P 9 T2 09 Electricity

51
ELECTRICITY IX -PHYSICS
According to the latest view of scientists, the building blocks of matter are electrons, protons and
neutrons. Interestingly, electrons and protons have charge which is one of the fundamental components in
making of matter. The most probable role of charge is to keep the components of the atom glued together, It
is a well known fact that if charge on proton or electron vanishes, the electron escapes making the atoms and
hence the universe collapses. Thus charge is very important dimension in the scheme of the universe.
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB'S LAW:

Charge:
 There are two kinds of charges, positive and negative
 like charges repel, unlike charges attract
 positive charge comes from having more protons than electrons; negative charge comes from having
more electrons than protons
 charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the elementary charge ‘e’
 charge is conserved
Probably everyone is familiar with the first three concepts, but what does it mean for charge to be
quantized?
Quantization of Charge: Charge comes in multiples of an indivisible unit of charge, represented by the
letter e. In other words, charge comes in multiples of the charge on the electron or the proton. These things
have the same size charge, but the sign is different. A proton has a charge of +e, while an electron has a
charge of -e.
Electrons and protons are not the only things that carry charge. Other particles (positrons, for
example) also carry charge in multiples of the electronic charge. Those are not going to be discussed, for the
most part, in this course, however.
Putting "charge is quantized" in terms of an equation, we say:
q =  ne
q is the symbol used to represent charge, while n is a positive or negative integer, and e is the charge of the
electron. (1.60  10-19 C)
The Law of Conservation of Charge:

The Law of conservation of charge states that the net charge of an isolated system remains constant.
If a system starts out with an equal number of positive and negative charges, there is nothing we can do to
create an excess of one kind of charge in that system unless we bring in charge from outside the system (or
remove some charge from the system). Likewise, if something starts out with a certain net charge, say +100
e, it will always have +100 e unless it is allowed to interact with something external to it.
Charge can be neither be created nor destroyed. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive
charge plus the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved
Table of elementary particle masses and charges:
particle mass(kg) charge(C)

electron 9.1  10-31 -1.6  10-19
proton 1.673  10-27 +1.6  10-19
neutron 1.67  10-27 0
Electrostatic charging:
Forces between two electrically-charged objects can be extremely large. Most things are electrically
neutral; they have equal amounts of positive and negative charge. If this wasn’t the case, the world we live
52 PACE IIT & MEDICAL: Mumbai / Delhi & NCR / Goa / Akola / Kolkata / Nashik / Pune / Bokaro / Dubai
in would be a much stranger place. We also have a lot of control over how things get charged. This is
because we can choose the appropriate material to use in a given situation.
Metals are good conductors of electric charge, while plastics, wood, and rubber are not, they are
called insulators. Charge does not flow nearly as easily through insulators as it does through conductors,
which is why wires you plug into a wall socket are covered with a protective rubber coating. Charge flows
along the wire, but not through the coating to you.
Materials are divided into three categories, depending on how easily they will allow charge (i.e., electrons)
to flow along them. These are:
 Conductors – for example metals like copper, iron etc.
 Semi-conductors – silicon, germanium etc
 Insulators - rubber, wood, plastic etc.
Most materials are either conductors or insulators. The difference between them is that in conductors, the
outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound to their atoms that they are free to travel around. In
insulators, on the other hand, the electrons are much more tightly bound to the atoms, and are not free to
flow. Semi-conductors are a very useful intermediate class, not as conductive as metals but considerably
more conductive than insulators. By adding certain impurities to semi-conductors in the appropriate
concentrations the conductivity can be well-controlled.
There are three ways that objects can be given a net charge. These are:
1. Charging by friction (Triboelectrification) - This is useful for charging insulators. If you rub one
material with another (say, a plastic ruler with a piece of paper towel), electrons have a tendency to
be transferred from one material to the other. For example, rubbing glass with silk or saran wrap
generally leaves the glass with a positive charge; rubbing PVC rod with fur generally gives the rod a
negative charge.
2. Charging by conduction - useful for charging metals and other conductors. If a charged object
touches a conductor, some charge will be transferred between the object and the conductor, charging
the conductor with the same sign as the charge on the object.
3. Charging by induction - also useful for charging metals and other conductors. Again, a charged
object is used, but this time it is only brought close to the conductor, and does not touch it. If the
conductor is connected to ground (ground is basically anything neutral that can give up electrons to,
or take electrons from, an object), electrons will either flow on to it or away from it. When the
ground connection is removed, the conductor will have a charge opposite in sign to that of the
charged object.
An example of induction is using a negatively charged object and an initially-uncharged conductor (for
example, a metal ball on a plastic handle).
(1) Bring the negatively-charged object close to, but not touching, the conductor. Electrons on the
conductor will be repelled from the area nearest the charged object.
(2) Connect the conductor to ground. The electrons on the conductor want to get as far away from the
negatively-charged object as possible, so some of them flow to ground.
(3) Remove the ground connection. This leaves the conductor with a deficiency of electrons.
(4) Remove the charged object. The conductor is now positively charged.
A practical application involving the transfer of charge is in how laser printers and photocopiers work.
Why is static electricity more apparent in winter?

You notice static electricity much more in winter (with clothes in a dryer, or taking a sweater off, or
getting a shock when you touch something after walking on carpet) than in summer because the air is much
drier in winter than summer. Dry air is a relatively good electrical insulator, so if something is charged the
charge tends to stay. In more humid conditions, such as you find on a typical summer day, water molecules,
which are polarized, can quickly remove charge from a charged object.
COULOMB'S LAW:
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges is directly
proportional to the scalar multiplication of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
F α q1 q2
F α 1/r2
The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic
force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.
The force exerted by one charge q on another charge Q is given by Coulomb's law:
F=kqQ/r2
Where the constant k=9x109Nm2/C2, r is the distance between the charges.
Remember that force is a vector, so when more than one charge exerts a force on another charge, the
net force on that charge is the vector sum of the individual forces. Remember, that charges of the same sign
exert repulsive forces on one another, while charges of opposite sign attract.
THE ELECTRIC FIELD:

Introduction:
The presence of an electric charge produces a force on all other charges present. The electric force
produces action-at-a-distance; the charged objects can influence each other without touching. Suppose two
charges, q1 and q2, are initially at rest. Coulomb's law allows us to calculate the force exerted by charge q2 on
charge q1. At a certain moment charge q2 is moved closer to charge q1. As a result we expect an increase of
the force exerted by q2 on q1. However, this change cannot occur instantaneous (no signal can propagate
faster than the speed of light). The charges exert a force on one another by means of disturbances that they
generate in the space surrounding them. These disturbances are called electric fields. Each electrically
charged object generates an electric field which permeates the space around it, and exerts pushes or pulls
whenever it comes in contact with other charged objects.
Electric force between two electric charges:

Note: The definition of the electric field shows that the electric
field is a vector field; the electric field at each point has a magnitude
and a direction. The direction of the electric field is the direction in
which a positive charge placed at that position will move.
An electric field hence, is the area of influence of any electrically-
charged object where other charges experience an electric force. It
could also be called an electrostatic field.
For an electric field, since there are two kinds of charges and some
combinations attract while others repel. As per convention we always
use positive charges to determine the direction of the effect of a field.
Electric Field Lines:

The field is pictorially depicted by electric lines of force, also called electric field lines. These lines
are rays pointing in the direction where a positive charge would experience a force
So, if the central charge was positive, and you put another positive charge near it, that second charge
would be repelled outward. So the field lines for a central positive charge will be pointing radially outwards.
If the central charge is negative, a positive charge placed nearby would be attracted toward the center
charge, so the field lines for a central negative charge will be pointing inwards towards the center.
Since fields are directly related to the forces they exert, their strength decreases with distance, and
increases with the size of the charge producing the field. When you put charges near one another, their fields
interact and change shape.
Note: No two electric field lines will intersect since at single point it’s not possible to have two directions of
electric field due to all charges. The field lines closer to each other try to repel and field lines which are far
from each other try to attract
Electrical Potential Energy and Electrical Potential:

Moving a positive test charge against the direction of an electric field is like moving a mass upward
against Earth's gravitational force. Both movements would be like going against nature and would require
work by an external force. On the other hand, the movement of a positive test charge in the direction of an
electric field would be like a mass falling downward within Earth's gravity. Both movements would be like
going with nature and would occur without the need of work by an external force. Potential energy is
defined as the work done by an external force in bringing a charge from infinity to a point inside the field. It
is the stored energy of position of an object and it is related to the location of the object within a field.
Electric potential:
Consider an electric field created by a positively charged
sphere. The direction of the electric field is in the direction that a
positive test charge would be pushed; in this case, the direction is
outward away from the positively charged sphere. Work would be
required to move a positive test charge towards the sphere against the
electric field. The amount of force involved in doing the work is
dependent upon the amount of charge being moved (according to
Coulomb's law of electric force). The greater the charge on the test
charge, the greater the repulsive force and the more work that would
have to be done on it to move it the same distance. If two objects of
different charge - with one being twice the charge of the other - are
moved the same distance into the electric field, then the object with
twice the charge would require twice the force and thus twice the
amount of work. This work would change the potential energy by an
amount that is equal to the amount of work done. Thus, the electric
potential energy is dependent upon the amount of charge on the object
experiencing the field and upon the location within the field. Thus the electric potential energy is dependent
upon at least two types of quantities:
(1) Electric charge - a property of the object experiencing the electrical field, and
(2) Distance from source - the location within the electric field While electric potential energy has a
dependency upon the charge of the object experiencing the electric field, electric potential is purely
location dependent. Electric potential is the potential energy per unit charge.
Electric Potential= P.E./Q

The electric potential of conducting body is directly proportional to charge of body and inversely
proportional to the size of the body.
charge on body
Potentialof a body α
size of body
Potential difference between conductors

“It is the work done in transferring a unit +ve charge from one conductor to another through a metallic
wire.”
Mathematically: V  W
q
Units of Potential difference: SI unit is Joule
= Volt
coulomb
Just the way a mass in a gravitational field tries to occupy the position of least gravitational potential
energy; a charge in an electric field tries to occupy the position of least electric potential energy. Hence, for
the charges on a conducting surface to be at equilibrium the potential at all places on the surface must be
same, i.e., potential difference must be zero.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1:
A force of 45 × 10–3N acts between two like charge bodies separated by 4 m in the air. If the
magnitude of one of the charges is 8 C , find the magnitude of the other charge.
Solution:
Given q1  8 C  8  106 C
Distance between two charges (r) = 4 m
Electrostatic force of repulsion (F) = 45 × 10–3N
q
2 =?
1 qq
F   1 22
4 0 r
1
 9  109 N m 2 C 2
40
8  10 6  q 2
 45  10 3  9  109 
( 4) 2
 q2  10C
Example 2:
Two point charged bodies q1  3C and q2  4C are separated by 2 m in air. Find the magnitude
of electrostatic force between them.
Solution:
Given q1  3 C  3  106 C
q2  4 C  4  106 C
r=2m
Medium is air
1 qq
 Force F   1 22
4 0 r
9  10 9  3  10 6  4  10 6
=
( 2) 2
9  109  3  106  4  106
=  27  103 N  27 mN
4
Example 3:
Find the magnitude of a charge whose electric field strength is 18  103 N C1 at a distance of 5m in
air.
Solution :
Given : Electric field strength (E) = 18  103 N C1
Distance (r) = 5 m
Charge (q) = ?
1 q
E
40 r 2
q
18  103  9  109 
(5) 2
q  50 C
Example 4:
Calculate the electric field strength at a distance of 3 m from a charge of 32 nC placed in air.
Solution :
Given q = +32 nC = 32  109 C
r=3m
1 q 32  109
E 2
 9  10 9
 2
 32 N C1
40 r (3)
Example 5:
The force exerted on a 3 C of charge placed at a point in an electric field is 9 N. Calculate the electric
field strength at the point.
Solution :
Given, q = 3 C, F = 9 N
F 9N
 The electric field strength, E    3 N C1
q 3C
Example 6:
Find the electric field strength due to 5 C of charge at a point 30 m away from it in air.
Solution :
Given, Q  5 C  5  106 C
R = 30 m
6
1 Q 9  5  10 
 The electric field strength E  2
 9  10 
 2 
  50 N C 1
40 r  ( 30 ) 
Example 7:
The electric field strength at a point in an electric field is 30 N C1 . Find the force experienced by a
charge of 20 C placed at the point.
Solution :
Given, electric field strength E  30 N C1
Charge, q = 20 C
 The force on the charge F = qE = (30) (20) = 600 N
Example 8:
A charge of 10 C is brought from infinity to a point near a charged body and in this process, 200 J of
work is done. Calculate the electric potential at that point near the charged body.
Solution :
Given q = 10 C and w = 200 J
w 200 J
 Electric potential, V    20 J C 1 or 20 V
q 10 C
Example 9:
The work done in bringing 5 C of charge from infinity to a point near a charged body is 20 J. Find
the potential at that point.
Solution :
Given, charge, q = 5 C
Work done, w = 20 J
w 20 J
 The electric potential, V   4V
q 5C
Example 10:
The electrical potential at a point in an electric field is 6 V. Find the work done in bringing 12 C of
charge from infinity to that point.
Solution :
Given, electric potential, V = 6 V
The electric charge q = 12 C
 Work done w  V q  6  12  72 J
Example 11:
Find the magnitude of a charge that can be moved from infinity to a point in an electric field where
the potential is 20 V, by spending 600 J of work.
Solution :
Given, electric potential, V = 20 V
Work done, W = 600 J
We know, W = V q
W 600
 q    30 C
V 20
Example 12:
A charge of 5 C is moved between two points in an electric field and 20 J of work was done to do so.
Calculate the potential difference between the two points.
Solution :
Given, work done w = 20 J
And charge q = 5 C
 The potential difference between the points
w 20 J
V    4 volt
q 5C
Example 13:
Calculate the work done to move 500  1018 electrons between two points in an electric field where
the potential difference between the two points is 1 millivolt. (e– = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
Solution :
The number of electrons, n = 500 × 1018
The charge of each electron, e– = 1.6 × 10–19 C
 The total charge, q = ne = 500 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 80 C
The potential difference between the two points,
V  1 millivolt  103 V
 Work done, w  Vq  103  80  0.08 J
EXERCISE-1
1. Number of electrons in one coulomb of charge will be

(a) 5.46  10 24 (b) 6.25  1018 (c) 1.6  10 19 (d) 9  1011
2. When 1019 electrons are removed from a neutral metal plate, the electric charge on it is
(a) 1.6C (b) 1.6C (c) 10 19 C (d) 1019 C
3. Good conductors have many loosely bound

(a) atoms (b) protons (c) molecules (d) electrons
4. Which of the following is volt?

(a) erg per cm (b) joule per coulomb
(c) erg per ampere (d) Newton / (coulomb  metre2)
5. A charge of 5 C is given a displacement of 0.5 m. The work done in the process is 10 J. The
potential difference between the two points will be
(a) 25 V (b) 1 V (c) 0.25 V (d) 2 V
6. Equal positive charges are given to two conducting spheres of different radii. The potential will
(a) be more on the smaller sphere
(b) be more on the bigger sphere.
(c) be equal to both the sphere
(d) depends on the nature of the materials of the sphere
7. An electron of charge e coulomb passes through a potential difference of V volt. Its energy in
joule will be
(a) V/e (b) eV (c) e/V (d) V
8. Two metal spheres of radii R1 and R2 are charged to the same potential. The ratio of the charge on
the two spheres is
R
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) R1  R2 (d) 1
2 R2
9. Electric potential is
(a) a scalar quantity (b) a vector quantity
(c) neither scalar nor vector (d) sometimes scalar and sometimes vector
10. How many electrons have been removed from a body if it has a net charge of 7.5 × 10 C?
(a) 7.5 × 10 (b) 2.1 × 10
(c) 1.2 × 10 (d) 4.7 × 10
11. The force exerted on a particle with a charge of 5.0 × 10 C by a second particle that is 4 cm
away is 8.4105 N. What is the charge of the second particle?
(a) 4.2 × 10 (b) 3.0 × 10 (c) 2.0 × 10 (d) 6.0 × 10
12 The slope of voltage ( ) versus current ( ) is called

(a) resistance (b) resistivity (c) conductance (d) conductivity
13. What is the charge on an electroscope that has an excess of 4.8 × 10 electrons?
(a) 3.3 × 10 (b) 7.7 × 10 (c) 4.8 × 10 (d) 4.8 × 10
14. Two charged bodies exert a force of 86 N on each other. If they are moved so that they are six
times farther apart, what is the new force that they will exert on each other?
(a) 2.4 (b) 86 (c) 14 (d) 5.2 × 10
15. Two equally charged bodies exert a force of 90 N on each other. If one of the bodies is exchanged
for a body of the same size, but three times as much charge, what is the new force that they will exert
on each other?
(a) 10 (b) 2.7 × 10 (c) 30 (d) 8.1 × 10
16. An alpha particle has a mass of 6.68 × 10 kg and a charge of 3.2 × 10 C. What is the
ratio of the electrostatic force to the gravitational force between two alpha particles?
(a) 1 × 10 (b)23 × 10 (c) 4.8 × 10 (d) 3.1 × 10
17. Charging a neutral body by touching it with a charged body is called charging by _______ .
(a) conduction (b) grounding (c) induction (d) discharging
18. Macy rubs a balloon with wool, giving the balloon a charge of −8.9 × 10 C. What is the
force between the balloon and a metal sphere that is charged to 25 C and is 2 km away?
(a) 8.9 × 10 N (b) 2.2 × 10 N (c) 5.0 × 10 N (d) 5.6 × 10 N
19. Why is an electric field measured only by a small test charge?

(a) so the charge doesn’t disturb the field
(b) because small charges have small momentum
(c) so its size doesn’t nudge the charge to be measured aside
(d) because an electron always is used as the test charge and electrons are small
20. A force of 14 N exists on charge q, which is 2.1 × 10 C. What is the magnitude of the electric
field?
(a) 0.15 × 10 N/C (b) 29 × 10 N/C
(c) 6.7 × 10 N/C (d) 6.7 × 10 N/C
21. A positive test charge of 8.7  106 C experiences a force of 8.1 × 10 N at an angle of 24° N of E.
What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength at the location of the test
charge?
(a) 7.0 × 10 N/C, 24° N of E (b) 1.7 × 10 N/C, 24° S of W
(c) 1.1 × 10 N/C, 24° W of S (d) 9.3 × 10 N/C, 24° N of E
22. What is the potential difference between two plates that are 18 cm apart with a field of 4.8 × 10
N/C?
(a) 27 V (b) 0.86 KV (c) 86 V (d) 27 kV
23. How much work is done on a proton to move it from the negative plate to a positive plate 4.3 cm
away if the field is 125 N/C?
(a) 5.5 × 10 J (b) 1.1 × 10 J (c) 8.6 × 10 J (d) 5.4 J
24. From a point charge, there is a fixed point A. At A there is an electric field of 500 V/m and potential
difference of 3000V. Distance between point charge and A will be
(a) 6m (b) 12m (c) 16m (d) 24m
25. A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining two exactly equal positive charges Q. The
system of three charges will be in equilibrium, if q is equal to
(a) –Q/4 (b) +Q (c) Q (d) Q/2
EXERCISE-2
1. A sheet of fabric softener having a surface charge of 3.610-12 C (positive) clings to Taylor’s wool
sweater with a negative charge of 6.810-9 C. Determine the force of electrical attraction if the
sweater and the sheet of fabric softener can be treated as point objects with a separation distance of
0.019 cm.
2. Determine the quantity of charge on …

(a) a plastic tube which has been rubbed with animal fur and gained 3.8 109 electrons.
(b) a vinyl balloon which has been rubbed with animal fur and gained 1.71012 electrons.
(c) an acetate strip which has been rubbed with wool and lost 7.3108 electrons.
3. A Styrofoam plate with a negative charge of -4.8610-7 C is placed near an aluminum dish which has
been charged positively by induction to a charge of +8.2910-8 C. The centers of positive and
negative charge are positioned 1.85 cm apart. Determine the force of attraction between the
Styrofoam plate and the aluminum dish.
4. Suppose that Fernando transferred a Coulomb of negative charge to Santana so that Fernando had a
+1.0 C charge and Santana had a -1.0 C charge.
(a) Determine the number of electrons required to give Santana the -1.0 C charge.
(b) Determine the force of electrical attraction between Fernando and Santana if they are 1.0 m apart.
5. Two different objects are given charges of +3.27 μC and -4.91 μC. What separation distance will
cause the force of attraction between the two objects to be 0.358 N? (GIVEN: 1 C = 106 μC)
6. Consider the diagram below:

GIVEN: Q1 = +5.00  10-7 C;
Q2 = +4.00  10-7 C;
Q3 = -8.00  10-7 C; d1 = 5.00 cm; d2 = 8.00 cm.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by Q2 upon Q1.
(a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by Q3 upon Q1.
(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of the net electric force on Q1.
7. Three charges are arranged as shown in the diagram at the right.

GIVEN:Q1 = -15 nC
Q2 = +14 nC Q3 = +11 nC 1 nC = 1 nanoCoulomb = 110-9 C
(a) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by Q1 upon Q2.
(b) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by Q3 upon Q2.
(c) Determine the magnitude and direction of the net electrostatic force on Q2.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT:
Previously we have learnt that while charging a conductor electrons moved from electron excess
body to electron deficient body until a balance is reached. Since an electron carries charge we can say that
charge was flowing. Such a flow of charge is called an electric current.
Electricity has an important role in the modern society. It is a controllable and convenient form of
energy for a variety of uses in homes, schools, hospitals, industries and so on. You would have observed
that, when a switch is put on, instantaneously, the bulb glows or a fan starts rotating. The glowing bulb or
the rotation of a fan is due to the motion of charge. The motion of negatively charged electrons through the
wires produces current, which makes the bulb glow and fan rotate.
Definition: An electric current is defined as the rate of flow of charge per unit time.
ℎ
=
or,
=
where,
⟹
⟹ ℎ
⟹
Units of current: SI unit of current is an ( ).
A current of magnitude 1 is said to flow through a conductor when a charge of magnitude
1 flows through it in 1 .
1 =1 /
According to convention, the direction of current is always in the direction of flow of positive charge.
Note: In a conductor current flows due to the flow of electrons. Since electrons are negatively charged, the
direction of current is the opposite of the direction in which electrons flow.
Example1. A current of 8 is flowing in a conductor. Find the number of electrons passing through any
cross-section per second.
Solution: From the definition of current, we get
1 =1 /
8 =8 /
we know that charge on one electron is equal to -1.6× 10
the no. of electrons that make up 8C is . × , which is equal to 5 × 10
Hence, 5 × 10 electrons flow through any cross-section of the conductor every second if an
electric current of 8 flows through it.
Example 2. If 1 current flows in a conductor, how many electrons are flowing across the
conductor in 2 ?
Solution: From the definition of current, we know 1 =1 /
Electron carries a charge of -1.6× 10
The no. of electrons that make up 1C is . × , which is equal to 6.25 × 10
18
approximately equal to 6 × 10 electrons
i.e., for an electric current 1A, 6.25 × 10 electrons flow through any cross-section of the
conductor every second.
in 2 2× (6.25 × 10 ) or 1.25 × 10 electrons will flow through any cross-

section of the conductor.
2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Charge flows from electron excess body to an electron deficient body. The difference in Electric
Potential at two points in a conductor is the factor that determines which way electron will flow.
Potential Difference is also defined as the work done by an external force in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to the other in an electric circuit.
=
Where,
⟹
⟹
⟹ ℎ
Units of Potential difference: SI unit is ( )
A potential difference of 1 is said to exist across two points in an electric circuit if 1 work is
done in moving a charge of magnitude 1 .
1 =1 /
The potential difference between the terminals of a cell in an open circuit is called or
Example 3. How much energy is given to each coulomb of charge passing through a 6 battery?
Solution: From the definition of potential difference, we know that 1 work is done in moving a
charge of magnitude 1 through a potential difference of 1 .
In moving a charge of 1 through a potential difference of 6 the battery has to
provide an energy of 6 .
Example 4. Find the Voltage change if

(a) 12J work is done on 0.0001C charge.
(b) 24J work is done on 0.0002C charge.
Solution:
a) According to the definition,
=
or, 12
= /
0.0001
∴ = 1.2 × 10
b) According to the definition,

=
or, 24
= /
0.0002
∴ = 1.2 × 10
3. OHMS LAW :
According to Ohms law “The electric current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends,
provided the temperature remains constant and the physical state of the
conductor remains the same”.
∝
or
=
where, ′ ′ is the electrical resistance.
Resistance of a conductor is the opposition to flow of current. The cause of resistance is the collision
between electrons and atoms
The graphical representation of Ohm’s law is a straight line passing through origin. The slope of the graph
gives the value of resistance offered by the conductor.
Conductors which obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic conductors e. g.: Metals and those which do not are
known as non-ohmic conductors e.g.: Semiconductors, vacuum tubes
Example 5. If a current of 5 flows through a 0.6 resistor, what is the potential difference across the
resistor?
Solution: According to Ohm’s law =
= (5 × 0.6) =3
The potential difference across the resistor is 3 .
Example 6. In an electrical circuit the ammeter reads 3 and the voltmeter reads 12 . What is the value
electrical resistance between the two points?
Solution: Given, = 3 (the ammeter reading)
= 12 (the voltmeter reading)
According to Ohm’s law
=
or = /
i.e. = =4
The value of electrical resistance between the two points is 4 .
4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE:
Electrons flowing in a conductor collide with the constituent atoms and other electrons. The sum
total of all these obstructions which resist the flow of electrons inside a conductor is known as electrical
resistance of the conductor.
Resistance is measured in ℎ (Ω).

The electrical resistance of the conductor depends on three factors:
1. Length of the conductor: A longer wire effectively has more obstacles to offer than a shorter
wire, hence the resistance in a longer wire is more than a shorter wire.
2. Area of cross-section of the conductor: A thinner wire offers a smaller free path for the moving
electrons, i.e. more collisions than a thicker wire, hence the resistance in a thinner wire is more
than the resistance in a thicker wire.
3. Material of the conductor: The resistance depends on the material the conductor is made of,
essentially the arrangement of atoms in it.
Electrical Instruments:
Galvanometer : It is an electrical instrument that detects the flow of an electric current in a conductor.
Ammeter : It is an electrical instrument that measures the quantity of electric current flowing in a
conductor.
Voltmeter : It is an electrical instrument that measures the potential difference across two points in a
conductor.
Electric Circuit:
An electric circuit is a closed path along which an electric current flows. A schematic diagram is often used
to study the electric connections in a circuit. An electric circuit may comprise of the following components:
Components Symbol
Resistance: The sum total of all the obstruction in an

electrical circuit.
Cell: A cell is a chemical device which

maintains a constant potential difference
across the electrodes dipped in it.
Note: In the symbol of the cell the positive
terminal is shown longer than the negative
terminal.
Battery: It is a combination of cells in series.
Plug Key: The plug key is a switch system. By

removing the plug the circuit can be open.
Tap Key: The tap key is also a switch system. By
pressing the tap key the system can be
open or closed.
Bulb: A bulb is an electrical device which glows
on passage of electric current.
Ammeter: An electrical device to measure current
Voltmeter: An electrical device to measure potential

difference
Galvanometer: An electrical device to detect the flow or
current
A simple electric circuit containing a few circuit elements is shown below.
The various components of an electric circuit can be connected in two ways:
Series connection: In a series connection the components are connected end

to end consecutively, for e.g. an ammeter is always connected in series to a
resistance through which the current has to be measured.
Parallel connection: In a parallel connection the electric components are

connected between the same two points, for e.g. a voltmeter is always
connected in parallel to a resistance across which the potential difference has
to be measured.
Combination of resistances:
Series connection of resistances: In a series connection the equivalent resistance across the two ends is the
sum total of all the individual resistances.
= + + ⋯+
If equal resistors of resistance are connected in series then the equivalent resistance becomes
Note: A series connection of resistances provide the largest resistance for the electric current.
Example 7. Three resistors =5 , = 3 and = 2 are connected in series as shown in the

figure below. What is the equivalent resistance of the combination?
Solution: Given, = 5 , = 3 and =2

We know that for a series connection = + +
= 5 +3 +2
= 10
Parallel connection of resistances: In a parallel connection the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance
across the two ends is the sum total of all the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+
If equal resistors of resistance are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance becomes .
Note: A Parallel connection of resistances provide the least resistance for the electric current.
Example 8. What will be the equivalent resistance is the three resistors

from the previous example are connected in parallel?
Solution: Given, =5 , = 3 and =2
We know that for a parallel connection = + +
= + +
or =
Most of the electrical circuits contain circuit elements of which some are connected in series and
others parallel. The equivalent resistance in those cases are calculated by dividing the circuit in parts. A few
examples are dealt below.
Example 9. Find the equivalent resistance of the resistors across the ends.
a)
b)
Solution:
a) The across A and C of the combination is the sum effect of across A and B, and
B and C,
i.e.
Across A and B the connection is in series, i.e. equivalent resistance is or 2

And across B and C the connection is in parallel, i.e. equivalent resistance is / or /2
Finally, the equivalent resistances across AB and AC are in series to each other, thus the
equivalent resistance across AC is sum of equivalent resistances across AB and BC,
( )= ( ) + ′ ( ), ( )=2 + 2=
b) The across A and B of the combination is the sum effect of across the upper half
and the lower half of A and B,
i.e.
From the circuit we see that the upper half and the lower half are both combination of
similar resistors in series. Hence both the halves have the same equivalent resistance
= ′ =2
Now, the upper half and the lower half are connected in parallel,
or, ( )= + ( = + =
( ) )
Hence, the equivalent resistance across AB of the connection shown is .
5. HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT AND JOULE’S LAW:
In our daily life we use many devices like bulbs, geysers, oven, electric heater where the electricity is
converted into heat. It is a common experience that the wire gets heated up when electric current flows
through it. This is known as’ heating effect of current’ .When the current flows, large number of free
electrons drift. These electrons collide with the existing positive ions (the atoms which have lost their
electrons). During these collisions, energy of the electrons is transferred to the positive ions and they began
to vibrate more which produces heat inside the conductor
Joule’s Law:
According to Joules law of heating, the amount of heat energy produced in a conductor is
1. Directly proportional to the square of the electric current ‘ ’, i.e., ∝
2. Directly proportional to the electrical resistance ‘ ’, i.e., ∝
3. Directly proportional to the time during which the current flows ‘ ’, i.e., ∝ or, =
Example 10. What amount of heat is produced in a 3 resistor when it is connected to a 6 cell for
3 ?
Solution: According to Joules law of heating, =
Also, from Ohm’s law, =
=
or =
or = ×3
or = 36
Applications of heating effect of Current:

The heating effect of current is used in many electrical appliances that we daily use in our life, some
of which are explained below.
Electric Bulb: An electric bulb is one of the simplest appliances that use the heating effect of current which
we can think of. The main components of an electric bulb are
1. Tungsten filament: The metal tungsten has a very high melting point. Hence it can withstand
high temperature without breaking the circuit off. Also, tungsten has a very high resistivity. The
filament is a very thin and long tungsten wire. Hence it offers a very high resistance in the circuit
and a lot of heat is generated. This large amount of heat makes the filament glow very brightly.
2. Air chamber: The air chamber contains gases, mainly nitrogen or argon, in order to prevent the
oxidation of the filament at high temperatures.
Electric Fuse: An electric fuse is a safety device used in an electric circuit to prevent a short circuit (an
accidental flow of very high current).
A Fuse wire has
1. a low melting point,
2. gets hot quickly
3. high resistance.
Usually an alloy of equal amount of lead and tin which melts at about 200°C is used for a fuse wire.
Note: A fuse is always connected at the beginning of the circuit. This prevents any damage to the electric
appliance on short circuit.
Rating of Electric Appliances:
An electric appliance is usually marked with the power and voltage at its sides. The power rating of
an electric appliance tells us about the maximum electric energy it can consume per unit time. The power
generated in an electric appliance can be obtained by finding the product of Voltage across its terminals and
the current flowing through it.
=
We know, According to Ohm’s Law,
V= iR
Power generated can be expressed as,
P = Vi = (iR)i = i2 R
P = Vi = V(V/R) = V2/R
The power is usually measures in watt (W).
1 =1 ×1
The voltage rating of an electric appliance tells us about maximum potential difference that the appliance
can bear without short circuiting.
1 unit of power consumed = 1KWhr = 1×103 W hr = 3600 ×103 W
1 horse power (Hp) = 746 W
EXERCISE - 1
1. In which direction will the current flow when two conductors at different potentials are joined by
a metal wire? What is the direction of flow of electrons?
2. What is the significance of resistance in a conductor?
3. Do all conductors obey Ohm’s law?
4. What are the factors to be considered while choosing a fuse wire? Explain each factor in short.
5. What do you understand by heating effect of current? Name three factors on which the heat
produced in a conductor depends.
6. What is the significance of power rating of an electrical appliance? Why is it necessary?
7. Two bulbs have ratings 100 W, 220 V and 60 W, 220 V respectively. Which one has a greater
resistance?
8. Explain the factors on which resistance depends on?
9. Define electromotive force and express its units?
10. Explain the variations of current and voltage in each resistance when they are arranged in series
and parallel combinations
EXERCISE - 2
Level-1
1. Electro motive force represents
(a) Force (b) Current (c) Energy (d) Energy per unit charge
2. The SI unit of potential difference is ___________.

(a) Joule (b) coulomb (c) ampere (d) Volt
3. The commonly used safety fuse wire is made of

(a) copper (b) lead (c) nickel (d) An alloy of tin and lead
4. The unit of e.m.f. of a cell is

(a) dyne (b) ampere (c) volt (d) Joule
5. Kilowatt hour is the unit of

(a) Power (b) Impulse (c) Energy (d) Force
6. A man has five resistors each of value . What is the maximum resistance he can obtain by
connecting them?
(a) 1 (b) 1  (c) 5 (d) 2 
2 5
7. If ′ ′ is the current through a wire and ′ ′ is the charge of an electron, then the number of electrons
in ′ ′ seconds will be given by
(a) ie (b) e (c) ite (d) it
t it e
8. Conventionally, the direction of current is taken as

(a) the direction of flow of negative charge
(b) The direction of flow of molecules
(c) The direction of flow of atoms
(d) The opposite of the direction of flow of negative charge
9. In the circuit shown below, the ammeter reads 5 and the non-ideal
voltmeter reads 20 . The correct value of resistance is
(a) exactly 4 (b) slightly less than 4
(c) slightly greater than 4 (d) zero
10. What is the current in the circuit shown?

(a) 1.5 A (b) 2.5 A
(c) 0.5 A (d) none of these
11. In the circuit shown below, the reading of the volt meter will be
(a) 4V (b) 6V
(c) 2 V (d) 3V
12. Five identical resistances are connected in the network as shown in the figure below. The resistance
between point A and B is 1 , Find the value of individual resistance
(a) 1 (b) 1 
2
(c) 3  (d) 2
2
13 1 equals
(a) 1 joule (b) 1 coulomb/meter
(c) 1 joule/coulomb (d) 1 newton/coloumb
14. Which of the following networks yield maximum effective resistance between two points?
(a) A series network (b) A parallel network
(c) both (d) none of these
15. One ampere equals

(a) 106 A (b) 103 A (c) 106 A (d) 10A
16. How many electrons will constitute a current of 1 in one second?

(a) 6.25  106 (b) 6.25  109 (c) 6.25  1012 (d) 6.25  1015
17. The effective resistance of a circuit containing resistances in parallel is

(a) equal to the sum of the individual resistances
(b) smaller than any of the individual resistances
(c) greater than any of the individual resistances
(d) sometimes greater and sometimes smaller than the individual resistances
18. A graph is plotted between the potential difference and the current. The graph is a straight line
(a) having intercepts on both axis (b) having an intercept on the -axis
(c) having an intercept on the -axis (d) none of these
19. In order to measure current in a resistance present in a circuit, the ammeter is connected in
(a) series (b) series or parallel (c) parallel (d) nothing can be deduced
20. What constitutes current in a metal wire?

(a) electrons (b) neutrons (c) protons (d) atoms
21. How much work is done in moving a charge of 2 from a point at 118 to a point
at128
(a) 10J (b) 1 J (c) 20 J (d) none of these
10
22. The device used for measuring potential difference is known as
(a) Rheostat (b) voltmeter (c) ammeter (d) galvanometer
23. What should be the characteristics of a fuse wire?

(a) High melting point, high specific resistance
(b) High melting point, low specific resistance
(c) Low melting point, low specific resistance
(d) Low melting point, high specific resistance
24. In a conductor ‘ ’ electrons pass through a cross-section in ‘ ’ seconds. If a potential difference

across the conductor is ‘ ’, what is the value of resistance? (Given: e is electron charge)
(a) V t (b) eV (c) ne (d) neV
ne nt Vt t
25. In the previous question what is the work done?

(a) neV (b) eV (c) V (d) none of these
n ne
26. Two bulbs, one rated 40 and the other rated 60 , are connected in parallel. Which one will
glow brighter?
(a) 40 W (b) 60W
(c) both will glow with equal brightness (d) can’t say
27. If the bulbs from the previous questions are connected in series, which bulb will glow brighter?
(a) 40 W (b) 60W
(c) both will glow with equal brightness (d) can’t say
28 A resistor with = 10 is connected across a 10V battery for 10 minutes. What is the heat
generated in the resistor?
(a) 100 J (b) 6000 J (c) 360000 J (d) 36 J
COMPETITIVE LEVEL
Level-2
1. Two point charges repel each other with a force of 100 N. One of the charges is increased by 10%
and other is reduced by 10%. The new force of repulsion at the same distance would be ….N
(a) 121 (b) 100 (c) 99 (d) 89
2. Two small conducting sphere of equal radius have charges + 1C and –2C respectively and placed at a
distance d from each other experience force F1. If they are brought in contact and separated to the
same distance, they experience for F2. The ratio of F1 to F2 is
(a) 8:1 (b) 1: 2 (c) 1:8 (d) 2:1
3. Three charges, each of value Q, are placed at the vertex of an equilateral triangle. A fourth charge q
is placed at the centre of the triangle. If the charges remains stationery then, q =
Q Q Q Q
(a) (b)  (c)  (d)
2 3 2 3
4. For the system shown in figure, if the resultant force on q is zero, then q =
(a) 2 2Q
(b) 2 2Q
(c) 2 3Q
(d) 3 2Q
5. Two identical balls having like charges are placed at a certain distance apart repel each other with a
certain force. They are brought in contact and then moved apart to a distance equal to half their
initial separation. The force of repulsion between them increases 4.5 times in comparison with the
initial value. The ratio of the initial charges of the balls is
(a) 4:1 (b) 6:1 (c) 3:1 (d) 2:1
6. Two point charges of +16C and –9C are placed 8cm apart in air…….. distance of a point from –9c
charge at which the resultant electric field is zero.
(a) 24 cm (b) 9cm (c) 16cm (d) 35 cm
7. Consider a system of three charges q/3, q/3 and –2q/3 placed at points A, B and C respectively as
shown in the figure. It the radius of the circle is R and  CAB  60 o then the electric field at centre O
is
q q2 q
(a) (b) (c) (d) 0
80 R 2 540 R 2 6 0 R 2
8. Two points P and Q are maintained at the Potential of 10V and –4V, respectively. The work done in
moving 100 electrons from P to Q is
(a) 2.24  10  16 J (b) 9.60  10 17 J (c) 2.24  10 16 J (d) 9.60  10 17 J
9. Three charges 2q,–q, –q are located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. At the centre of the
triangle.
(a) The field is zero but potential is non-zero
(b) The field is non-zero but potential is zero
(c) Both field and potential are zero
(d) Both field and potential are non-zero
10. Four equal charges Q are placed at the four corners of a square of each side ‘a’. Work done in
removing a charge –Q from its centre to infinity is
2Q 2 2Q 2 Q2
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
 0 a 4  0 a 2  0 a
11. The effective resistance of a ‘n’ number of resistors connected in parallel is ‘x’ ohm. When one of
the resistors is removed, the effective resistance becomes y ohm. The resistance of the resistor that is
removed is
xy xy
(a) (b) (c)  y  x  (d) xy
x  y y  x
12. Calculate net resistance between A and B.
5r
(a) 4r (b) 5r (c) 4r (d)
5 2 4
13. A wire in a circular shape has 10  resistance. The resistance per one meter is 1  . The resultant
between A & B is equal to 2.4  , then the length of the chord AB will be equal to
B
(a) 2.4 (b) 4 (c) 4.8 (d) 6
14. Two wires of the metal have the same length but their cross-sectional diameter are in the ratio 3:1 .
They are joined in series. The resistance of the thicker wire is 10  . The total resistance of the
combination will be
40 5
(a) 40 (b) (c) (d) 100
3 2
15. A parallel combination of three resistors takes a current of 7.5A from a 30 V supply. It the two
resistors are 10  and 12  find which is the third one?
(a) 4  (b) 15  (c) 12  (d) 22 
16. The masses of three wires of copper are in the ratio of 1: 3 : 5 and their lengths are in the ratio of
5 : 3:1 . The ratio of their electrical resistance is :
(a) 1:1:1 (b) 1: 3 : 5 (c) 5 : 3:1 (d) 125:15 :1
17. An electric kettle has two coils. When one of them is switched on, the water in the kettle boils in 6
minutes. When the other coil is switched on, the water boils in 3 minutes. If the two coils are
connected in series the time taken to boil water in the kettle is
(a) 3 minutes (b) 6 minutes (c) 2 minutes (d) 9 minutes
18. Two heater wires of equal length are first connected in series and then in parallel. The ratio of heat
produced in the two cases is
(a) 2:1 (b) 1: 2 (c) 4:1 (d) 1: 4
19. Length of a heating filament is reduced by 20% its power will

(a) Decrease by 20% (b) Increase by 20%
(c) Increase by 25% (d) Increase by 40%
20. Two resistance R1 and R2 have effective resistance Rs when connected in series combination and Rp
when connected in parallel combination if Rs Rp = 16 and R 1  4 the values of R1 and R2 are
R2
(a) 2  and 0.5  (b) 1  and 0.25  (c) 8  and 2  (d) 4  and 1 

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51

ELECTRIC CHARGE AND COULOMB'S LAW:

The Law of Conservation of Charge:

Table of elementary particle masses and charges:

particle mass(kg) charge(C)

Why is static electricity more apparent in winter?

THE ELECTRIC FIELD:

Electric force between two electric charges:

Electric Field Lines:

Electrical Potential Energy and Electrical Potential:

Electric Potential= P.E./Q

Potential difference between conductors

1. Number of electrons in one coulomb of charge will be

3. Good conductors have many loosely bound

4. Which of the following is volt?

12 The slope of voltage ( ) versus current ( ) is called

19. Why is an electric field measured only by a small test charge?

2. Determine the quantity of charge on …

6. Consider the diagram below:

7. Three charges are arranged as shown in the diagram at the right.

in 2 2× (6.25 × 10 ) or 1.25 × 10 electrons will flow through any cross-

2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

Example 4. Find the Voltage change if

b) According to the definition,

Resistance is measured in ℎ (Ω).

Resistance: The sum total of all the obstruction in an

Cell: A cell is a chemical device which

Plug Key: The plug key is a switch system. By

Voltmeter: An electrical device to measure potential

A simple electric circuit containing a few circuit elements is shown below.

The various components of an electric circuit can be connected in two ways:

Series connection: In a series connection the components are connected end

Parallel connection: In a parallel connection the electric components are

Example 7. Three resistors =5 , = 3 and = 2 are connected in series as shown in the

Solution: Given, = 5 , = 3 and =2

Example 8. What will be the equivalent resistance is the three resistors

Across A and B the connection is in series, i.e. equivalent resistance is or 2

Applications of heating effect of Current:

2. What is the significance of resistance in a conductor?

3. Do all conductors obey Ohm’s law?

6. What is the significance of power rating of an electrical appliance? Why is it necessary?

8. Explain the factors on which resistance depends on?

9. Define electromotive force and express its units?

2. The SI unit of potential difference is ___________.

3. The commonly used safety fuse wire is made of

4. The unit of e.m.f. of a cell is

5. Kilowatt hour is the unit of

8. Conventionally, the direction of current is taken as

10. What is the current in the circuit shown?

15. One ampere equals

16. How many electrons will constitute a current of 1 in one second?

17. The effective resistance of a circuit containing resistances in parallel is

20. What constitutes current in a metal wire?

23. What should be the characteristics of a fuse wire?

24. In a conductor ‘ ’ electrons pass through a cross-section in ‘ ’ seconds. If a potential difference

25. In the previous question what is the work done?

(a) 2.4 (b) 4 (c) 4.8 (d) 6

19. Length of a heating filament is reduced by 20% its power will