LECTURE 1

Basic Writing Skill 1

Clauses

What is a Clause?
Clauses are the essential building blocks of all sentences. A clause is a group of related words that have (at
least) a subject and a main verb. The subject names a person, place, thing, or idea. The main verb describes
action or the subject’s state of being; it tells us what the subject does, what the subject is, or what the subject
receives.

E.g. Jessica walked on the grass. Though the grass was wet.

S V S V

TIPS for Finding the Verb

1. Find the verb by asking what action takes place.
2. Find the verb by asking what word links the subject with the rest of the
sentence.
3. Words mistaken for the Verb: TWO forms of the verb that may be mistaken for the main verb:

 The infinitive (the “to” form of the verb)

E.g. Homeowners to install new roofs because of the damage from the storm.
-> Homeowners had to install new roofs because of the damage from the storm.
 The present participle (the “-ing” form of the verb)
E.g. My reading comprehension improving by 15 percent.
-> My reading comprehension has been improving by 15 percent.

6. The verb will NEVER be in a prepositional phrase because prepositional phrases are made of prepositions
and their objects, which are either nouns or pronouns—never verbs. Therefore, a prepositional phrase will never
contain the verb of a clause.
It is crucial to distinguish clauses from phrases. A phrase is also a group of words, but does not
contain a subject-verb relation. It lacks either a subject or a main verb.

E.g. a. We work in the morning. → a clause b. In the morning → a phrase

Two Types of Clauses

Clauses can be categorized into Independent and Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses.

1. Independent Clauses

An independent clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought. It can stand on its own as a simple
sentence.

E.g. a. Let’s start the music.

b. I’ll tell her the assignment.

c. The battery is defective.

2. Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses

A dependent clause (or a subordinate clause) is a clause that does NOT express a complete thought. Therefore,
a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence.

A dependent clause starts with words called Subordinating conjunctions (or Subordinators).

E.g. a. When Mary gets here,…

b. If Peter comes to the meeting late,…

c. …which I bought last night.

→ These are dependent clauses because they do not express complete thoughts.
 2.1. Sub-types of Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses are divided into THREE types: Adjective clauses (or Relative clauses), Noun clauses
and Adverb clauses.

2.1.1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (RELATIVE CLAUSES)

What are Adjective clauses?

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that plays the role of an adjective in a sentence. Therefore, an
adjective clause is often placed after a noun or pronoun to support or modify it. That’s why adjective clauses
are also called relative clauses.

Most adjective clauses begin with the relative pronouns which, whom, that, who, whose, but a few are
introduced by relative adverbs when, where, why. Adjective clauses usually immediately follow the noun/
pronoun they modify.

E.g. In the following sentences the adjective clauses are italicized.

 Anne Frank’s diary, which she began in 1942, was terminated by her capture and death in 1945.
(The adjective clause modifies diary.)
 Min-Hua’s father, whom you met last night, is from Baltimore.
(The adjective clause modifies father.)
 Many of the monuments that have survived in ancient Egypt through thousands of years were built at a
terrible cost in human suffering and death.
(The adjective lause modifies monuments.)
Any pitcher who deliberately hits a batter will be ejected.
(The adjective clause modifies pitcher.)
 Drivers whose cars are left unattended will receive citations.
(The adjective clause modifies drivers.)
My grandmother is interested in telling about the time when my family was rich.
(The adjective clause modifies the time.)
 I love my hometown where there are many historical places.
(The adjective clause modifies hometown.)
Exercise1:  Underline the adjective clauses in the following sentences.

 In the space before each sentence, write the noun or pronoun modified by the clause.

The first sentence has been done for you as an example.

a game 1. The modern pinball machine is a game that challenges you to score points without losing the
ball or tilting the game.
2. Despite the electronic technology, which has been added to attract players, the goals of the game
remain the same: score points and keep the ball from going down the drain.
3. Despite the various types of machines, they have three components that are common to all of
them: the flippers, the pinball, and the drain.
4. The flippers, whose purpose is to keep the ball out of the drain and propel it toward the bumpers
and ramps in order to score points, are usually located at the bottom of the playfield.
5. The flippers are controlled with two buttons that are located on either side of the machine.
6. The traditional steel pinball, which weighs 2.8 ounces, flies around the table hitting bumpers and
targets to score points.
7. A ball that fails to hit a target falls down the drain, and you move on to your next ball.
8. The third ball that goes down the drain means that the game is over, unless you have scored a
replay or a match.
9. The back portion of the table usually contains art that is carefully crafted to draw the player to a
certain machine over any other in the arcade.
10. The back of the table also contains a speaker that produces musical scores to accompany game
play.
Types of Adjective clauses/ Relative clauses

Adjective clauses/Relative clauses come into 2 types: non-restrictive and restrictive. Non-restrictive
clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma while restrictive are not.

Exercise 2: Underline all adjective clauses in the following sentences, and supply any missing commas (,).
1. Heidi Klum who is one of the world’s best-paid models also has her own TV shows and a line of clothes and
jewelry.
2. Part-time jobs which many college students rely on are defined as one to thirty four hours per week.
3. I met my boyfriend at the car wash where we both had brought our Jettas for baths.
4. The new sheriff whom we met at City Hall last night is surprisingly young and shy.
5. Please give this apple core to the neighbor’s dog whose favorite pastime is burying things.
6. For a tour guide who must describe the same site each day even Mt. Rushmore can begin to seem
commonplace.
7. Poems that cannot get published during the poet’s lifetime sometimes become famous after the poet’s death.
8. Native Hawaiians are generally very proud of the Iolani Palace where their final monarch once lived.
9. Last Halloween when Victor ate all those Snickers bars he developed a paralyzing headache.
10. Inner Mongolia which most Americans have never seen is becoming a popular area for U.S. architects to
build mansions.

Shortening Adjective clauses/ Relative clauses

1. Omitting the Object Relative Pronoun: When the relative pronoun is the OBJECT of the adjective/relative
clause, the relative pronoun can be omitted.

E.g. The woman whom/that I regularly see on Sundays is my mother’s friend.

-> The woman I regularly see on Sundays is my mother’s friend. (whom/that is omitted)

2. Adjective Clause/ Relative Clause Reductions: When the relative pronoun is the SUBJECT of the
adjective/relative clause, the adjective/relative clause can be reduced to a phrase as one of the following ways.

 A subject relative pronoun + verb = a present participle (V-ing)

E.g. a. The girl who is sitting in the park looks nervous.

-> The girl sitting in the park looks nervous.

b. We study in a university which consists of six separate colleges.

-> We study in a university consisting of six separate colleges.

 For passive construction, the subject relative pronoun + verb to be can be removed to leave the past
participle (V-ed)
E.g. The man who was injured in the tiger attack went to hospital.
-> The man injured in the tiger attack went to hospital.
 If the adjective clause/relative clause contains the verb to be, the relative pronoun and the verb to be can
be omitted.
E.g. a. The man who is next to me must be a diplomat of some kind.
-> The man next to me must be a diplomat of some kind.

b. Shakespeare, who is the most well-known British author of all time, continues to fascinate
readers today.
-> Shakespeare, the most well-known British author of all time, continues to fascinate readers
today. (appositive reduction)
Exercise 3:  Combine two sentences into one, using relative clauses. Pay attention to punctuation (commas).

 If any adjective/relative clause can be shortened, make the changes to it. Write all of the possible
correct answer.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

0. I own a car. It broke down for the eighth time last night.

-> I own a car which broke down for the eighth time last night.

-> Last night the car that/which I own broke down for the eighth time.

->Last night the car I own broke down for the eighth time.

1. I went to see the doctor. She had helped my mother before.

2. Ann talked to the man. She got a lot of information about our President's election campaign from him.

3. They lived in the block of flats. It was struck by lightning yesterday.

4. John F. Kennedy died in 1963. He was a very famous American President.

5. The 1992 Olympics was held in Barcelona. It is in the north-east of Spain.

6. I met the old lady. Her house is very beautiful and well-furnished.

7. Her family migrated to the USA in 1918. World War I occurred in this year.

8. A plane crashed into the ocean yesterday. It was carrying 98 passengers.

9. When I was walking home, there was a man. He was following me.
 2.1.2. NOUN CLAUSES

What are Noun Clauses?

A noun clause is another type of dependent clauses that can do what a noun can do. Therefore, we may see a
noun clause in place of a subject, an object, or an object of a preposition in a sentence.

Forms of Noun Clauses

THREE KEY COMPONENTS of a noun clause

1. An initial relative pronoun/ relative adverb (many of the same one that begins an adjective/relative clause)

2. A subject

3. A verb

Functions of Noun Clauses

 Noun Clause as Subject:

 Noun Clause as Object:

 Noun Clause as Object of a Preposition:

Exercise 3: Choose the correct option. Be prepared to explain your answers.
 2.1.3. ADVERB CLAUSES

What are adverb clauses?

An adverb clause is a type of dependent clauses. It starts with a Subordinator (i.e, before, after, etc).

An adverb clause supports the verb of the main clause (or independent clause) and states when (time), where
(place), why (reason), how, how long, how far, etc.

E.g. She talked so loudly as if everyone wanted to listen to her.

-> In the above sentence, the adverb clause "as if everyone wanted to listen to her” states the manner of the
verb "talk".

Adverb clauses may come after or before main clauses. If the sentence begins with an adverb clause, a comma
(,) is placed after it. Below are the two sentence structures with adverb clauses.

Structure 1: Adverb clauses without commas (,)

Structure 1: Subject + verb + subordinator + subject + verb.

E.g. His parents give him a present whenever he gets a good mark at school.

Structure 2: Adverb clauses with commas (,).

Structure 2: Subordinator + subject + verb , subject + verb.

E.g. Whenever he gets a good mark at school, his parents give him a present.

NOTE: You should NOT confuse adjective/relative and adverb clauses if they start with the same
subordinators. There is a big difference between these two types of dependent clauses. While adjective clauses
support a noun and stand after the things/people they refer to, adverb clauses play an essential part of
sentences. Without them, the sentences are incomplete.

E.g. a. My grandmother enjoys telling about the time when my family was rich. (Relative clause)

-> In the above sentence, the relative clause “when my family was rich” identifies “the time".

b. When students from other countries come to the United States, they often suffer from culture shock.
 “When students from other countries come to the United States” → adverb clause

 In the above sentence, the adverb clause “When students from other countries come to the United
States” supports the main verb in the independent clause "suffer". Besides, it states the time students
from other countries "suffer from the culture shock". They do not identify "any time"

ADVERB CLAUSES – SUBORDINATORS

The following is the list of types of subordinators which start adverb clauses.

Types Subordinators Meaning Examples

When students from other countries come to the

A point in time/ short
When United States, they often suffer from culture
duration
shock.

Whenever At any time You can ask for help whenever you need it.

A man is accused of shooting his two

While At the same time children while they were sleeping at home last
Sunday.

Immediately at or
As soon as instantly after the We’ll go out as soon as it stops raining.
time that
Time
Following the time
After After I had lunch, I went home.
that

From that time/

Since We have lived here since we were born.
moment

As she grew older, she became more and more

As While/ when
beautiful.

Earlier than the time

Before Before we have meals, we should wash our hands.
when

Until Up to the time of Let’s wait until it stops raining.

Places Where A definite place I wonder where they will take us to.
 Do you know anywhere I can buy a second-hand
Anywhere
computer?
Anyplace
Travelers can use credit cards in foreign countries
Wherever
wherever they are accepted.

The pedestrians may take a rest everywhere they

Everywhere Everyplace
like.

Distances/
As + adv + as Comparison John runs as fast as Kim does.
Frequency

As
In the way or manner
Manner As if She left the room as her boss requested.
that/like
As though

Because All countries around the world should take

Reasons As For the reason that action because global warming has caused a great
Since amount of damage.

So + adj + that
So + adv that
Such a(n)+ noun Class craft has been so successful that others
Results Phrase + that With the result that teachers at Mr. Young's school are now using the
So much/ many/ same method for good performances.
little/ few + noun
phrase + that

So that Scientists often suggest that we should store fruit

Purposes For the purpose of
In order that in the fridge so that it will stay fresh longer.

Although
Although John prepared well for his exam, he got
Concessions Even though Unexpected results
bad marks this time.
Though

While Life in the countryside is quiet and

Contrast Direct opposition
Whereas peaceful while life in cities is hectic.
Exercise 4:  In each sentence, underline the Subordinator of the Adverb Dependent Clause. Write the
subordinator’s function on the line.
 Add/ correct the punctuation if necessary.
The first one has been done for you as an example.

Exercise 5: Choose the correct words in the box to fill in the blanks.

when whenever as soon as so interesting that whereas as if

until after because although so that while

1. he woke up, he realized he was in another place.

2. The book was I completed reading it within 2 days.

3. Lauren tried her best to achieve the scholarship she could go to college next year.

4. Mrs. Smith works very hard she has to earn her family a living.

5. He behaved nothing had happened.

6. Some of the studies show positive results others do not.

7. my mother was cooking, my father was cleaning the floor.

8. Tom did not pass the exam he studied hard for it.

9. she spoke, I had not realized she was English.

10. You can ask for help you need it.