AN EXPLORATORY STUDY INTO HUMANISM

INTRODUCTION TO HUMANISM
Humanists believed in the importance of an education in
classical literature and the promotion of civic virtue, that is, realising a
person's full potential both for their own good and for the good of the
society in which they live. The difficulty in defining humanism and its ever-
evolving character have not prevented it being widely regarded as the
defining feature of 1400 to 1600 Europe and the very reason why that
period can be identified as a Renaissance or 'rebirth' of ideas.

Defining Humanism
Humanism was a term invented in the 19th century to describe the
Renaissance idea that directly studying the works of antiquity was an
important part of a rounded education . From this position came the idea
that the study of humanity should be a priority as opposed to religious
matters . Important classical ideals which interested humanists included the
importance of public and private virtue, Latin grammar, techniques of
rhetoric, history, conventions in literature and poetry, and
moral philosophy.

In modern times, the term 'humanism' has gained a different meaning (a

rational and non-religious way of life) and so to safeguard its original
purpose, when applied to 1400-1600, it is often clarified as 'Renaissance
Humanism'.

The main elements of Renaissance humanism include:

 an interest in studying literature and art from antiquity

 an interest in the eloquent use of Latin and philology
 a belief in the importance and power of education to create useful
citizens
 the promotion of private and civic virtue
 a rejection of scholasticism
 the encouragement of non-religious studies
  an emphasis on the individual and their moral autonomy
 a belief in the importance of observation, critical analysis, and
creativity
 a belief that poets, writers, and artists can lead humanity to a better
way of living
 an interest in the question 'what does it mean to be human'?

Petrarch believed that a new golden age of thought and politics could be
achieved by returning to the ideals of antiquity and by permitting poets and
scholars to lead a revolution in education. His idea that the period in which
he lived was an intermediary period between antiquity and this new dawn,
what he called disparagingly 'a slumber' was latched onto by later
Renaissance thinkers and did much to foster the idea that the Middle Ages
was somehow a period of cultural darkness. Further, Petrarch's work with
ancient manuscripts encouraged the scholarship of non-religious subjects
with humanity at its centre, and this became a legitimate activity for
intellectuals. Consequently, Petrarch is often cited as the father of
humanism.

The Classical Ideal

After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many Greek scholars fled the
collapsing Byzantine Empire and brought classical texts with them to
Europe, especially Italy. These were a very welcome addition to the Latin
texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries. Consequently,
by 1515 the works of all major classical authors were available in print.
Looking at these works as a whole, one idea which especially interested
Renaissance thinkers was virtus (virtue or excellence) and civic duty.
Petrarch had studied this half a century before but now the idea really took
off that the ancient world had something very valuable to teach the people
of the 15th century. Renaissance humanists now wanted to use, analyse,
and critique ancient sources to improve one's public life in service of the
state. Theoretical knowledge was not enough, what was gained from study
had to be put into practice for the good of the state and all who lived in it.
Consequently, the great question, what does it mean to be human that
preoccupied Renaissance scholars provoked answers that included
religious, philosophical, scientific, and artistic considerations.
 There were even those who thought that God had given humanity the
world as a test, to make of it what they will and apply their virtue into
making it a better place. In this way, humanism was not in opposition to
religion for many thinkers, but it did lead to the idea of a morally-
autonomous individual, which in turn led to individualism.

The Spread of Humanism

The printing press helped spread humanist ideas from their origins in Italy
to the north of Europe. Indeed, the most celebrated humanist scholar of his
day was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Erasmus
believed that education was the answer to the Catholic Church's problems
(and not a radical Reformation). To this end, he compiled editions of
classical authors and provided a new Latin and Greek translation of the
New Testament

Although early humanists were often Christians, the movement's emphasis

on critical inquiry did lead to an inevitable clash with Church authorities who
depended on mass and uncritical acceptance of secondhand
interpretations of doctrine.

Education
Education is an important facet of Humanism. Not only did the humanists
revere learning, but they disseminated their ideas through a radical change
in educational methods. Humanism was primarily a movement in opposition
to the traditional mode of education, called Scholasticism

Humanists emphasised the importance of an education which covered the

liberal arts of rhetoric, moral philosophy, grammar, history, and poetry.
Physical exercise, just like in ancient Greece, was also considered an
essential part of a rounded education that resulted in young people being
able to realise their potential and become good citizens. Scholasticism had
been a new style of learning in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which
accepted as a maxim that God existed and that God's Truth was a given
that did not need to be proved. Texts were treated as authorities, and each
statement was disputed as either false or true, with no consideration for the
context of the statement or the circumstances under which it was written.
The humanists sought to understand a writer's complete theory. They also
looked at ancient writings in their historical contexts, in order to discover
the nature of the writer as well as the historical import of his words. 

HUMANISM IN SCIENCE
 The Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed that
the solar system was heliocentric, amongst other innovative ideas, in
his On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, published in
1543. Copernicus was a classic Renaissance scholar as he studied the
works of antiquity, observed what he could in the world personally, collated
all that had been studied thus far in his field, and then came up with a new
view of the subject at hand. Perhaps the greatest contribution humanism
made to science

Humanism in the Arts

Artists now gave emphasis to the human experience in their art. Portraits,
for example, might include a classical book next to the sitter to emphasise
their humanist tendencies. Even religious works of the period have a focus
on the human figures and their story within the scene. Just as humanist
writers knew full well the powerful effect of their words, so, too, artists knew
the power they had to create a lasting aesthetic impression on the viewer.
Perhaps there is no better example of this wow-factor than Michelangelo's
Sistine Chapel ceiling. Finally, the emphasis on the individual within
humanism found expression in the way artists now viewed themselves

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam was born in October of 1466 or 1467  He
was put into a monastery, where he was prepared for the priesthood.
However, Erasmus became a scholar and one of the first humanists and
did not join the priesthood. He initially supported the Reformation but
abandoned the movement when it led to religious conflict.  Erasmus
considered religious feeling to stem from a direct reading of the scriptures,
which he felt had a nearly magical ability to influence people to follow the
example of Christ. Like Luther, whom he at first admired, Erasmus felt that
the key to religious feeling was the change of heart that could occur when a
person reads the scriptures, not from unthinking obedience to the rituals of
a corrupt church.

Francesco Petrarch was born July 20, 1304, in Arezzo, Italy. Known as the
"Father of Humanism," Petrarch promoted the study of works by Cicero
(106-43 BC) and Virgil (70-19 BC)  Petrarch valued Cicero for his ideas
about morality, oration, and the purpose of education as a means to train
good citizens. It was Petrarch who identified the decline of the Roman
Empire as a historical event, and he defined the period of history after its
fall as a "dark age," or a "Middle Age" between the golden era of antiquity
and the current "rebirth" of antiquity in Petrarch's own time.

Modern Secular Humanism

The social reformist thinking of the nineteenth century was an outgrowth of
Renaissance and then Enlightenment Humanism. Belief in the Great Chain
of Being with its divinely ordained hierarchies in each category, including
among various kinds of people, legitimized imperialism with the idea of
"civilizing" undeveloped nations abroad and contributed to the sense of
social responsibility that eventually developed into better living and
employment conditions at home,

Robert Green Ingersoll (1833-1899) wrote "A Humanist Credo," in which he

defined this responsibility:

We are satisfied that there can be but little liberty on earth while men
worship a tyrant in heaven. We do not expect to accomplish everything in
our day; but we want to do what good we can, and to render all the service
possible in the holy cause of human progress. We know that doing away
with gods and supernatural persons and powers is not an end. It is a
means to an end—the real end being the happiness of man.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF HUMANISM

The Renaissance
The Renaissance constituted a major shift in focus from God to man. It
started in the middle of the fourteenth century, after the bubonic plague
(Black Death, 1347-1377) killed almost one-third of the population of
Europe. A renewed interest in classical literature, language, and
philosophy fed the intellectual movement of the Renaissance: Humanism.
Humanism was responsible for raising man to a level of dignity and
intellectual importance that actually threatened the viability of the Church.

PEOPLE developed the notion that man can achieve redemption through
faith, independent of the grace of God. This change accompanied a
growing awareness of and discomfort about the extensive corruption of the
clergy. The practice of selling indulgences began to be questioned 

Knowledge and ideas were more widely available due to the invention of
the printing press (1457-1458) and a gradual urbanization of society. The
Catholic Church still maintained its political, social, and economic power,
but the Protestant Reformation was questioning its theology,

Italian City-States
The birth of Humanism occurred in the Italian city-states during the
fourteenth century, when Francesco Petrarch decided to devote himself to
the study of Latin (and later, Greek) The Italian city-states were a perfect
breeding ground for a new ideology because they were not as committed to
Scholasticism as were the urban areas of the rest of Europe. This fluidity
made it easier for the city-states to shift to the new humanist way of
thinking

The Reformation
The Reformation was a reaction to the corruption of the Roman Catholic
Church, which was raising money by selling indulgences (pieces of paper
promising that the purchaser would have all of his earthly sins excused in
heaven). The Reformation was a theological movement, led by Martin
Luther, who in 1517 attached ninety-five theses (criticisms of the Church) to
the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg

The Reformation was questioning the validity of that power, in light of

extensive corruption among the clergy . Henry VIII took advantage of the
weakening of Church authority and in 1538 dissolved the wealthy
monasteries. he assumed authority over the Church in England.

Printing
Johannes Gutenberg, German inventor of the printing press using movable
type, produced a 1,282-page Latin Bible between 1453 and 1455. By 1465,
two German printers had set up shop in Italy, where they produced a Latin
grammar and a work of Cicero

 With the rapid proliferation of printing presses in major cities, the

opportunity for a profitable business arose, and the cost of books dropped
so that each student in a school could own his own Latin grammar .In
addition, the professionalization of printing resulted in a greater reliability of
the texts

Renaissance Humanism after 1500

By the 1500s, Humanism was the dominant form of education, so
widespread that it was dividing into a range of sub-developments. As
perfected texts passed to other specialists, such as mathematicians and
scientists, the recipients also became Humanist thinkers. As these fields
developed they split, and the overall Humanist program of reform
fragmented. The ideas ceased to be the preserve of the rich, as printing
had brought cheap written materials to a wider market, and now a mass
audience was adopting, often unconsciously, humanist thinking.

Humanism had spread across Europe, and while it split in Italy, the stable
countries to the north fostered a return of the movement that began to have
the same massive effect. Henry VIII encouraged Englishmen trained in
Humanism to replace foreigners on his staff; in France Humanism was
seen as the best way to study scripture. John Calvin agreed, starting a
humanist school in Geneva. In Spain, Humanists clashed with the Church
and Inquisition and merged with surviving scholasticism as a way to
survive.

The End of Renaissance Humanism

By the mid-16th century, Humanism had lost much of its power. Europe
was engaged in a war of words, ideas, and sometimes weapons over the
nature of Christianity (the Reformation) and Humanist culture was
overtaken by rival creeds, becoming semi-independent disciplines
governed by the area’s faith.