISHINC would it mean
that the fishing is good or that it is lawful to
fish or that it is not lawful to fish' Usuallv the
context makes it clear what sense of a word is
intended. lf it doesn't, then the ambiguous
expression ought to be exchanged for one that
is clear. (l.g., "$2O line for lishing" or "lawful
to lish Here" or "lxcellent lishing Here",
depending on what meaning is intended bv the
ambiguous expression.)
Sometimes the grammatical structure of
a sentence makes it ambiguous. When this is
the case, the writer often ends up saving one
thing but meaning another. lor example,
"Walking down the street, her house seemed
to get bigger." (1he house is walking,
according to this sentence. lt should read
something like "As she walked down the
street, her house appeared to get bigger."
What if she had written, "As she walked down
the street, it seemed to get bigger"' How
would vou correct that sentence') 1he onlv
wav to eliminate grammatical ambiguitv is to
correct the grammatical structure of the
sentence so that it is clear what vou mean to
sav and vou sav what vou mean.
Obscuritv in student writing is usuallv
due to incorrect word usage or convoluted
sentence structure. 1he former can be
reduced bv onlv using words vou know the
meaning of. 1he latter can often be reduced
bv simplv reducing the length of a sentence.
ften, however, obscure writing is due to lack
of clear connection between ideas, such as
between a general claim and its application. ln
such cases, a good example or illustration can
clarifv matters substantiallv. lor example,
"Oood reasoning should be clear. 1hat is,
there should be no doubt as to what vour point
is and what vour supports for that point are."
6
XRCIS 2 - CLARITY IN WRITINC (Answers on pages 39-40.)
Ior each of the following paragraphs: a. Circle anv vague or ambiguous expressions. (Suggest wavs to clarifv
or rewrite the material so that it is clearer.)
b. Mark obscure sentences or passages with a marginal, vertical line next to the obscuritv. (Trv to rewrite
the passage in clear nglish.)
c. Indicate places where examples or illustrations are needed.
1. I had a terrible time driving last week. On Mondav, coming home I drove into the wrong house and collided
with a tree I don't have. On Tuesdav, a pedestrian hit me and went under mv car. The guv was all over the road.
I had to swerve a number of times before I hit him. On Wednesdav, as I approached the intersection, a stop sign
suddenlv appeared in a place where no stop sign had ever appeared before. So, when I saw that I couldn't avoid
the collision, I stepped on the gas and crashed into another car. But the worst was vet to come. On Thursdav,
an invisible car came out of nowhere, struck mv vehicle and vanished!
2. Walking in the rain, the house got dimmer and dimmer. I saw Marv and asked her how her mother was.
Marv hated her mother. She was verv cruel. She told me that Carol and her mother did not see eve to eve on
her friendship with ]onathan. She's a sociologist who makes her living bv showing the degrading effects of
povertv and ignorance. She once had severe pains when she laid on her side for over a vear.
3. Objective considerations of contemporarv phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in
competitive activities exhibits no tendencv to be commensurate with innate capacitv, but that a considerable
element of the unpredictable must invariablv be taken into account.
4. Todav there was an event at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant in Pennsvlvania. There was some
slight energetic disassemblv and rapid oxidation. We consider these events, however, to be normal aberrations.
There was some infiltration as plutonium took up residence in a restricted area. Those communities with
similar nuclear reactors need not worrv as this event is clearlv within an acceptable flat band of risk.
5. We must not allow police brutalitv. Too much violence bv a policeman should lead to automatic suspension
from the force while the incident is being investigated. xcessive brutalitv should not be tolerated in a free
societv. Libertv and police terrorism do not mix well in a democracv. Let's stop this brutalitv now, before it is
too late.
6. Cenerallv speaking, abortion should not be allowed. But there are some situations where it should be up to
the woman and her phvsician, not the state or the communitv. These situations should be clear to evervone
with even half a brain, so I won't go into anv detail.
7. In respect to abortion, this phenomenon exists with relation to the premise that the unborn person is in fact a
person in everv sense of the word, due all rights which accompanv the state of personhood. Most importantlv,
the fetus is due its right to life. I shall assume that evervone is well aware that argumentation on this particular
premise is still being conducted and no true conclusion is realisticallv foreseen upcoming in the near future.
Nonetheless, such is the foundation of much anti-abortion argumentation, and since no clear conclusion
appears to be forthcoming, I shall for the breath of the paper accept the premise that the fetus is a person and
examine the development of the argument from there.
S. The first amendment to the federal constitution states that "Congress shall make no laws respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." This amendment requires the separation of
church and state, and since public schools are run bv the government at some level, religious activitv in public
schools has been closelv watched.
7
2.2 COHRNT AND IOCUSD
WRITINC
Coherent writing has clear connections
between ideas, between sentences, and
between paragraphs. locused writing has a
clear purpose and a clear topic. Connections
establish relations and make transitions. |See
mv Student Success Cuide - Part I, Studv
Skills, especiallv the material on transitional
expressions, relations, and the language of
questions, viz., sections 1.3, 1.1 and 1.5.]
Iocus establishes what vou are writing
about and whv. Without focus, writing
cannot be coherent.
Manv students confuse writing about an
issue with focusing. 1hev are not identical.
IOCUSD WRITINC STABLISHS IN
TH BCINNINC PARACRAPH A
PRCIS TOPIC AND PURPOS. 1he
remaining paragraphs must then be related to
the established topic and purpose. An essav on
the harmful effects of pornographv, for
example, would not necessarilv be focused
simplv because everv sentence in the essav had
something to do with pornographv. 1o be
focused, the sentences would have to be
relevant to the purpose of the essav.
Student writing often fails because it
does not have a clear focus or purpose. lt
rambles or wanders from point to point,
without anv clear direction. lt is, in short,
incoherent. Much adverse criticism on written
assignments can be avoided bv learning to
write coherentlv. 1he first step is to learn how
to focus vour writing. lor this, we will return
to some slightlv modified material on focused
reading which was introduced in the Student
Success Cuide - Studv Skills book.
Coherent essav writing has four parts: title,
introduction, main bodv, and conclusion.
1hese parts must be clearlv related to each
other, as indicated bv the following outline of
the structure of a well-formed essav.
S1RUC1URl l AN lSSAY
l. 1itle
ll. lntroduction (to the essav)
lll. Bodv (of the essav)
A. Paragraph
a. Main or subsidiarv point
b. Support for main or subsidiarv point
i. Background material
ii. lllustrations or examples
iii. Reasons
aa. Suggesting purposes
bb. Supporting conclusions
cc. Oiving explanations
c. 1ransitions
B. Paragraph
. . . .(same as above, lll.A). . . .
lV. Conclusion (of essav)
o
2.2.1 TITLS
The title of an essav should reveal its topic. Since a title should be short, it usuallv should
not reveal in detail what the writer plans to do with that topic. 1itles of student essavs often
reveal the presence or lack of focus. Oenerallv speaking, the more specific a title is, the more
focused the writing tends to be.
Below are four lists of titles, each descending from more general titles to more specific ones.
Note how the more specific the title is, the clearer the idea is as to what the essav will focus on.
XAMPLS OI SSAY TITLS
l. Oreece
Oreek 1ragedv
Sophocles and 1ragedv
"Antigone"
1he Concept of Dutv in "Antigone"
Would Antigone Have Been a Draftdodger'
ll. Ood
1he lxistence of Ood
Proofs for the lxistence of Ood
1he lmpossibilitv of Proving Ood lxists
lll. Oreece and lgvpt
Religion and Art in Oreece and lgvpt
1he Social and Political lunction of Religious Art in Ancient Oreece and lgvpt
lV. Abortion
Arguments for and against Abortion
Reason and lmotion in Abortion-Arguments
Reasonable Arguments in the Abortion Controversv
9
2.2.2 INTRODUCTORY PARACRAPHS
Titles and introductorv paragraphs
should be closelv related. 1he introductorv
paragraph must contain an opening statement
and a thesis statement. 1he opening paragraph
should establish a context, it should let the
reader know what the topic is in more detail
than the title. lt should inform the reader of
the writer's intentions: what are vou going to
trv to do in the paper' Oood writers use
the introduction to stimulate interest in the
essav bv indicating some interesting fact about
the topic's historv or bv noting its significance
or value.
Below vou will find examples of introductorv
paragraphs for each of the most specific titles
from the list of example titles given above.
Note that each example lets the reader know
the thesis and purpose of the essav.
Example 1
Would Antigone Have Been a Draftdodger!
"Antigone" has significance for the modern reader even though it was written two
thousand vears ago. 1he question of what one should do when dutv to the state conflicts
with moral dutv must still be asked. Antigone's dilemma is the same that faced manv
voung men during the Vietnam War. 1o understand her behavior in Sophocles'
masterpiece, we must understand her concept of dutv. Perhaps bv understanding
Antigone's values and actions, we will be able to better understand the draft resistors of
our own countrv. lor, manv of them seemed to share Antigone's idea of a moral dutv to
obev a 'higher law' which conflicts with the law of the state.
Example 2
The Impossibilitv of Proving Cod xists
Whether or not the existence of Ood can be proven bv rational arguments has been
debated for centuries. Despite the manv arguments for Ood's existence, such as Anselm's
famous ontological argument or St. 1homas's five proofs, l will show that it is impossible
to prove the existence of Ood.
1O
Example 3
The Social and Political Iunction of Religious Art
in Ancient Creece and gvpt
Example 4
Reasonable Arguments in the Abortion Controversv
Abortion is a topic likelv to raise more violent emotions than reasoned arguments.
Nevertheless, there are some reasonable voices in this emotional wilderness, and it is their
arguments on abortion l will present and analvze. A minimum condition for being a
'reasonable voice' is not to expect others to accept on faith statements that are
unprovable. 1hus, anv argument that would trv to enforce bv law a proposition that is
unprovable is necessarilv unreasonable, in mv view. Statements such as "Ood infuses a
soul into everv union of human gametes at the moment a zvgote is formed" are
unprovable. lt mav not be unreasonable to believe such a claim in the context of one's
religious faith, but it is unreasonable to require others to share vour faith. ln this essav, l
will explain whv such a demand is unreasonable, as l attempt to demonstrate what
constitutes a reasonable argument on the topic of abortion.
Religion and art were verv closelv connected in both ancient Oreece and lgvpt. But in
Oreece the arts affirmed human freedom and dignitv, while in lgvpt the arts primarilv
affirmed the power of the pharaoh. Oreek art reflects a humane, non-dogmatic view of the
gods, whereas lgvptian art reflects rigiditv and stiffness. 1he historv of Oreek art shows us
a dvnamic, changing societv. 1he historv of lgvptian art shows us a static, unchanging
societv. 1o understand these differences in art and their relationship to differences in the
social and political structure of the two societies, it is essential to understand the
differences between the religious beliefs which gave rise to them.
11
1he example titles and introductions share the common qualitv of being well-focused. 1hev
indicate a writer who knows what she is about, and whv. lach title is clear and specific. lach
introductorv paragraph has a clear opening and thesis statement. Some of the example titles and
paragraphs are more interesting than others, but the main thing is that each does what it is
supposed to do.
XRCIS 3 - CHCKINC TITLS AND INTRODUCTIONS
Read each of the following titles and introductorv paragraphs. Write a short evaluation of
each paragraph. Do the titles and introductions clearlv state the purpose and focus of the essav'
(Answers on pages 1O-11.)
1. Praver in School
"Whv can't freedom to acknowledge Ood be enjoved again bv children in everv schoolroom
across this land'" 1his question was asked bv President Reagan in his State of the Union message.
2. 1he Death Penaltv: Right or Wrong'
1he Death Penaltv has alwavs been a controversial issue. l will trv mv best to present both
sides on equal terms.
3. 1he Moralitv of Abortion
When speaking of abortion it is at once a moral, medical, legal, sociological, demographic,
religious and psvchological issue, amazinglv complex and not easilv amendable to
one-dimensional thinking. lverv person who considers the permissibilitv of abortion will no doubt
view the issue with varving perspectives. When an issue becomes so overwhelminglv complex an
individual tends to associate an individual premise of the issue with the issue as a whole. 1his is a
defensive mechanism which makes the issue easier to deal with.
1. llat Rate 1axes
nce scoffed at as an idealistic fool's dream, the modified flat rate income tax is now gaining
serious supporters. 1his is not surprising when the merits of the flat tax are compared to the
complexities and apparent inequities of the current progressive income tax. However, if vou look
a little deeper it can be seen that the flat tax is, at best, a step in the right direction.
12
5. Bilingual lducation: Shattering the linguistic Barrier
Children learn better when taught in their native tongue. Children learn better when cultural
disparities are concurrentlv addressed. Children need careful and conscientious training in
learning, understanding and speaking lnglish as a second language before learning to read and
write it. Meanwhile, children need their curriculum taught in their first language so that their
conceptual development does not suffer. 1herefore, bilingual/bicultural instruction in our schools
is an educational asset that should be properlv exercised to ensure the most advantageous
learning possible.
6. Handgun Control
During the last decade we have experienced the greatest increase of crime in our historv.
lach vear more than 17O,OOO people are killed bv a handgun. |1] Sales of handguns in California
rose 3 percent over last vear and are expected to reach 5 million sales bv the vear 19o7.|2]
Something must be done to stop the violence in our countrv.
7. Argument lavoring Mandatorv Seat Belt legislation
1he United States has one of the lowest vehicular fatalitv rates, per miles driven, in the
world. Deaths per 1OO million miles have steadilv declined from 11.2 in 1915 to 3.1 in 1977.
Despite this seeminglv admirable claim, 15,OOO persons died on U.S. freewavs in 19o2 as a result
of vehicular trauma. 1he problem of road related trauma accounts for more than 9O per cent of
all transport fatalities and is the fourth leading public health problem in the United States. lor
voung adults, ranging in age from 15 to 21, this is the leading cause of death. With the number of
fatalities the United States is now experiencing, it would be relativelv easv to acquire the
necessarv number of names to fill a memorial wall similar to that of the Vietnam War Memorial
in Washington, D.C.
o. 1he Right to Die
lt has been estimated that the medical advances of the last 1O vears exceed all medical
progress of the preceding 1OO vears. 1odav, countless doctors are able to perform life-saving
miracles on their patients. However, this new technologv has also confronted us with a dilemma
we never had to consider before.
13
9. 1he lmmoralitv of Capital Punishment for Murderers
Some proponents of capital punishment justifv the death penaltv on the ground that it not
onlv deters an executed murderer from committing anv more murders, but also deters others from
committing murders, too. 1he first claim is certainlv true: dead men can't commit murders. And
the second part mav verv well be true to some extent, though how significant the deterrent effect
of the death penaltv is remains uncertain. lven so, the central issue regarding the justification of
the death penaltv is not the significance of its deterrent effect. 1he main issue is a moral one, and
deterrence is irrelevant to the moral justification of the death penaltv. lf premeditated killing bv
the state could be morallv justified solelv bv its consequences, then theoreticallv there can be no
limit to the kinds of actions that the state could justifiablv punish bv death. 1he death penaltv
cannot be morallv justified bv its consequences. lf the premeditated killing of a convicted criminal
bv the state can be justified, it will have to be on the grounds that the criminal deserves such a
punishment because of the nature of his crime. However, l will demonstrate that there is no
crime that deserves death, and thus that capital punishment is immoral.
2.2.3 BODY PARACRAPHS
A satisfactorv introduction informs the
reader of the topic and purpose of the essav.
1he bodv of the essav should consist of main
points and their support. 1he bodv paragraphs
should fulfill the promise of the introduction.
Refer to section 2.2.2, above. ln
lXAMPll 1 (page 9)--"Would Antigone
Have Been a Draftdodger'"--the bodv
paragraphs should explain Antigone's concept
of dutv and applv it to draft resistors during
the Vietnam war. ln lXAMPll 2 (page
9)--"1he lmpossibilitv of Proving Ood
lxists"--the bodv paragraphs should show how
the standard arguments for the existence of
Ood fail and explain whv all such arguments
must fail. ln lXAMPll 3 (page 1O)--"1he
Social and Political lunction of Religious Art
in Ancient Oreece and lgvpt"--the bodv
paragraphs should explain the main differences
in religious beliefs between the ancient
lgvptians and Oreeks and show how those
religious differences were expressed in art. lt
should also
demonstrate a connection between the
different arts and the different social and
political institutions in the two societies. ln
lXAMPll 1 (page 1O)--"Reasonable
Arguments in the Abortion Controversv"--the
bodv paragraphs should explain whv it is
unreasonable to expect others to accept
unprovable statements which vou take on
faith. lt should also establish criteria for what
constitutes a reasonable argument. linallv, it
should present and analvze some reasonable
arguments on abortion.
14
The support for main or subsidiarv
points should consist of
A. BACKORUND MA1lRlAl
and/or
B. lllUS1RA1lNS, lXAMPllS,
U1A1lNS and/or
C. RlASNS
Background material should be given to
support the understanding of the material.
lts main function is to clarifv the meaning,
function or significance of the material. How
much and what kind of background material
ought to be presented depends upon the
nature of the audience and the purpose of the
writing. lor example, a paper for an
introductorv philosophv course on Plato's
argument regarding the difference between
knowledge and opinion should not consist of
several pages of biographical information.
Such information would be unnecessarv
because it would not help the reader (vour
teacher) determine whether or not vou
understand Plato's argument. But, anv
concepts peculiar to ancient Oreek societv
which bear upon understanding Plato's
argument should be presented.
How much background information would
be needed for essavs on the topics in the
examples above' lor lXAMPll 1 (page 9),
enough information should be given so that
the reader knows who Antigone is, what
situation exists in the plav that leads to her
moral dilemma, and what she does in response
to her situation. Biographical information on
Sophocles, information on other plavs bv
Sophocles, the origins of Oreek drama, etc.,
are unnecessarv.
lor lXAMPll 2 (page 9), verv little, if
anv, background information need be given.
Some information on the purpose of
arguments for Ood's existence might be given.
ther background information might liven up
the essav some, but it is doubtful that it would
clarifv the arguments to be presented.
lor lXAMPll 3 (page 1O), background
information should be spread throughout the
essav as needed to clarifv the specific works of
art, and the religious, social and political
practices and beliefs that are mentioned.
lor lXAMPll 1 (page 1O), verv little, if
anv background information is needed. Most
people are aware of the abortion controversv
and of the highlv emotional nature of the
public debate on the issue.
Illustrations, examples and quotations
are given not onlv to clarifv points but to
support general claims. How manv
illustrations, examples or quotations should be
given depends on the nature and purpose of
the essav. An essav on a topic such as that in
lXAMPll 3 (page 1O) should contain manv
examples of works of art from both lgvpt and
Oreece. An essav on a topic such as that in
lXAMPll 1 (page 9) would not require manv
illustrations or examples. Several quotations
should be given in lXAMPllS 2 and 1.
Reasons will generallv be statements of
purpose, statements in support of
conclusions, or explanatorv statements.
Statements of purpose are reasons whv
someone has done (or will do) something,
including whv the author has written what she
did.
Reasons given to support conclusions are
called premises, thev are given to support the
truth or reasonable certaintv of their
conclusions.
Reasons whv some event happened or
some action was taken are given to explain
events or positions.
15
lXAMPll 1 (page 9) would require an
argument to justifv Antigone's actions and an
explanation of how her situation is like that of
the draft resistor. lXAMPll 2 (page 9)
should present the kinds of reasons given in
traditional arguments to support the
conclusion that Ood exists. 1he author must
also present her own reasons in support of her
conclusion that it is impossible to prove Ood
exists.
1he author of the essav in lXAMPll 3
(page 1O) must support the several claims
made in the opening paragraph regarding both
the relationship of art to religion and the
relationship of art and religion to the social
and political structure of ancient Oreek and
lgvptian societies. 1he author of the essav in
lXAMPll 1 (page 1O) must provide the
demonstration promised in the opening
paragraph.
XRCIS 4 - CHCKINC POINTS AND
SUPPORT
Read the following argumentative essav in
support of mandatorv seat belt legislation.
1. ls the main point of each paragraph
clear' lf it is, paraphrase it in a single
sentence. lf it is not, trv to specifv how it needs
to be improved.
2. lndicate support statements with letters
above them: M or S for Main or Subsidiarv
point, B for Background material, l for
lxample or lllustration and R for Reason.
3. lf a support statement is a Reason,
indicate in the margin next to it whether it
states a purpose, premise or explanation.
(Answers on pages 11-15.)
Argument Iavoring Mandatorv Seat Belt Legislation
1he United States has one of the lowest vehicular fatalitv rates, per miles driven, in the
world. Deaths per 1OO million miles have steadilv declined from 11.2 in 1915 to 3.1 in 1977.
Despite this seeminglv admirable claim, 15,OOO persons died on U.S. freewavs in 19o2 as a result
of vehicular trauma. 1he problem of road related trauma accounts for more than 9O per cent of
all transport fatalities and is the fourth leading public health problem in the United States. lor
voung adults, ranging in age from 15 to 21, this is the leading cause of death. With the number of
fatalities the United States is now experiencing, it would be relativelv easv to acquire the
necessarv number of names to fill a memorial wall similar to that of the Vietnam War Memorial
in Washington, D.C.
But there is still a larger problem that has to be dealt with after the dead are buried. 1he costs
to societv, in terms of medical and rehabilitation costs, insurance premiums, and lost productivitv
to emplovers far exceed the actual economic burdens imposed bv deaths. 1his problem is due to
the sheer number of non-fatal injuries, which is currentlv estimated at 1 million annuallv. lor
16
instance, in medical cases where the costs to the patient or familv amounted to at least $1OO,OOO,
5O per cent had suffered brain and/or spinal cord damage. Road trauma produces more new
paraplegics and quadriplegics each vear in the United States than anv other form of accident. lt is
also the leading cause of epilepsv. Additionallv, on-the-job costs from road trauma directlv and
indirectlv cost U.S. emplovers an average of approximatelv $12O,OOO per victim as a result of
medical insurance, workers compensation, unemplovment taxes, lost workdavs and
administrative costs. 1he total annual price tag for automobile deaths and injuries is approaching
57 billion dollars' Yet, we could significantlv reduce this cost bv enacting mandatorv seat belt
legislation. ver 11 countries have enacted some form of seat belt legislation, and 21 of those
foreign laws have been studied bv the U.S. Department of 1ransportation. 1he focus of the
evaluation was the historv of the laws, implementation, specification of each law, compliance of
seat belt usage and the overall effectiveness of each law with respect to reducing injuries and
deaths. 1he studv found that attitudes about seat belt use and laws did not correlate with
observed behavior. Moreover, enforcement bv police--which in most cases was limited to a small
fine and non-selective enforcement--was significant in equating compliance and enactment of
legislation. All countries saw an immediate 2OO-3OO per cent increase in compliance upon
enactment. Moreover, the average reduction in fatalities and injuries was from 15-3O per cent.
f course, it is difficult to predict if the United States would experience similar success if
mandatorv seat belt legislation were to be enacted here. But, Canada--a countrv much like our
own in manv relevant respects--witnessed an increase in seat belt usage from 17 percent to 76.o
percent when thev enacted their seat belt law. Also, after three vears of living with the new law,
Canadians have seen the automobile death and injurv rate drop bv 13 per cent, the number of
hospitalized victims drop bv 16 per cent, the cost of treatment drop bv 1O per cent and the
average cost of rehabilitation drop bv 6.5 per cent. Some of these effects, though, can be
attributed to the fact that speed limits were reduced during this same period.
pponents to mandatorv seat belt legislation argue that the state has no right to limit their
libertv unless their behavior is harmful to others. 1he truth is that it is not onlv the person who
does not wear a seat belt who is harmed when an accident occurs. 1he rest of us are harmed, too,
bv increasing our automobile and hospitalization insurance costs and bv increasing our tax
burden as we are forced to support more and more victims and their families with state monies.
People who used to contribute to the economv and the communitv now become financial
burdens to the communitv. 1he mandatorv seat belt law is no more an unreasonable limitation of
libertv than are traffic laws. Consequentlv, Congress or the states ought to enact mandatorv seat
belt legislation as soon as possible.
2.2.4 TRANSITIONS
While each paragraph has its own
structure, it must be connected to the other
paragraphs to give the whole bodv of the essav
its coherence. 1o indicate a shift from
paragraph to paragraph, or a shift from a main
point to a subsidiarv one, or a shift from one
supporting point to another supporting or
contrasting point, writers use transitional
expressions. 1hese expressions not onlv mark
shifts in ideas, thev also relate ideas. 1hev
connect what comes before them with what
17
comes after them. Using transitional
expressions will help vou write coherentlv, for,
it will help vou focus on the relationships of
the various parts of the essav vou are writing.
Below, vou will find a list of relations and
transitional expressions used to establish them.
ln vour own writing
1. ldentifv what relationship vou want to
establish between two ideas, then use an
appropriate transitional expression to connect
the ideas.
2. Be careful not to link numerous ideas in a
single sentence.
3. When beginning a new line of thought
indicate this bv starting a new paragraph.
RLATIONSHIPS AND TRANSITIONAL XPRSSIONS
RllA1lNSHlP 1RANSl1lNAl lXPRlSSlN
ADDl1lN and, also, again, besides, moreover,
too, furthermore, in addition, firstlv,
SlUlNCl next, then, first, last, second, finallv,
soon, since, shortlv
CMPARlSN similarlv, likewise, bv comparison,
in the same (or like) wav (or manner)
CN1RAS1 on the other hand, but, vet, nevertheless,
still, however, on the contrarv, in contrast,
otherwise, despite
lllUMlNA1lN for example, that is, in fact, for instance,
specificallv, particularlv, to clarifv
lXPlANA1lN, for this reason, because, since,
PRl or for, in order to, to this end
AROUMlN1 (premise)
AROUMlN1 (conclusion) therefore, in conclusion, so, thus,
consequentlv, as a result, it follows that
1S
XRCIS 5 - CHCKINC TRANSITIONS
Oo through the essav of lxercise 1 and circle anv transitional expressions. Where vou think
there should be a transitional expression but there is none, write 'tr'. (Answers on p. 15.)
2.2.5 CONCLUDINC PARACRAPH
1he conclusion of an essav should explicitlv tie together the several points made in the bodv
of the essav to the thesis statement made in the introduction. A conclusion should summarize
what an essav has attempted to do and what it has accomplished. You should not include vour
own evaluation of vour work in vour conclusion. let the reader decide on the merits of vour
essav.
XRCIS 6 - CHCKINC CONCLUSIONS
Read the following conclusions of essavs. Do thev seem to tie together several points or
summarize what the essav tried to do or accomplish' ln general terms, what is good or bad about
these conclusions' (Without reading the entire essav vour comments on a conclusion must be in
verv general terms.)
(Answers on pages 15-16.)
lxercise 6 - Concluding Paragraphs
1. ln all of the world, there is no place where freedom of religion is more prevalent than in the
United States. 1he opportunitv to worship is available anv time. rganized voluntarv praver in
the public schools is not necessarv and it is undesirable. 1he certain adverse consequences of
so-called voluntarv praver far outweigh the uncertain benefits. Children who do not join in the
majoritv's religious activitv will be made to feel persecuted for their religious beliefs. And, if
centuries of praving in places of worship have not led to the development of good character and
moral behavior, it boggles the mind to think that a few seconds of praving together in a profane
place will suddenlv cure all our moral ills.
2. However, l agree with his solution and despite some rather disturbing material, l found his
argument to be much more sound and reasonable.
3. 1hroughout the breath of this paper, l have been granting that the fetus is a person as abortion
opponents suggest. l have concentrated on questioning whether their conclusions, abortion is
impermissible for varied reasons, follows their argument with necessitv. l think it does not. l feel
19
that so long as a woman has not consciouslv given another person permission to use her bodv, the
other person has no right to demand use or continued use of her bodv. l view a persons 'right to
life' as no more than a statement that people should not be killed unjustlv. ln essence, l believe
that a woman has everv right to decide what happens in and to her own bodv in most cases. All
the premises l've offered to support mv opinion lead me to feel that given the correct motives,
abortion mav be considered morallv permissible. |N1l: leel free to correct anv basic writing
errors in this paragraph.]
1. lor these reasons and those stated earlier, changes toward a flat rate tax, despite the inequities
and problems that mav occur, is an improvement over the existing svstem.
5. ln regarding the most advantageous learning environment for the non-lnglish speaking child,
evidence concerning bilingual/bicultural education clearlv supports the implementation of such.
A 1979 statement issued bv the New York based Carnegie Corporation concluded that
"regardless of the current debate, the fact remains that there are millions of children in the U.S.
schools who speak little or no lnglish. Since neither quick immersion nor lSl alone has worked
well with children from low-income, non-lnglish speaking backgrounds," reasoned Alan Pifer,
foundation president, "teaching such voungsters in their first language while thev are learning
lnglish would appear to be a sensible alternative."
6. Something must be done soon, before another 17O,OOO people are killed this vear.
7. Because l feel mv premises are sound and l have argued and analvzed the opposition, l feel l am
justified in saving doctors should have a right to discontinue treatment to terminallv ill patients.
2.2.6 WRITINC SSAYS - A CHCKLIST
Before turning in an essav, go through the following checklist.
1. ClARl1Y
1.1 ls anv expression ambiguous, too vague, or obscure'
1.2 Are definitions given where needed'
1.3 ls the thesis and purpose of the essav clear'
1.1 Are there examples, illustrations and quotations where needed'
2O
2. CHlRlNCl
2.1 ls each sentence clearlv related to those before and after it'
2.2 ls each paragraph clearlv related to those before and after it'
2.3 Are appropriate transition words used to indicate how vour sentences
and paragraphs are related'
2.1 Do statements which need support have sufficient reasons, facts or details to
back them up'
3. lCUS
3.1 Do vou state in the first paragraph vour purpose and focus'
3.2 Does each sentence in a paragraph clearlv relate to the other sentences in
that paragraph'
3.3 Does each paragraph clearlv relate to the other paragraphs'
3.1 Does vour conclusion tie together vour thesis and support'
2.3 A MTHOD IOR WRITINC SSAYS
riting will be easier if it is
svstematic and methodical.
1here is no recipe for great
writing, but there are several
methods for writing
satisfactorilv.
ne of the more successful methods for
beginning essav writers is known as the
SlWlR method. 1he method introduced
here is a variation on that method, it might be
called the SlWlR method. SlWlR is
an acronvm for
Select a topic.
List vour ideas.
Organize vour ideas.
Outline vour essav.
Write vour first draft.
dit vour first draft.
Rewrite vour essav.
1. SLCTINC TH TOPIC. Before
selecting a topic, consider how much time vou
have to write the essav. Select a topic vou can
fit easilv into vour schedule. Begin bv drawing
up a list of possible topics. When making up
21
vour list, trv to come up with specIIIc topics
rather than verv general ones. But even verv
general topics are better than none at all. You
can alwavs narrow down vour topic after vou
have listed vour ideas and before vou begin
vour outline.
Base vour list on topics suggested bv vour
teacher or discussed in class or the text book.
Use the subject index of vour text to give vou
some ideas. lf necessarv, go to the librarv and
use the subject catalogue index to look up
titles of books, one might provide vou with a
topic. While making vour list of topics, do not
evaluate them. Begin the selecting process
onlv after vou have several topics on vour list.
When selecting a topic, consider what
interests vou and what vour knowledge of the
potential topics is. lf possible, select a topic
related to vour experience and not too
technical for vou to handle. You do not want
to do more research than is necessarv.
Research takes time.
lf vou have difficultv in selecting a topic
from vour list, use the process of elimination to
arrive at vour topic. Reject first the topic vou
least want to write about. Repeat this
procedure until vou are left with one topic.
2. MAK A LIST OI IDAS. Use vour
memorv, notes, and studv cards |See
Student Success GuIde - Study
SkIlls, section 6.] to help vou make up a list
of ideas related to vour topic. Your list should
include anvthing vou can think of that has
anvthing at all to do with vour topic. Don't be
critical when making up the list. 1he point of
this activitv is to list ideas, not to select the
ones vou will include in vour paper. 1hat
comes later.
An example of listing ideas is given on the
following page. 1he topic selected is "Religious
Art in Ancient Oreece and Ancient lgvpt."
look over the list before going on. (1he list is
copied in lxercise 7. Use the copv as vou read
the next section on organizing vour ideas.)
22
XAMPL LISTINC OI IDAS
Religious Art in Ancient Creece and Ancient gvpt
religion
the Parthenon
moderation
art
temple of Athena Nike
ostentatious
Oreece
temple of Karnak
individualism
lgvpt
pvramids
wealth c luxurv
temples
columns/pillars
povertv
hardship
sculptures
pvlons
statues
poems
Horus
tombs
paintings
Athena
lightness
vases
animals
heaviness
lliad
fate
rigiditv
architecture
life after death
softness
philosophv
mass
gods
friezes
colossal size
change
metopes
stvlized
stabilitv
capitals
realism
goddesses
music
idealism
Sophocles
tragedies
power
suffering
edipus Rex
restraint
pharaoh
hubris
order
democracv
autocracv
freedom
23