Ncert Notes For Geography: 10th Standard

NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
10th Standard
CONTENTS
Resources and Development ...................................................................................................... 1 - 9
Forest and Wildlife Resources ............................................................................................. 10 - 12
Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 13 - 15
Aggriculture ................................................................................................................................. 16 - 23
Mierals and Energy Resources .............................................................................................. 24 - 35
Manufacturing Industries ........................................................................................................ 36 - 47
Lifelines of National Economy ............................................................................................... 48 - 55

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
1
Resources are everything available in the environment which can be used to satisfy human needs provided,
it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable. Human beings interact with
nature through technology and create institutions to accelerate their economic development.
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent Relationship between Nature, Technology and Institutions
Resources are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of
resources. They transform material available in our environment into resources and use them.
Classification of Resources:
· On the basis of Origin – biotic and abiotic.
· On the basis of Exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable.
· On the basis of Ownership – individual, community, national and international.
· On the basis of Status of Development – potential, developed stock and reserves.
Fig. 1.2: Classification of Resources
1
Types of Resources
On the basis of Origin:
· Biotic Resources: These resources are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings,
flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
· Abiotic resources: These are things which are composed of non-living things such as rocks and
metals.
On the basis of Exhaustibility:
· Renewable (or Replenishable) Resources: These are resources which can be renewed or reproduced
by physical, chemical or mechanical processes. For example – solar, wind energy, water, etc. They may
further be divided into continuous or flow.
· Non-Renewable Resources: These occur over a very long geological time. For example – Minerals,
fossil fuels etc. Some of them like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
On the basis of Ownership:

· Individual Resources: These are also owned privately by individual. Such as Plantation, pasture lands,
ponds, water in wells etc.
· Community Owned Resources: These are resources that are accessible to all the members of the
community. For example - Village commons (grazing grounds, village ponds etc.).
· National Resources: Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. All the minerals, water
resources, forests, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (22.2
km) from the coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation.
· International Resources: The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic
Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of
international institutions. (ISBA, UNCLOS).
On the basis of the Status of Development:

· Potential Resources: These are those resources which are found in a region but they have not been
utilised. For example - The Western parts of India have not developed the wind and solar energy
properly despite having enormous potential.

· Developed Resources: These are resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have
been determined for utilisation. Their development depends on technology and level of their
feasibility.
· Stock: They are the materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but
human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these. For example, Human beings do
not the advanced technology to utilize hydrogen from water as a source of energy.
Ø Reserves: They are the subset of the stock which can be put into use with the help of existing
technical 'know-how' but their use has not been started. For example, River water can be used for
generating hydroelectric power but it is being utilised only to a limited extent.
2
Development of Resource:
Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. Human beings considered
resources are free gift which resulted into indiscriminate use of the resources.
· Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
· Accumulation of resources in few hands which divided the society into two segments i.e. haves and
have nots or rich and poor.
· Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global warming,
ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource Planning:
Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable existence is a
component of sustainable development.
· Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance in a country
like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources.
· There are some regions which can be considered self sufficient in terms of the availability of resources
and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources.
· For example - The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in
water resources.
· A balanced resource planning at national, state, regional and local level is necessary.
Resource Planning in India:
· Resource Planning is a complex process which involves:
Ø Identification and Inventory of resources: Across the regions of the country. It involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
Ø Evolving a Planning Structure: It is endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set
up for implementing resource development plans.
Ø Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
· India has been working for resources planning since first five year plan.
· Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes.
· In India, development, in general, and resource development in particular does not only involve the
availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human resources and the historical
experiences of the people.

Conservation of Resources:
Then irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and
environmental problems. To overcome this problems resource conservation at various level is important.
Land Resources:
· Land is natural resource of utmost importance and supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life,
economic activities, and transport and communication systems.
· In India 43 per cent of the land area is plain, 30 per cent Mountains and about 27 per cent of the area of
the country is the plateau region.
3
Land Use Pattern:
It is determined by:
· Physical factors: Physical factors like topography, climate, soil types.
· Human factors: It includes population density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc.
Categories of Land use pattern:
· Forests
· Land not available for Cultivation:
Ø Barren and waste land.
Ø Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
· Other Uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
Ø Permanent pastures and grazing land.
Ø Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area).
Ø Cultural waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
· Fallow Lands: Fallow land includes,
Ø Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year).
Ø Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
· Net Sown area: The area sown more than once in an agricultural year is called net sown area and it is
also known as gross cropped area.
Land Use Pattern in India:

· Variation of Net Sown Area in states: It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and
less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
· Forest Area: It is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area as outlined in the National
Forest Policy (1952).
· Waste Land: It includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-agricultural uses
includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
· Land Conservation: Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate
measures to conserve and manage it has resulted in land degradation.
Fig. 1.3: Land use pattern in India
4
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures:
· Land Degradation: It is caused by the Mining, over grazing, over irrigation, water logging, formation of
dust which prevents infiltration of water, etc.
· Conservation of Land Degradation: Some of the ways are - Afforestation and proper management of
grazing, Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing and stabilisation of sand dunes by
growing thorny bushes etc.
Soil as a Resource:
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource and is a living system. The important factors in its
formation are Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time. It also
consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Fig. 1.4: Soil Profile
5
Classification of Soils:
The soils in India are classified into different types on the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation,
colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties.
Alluvial Soils:
· Source: These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
· Regions: It covers entire northern plains, extended through narrow corridor into Gujarat and
Rajasthan, eastern coastal plain particular in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, etc.
· It consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. The inland soil near the river valley appears
bigger in size and in upper reaches of the river valley, near the place of break of slope, soil are coarse as
found in in piedmont plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai
· Classification based on age: These can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial
(Khadar). The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. The khadar
has more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
· Chemical components: Potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
· Important crops: Sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
· Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline.
Black Soil:
· These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils. It is ideal for growing cotton and is
also known as black cotton soil. It is made up of lava flows.
· The most important factors for its development are climatic conditions and parent rocks.
· It is made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material. They are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime and poor in phosphoric contents.
· Regions: It cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh etc. and extend in
the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
· They are well-known for capacity to hold water. It is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless
tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Yellow Soils:
· Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts

of the Deccan plateau.
· These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It
looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
· Regions: They are found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain
and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
Laterite Soil:
· Laterite has been derived from the Latin word 'later' which means brick.
· It develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season and result of
intense leaching due to heavy rain. It is mostly deep to very deep acidic.
· They are lacking in plant nutrients.
6
· Presence of Humus: It is humus rich where it support deciduous and evergreen forests whereas it
humus poor when under sparse vegetation and in semi-arid environment.
· Areas: They are found in southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and North-east regions.
· This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.
Arid Soils:
· Arid soils range from red to brown in colour and are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature and
sometime salts can be obtained from it. Soil lacks in humus and moisture.
· Lacks humus and moisture: Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster.
· The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium content
downwards. Kankar formation prevents water infiltration.
· With proper irrigation this soil can be used for cultivation.
Forest Soil:
· These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.
· They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
· In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low
humus content.
· The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are
fertile.
Fig. 1.5: India - Major Soil Types
7
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation:
Soil Erosion: It is the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down. The processes of soil
formation and erosion go on simultaneously and generally there is a balance between the two.
Reasons for Soil Erosion:
· Natural Reasons: It includes natural forces like wind, glacier and water. The running water cuts
through the clayey soils and makes deep channels called as gullies, due to gullies the land becomes
unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. In the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.
· Human Reasons: Deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc.
Various Types of Soil Erosion:
· Sheet Erosion: Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope which wash away the
top soil.
· Wind Erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.
· Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of farming. Like- Wrong ploughing.
Measures to Reduce Soil Erosion:
· Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines which decelerate the flow of water down the
slopes.
· Terrace Cultivation: Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
· Strip Cropping: Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops which breaks up the force of the
wind.
· Shelter Belt: Rows of trees planted in lines to create shelter.
Interesting points
· “There is enough for everybody's need and not for any body's greed.” – Gandhiji.
· In India, Land use data is available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area because:
Ø The land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully.
Ø Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not

been surveyed.
· India has got the right to mine manganese nodules from the bed of the Indian Ocean from that
area which lies beyond the exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
· Sustainable development: Sustainable economic development means 'development should take
place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not
compromise with the needs of the future generations.'
· At the international level, the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a
more systematic way in 1968. Gandhian philosophy was presented by Schumacher in his book
Small is Beautiful.
8
· Brundtland Commission Report, 1987: This report introduced the concept of 'Sustainable
Development' and advocated it as a means for resource conservation, which was subsequently
published in a book entitled Our Common Future.
· Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992:
Ø It was the first International Earth Summit which was convened for addressing urgent problems
of environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global level.
Ø The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological
Diversity.
Ø The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for
achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
· Agenda 21: It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at
achieving global sustainable development.
9
FOREST AND WILDLIFE
2 RESOURCES
Humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system. Forests play a key role in
the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend. India
is one of the world's richest countries in terms of its biological diversity.
Flora and Fauna in India:

· It is estimated that at least 10 per cent of India's recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are
on the threatened list.
· Many of these have been categorised as 'critical' and are on the verge of extinction, such as:
Ø Animals: Cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and
Ø Plants: madhuca insignis (a wild variety of mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron,(a species of grass).
Different categories of plants and animal species:

The following classification is done based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN):
· Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such
as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
· Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. For example - Asian lion,
Bengal tiger etc.
· Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely
to move into the endangered category in the near future.
· Rare Species: Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if
the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. For example - Himalayan brown bear, wild
Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
· Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by
natural or geographical barriers. For examples - the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig,
mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
· Extinct Species: These species are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may
occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
Reasons for Depletion of Flora and Fauna:

· Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and
forest fires are factors.
· Other causes of environmental destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources
and differential sharing of responsibility for environmental well-being.
Socio-Cultural Impact of Loss of Forest:
The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.
· Such losses have increasingly marginalised and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-
dependent communities.
10
· Forest communities directly depend on various components of the forest and wildlife for food, drink,
medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
· Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil. It also
preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding.
Steps Taken to Protect and Conserve Wildlife
· Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: It has various provisions for protecting habitats. An all India list of
protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was towards protecting the
remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to
their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
· The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were
gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros, etc.
· The plants were also added to the list for the first time in 1991.
Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources

In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government
through the Forest Department or other government departments. These are classified under the
following categories:
· Reserved Forest: These are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and
wildlife resources are concerned. It covers more than half of the total forest land.
· Protected Forests: It covers almost one-third of the total forest area and as declared by the Forest
Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.
· Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private
individuals and communities.
Reserved and Protected Forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the
purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons.The largest area under
permanent forests is in Madhya Pradesh.
Community and Conservation

Conservation strategies are not new in India and forests are also home to some of the traditional
communities. In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along
with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-term livelihood.
· The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation in
several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be
enormously successful.
· Farmers and citizen's groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that
adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and
economically viable.
11
· Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme: It furnishes a good example for involving local
communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. (Odisha passed the first
resolution for joint forest management). It depends on local institutions which took forestation drive
on degraded land, mostly controlled by forest department.
· Sacred Grooves: Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called
Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).
Interesting points
· Biodiversity or Biological Diversity: It is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse
in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of
interdependencies.
· Asian cheetah: It is world's fastest land mammal and is nearly extinct due to a decline of available
habitat and prey. The species was declared extinct in India long back in 1952.
· The Buxa Tiger Reserve is in West Bengal.
· Enrichment Plantation: In this single commercially valuable species is extensively planted and
other species are eliminated. For instance, teak monoculture has damaged the natural forest in
South India and Chir Pine plantations in the Himalayas have replaced the Himalayan oak and
Rhododendron forests.
· The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana): This is a medicinal plant found in various parts of
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. A chemical compound called 'taxol' is extracted from
the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree, and it has been successfully used to treat some
cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world.
· “Project Tiger”: It is one of the well-publicised wildlife campaigns for saving tigers and was
launched in 1973.
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WATER RESOURCES
3
The three fourth surface of the earth is covered with water but only small proportion of it accounts for fresh
water that can be put to use. This freshwater is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water that is
continually being renewed and recharged through hydrological cycle.
Water Scarcity:
Water scarcity refers to less availability of water for fulfilling human and environment needs.
Quantitative Aspects of Water Scarcity:
· The water availability varies over space and time due to the variations in seasonal and annual
precipitation. For example - drought are common in Rajasthan.
· Mostly water scarcity is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water
among different social groups.
· Growing Population: It leads to greater domestic demands for food grains. Irrigation requires lot of
water and infact agriculture is biggest consumer of water.
· Falling Groundwater Level: Irrigation is one of the main reason behind it. Falling groundwater levels
may adversely affect water availability and food security of the people.
· Increasing Urbanisation and Industrialisation: It increased water demand manifold as multiplying
urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and
energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem.
Qualitative Aspects of Water Scarcity:
· The quality of the water is decreasing due to the pollution by domestic waste, industrial wastes,
chemicals, fertilisers used in agriculture which makes it hazardous for human use.
· India's major rivers are highly polluted like Yamuna and Ganga which makes them unfit for human
consumption.
Water Conservation and Management

Multi-Purpose River Projects and Rainwater harvesting are some major techniques of Water
Conservation and Management.
Multi-Purpose River Projects:

· In ancient times construction of structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes,
embankments and canals for irrigation were built.
· Considered Vehicle of Development: They has been constructed since independence for
conservation and integrated water management.
WATER RESOURCES
· They are meant for irrigation, electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses,
flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
· Example of Multi-Purpose Rivers: The Bhakra – Nangal in the Sutluj-Beas river basin and the
Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin.
Issues with Large Dams and Multi-Purpose Projects:
· The regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and
13
excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer
habitats for the rivers' aquatic life.
· Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser which adds to
the problem of land degradation.
· Dams fragment rivers which makes it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
· The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil
leading to its decomposition over a period of time.
· Large-Scale Displacement of Local Communities: It led to various environment movements like
'Narmada Bachao andolan', Tehhri dam Andolan.
· Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water
intensive and commercial crops. It led to ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil.
· Increased Social Inequality: Irrigation has also increased the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor.
· Inter-State Water Disputes: They are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and
benefits of the multi-purpose project.
· The dams that have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Also, the big dams have
mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall.
· They also induced earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from
excessive use of water.
WATER RESOURCES
Fig. 3.1: India- Major Rivers and Dams
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Rainwater Harvesting:
It is a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally.
· In ancient India people had developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater,
river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and water needs.
· In Hill and Mountainous Regions: People built diversion channels like the 'guls' or 'kuls' of the
Western Himalayas for agriculture.
· Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting': It was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in
Rajasthan.
· In the Flood Plains of Bengal: People developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
· In Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: Agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the 'khadins' in Jaisalmer and 'Johads' and
traditional underground water storage like tankas in Rajsthan. Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly
known in these parts is considered the purest form of natural water.
Interesting points
· Some Important Water Conservation Techniques in Ancient India:

Ø In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting
system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
Ø In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying
water to Siri Fort area.
· Sardar Sarovar Dam: It has been built over the Narmada River in Gujarat. It covers four
states—Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
· Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement: It is a Non Governmental Organisation
(NGO) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against
the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
· Krishna-Godavari Dispute: It is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
governments. It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government
for a multipurpose project.
· Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the 'temples of modern India'.
WATER RESOURCES
15
AGRICULTURE
4
Agriculture is a primary activity which produces food grains, raw material for various industries etc. Two-
thirds of India's population is engaged in agricultural activities.
Types of Farming:
Over the years, cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of
physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. At present, in different parts
of India, the following farming systems are practised:
Primitive Subsistence Farming:
· Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools
like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family or community labour.
· It depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions
to the crops grown.
· Slash and Burn' Agriculture: Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to
sustain their family. The shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural
processes. Here the land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern
inputs.
· Different Names of Primitive Subsistence Farming
In India In World
· Bewar or Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh · Milpa: Mexico and Central America

· Podu or Penda: Andhra Pradesh
· Conuco: Venzuela
· Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa: Odisha
· Kumari: Western Ghats · Roca: Brazil
· Valre or Waltre: South-eastern Rajasthan · Masole: Central Africa
· Khil: Himalayan belt
· Ladang: Indonesia
· Kuruwa: Jharkhand
· Jhumming: North-eastern states namely Assam, · Ray: Vietnam
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
· Pamlou: Manipur
· Dipa: Bastar (Chhattishgarh), Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
Intensive Subsistence Farming:

AGRICULTURE
· This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.

· It is labour-intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for
obtaining higher production.
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Issues in Indian Farming: Right to inheritance leads to division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size uneconomical. Farmers are continuously taking
increased output from limited land resources which is leading to increased pressure on land.
Commercial Farming:
· The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g., high
yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher
productivity.
· The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example – Rice is
a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab whereas it is a subsistence crop in Odisha.
· Plantation: It is one type of commercial agriculture, in this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a
large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Some of the features of
Plantation are:
Ø Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant
labourers. All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries.
Ø In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc., are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam
and North Bengal and coffee in Karnataka and Bamboo in north eastern states.
Ø Production is mainly for market: A well-developed network of transport and communication
connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the
development of plantations.
Cropping Pattern
· The physical diversities and plurality of cultures in India are reflected in agricultural practices and
cropping patterns in India.
· Various types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute
some of the important crops grown in India.
· India has three Cropping Seasons — Rabi, Kharif and Zaid.
Rabi Season:
· Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June.
· Important Crops:
Ø Cereals: Wheat and barley.
Ø Pulses: Peas and gram.
Ø Oil seeds: Mustard.
· Major producing states: States from the north and north-western parts such as Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
· The western temperate cyclone, also called western disturbances, helps in to grow these crops in
AGRICULTURE
these states as it brings rainfall.

· The Green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the abovementioned rabi crops.
17
Kharif Crops:
· kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are
harvested in September-October.
· Important Crops:
Ø Cereals: Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra.
Ø Pulses: Tur (arhar), moong, urad.
Ø Fibre crops: Cotton and jute.
Ø Oil seeds: Groundnut and soyabean.
· Important Rice Growing Regions: Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra.
· In staes like Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown in a year and varities are
called Aus, Aman and Boro.
Zaid Season:
· Zaid season is the short season during the summer season between the rabi and the kharif seasons.
· Important Crops: Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
almost a year to grow.
Major Crops
· A variety of food and non food crops are grown in India which depends upon the variations in soil,
climate and cultivation practices.
· Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and
jute, etc.
Rice:
· It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. India is the second largest producer of rice
in the world after China.
· Necessary Conditions: It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high
humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
· Major Producing States: It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and
the deltaic regions.
· Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in
areas of less rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat:
· Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in north and north-western part of India.
· Conditions: It is a rabi crop which requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of
ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
AGRICULTURE
· Major Producing States: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
There are two important wheat-growing zones in India – The Ganga-Satluj plains in the North-West
and black soil region of the Deccan.
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Millets:
These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value. Jowar, bajra and ragi are the
important millets grown in India.
Ragi:
· High Nutritional Value: This is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro-nutrients and roughage.
· It is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
· Major Producing States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Jowar:
· It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. It is the third most
important food crop with respect to area and production.
· Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Bajra:
· It grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.
· Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
Maize:
· It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
In some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also.
· It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder.
· Its production has increased due to the use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and
irrigation.
· Major Producing States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana.
Pulses:
· Pulses need less moisture and they survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. These are mostly
grown in rotation with other crops.
· These are the major source of protein. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad,
moong, masur, peas and gram. India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the
world.
· Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Food Crops other than Grains

AGRICULTURE
Sugarcane:
· It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
· Conditions:
Ø It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall
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between 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions of low rainfall.
Ø It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
· India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil and is the main source of sugar, gur
( jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
· Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds:
· Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of India.
· Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums but some of these are also used as raw material
in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
· Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor
seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.
Ø Groundnut:
o It is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
o In 2016 India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after china.
o Major groundnut producing states: Gujarat was the largest producer followed by Rajasthan
and Andhra Pradesh.
Ø Other Oil Seeds:
o Linseed and Mustard are rabi crops.
o Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.
o Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.
o In rapeseed production India was third largest producer in the world after Canada and China in
2016.
Plantation Crops:
Tea:
· It is an important beverage crop introduced in India initially by the British.
· Conditions:
Ø The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile
well-drained soil and rich in humus and organic matter.
Ø Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves.
· Labour-intensive industry: It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
· Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness.
AGRICULTURE
· Major Producing States: Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. They are also produced in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh
and Tripura.
20
Coffee:
· Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.
· The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country and Initially its cultivation
was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops:
· In 2016, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. India is
a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
· India is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.
· There is great demands of:
Ø Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
Ø Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya).
Ø Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Ø Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Ø Pineapples of Meghalaya.
Ø Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra.
Ø Apples, Pears, Apricots and Walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Non-Food Crops
Rubber:
· It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
It is an important industrial raw material.
· Conditions: It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature
above 25°C.
· Major Producing States: It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
Fibre Crops:
· Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. The first three are
derived from the crops grown in the soil and the silk is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on
green leaves specially mulberry.
· Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
Cotton:
AGRICULTURE
· It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

· India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. India was second largest producer of
cotton after China.
· Conditions: Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires
21
high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth.
· Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute:
· Jute is known as the golden fibre.
· Conditions: It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed
every year and high temperature is required during the time of growth.
· Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.
· It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts.
· It is losing market due to high cost to synthetic fibres and packing materials such as the nylon.
Issues with Indian Agriculture:

· Technological Issues: Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have
hindered the pace of agricultural development.
· Monsoon Dependent: Most of the farmers in large parts of the country still depend upon monsoon and
natural fertility in order to carry on their agriculture.
· Land Fragmentation: The inheritance right had lead to fragmentation of land holdings.
· Small and Marginal Farmers: Indian agriculture is dominated by small and marginal land holding
which impact the overall agricultural development.
· Investments and Other Issues: Farmers are withdrawing their investment from agriculture causing a
downfall in the employment in agriculture. The growth rate in agriculture has been decelerating.
Reduction in import duties on agricultural products have proved detrimental to agriculture in the
country.
Institutional and Technological Reforms:
· The collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given
priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after Independence. Land reform was the
main focus of our First Five Year Plan.
· The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation
Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the situation.
· Important Policy Inititiatives: In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development
programme was initiated. It includes the provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone,
fire and disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan
facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
· Institutional Credit Facilities: Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS)
AGRICULTURE
were introduced. The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.
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Other Ways to Improve Agriculture:
· Efforts to Modernise Agriculture: Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres, horticulture development,
research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast.
· To make Agriculture Successful and Profitable: Proper thrust should be given to the improvement of
the condition of marginal and small farmers.
· Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops. This will
increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation. India's diverse climate can be harnessed to
grow a wide range of high-value crops.
Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture:

· In the nineteenth century when European traders came to India, Indian spices were exported to
different countries of the world and farmers of south India were encouraged to grow these crops.
· During the British period cotton belts of India attracted the British and ultimately cotton was exported
to Britain as a raw material for their textile industries.
· Cotton textile industry in Manchester and Liverpool flourished due to the availability of good quality
cotton from India.
· Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new challenges.
Despite being an important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and spices our agricultural
products are not able to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised
agriculture in those countries.
Interesting points
· Vinobha Bhave: Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as his spiritual heir. He was one of the
votaries of Gandhi's concept of gram swarajya.
· Bhoodan: Once, when Vinoba Bhave was delivering a lecture at Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh,
some poor landless villagers demanded some land for their economic well-being. Suddenly, Shri
Ram Chandra Reddy stood up and offered 80 acres of land to be distributed among 80 land-less
villagers. This act was known as 'Bhoodan'.
· Gramdan: Some zamindars, owners of many villages offered to distribute some villages among
the landless. It was known as Gramdan.
· The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known as the Blood-less
AGRICULTURE
Revolution.
· Genetic engineering is recognised as a powerful supplement in inventing new hybrid varieties of
seeds.
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MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES
5
The earth's crust is made up of different minerals embedded in the rocks. Various metals are extracted from
these minerals after proper refinement. They are an indispensable part of the lives of human.
Mineral:
· Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.” They are found in varied forms in nature ranging from the hardest diamond to the
softest talc.
· Rocks: They are combinations of homogenous substances called minerals. Some rocks such as
limestone consist of a single mineral only but majority of the rock consist of several minerals in varying
proportions.
· A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the
physical and chemical conditions under which the material forms. This results in a wide range of
colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density of particular minerals.
Fig. 5.1: Classification of Minerals

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals:
· Minerals are usually found in “ores” (ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with
other elements).
· The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient concentration to make its extraction commercially
viable.
· The type of formation or structure determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be mined.
Forms of Minerals
Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:
· In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The
smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes.
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· Mostly they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through
cavities towards the earth's surface. They cool and solidify as they rise.
· Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.
Sedimentary Rocks:
· In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers and they have been formed as a
result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.
· Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of long periods under great heat
and pressure.
· Another group of sedimentary minerals include gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. These are
formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions.
Decomposition of Surface Rocks and the Removal of Soluble Constituents:
It leave a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. This way is used to produce Bauxite.
Placer Deposits:
· Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.
· Generally it contain minerals which are not corroded by water.
· Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals.
Minerals in Ocean:
· The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals but most of these are too widely diffused to be of
economic significance.
· The common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.
· The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.
Minerals in India:
Fig. 5.2: India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica
25
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral resources which are are unevenly distributed.
· The Peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other non-
metallic minerals. Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many non-ferrous
minerals.
· Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula, in Gujarat and Assam have
most of the petroleum deposits.
· The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of economic minerals.
These variations exist largely because of the differences in the geological structure, processes and time
involved in the formation of minerals.
Factors Affecting Economic Viability of Minerals:

· The concentration of mineral in the ore.
· The ease of extraction.
· The closeness to the market.
When this is done a mineral 'deposit' or 'reserve' turns into a mine.
Major Minerals in India

Ferrous Minerals:
· It accounts three-fourth of total metallic minerals and provide a strong base for the development of
metallurgical industries.
· India exports substantial quantities of ferrous minerals after meeting her internal demands.
Iron Ore:
· Its is basic mineral and considered as backbone of the modern industrial development.
· India is rich in good quality iron ores.
· Types of Iron Ore:
Ø Magnetite: It is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent
magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical industry.

Ø Hematite: It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used but has a slightly
lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).
Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

· Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: In Odisha high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the
Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore
is mined in Gua and Noamundi.
· Durg-Bastar -Chandrapur belt: It lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high grade hematites
are found in the Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills super
high grade hematite iron ore. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from
26
these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakhapatnam port.
· Ballari-Chitradurga-ChikkamagaluruTumakuru belt: It lies in Karnataka and has large reserves of
iron ore. The Kudremukh mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export
unit. Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest. The ore is transported as slurry through a
pipeline to a port near Mangaluru.
· Maharashtra-Goa belt: it includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though, the
ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Fig. 5.3: Production of iron ore

Fig. 5.4: Production of Manganese
27
Manganese:
· Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg of
manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel.
· It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
Non-Ferrous Minerals:
· India's reserves and production of non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
· These minerals, which include coppe bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a vital role in a number of
metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
Copper:
· India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper.
· It is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries as copper is malleable, ductile
and a good conductor.
· Leading Producers: The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
Bauxite:
· Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later
aluminium is obtained.
· Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates.
· Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme
lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.
· Major bauxite Deposits: They are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau
region of Bilaspur-Katni. Odisha was the largest bauxite producing state where the Panchpatmali
deposits in Koraput district are the most important.
Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite
28
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica:
· Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves and it splits easily into thin sheets.
· Properties: Excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance
to high voltage.
· Due to such properties mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic
industries.
· Important Mica Deposits:
Ø They are are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau and Koderma Gaya –
Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.
Ø In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer.
Ø Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh.
Rock Minerals
Limestone:
· It is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.
· It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological formations.
· It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace.
Fig. 5.6: Production of Limestone
29
Hazards of Mining:
· The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases.
· The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners.
· The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining.
· Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, and increase in stream and river
pollution.
Conservation of Minerals:
· Need for Conservation:
Ø Slow Rate of Replenishment: As the geological processes of mineral formation are slow. Mineral
resources are finite and non-renewable.
Ø Continued extraction of ores leads to increasing costs as mineral extraction comes from greater
depths along with decrease in quality.
· Steps to Conserve Minerals:
Ø Planned and sustainable use of resources.
Ø Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Ø Recycling of metals and using scrap metals and other substitutes.
Energy Resources:
· Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from
electricity.
· Classification of Energy Resources:.
Ø Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and
electricity (both hydel and thermal).
Ø Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.
Conventional Energy Resources

Coal:
· In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.
· It is used for power generation, fulfil energy needs to industry as well as for domestic needs.
· The coal is a bulky material which loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. Hence, heavy industries
and thermal power stations are located on or near the coalfields.
· In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages:
Ø Gondwana: They are a little over 200 million years in age. They are metallurgical coal and are
located in Damodar valley (West Bengal and Jharkhand). The important coalfields are Jharia,
Raniganj and Bokaro. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
Ø Tertiary deposits: These are only about 55 million years old and occur in the north eastern states of
Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
· It is formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years and hence it is found in a
30
variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression and the depth and time of burial.
Ø Peat: It is produced by the decaying plants and has a low carbon, high moisture contents and low
heating capacity.
Ø Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal which is soft with high moisture content. The principal lignite
reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.
Ø Bituminous: This coal has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. It is the most
popular coal in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
Ø Anthracite: It is the highest quality hard coal.
Petroleum:
· The Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal.
· It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries.
· Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical
industries.
· Occurrence of Petroleum:
Ø In India, most of them are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the
tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of
the upfold.
Ø The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.
Ø The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
Ø Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter
usually occurs above the oil.
· Major Petroleum Production Areas: Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam. Ankeleshwar is the most
important field of Gujarat and Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Naharkatiya and
Moran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the Assam.
Natural Gas:
· It is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum. It is used as
industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
· Environment Friendly: As it has low carbon dioxide emissions.
· Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
· Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields are supplemented by finds in
the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands also has large reserves of natural gas.
· The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and
Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in Western and Northern India.
31
Fig. 5.7: India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
Electricity:
· It has such a wide range of applications in today's world that, its per capita consumption is considered

as an index of development.
· Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:
Ø Hydro Electricity: It is is generated by fast flowing water, which is a renewable resource. India has a
number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili
Hydel Project etc. producing hydroelectric power.
Ø Thermal Electricity: It is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal power
stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Need of Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
· Dependence on Fossil Fuels: As there is growing consumption of energy in the country.
· Uncertainties about the Security of Energy: Due to rising prices of oil and gas and their potential
32
shortages.
· The usage of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental problems.
There is a pressing need to use renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and
energy from waste material. These are called nonconventional energy sources.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy:
· It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an alteration is made, much energy is
released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power.
· Uranium and Thorium are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan and are used
for generating atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.
Solar Energy:
· Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
· India is a tropical country and has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
· Some big solar power plants are being established in different parts of India which will minimise the
dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes, which in turn will contribute to
environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture.
Wind Power:
· India has great potential of wind power.
· The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have also important wind farms.
Biogas:
· It is produced by shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste for domestic consumption in rural
areas.
· Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency as compared to
kerosene, dung cake and charcoal.
· Gobar Gas Plants: The plants which use cattle dung in rural India. It provide twin benefits to the farmer
in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.
· It prevents the loss of trees and manure due to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes.
Tidal Energy:
· Use of Oceanic Tides: Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water flows into the inlet
and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained
by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.
· In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta
in Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
Geo Thermal Energy:
· It refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
· Where the geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater
in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth's
surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
· Two Experimental Projets in India: Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga
33
Valley, Ladakh.

Fig. 5.8: India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants
Conservation of Energy Resources:

· There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
· Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks
of sustainable energy.
· There is a need to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of limited energy resources.
34
Interesting points
· Abrasive minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
cleaning in toothpaste. The sparkle in some toothpastes comes from mica.
· Fluoride is used to reduce cavities comes from a mineral fluorite.
· Titanium Oxide: It is used to made toothpaste and comes from minerals called rutile, ilmenite and
anatase.
· The mineral intake represents only about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of nutrients.
· In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc.
· Rat-Hole Mining:
Ø Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member in the form of a long narrow
tunnel, known as 'Rat hole' mining.
Ø The National Green Tribunal has declared such activities illegal.
· Kudre in Kannada means horse. The highest peak in the western ghats of Karnataka resembles
the face of a horse. The Bailadila hills look like the hump of an ox, and hence its name is Bailadila.
35
6 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Manufacturing is the Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more
valuable products. People employed in the secondary activities manufacture the primary materials into
finished goods such as the workers employed in steel factories, car, breweries, etc. The economic strength of
a country is measured by the development of manufacturing industries.
Importance of Manufacturing:
Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development
in particular mainly because:
· Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture and reduce the heavy dependence of
people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
· Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty from India.
This was the main philosophy behind public sector industries and joint sector ventures in India. It was
aimed at bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and backward areas.
· Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign
exchange.
· Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of finished goods of higher value are
prosperous. India's prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing industries as
quickly as possible.
Relation between Agriculture and Industry:

· Agriculture and industry are not exclusive of each other and move hand in hand. For example - The
agro-industries in India have given a major boost to agriculture by raising its productivity.
· The industries depends on agriculture for raw materials and sell their products such as irrigation
pumps, fertilisers, insecticides, pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, tools, etc.
· Development and competitiveness of manufacturing industry has assisted agriculturists in increasing
their production and made the production processes very efficient.
Contribution of Industry to National Economy:

· In last two decades, the share of manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDP – out of a MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
total of 27 per cent for the industry which includes 10 per cent for mining, quarrying, electricity and
gas.
· This is much lower in comparison to some East Asian economies, where it is 25 to 35 per cent.
· Since 2003, manufacturing is growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per cent per annum.
Industrial Location:
· Industrial locations are complex in nature and are influenced by availability of raw material, labour,
36
capital, power and market, etc.
Fig: 6.1: Industry – Market Linkage
· It is rarely possible to find all these factors available at one place. Consequently, manufacturing activity
tends to locate at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location are either
available or can be arranged at lower cost.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· The industrialisation and urbanisation go hand in hand. Cities provide markets and also provide
services such as banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants and financial advice, etc to the
industry.
· Many industries tend to come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres
known as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place.
· The key to decision of the factory location is the least cost. Government policies and specialised labour
also influence the location of industry.
37
Fig: 6.2: Ideal Location for industries
· In the Pre-Independence period, most manufacturing units were located in places from the point of
view of overseas trade such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc. Consequently, there emerged certain
pockets of industrially developed urban centres surrounded by a huge agricultural rural hinterland.
Classification of Industries
On the Basis of Source of Raw Materials Used:
· Agro Based: Cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.
· Mineral Based: Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals.
According to their main role:
· Basic or key Industries: These are those which supply their products as raw materials to manufacture
other goods e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminum smelting.
· Consumer Industries: They produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper,
sewing machines, fans etc.
On the Basis of Capital Investment: MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· A Small Scale industry: It is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets
of a unit. At present the maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore.
On the Basis of Ownership:
· Public Sector: They are owned and operated by government agencies such as BHEL, SAIL etc.
· Private Sector Industries: They are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals such
as TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries.
· Joint Sector Industries: They are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals such
38
as Oil India Ltd. (OIL).
· Cooperative Sector industries: They are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately.
For example - The sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
Based on the Bulk and Weight of Raw Material and Finished Goods:
· Heavy industries such as iron and steel.
· Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical goods
industries.
Agro-Based Industries:
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industries are based on agricultural raw materials.
Textile Industry:
· It contributes significantly to industrial production, employment generation and foreign exchange
earnings.
· It is the only industry in India which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw
material to the highest value added products.
Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry

Cotton Textiles:
· In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques.
· After the 18th century, power-looms came into use and our traditional industries suffered a setback
during the colonial period because they could not compete with the mill-made cloth from England.
· In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat due to availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port
facilities, labour, moist climate, etc.
· This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and
39
workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing.
· The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes,
packaging materials and engineering works.
· Exporting areas: India exports yarn to Japan and other cotton goods to U.S.A., U.K., Russia, etc.
Issues with Cotton Textile Industry:
· Mismatch between demand and supply: Most of the production is in fragmented small units which
cater to the local market. As a result, many of spinners export cotton yarn while apparel/garment
manufactures have to import fabric.
· Power supply is erratic and machinery is outdated in the weaving and processing sectors.
· There is low output of labour.
· It has stiff competition with the synthetic fibre industry.
Fig. 6.4: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries in India
40
Jute Textiles:
· India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an exporter after
Bangladesh.
· Most of the mills are located in West Bengal mainly along the banks of the Hugli river in a narrow belt.
The main factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are:
Ø Availability of Inputs: Proximity of the jute producing areas and abundant water for processing raw
jute.
Ø Transportation: There is inexpensive water transport which is supported by a good network of
railways, roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to the mills.
Ø Availability of Labour: There is cheap labour from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar,
Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
Ø Infrastructure: Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking, insurance and port facilities for
export of jute goods.
Challenges faced by the Industry: It Includes stiff competition in the international market from synthetic
substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. To
stimulate demand, the products need to be diversified.
Opportunities: The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials, has
opened the opportunity for jute products.
The internal demand has been on the increase due to the Government policy of mandatory use of jute
packaging.
Sugar Industry:
· India is the second largest producer of sugar and occupies the first place in the production of gur and
khandsari.
· The raw material used in this industry is bulky and its sucrose content reduces in haulage.
· This industry is seasonal in nature and it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector.
· In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western
states, especially in Maharashtra because:
Ø The cane produced has a higher sucrose content.

Ø The cooler climate ensures a longer crushing season.
Ø The cooperatives are more successful in these states.
· Location of Mills: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are located in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
· Major Challenges: The challenges include: the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient
methods of production, transport delay in reaching cane to factories and the need to maximise the use
of baggase.
41
Mineral-based Industries:
These are the industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials.
Iron and Steel Industry:
· The iron and steel industry is the basic industry since all the other industries (heavy, medium and light)
depend on it for their machinery.
· It is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as finished goods are heavy and bulky
entailing heavy transportation costs.
· Production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country's development.
Fig. 6.5: Process of Manufacture of Steel
· Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1 to manufacture
steel. Some quantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel.
· Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods, construction material, defence,
medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and a variety of consumer goods. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· The per capita consumption of steel is low in India as compared to the world.
· In 2018, India ranked 2nd among the world crude steel producers and is the largest producer of
sponge iron.
· China is the largest producer as well as largest consumer of steel.
· Maximum concentration of Iron and Steel industries: It is found in Chhotanagpur plateau because
low cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast growth potential in
the home market.
42
Fig. 6.6: Iron and Steel Plants in India
Unrealised Potential of India:

India is not able to perform to its full potential due to:
· High costs and limited availability of coking coal.

· Lower productivity of labour.
· Irregular supply of energy.
· Poor infrastructure.
Aluminium Smelting:
· Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India.
· Properties: It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong
43
when it is mixed with other metals.
· Regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum cost are the two prime
factors for location of the industry.
· Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.
Fig. 6.7: Process of Manufacturing in Aluminium Industry
· It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.

· It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.
· Location of Aluminium Smelting Plants: Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Chemical Industries:
· The Chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying. It comprises both large and small scale
manufacturing units.
· The chemical industry is its own largest consumer. Basic chemicals undergo processing to further
produce other chemicals that are used for industrial application, agriculture or directly for consumer
markets. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· Classification of Chemicals:
Ø Inorganic Chemicals: It includes sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilizers, synthetic fibres,
plastics, adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and
detergents, paper) and caustic soda. These industries are widely spread over the country.
Ø Organic Chemicals: It includes petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing of synthetic
fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical plants
are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
44
Fertilizer Industry:
· The fertilizer industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly urea),
phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which have a
combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).
· The potash is entirely imported as India does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or
potassium compounds in any form.
· Fetilizer Producting States: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute half of
India's fertilizer production.
Cement Industry:
· Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports,
dams and for other commercial establishments.
· This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica and gypsum.
· Coal, electric power and rail transportation are crucial for cement industry.
· The cement industry has strategically located plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to the
market in the Gulf countries.
Automobile Industry:
· Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers.
· Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are manufactured
in India at various centres.
· The liberalisation has led to the healthy growth of the industry.
· Location of Industries: Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore,
Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry:

· The electronics industry covers a wide range of products such as transistor sets, television, cellular
telecom, telephone exchange, radars, computers etc.
· Bengaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India.

· Important Centres for Electronic Goods: Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow and Coimbatore.
· A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation. The continuing growth in the
hardware and software is the key to the success of IT industry in India.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Air Pollution:
45
· It is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases and unwanted particles such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
· Airborne particulate materials contain both solid and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and smoke.
· Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous with long-term effects.
Water Pollution:
· It is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents discharged into rivers.
· Major Polluting Industries: Paper, pulp, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries
and electroplating industries.
· The polluting industries let out dyes, detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like lead and mercury
pesticides, fertilisers, synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and rubber, etc. into the water bodies.
· Fly ash, phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal Pollution:
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers
and ponds before cooling.
Noise Pollution:
· It causes irritation, anger, hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure among other
physiological effects.
· Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of stress.
· It is also created by the Industrial and construction activities, machinery, generators, etc.
Control of Environmental Degradation

Ways to Reduce the Industrial Pollution of Fresh Water:
· Minimising use of water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages.
· Harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements.
· Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds. Treatment of industrial
effluents can be done in three phases: MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Ø Primary Treatment: It is done by mechanical means and involves screening, grinding, flocculation
and sedimentation.
Ø Secondary Treatment: It is done by biological process.
Ø Tertiary Treatment: It is done by biological, chemical and physical processes and involves recycling
of wastewater.
· There is a need to regulate overdrawing of ground water reserves by industry.
46
Other ways of Reducing Pollution:
· To reduce Air Pollution:
Ø Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic
precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
Ø Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
· To reduce Noise Pollution:
Ø Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with silencers. Almost all
machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
Ø Noise absorbing material may be used.
Interesting points
· The first successful textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.

· The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1855 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the jute mills
remained in India but three-fourth of the jute producing area went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East
Pakistan).
· The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.
· Mini Steel Plants: They are smaller, have electric furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. They
have re-rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce mild and alloy steel of given
specifications.
· An integrated steel plant is large, handles everything in one complex – from putting together raw
material to steel making, rolling and shaping.
· Every litre of waste water discharged by our industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
freshwater.
· NTPC is a major power providing corporation in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
· The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of economic development with

environmental concerns.
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7 LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their
movement over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport are prerequisites for fast development.
Means of Transport:
Movement of goods and services can be over three important domains of earth i.e. land, water and air.
Based on these, transport can also be classified into land, water and air transport.
Fig. 7.1: Means of Transportation
Relation between Transport and Trade:

· Transport has been able to connect global village with the help of equally developed communication
system. Therefore, transport, communication and trade are complementary to each other.
· A dense and efficient network of transport and communication is a prerequisite for local, national and
global trade.
The modern means of transport and communication serve as lifelines of India.
Roadways:
India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 56 lakh km. In India,
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
roadways have preceded railways.
Importance of Road transport vis-à-vis Rail transport:
· Low Construction cost: The Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
· Ease of Movement:
Ø Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
Ø Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
· Economicial for short distance: Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and
relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances.
48
· Low Handling Cost: It provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much
lower.
· Feeder to other modes of Transport: Road transport provides a link between railway stations, air and
sea ports.
Classification of Roads according to their Capacity:

In India, roads are classified in the following six classes.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
· The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-
Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways.
· It includes:
Ø The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu).
Ø The East-West Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat).
· Major Objective: To reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India.
· Implementing Agency: The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
Fig. 7.2: National Highways
49
National Highways:
· It links extreme parts of India and are the primary road systems.
· These are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
· A number of major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions.
· The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar.
State Highways:
· These are roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters.
· These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State
and Union Territories.
District Roads:
· These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.
· These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.
Other Roads:
· These includes rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns.
· These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.
Ø Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a
major town in the country by an all season motorable road.
Border Roads:
· The Border Roads Organisation (Government of India undertaking) constructs and maintains roads in
the bordering areas of India.
Ø This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance
in the Northern and North-Eastern border areas.
· These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic
development of these area.
Railways:
· Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India.
· It make it possible for people to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
along with transportation of goods over longer distances.
· Railway has been considered great integrating force for more than 150 years.
· Railways in India bind the economic life of India as well as accelerate the development of the industry
and agriculture.
· The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones. (According to NCERT).
Distribution Pattern of the Railway Network in India:
It has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
· The Northern Plains: It has vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources
which provides the most favourable condition for their growth. However, a large number of rivers
requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles.
· The Hilly Terrains of the Peninsular Region: The railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or
50
tunnels.
· The Himalayan Mountainous Regions: It is unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to
high relief, sparse population and lack of economic opportunities.
· Konkan Railway: It lies along the west coast and has facilitated the movement of passengers and
goods in this most important economic region of India. It has also faced a number of problem such as
sinking of track in some stretches and landslides.
· Other areas with difficulty to lay Railway Lines: On the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps of
Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.
Challenges for Railways:
· Many passengers travel without tickets.
· Thefts and damaging of railway property.
· People stop the trains and pull the chain unnecessarily which cause heavy damage to the railway.
Pipelines:
· Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India.
· Apart from water transportation it has been now used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products
and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power
plants.
· Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
· The far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants
could be thought of only because of pipelines.
· Initial cost of lying pipelines is very high but but subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules out
trans-shipment losses or delays.
Three important Networks of Pipeline Transportation in India:
· From oil field in Upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh): It passes through Guwahati, Barauni and
Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and
Guwahati to Siliguri.
· From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab: It passes through Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.
· Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh: It passes through Vijaipur
in Madhya Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in
Uttar Pradesh.
Waterways:
· Advantages:
Ø Waterways are the cheapest means of transport.
Ø They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
Ø It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.
· India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 5685 km are
51
navigable by mechanised vessels.
National Waterways (NW) of India:
· NW No 1: The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km).
· NW No 2: The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km).
· NW No 3: The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Champakkara
canals-205 km).
· NW No 4: Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry stretch
of canals (1078 km).
· NW No 5: Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km).
· Some other inland water ways on which substantial transportation takes place are Mandavi, Zuari and
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and backwaters of Kerala.
Major Ports:
· With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 13 major and 200 notified non-majors
(minor/intermediate) ports.
· These major ports handle 95 per cent of India's foreign trade.
Ports on Western Coast:
· Kandla in Kuchchh:
Ø It was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai
port , in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.
Ø It is also known as the Deendayal Port and is a tidal port.
Ø It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of highly productive granary and
industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
· Mumbai: It is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
· The Jawaharlal Nehru Port: It was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
hub port for this region.
· Marmagao Port (Goa): It is the premier iron ore exporting port of India and accounts for about fifty per
cent of India's iron ore export.
· New Mangalore Port (Karnataka): It caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
mines.
· Kochchi: It is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural
harbour.
Ports on Eastern Coast:
· Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu):
Ø It is extreme south-eastern port and has a natural harbour and rich hinterland.
Ø It has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even neighbouring countries like
Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.
· Chennai: It is one of the oldest artificial ports of India and is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the
52
volume of trade and cargo.
· Vishakhapatnam: It is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. It was originally conceived as
an outlet for iron ore exports.
· Paradwip Port (Odisha): It specialises in the export of iron ore.
· Kolkata: It is an inland riverine port and serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin. It is a tidal port and requires constant dredging of Hoogly.
· Haldia Port: It was developed as a subsidiary port in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata
port.
Airways:
· The air travel is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport.
· It can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and also long
oceanic stretches with great ease.
· The air transport was nationalised in 1953.
· Air India: It provides domestic and international air services.
· Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd: It provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its
off-shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the
interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
· Issues: Air travel is not within the reach of the common people.
Communication:
· There are different means of communication and the pace of change has been rapid in modern times.
· Long distance communication is far easier without physical movement of the communicator or
receiver.
· Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc. are the
major means of communication in the country.
· The Indian postal network is the largest in the world.
Ø It handles parcels as well as personal written communications.
Ø First-class Mail: These are cards and envelopes and are airlifted between stations covering both
land and air.
Ø Second-class Mail: It includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are
carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.

Ø To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced
recently. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk
Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
Telecom:
· India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. Excluding urban places more than two-thirds of
the villages in India have already been covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone
facility.
53
· The government has made special provision to extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every village
in the country to strengthen flow of information from grassroot level to higher level.
· There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India.
· It has been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with communication
technology.
Mass Communication:
· It provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes
and policies.
· It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and films.
· All India Radio (Akashwani): It broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people.
· Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the
world.
· India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals annually. Newspapers are published in
about 100 languages and dialects.
· India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. The Central Board of Film Certification is the
authority to certify both Indian and foreign films.
International Trade:
· International Trade: It is the exchange of goods between two countries which may take place through
sea, air or land routes.
· Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity. It is, therefore,
considered the economic barometer for a country.
· Export and import are the components of trade.
Ø Balance of Trade of a country: It is the difference between its export and import.
Ø Favourable Balance of Trade: When the value of export exceeds the value of imports.
Ø Unfavourable Balance of Trade: If the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.
· Commodities exported from India: Gems and jewellery, chemicals and related products, agriculture
and allied products, etc. LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
· Commodities imported to India: Petroleum crude and products, gems and jewellery, chemicals and
related products, base metals, electronic items, machinery, agriculture and allied products.
Tourism as a Trade:
· More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
· Tourism promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.
· Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism,
medical tourism and business tourism.
54
Interesting points
· The Indian Railways is the largest public sector undertaking in the country.
· The first train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
· Digital India Programme:
Ø It is an umbrella programme to prepare India for a knowledge based transformation.
Ø Its focus is on being transformative to realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is on making technology central to enabling change.
55

Ncert Notes For Geography: 10th Standard

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NCERT NOTES

Forest and Wildlife Resources ............................................................................................. 10 - 12

Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 13 - 15

Mierals and Energy Resources .............................................................................................. 24 - 35

Manufacturing Industries ........................................................................................................ 36 - 47

Lifelines of National Economy ............................................................................................... 48 - 55

Fig. 1.1: Interdependent Relationship between Nature, Technology and Institutions

Fig. 1.2: Classiﬁcation of Resources

On the basis of Ownership:

On the basis of the Status of Development:

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

experiences of the people.

Land Use Pattern in India:

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Fig. 1.3: Land use pattern in India

Fig. 1.4: Soil Proﬁle

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Fig. 1.5: India - Major Soil Types

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Flora and Fauna in India:

Different categories of plants and animal species:

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Reasons for Depletion of Flora and Fauna:

· Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources

Community and Conservation

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Water Conservation and Management

Multi-Purpose River Projects:

Fig. 3.1: India- Major Rivers and Dams

· Some Important Water Conservation Techniques in Ancient India:

· Bewar or Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh · Milpa: Mexico and Central America

Intensive Subsistence Farming:

· This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.

these states as it brings rainfall.

Food Crops other than Grains

· It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

Issues with Indian Agriculture:

Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture:

Fig. 5.1: Classiﬁcation of Minerals

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Factors Affecting Economic Viability of Minerals:

Major Minerals in India

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

Fig. 5.3: Production of iron ore

Fig. 5.4: Production of Manganese

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite

Fig. 5.6: Production of Limestone

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Conservation of Energy Resources:

Relation between Agriculture and Industry:

Contribution of Industry to National Economy:

Fig: 6.1: Industry – Market Linkage