NERVOUS SYSTEM 2.

Neurons are multipolar, bipolar or

pseudo-unipolar.
FUNCTIONS:
 Receiving sensory input
 Integrating Information Glial Cells
 Controlling muscles and glands - Glial cells are the support cells of the
 Maintaining Homeostasis nervous system. They include
 Serving as the center of mental activity astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia,
oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells.

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM Myelin Sheaths

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS), - Axons are either unmyelinated or

consists of the brain and spinal cord, myelinated.
whereas the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue
outside the CNS. Organization of Nervous Tissue
2. The sensory division of the PNS
- Consists of white matter and gray
transmits action potentials to the CNS;
matter. Gray matter forms the cortex
the motor division carries action
and nuclei in the brain and ganglia in
potentials away from the CNS.
the PNS. White matter forms nerve
3. The motor division is divided into
tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS.
somatic and autonomic systems. The
somatic motor systems innervate
skeletal muscle and are mostly under
voluntary control. The autonomic ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND
nervous system innervates cardiac NEURAL PATHWAYS
muscle, smooth muscle, and glands and Resting membrane potential
is mostly under involuntary control.
4. The autonomic nervous system is 1. A resting membrane potential results
divided into sympathetic and from the charge difference across the
parasympathetic divisions. membrane of cells.
5. The enteric nervous system contains 2. The resting membrane potential is set
both sensory and motor neurons, which by leak ion channels and sodium-
can function independently of the CNS. potassium pump.

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Neuron Communication

Neurons 1. The process of neuron communication

can be described in three parts:
1. Neurons receive stimuli and conduct
action potentials. A neuron consists of a  Generation of action potentials
cell body, dendrites and an axon.
  Action potential propagation along lumbar vertebra; below that is the
the cell membrane cauda equina.
 Communication of the synapse 2. The spinal cord has a central gray part
2. An action potential occurs when the organized into horns and a peripheral
charge across the cell membrane is white part forming nerve tracts.
briefly reversed. 3. Roots of spinal nerves extend out of
3. Chemically gated and voltage-gated ion the cord.
channels generate the action potential.
4. Continuous conduction occurs along
unmyelinated axons. Reflexes
5. Saltatory conduction occurs along
1. Reflex arcs are the functional units of
myelinated axons.
nervous system.
6. A synapse is a point of contact between
2. A complex reflex is consisting of a
two neurons or between a neuron and
sensory receptor, a sensory neuron,
another cell, such as muscle or gland
interneurons, a motor neuron and an
cell.
effector organ; the simplest reflex arcs
7. An action potential arriving at the
do not involve interneurons.
synapse causes the release of a
3. The knee-jerk reflex occurs when the
neurotransmitter from presynaptic
quadriceps femoris muscle is stretched.
terminal, which diffuses across the
4. The withdrawal reflex removes a body
synaptic cleft and binds to the receptors
part from a painful stimulus.
of the postsynaptic membrane.

Neuronal pathways
SPINAL NERVES

1. Neuronal pathways are either 1. The spinal nerves exit the vertebral
converging or diverging. column at the cervical, thoracis. Lumbar
2. Spatial and temporal summation occur and sacral regions.
in neuronal pathways. 2. The nerves are grouped into plexuses.
3. The phrenic nerve, which supplies the
diaphragm, is the most important
branch of the cervical plexus.
CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL
4. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
the upper limb.
- The CNS consists of the brain and spinal 5. The lumbosacral plexus supplies nerves
cord. The PNS consists nerves and to the lower limb.
ganglia outside the CNS.

BRAIN
SPINAL CORD
Brainstem
1. The spinal cord extends from the
1. The brainstem contains several nuclei.
foramen magnum to the second
 2. The medulla oblongata contains nuclei Ascending Tracts
that control activities such as heart rate,
1. Ascending tracts transmit action
breathing, swallowing, and balance.
potentials from the periphery to the
3. The pons contains relay nuclei between
brain.
the cerebrum and cerebellum.
2. Each tract carries a specific type of
4. The midbrain is involved in hearing and
sensory information.
in visual reflexes.
5. The reticular formation is scattered
throughout the brainstem and is
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
important in regulating cyclical motor
functions. It is also involved in 1. Ascending tracts project to primary
maintaining consciousness and in the sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.
sleep-wake cycle. 2. Association areas are involved in
recognizing the sensory input.

Cerebellum

- It is attached to the brainstem SOMATIC MOTOR FUNCTIONS

1. Somatic motor functions include
involuntary and voluntary movements.
Diencephalon 2. Upper motor neurons in the cerebral
cortex and connect to lower motor
- The Diencephalon consists of the
neurons in the spinal cord or cranial
thalamus (main sensory relay center),
nerve nuclei.
the epithalamus (the pineal gland may
play a role in sexual maturation), and
the hypothalamus (important in
maintaining Homeostasis). Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

1. Upper motor neurons are located in the

primary motor cortex.
Cerebrum 2. The premotor and prefrontal areas
regulate movements.
- The cerebrum has two hemispheres,
each divided into lobes: the frontal,
parietal, occipital and temporal lobes.
Descending Tracts

- Descending tracts project directly from

SENSORY FUNCTIONS upper motor neurons in the cerebral
cortex to lower motor neurons in the
1. The CNS constantly receives sensory
spinal cord and brainstem; indirectly,
input.
they project from basal nuclei, the
2. We are unaware of much of the input,
cerebellum, or cerebral cortex through
but it is vital to our survival.
the brainstem to lower motor neurons
3. Some sensory inputs results in
in the spinal cord.
sensation.
Basal Nuclei Brain Waves and Consciousness

1. Basal nuclei help plan, organize, and - An EEG monitors brain waves, which are
coordinate motor movements and summation of the electrical activity of
posture. the brain.
2. People with basal nuclei disorders
exhibit increased muscle tone and
exaggerated, uncontrolled movements Memory
when at rest.
1. The types of memory are working
(lasting a few seconds to minutes),
short term (lasting a few minutes), and
Cerebellum
long term (permanent) memory.
1. It involved in balance, muscle tone, and 2. Long-term memory includes declarative
muscle coordination. and procedural memories.
2. Through its comparator function, the
cerebellum compares the intended
action to what is occurring and modifies Limbic Systems and Emotions
the action to eliminate differences.
1. The limbic system includes the olfactory
3. If the cerebellum is damaged. Muscle
cortex, deep cortical regions, and
tone decreases and fine motor
nuclei.
movements become very clumsy.
2. The limbic system is involved with
memory, motivation, mood, and other
visceral functions. Olfactory stimulation
OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
is a major influence.
Communication Between the Right and Left
Hemispheres

1. Each Hemisphere controls the opposite MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND

half of the body. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
2. Commissures connect the two Meninges
hemispheres.
3. The Left Hemisphere is thought to be - Three connective tissue meninges cover
the dominant analytical hemisphere, the CNS; the dura mater, arachnoid
and the right hemisphere is thought to mater, and pia mater.
be dominant for spatial perception and
musical ability.
Ventricles

1. The brain and spinal cord contain

Speech fluid-filled cavities: The lateral
- Speech involves the sensory speech ventricles in the cerebral hemispheres,
area, the motor speech are, and the a third ventricle in the diencephalon, a
interactions between them and other cerebral aqueduct in the midbrain, a
cortical areas. fourth ventricle at the base of the
 cerebellum, and a central canal in the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
spinal cord.
1. The autonomic nervous systems contain
2. The fourth ventricle has openings into
preganglionic and postganglionic
the subarachnoid space.
neurons.
2. The autonomic nervous system has
sympathetic and parasympathetic
Cerebrospinal Fluid
divisions.
- Is formed in the choroid plexuses in the
ventricles. It exits through the fourth
ventricle and reenters the blood FUNCTIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC
through arachnoid granulations in the NERVOUS SYSTEM
superior sagittal sinus.
1. The sympathetic division prepares a
person for action by increasing heart
rate, blood pressure, respiration and
CRANIAL NERVES
release of glucose for energy.
1. Four of the cranial nerves have a 2. The parasympathetic division is
parasympathetic function. There are 12 involved in involuntary activities at rest,
pairs of cranial nerves: such as the digestion of food,
 3 with only sensory functions defecation and urination.
 4 somatic motor function
 1 with somatic motor and
sensory function ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 1 with somatic motor and
1. It forms plexuses in the digestive tract
parasympathetic function
wall.
 3 with all three functions
2. Enteric neurons are sensory, motor, or
2. The cranial nerves are olfactory:
interneurons; they receive CNS input
 Optic
but can also function independently.
 Oculomotor
 Trochlear
 Trigeminal
 Abducens
 Facial
 Vestibulocochlear
 Glossopharyngeal
 Vagus
 Accessory
 Hypoglossal