Lab Manual BIO320 - Part 2 (F2F)

BIO320 / MARCH – AUGUST 2022
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM)

Branch __________ Campus ___________
BIO 320
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY
Manual : Laboratory Session 3, 4 & 5
(PART 2)
Student Name
Student ID
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Lab 3 /20
Lab 4 /20
Lab 5 /20
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Introduction to Biological Diversity (BIO320)/ AS120 / March - August 2022
PRACTICAL 3 : FUNGI
Objectives
At the end of this lab, students should be able to:
i. define parasite, saprobe, mutualist, gametagium, hypha, mycelium, multinucleate,

sporangium, rhizoid, zygosporangium, ascus, conidium, ascocarp, basidium,
basidiophore, basidiocarp;
ii. identify representative of the major phyla of fungi;
iii. distinguish structures that are use to place various representatives of the fungi in
their proper phyla;
iv. state reasons why fungi are important;
v. distinguish between the structures associated with asexual and sexual reproduction
described;
vi. identify the structure of fungi examined;
vii. identify the structure of light on certain species of fungi.
Introduction
As you walk in the woods following a warm rain, you are likely to met by a vast assemblage of
colorful fungi. Some of them grow on dead or diseased trees, some on the surface of the soil,
others in pools of water. Some are edible, some deadly poisonous.
Fungi (kingdom Fungi) are heterotrophic organism; that is , they are incapable of
producing their own food material. They secrete enzymes from their bodies that digest their
food externally. The digested materials are then absorbed into the body.
Depending on the relationship between the fungus and its food source, fungi can be
characterized in one of three ways:
i) Parasitic fungi (parasites) obtain their nutrients from the organic material of
another living organism, and in doing so adversely affect the food source, often causing
death.
ii) Saprotrophic fungi (saprobes) grow on nonliving organic (carbon-containing) matter.
Some are even mutualists.
iii) Mutualistic fungi (mutualists) form a partnership beneficial to both the fungus and its
host.
Fungi, along with the bacteria, are essential components of the ecosystem as
decomposers. These organisms recycle the products of life, making the products of death
available so that life may continue. Without them we would be hopelessly lost in our own
refuse. Fungi and fungal metabolism are responsible for some of the food products that enrich
our lives – the mushrooms of the field, the blue cheese of the dairy case, even the citric acid
used in making soft drinks.
Faculty of Applied Sciences, UiTM

The kingdom Fungi is divided into three separate phyla, based on structures formed
during sexual reproduction. Certain fungi do not reproduce sexually; hence they are considered
an informal “group”.
Materials
• Compound microscope
• Prepared slide of :
i) Phylum Chytridiomycota - Allomyces gametophyte

- Allomyces sporophyte
ii) Phylum Zygomycota - Rhizopus sporangis

(Zygosporangium-forming fungi) - Rhizopus developing zygospores.
iii) Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi) - Aspergillus conidiophores

- Cup fungus Apothecium
iv) Phylum Basidiomycota (Club fungi) - Coprinus mushroom
v) Imperfect fungi - Penicillium conidia

- Alternaria conidia
Procedure :
1. Obtain a prepared slide and observe the slide first with the low-power objectives of your
compound microscope.
2. Switch to the medium and high dry-objective to study all the specific structure that you
can identify.
3. Draw and label all the macroscopic appearance structures that you can see in the slide.
Post lab Questions :
1. Which characteristics best define fungi?

2. On what basis are fungi classified?
3. Explain the term zygospore fungi?
4. Explain the term sac fungi? How do sac fungi reproduce asexually?
5. Draw and explain a diagram of the life cycle of atypical mushroom.
6. Give an examples of imperfect fungi that serve humans and examples of those that cause
disease.

PRACTICAL 4 : PLANTAE
Objectives
i. describe the plant life cycle and the concept of the dominant generation.
ii. describe the life histories and related reproductive structures of seedless vascular
plant and seedless non-vascular plant.
iii. explain the distinguishing features of seedless vascular plant and seedless non-
vascular plant.
Experiment 1 : Seedless Non-Vascular Plant: Bryophytes
Introduction
Bryophytes are the most ancient members of the plant kingdom. Plants are autotrophic,
multicellular eukaryotes that appeared about 400 million years ago. They probably share
common ancestry with green algae because they both stored starch, share several major
pigments, have cellulose in their cell walls, and form cell plates during mitosis. However, plants
are unique among autotrophs because plants produce gametes in multicellular gametagia. A
plant zygote develops into an embryo within tissue that originally surrounded the egg. Also
diagnostic of plants is their life cycle that alternate between a gametophytic (haploid) generation
and a sporophytic (diploid) generation.
As primitive plants, bryophytes lack vascular tissue. Bryophytes divisions include

Bryophyta (mosses), Hepatophyta (liverworts), and Anthophyta (hornworts), all of which have
a low-growing thallus with no true roots, stems, or leaves. Some mosses axes have central
strands of hydroid cells but no xylem and phloem. Bryophytes are the simplest of plants, and
the gametophytes is the dominant generation.
Materials
Living or preserved Compound microscope

- liverworts (Marchantia sp.) Dissecting microscope
- mosses (Polytricum sp.) Slide and coverslip
Prepared slide of liverworts and mosses Distilled water

Procedure
The liverworts (Marchantia sp.) (Figure 4.1) :

1. Marchantia is a thalloid liverwort with a flat, ribbonlike gametophyte. Examine the
reproductive structure of antheridiophore and archegoniophore.
2. Look at the archegoniophore containing egg. Find out stalk, venter, egg, neck canal, and
neck.
3. Antheridiophore of Marchantia containing sperms. Find out sperm exit canal, sterile
jacket, spermatogenous tissue, and antheridium.
4. Asexual reproduction of Marchantia occurs on gammae cup, the structure which grows
on the upper surface of the thallus. Examine splash cup, gemma, and gametophyte
thallus.
The mosses (Polytricum sp.) (Figure 4.2) :

1. Identify male and female gametophytes. Differentiate between a sporophytic generation
and a gametophytic generation of the moss.
2. Examine the moss female gametophytes. Identify paraphyses, archegonium, neck canal,
neck, egg, venter, and stalk.
3. Male gametophytes are sperm-producing structure. Identify paraphyses, anteridium,
spermatogenous tissue, and stalk.
4. Mature sporophyte is attached to the erect parent gametophyte. Spore capsule is hold on
by the seta. Find out calyptra, operculum, peristome, and spore.

Experiment 2 : Seedless Vascular Plants (Fern Allies and Ferns)
Introduction
Seedless vascular plants include about 13,000 species , most of which are ferns (division
Pterophyta). The three other divisions include whisk ferns (division Psilophyta), club mosses
(division Lycophyta), and horsetails (division Sphenophyta). These seedless vascular plants
share features with bryophytes, including the same types of pigments, the basic life cycle, and
the storage of starch as their primary food reserve. However, during the early stages of vascular
plant evolution, internal conducting tissues (xylem and phloem) developed, true leaves evolved,
and roots that absorbed nutrients and water as well as anchor the plant developed. These
adaptations of vascular tissue enabled these newly evolved divisions to invade and dominate
drier habitats on land, especially in tropical habitats. In addition, gametophytes became
progressively smaller and more dependent on the sporophyte that protected them.
Ferns are the most common seedless vascular plants and share many of their
reproductive and vegetative features with bryophytes. The life cycle of ferns is dominated by
the sporophyte. This diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. Each spore
germinates and grows into independent gametophytes that produce gametes by mitosis. Eggs
are produced in archegonia, and sperm are produced in antheridia. Fertilization occurs and
zygote will grow into a new sporophyte to complete the sexual cycle. Fern leaves (fronds) and
their underground stems, called rhizomes, comprise the bulk of the sporophyte. During sexual
reproduction, the backside of the frond is dotted with sori, which are clusters of sporangia. In
these sporangia, meoisis occurs, and resulting haploid spores are shed to give rise to
gametophytes – each one being an inconspicuous, heart-shaped prothallus.
Materials
Living or preserved Compound microscope

- spike mosses (Selaginella sp.) Dissecting microscope
- ferns (Dryopteris sp.) Slide and coverslip
Prepared slide of fern allies Distilled water
Prepared slide of true ferns
Procedure
The spike mosses (Selaginella sp.) :

1. Examine the spike moss morphology (Division Lycophyta). Can you find the strobilus
of Selaginella sp.
2. Examine the longitudinal section of strobilus. Identify the sporophyll and sporangium
with spores.
3. Make a stem of Selaginella cross section. Examine the anatomy of stem: epidermis,
cortex, vascular bundle, phloem and xylem.

The true ferns (Dryopteris sp.) (Figure 4.3) :

1. Obtain a living or preserved ferns (Dryopteris sp.). Identify the roots, stems (rhizomes),
and leaves (fronds).
2. Make a stem of Dryopteris sp. cross section. Examine the anatomy of stem: epidermis,
cortex, vascular bundle, phloem and xylem.
3. Examine the undersurface of the frond to show a cluster of sporangia called sori. Make a
cross section of sorus and identify the following: epidermis, mesophyll of frond,
sporangia, spores, annulus, and indisium.
4. Germinating spore will form prothallus, fern gametophyte which is a reproductive
organ. Antheridium is sperm-producing organ and archegonium is egg-producing organ.
5. Examine longitudinal section of fern archegonium and identify: archegonium, neck,
neck canal, ventral canal cell, egg cell, and gametophyte.
6. Young fern sporophyte emerges from the archegonium. Look for young sporophyte leaf
(2n), gametophyte (n) and primary root (2n).
Post-lab Questions
1. What function do you think the root-like rhizoids at the base of the plant perform?
2. Explain why water must be present for the bryophytes to complete the sexual portion of
their life cycle.
3. Describe the difference between a sporophyte and a gametophyte.
4. Young fern sporophyte (attached to the gametophyte) will grow up to mature

sporophyte. What will happen to the gametophyte?
5. Where is the location of antheridium on fern gametophyte? How does the sperm from
antheridium fuses with the egg at archegonium?

Figure 4.1 Life cycle of Marchantia, a thallose liverwort.

Figure 4.2 Life cycle of representative moss.

Figure 4.3 Life cycle of the fern.

Experiment 3 : Gymnosperm
Objectives
i. describe the features of seed plant life cycle and the concept of the dominant
generation.
ii. describe the life histories and related reproductive structures of gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
iii. explain the features that distinguish gymnosperms and angiosperms.
iv. relate and discuss the advantages of seed plants to dominate land and their
evolutionary adaptations on land.
Introduction
Gymnosperms (720 species in 65 genera) are ancient seed plants that include ginkgos (Division
Ginkgophyta), cycads (Division Cycadophyta), conifers (Division Coniferophyta), and
gnetophytes (Division Gnetophyta). The term gymnosperm derives from the Greek wood roots
gymnos, meaning “naked”, and sperma, meaning “seed”. They are naked-seeded plants meaning
that the ovule, which becomes a seed, is exposed on the sporophyte at pollination. Mature seed
are not enclosed in a fruit as are those of flowering plants. Gymnosperms are best known for
their characteristic cones, called strobili. These strobili display sporangia and their subsequently
developing ovules and pollens. Gymnosperms do not require water for sperm to swim to reach
the egg as do seedless plants. Instead, immense amount of windblown pollen are produced.
Most gymnosperm cones, including the familiar pine cone, are complex whorls of
leaflike, woody scales around a central axis. The smallest cones include those of the junipers
(Juniperus) which have flesh scales fused into a structure resembling a berry. The larger cones
may weigh 45 kg and are produced by cycads. In most gymnosperm species, the female
megastrobilus is larger and distinctive from the male microstrobilus.
Materials
Living or preserved specimens of Compound microscope

- ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) Dissecting microscope
- cycad (Cycas sp.) Slide and coverslip
- pine (Pinus sp.) Forceps
Prepared slide of gymnosperms Distilled water

Procedure
A ginkgo :
1. Examine a prepared slide of male strobilus of Ginkgo biloba. Identify the
microsporophyll, microsprorangium, and strobilus axis.
2. Examine a prepared slide of female strobilus of Ginkgo biloba. Identify the
megasporophyll, megasprorangium, and strobilus axis.
A cycad :
1. Examine a female cycad. Identify leaves, megasporophylls, megasporangia and
developing seeds.
2. The pollen cone bears on male cycad. Examine pollinate cone and identify
microsporophyll, microsporangia, and pollen grains.
A pine (Figure 5.1) :

1. Obtain a male cone and female cone of Pinus sp. Can you differentiate between the two
cones?
2. Examine a prepared slide of longitudinal section of female cone. Look for
megasporophyll, megasporangia, and ovule.
3. Examine a prepared slide of longitudinal section of male cone. Look for
microsporophyll, microsporangia, and pollen grains.
4. Fertilization occurs after the pollen tube penetrates the megasporangium and allows
sperm to enter the archegonium and fuses with the egg. The zygote will form after
fertilization. Examine a prepared slide of the developing embryo of Pinus sp.
5. Obtain mature seed cone. Find the seed with wing attached to the ovuliferous scale.
What is the special about the seeds?
6. Examined the anatomy of pine leaf one needle. Identify the following: epidermis, stoma,
photosynthetic mesophyll, endodermis, phloem, xylem, and resin duct.

Experiment 4 : Angiosperms
Introduction
Angiosperms are the most abundant, diverse, and widespread of all land plants. They are
successful because they are structurally diverse, have efficient vascular systems, share a variety
of mutualisms (especially with insects and fungi), and have short generation times. Flowering
plants are important to human because our world economy is overwhelmingly based on them.
Indeed, we eat and use vegetative structures (roots, stems and leaves) as well as reproductive
structure (flowers, seeds, and fruits). You will find that many of the vegetative structures are
quite similar to those of more ancient plants shown. The roots, stems, and leaves of flowering
plants function just as those of ferns and cone bearing plants. Flowers and fruits, however are
unique adaptations of angiosperms. Biologists believe that the extraordinary adaptiveness of
these structures has led to the proliferation of the incredible diversity found among flowering
plants.
Materials
Living specimens of angiosperms Compound microscope

(dicots & monocots) with roots, stems, Dissecting microscope
leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. (Imperata Slide and coverslip
cylindrical, zea mays, Carica papaya, Forceps
Phaseolus sp.) Distilled water
Prepared slide of angiosperms
(dicots & monocots)
Procedure
Roots :
1. Obtain a root of dicots and monocots for morphology and anatomy study.
2. Look for the root systems of representative dicot and monocot. Can you give the
function of these roots?
3. Cross section of dicot root shows the central stele is surrounded by a thick cortex and
epidermis. Identify the following: epidermis, cortex, parenchyma cells, starch grains,
pericycle, endodermis, phloem, and xylem.
4. Cross section of monocot root shows this root has a vascular cylinder of xylem and
phloem that surrounds a central pith. Identify the following: epidermis, cortex,
endodermis, Casparian strip, pith, phloem, and xylem.
5. Obtain a prepared slide of the roots for some other species and distinguish their
structure.

Stems :
1. Study the longitudinal section of shoot tip of representative dicot and monocot (fresh
prepared slide or prepared slide). Identify the following: leaf, leaf primordium, apical
meristem, ground meristem, axillary bud, vascular bundle, and pith.
2. Obtain a dicot and monocot and make a cross section of the stems and examine the
arrangement of vascular bundles. Compare the anatomy between this dicot and
monocot.
3. For both type of plants, identify: epidermis, cortex, phloem, xylem, cambium, pith, and
vascular bundle.
Leaves :
1. Look for fresh specimen provided in lab. Flowering plants show a variety of
morphology to identify, such as, leaf arrangements and leaf venation.
2. Using fresh prepared slide or prepared slide of some flowering plants, study the
structure of the leaves. Notice that the leaves have common features: cuticle, air space,
lower epidermis, upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, and vascular
bundle.
Flowers (Figure 5.2) :

1. Look for longitudinal section of some flowers. Name the parts of a flower: stigma, pistil,
style, ovary, sepal, receptacle, peduncle, petal, filament, stamen, and anther.
2. Examine a prepared slide of a cross section of mature anther (lily anther). Find sections
of the four microsporangia. Look for pollen grains within a microsporangium.
3. Examine a prepared slide of a cross section of an ovary (lily ovary). Find the several
ovules. Look for megaspore mother cell within megasporangium. Study the
megasporangium develops. Identify the placenta, integuments, microphyle, egg cell,
central cell, and polar nuclei.
4. Observe the demonstration slide of double fertilization and identify the zygote, primary
endosperm nucleus, and central cell of the female gametophyte.
Fruits and seeds :

1. Get a sample of dry, dehiscent fruits (peanuts). Identify the fruit wall, cotyledon,
plumule of embryo, embryo, radicle, cotyledon, and seed coat.
2. Get a sample of simple flesy fruits (tomato, a berry). Identify pericarp, mesocarp,
endocarp, locule, seed and placenta.
3. Examine a prepared slide of corn grain (Zea mays), a caryopsis fruit. The pericarp of a
corn grains is tightly united and inseparable from the seed. Identify the pericarp,
endosperm, cotyledon, coleoptile, plumule bud, embryo, radicle, and coleorhiza.

Post-lab Questions
1. How to distinguish between a male and female cone of pine?
2. Explain the characteristics of gymnosperm seeds to aid in dispersal.
3. List some uses for conifers.
4. Lists the common characteristics of seeds plants.
5. Contrast between dicots and monocots, the two classes of flowering plants.
6. Discuss the features of plant flowering fruits and seeds.

Figure 5.1 Life cycle of Pinus sp.

Figure 5.2 Life cycle of flowering plant.

PRACTICAL 5 : ANIMALIA
Topic 1 : Sponges and Cnidarians
Objectives
i. state the fundamental characteristics of members of phylum Porifera and phylum

Cnidaria.
ii. identify members of the three major classes of cnidarians.
iii. describe the body forms of cnidarians and describe the reproduction of those species
alternating between polyps and medusae.
Introduction
Sponges of phylum Porifera and cnidarians of phylum Cnidaria are multicellular heterotrophs
and members of kingdom Animalia. Their bodies and body cavity are simple and they lack the
complex behavior and sensory capabilities of many higher animals. However, their diversity
and persistence through time demonstrate the elegance and efficiency of their simple design.
Phylum Porifera (sponges) are the simplest of the major animal phyla and comprise
10,000 species. Most sponges live in the ocean, but a few encrust rocks and sticks in freshwater.
Sponges lack tissues and organs and are typically asymmetrical assemblages of cells. Bodies of
asymmetrical organisms have no symmetry or pattern such as left and right halves or anterior
and posterior regions. Sponge cells are so loosely assembled that if a sponge is forced through a
fine mesh, the disassociated cells will survive. Even more remarkably, the disassociated cells
can reassemble as a functioning organism.
Phylum Cnidaria (also called Coelenterates) includes class Hydrozoa (hydras), class
Scyphozoa (jellyfish), and class Anthozoa (anemones and corals). Cnidarians are almost all
marine carnivores. Their bodies are radially symmetrical and more complex than the sponges.
Radial symmetry describes a body form with repetitive body areas arranged in a circle around a
central point such as the pieces of a pie. The body wall has two cellular layers, an ectodermis on
the outside and an endodermis (sometimes called the gastrodermis) lining the gastrovascular
cavity. A gelatinous mesoglea separates the two true body layers. Cells of cnidarians are
organized into true tissues (nervous, muscular, and reproductive) but not organs. Cnidarians
have two basic body plans: polyps and medusae. The classes of cnidarians are distinguished
primarily by the relative dominance of the polyp stage or the medusa stage in the life cycle.
Many cnidarians occur only as polyps, others only as medusae, and still others alternate
between these two forms. This alternation is a form of polymorphism, which means "many
forms." The life cycle of many cnidarians is characterized by alternation between polyp and
medusa.

Materials
Preserved specimens of Compound microscope

- Scypha (Grantia) Dissecting microscope
- Spongilla Slide and coverslip
- Hydra Complete dissecting set
- Obelia Distilled water
Prepared slide of Scypha (Grantia),
Spongilla, Hydra and Obelia
Procedure
Experiment 1 : Sponges (Figure 6.1)
Scypha (Grantia) :
1. Examine the general morphology of the preserved specimen of Scypa. Identify the
osculum, and spicules. Note the pores in the body wall.
2. Examine a prepared slide of Scypa provided to you. Identify their structures and
functions, then draw and labels your observations.
Spongilla :
1. Examine the preserved specimen of Spongilla. Look for the morphology of this species.
How do they look like?
2. Examine a prepared slide of Spongilla provided to you. Identify their structures and
functions, then draw and labels your observations.
Experiment 2 : Cnidarians
Hydra (Figure 6.2) :

1. Examine the preserved specimen of Hydra. Look for the morphology of this species,
than draw and labels your observation.
2. Observe the tentacles and mouth of Hydra. How do they ingest or obtain their foods?
What is the function of nematocyst?
3. Look for evidence of sexual reproduction. Identify the testes and an ovary. Observe the
embryo marginally attached to or detached from the body of the Hydra. Is Hydra
monoecious or dioecious?
4. Hydra also reproduces by budding. Look for buds on your specimen.
5. Observe the cellular structure of Hydra by studying a prepared slide of the organism.
Draw and labels your observations.

Obelia (Figure 6.3) :

1. Obtain the polyp stage and medusa stage of Obelia. Identify feeding and reproductive
polyp.
2. Examine a prepared slide of Obelia provided to you. Identify their structures and
functions, then draw and labels your observations
Post-lab Questions
1. What is the advantage of a folded or convoluted wall in sponges?
2. What function other than support might spicules serve?
3. Describe the means by which the cnidarians seize and eat faster organisms.
4. None of the sponges or cnidarians moves rapidly. What necessary features are both of
these phyla lacking in order to have a more mobile lifestyle?
Figure 6.1 Morphology of simple sponge

Figure 6.2 (A) A polyp and (B) medusae stage for Cnidaria. (C) Body wall of a hydra
(longitudinal section).

Figure 6.3 Structure and life cycle of Obelia.

Topic 2 : Flatworms, Roundworms, and Rotifers
Objectives
i. explain the basic body plan of some members of phyla Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
and Rotifera.
ii. identify structures and functions of representative of these groups.
iii. state characteristics of members of these groups.
iv. explain the difference between acoelomate and pseudocoelomate, and know which
phyla associated with each.
Introduction
Flatworms of phylum Platyhelminthes, roundworm of phylum Nematode, and rotifers of

phylum Rotifera live in marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and parasitic environment. Their
morphology is more complex than that of sponges and jellyfish. They have three germ layers:
ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (described as triploblastic) and have organ made of
interdependent tissues and are the simplest animal having bilateral symmetry with distinct
anterior and posterior ends.
Flatworms have soft, wormlike bodies and are acoelomates (lack of body cavity
between the gut and body wall). They represent an important evolutionary transition because
they are the simplest forms to exhibit an organ system level of organization and cephalization (a
definite head with sense organ). Although they are definite organs, the digestive system is still
of the gastrovascular type, incomplete with a mouth and no anus. Flatworms are grouped in
three classes: class Turbellaria: Planarians, class Trematoda: Fluke, and class Cestoda:
Tapeworms.
Roundworms are pseudocoelomates (have a false body cavity or pseudocoel). They have
a complete gut with both a mouth and an anus. Together, the pseudocoel and the complete
digestive system comprise a tube-within-a-tube arrangement. Roundworms have slender,
cylindrical bodies that taper at both ends. A complex cuticle of protein covers them. Free-living
roundworms are Rhabditus and Turbatrix, Ascaris, and Trichinella.
Rotifers are pseudocoelomates, microscopic animals, easily found in rain gutters and
spouts, and in the slimy material around the bases of building. Their body wall is very thin,
usually transparent and covered by a cuticle composed of protein. They are dioecious; however,
many species have no males, and the eggs develop parthenogenetically.

Materials
Preserved or living specimens of Compound microscope

- Dugesia (planaria) Dissecting microscope
- Taenia pisiformis Slide and coverslip
- Ascaris Complete dissecting set
- rotifers culture Distilled water
Prepared slide of Dugesia (planaria),
Ascaris and rotifer
Procedure
Experiment 1 : Flatworms of phylum Platyhelminthes
Dugesia (planaria) (Figure 7.1) :

1. Obtain a living Dugesia and examine its morphology with a dissecting microscope.
What features of planaria distinguish its head from its tail?
2. Examine a prepared slaide of a stained planaria. Identify the ectoderm, mesoderm,
endoderm, gastrovascular cavity, and muscular pharynx.
Taenia pisiformis (Figure 7.2) :

1. Obtain a preserved Taenia pisiformis. Look for the morphology of Taenia pisiformis,
internal parasites of dogs and cats.
2. Identify the specialized head or scolex, neck, and proglottis at the body of Taenia
pisiformis.
3. Using a prepared slide, identify hooks and suckers. For what task does the tape worm
use these hooks and suckers?
4. Look for the proglottids and identify the excretory canals, genital pore, ovary, uterus,
and testes.
Experiment 2 : Roundworm of phylum Nematode
Ascaris (Figure 7.3) :

1. Examine a female and male Ascaris. Identify the mouth and anus.
2. Using a prepared slide of female Ascaris, identify ectoderm, muscle fibers, intestine,
oviducts, loops of ovaries, uteri, and pseodocoel.
3. Using a prepared slide of male Ascaris, identify ectoderm, muscle fibers, intestine, loops
of testis, seminal vesicle, and pseodocoel.

Experiment 3 : Rotifers of phylum Rotifera
Rotifers (Figure 7.4) :

1. With a disposable transfer pipet, place a drop from the rotifer culture on a clean slide
and made a wet mount.
2. Observe the trunk and the foot of rotifers. Can you idenfity ciliated corona? What is the
function of this structure?
3. Look for a grinding organ, the mastax is inside the trunk. What do you think the mastax
perform?
Post-lab Questions
1. How is bilateral symmetry different from radial symmetry?
2. What are the advantages of a roundworm’s digestive system having two opening?
3. Describe several adaptations of parasitic flatworms to their external environment.

Figure 7.1 Anatomy of a planarian. (A) Dorsal view of digestive and nervous system. (B)
Cross section and (C) longitudinal section of planarian taken through the
pharynx region. (D) Lateral view. (E) Dorsal view. (F) Sagittal view of
reproductive system.

Figure 7.2 Structure and life cycle of the beef tapeworm, Taenia saginatus.

Figure 7.3 (A) Lateral view of female nematodes. (B) Lateral view of male nematodes. (C)
and (D) Cross section of the body.
Figure 7.4 Rotifers anatomy. (A) Dorsal view. (B) Lateral view. (C) Cross section.

Topic 3 : Mollusks, Segmented Worms, and Joint-Legged Animals
Objectives
i. describe the general morphology of organisms of phylum Mollusca, phylum

Annelida, and phylum Arthropoda.
ii. identify structures and functions of representative organisms of these groups.
iii. state the characteristics of members of these groups considered advanced over more
primitive phyla.
Experiment 1 : Mollusks (phylum Mollusca)
Introduction
Molluscs are soft bodied animals having an internal or external shell. Included in the phylum
are snails, oysters, slugs, clams, octopuses, and squids. Most mollusks are bilaterally
symmetrical, absence of segmentation, and the circulatory system is open. They are
characterized by having three main body regions: a muscular foot, which is the sensory and
locomotive part of the body; a visceral mass containing the excretory, digestive, and
circulatory organs; and the mantle, which secretes the shells. The gills, which function in
respiration, are located inside the mantle.
Materials
Living or preserved specimens of snails, Dissecting microscope

clams, and squids Complete dissecting set
Preserved specimens of bivalve (Anodonta) Glass Petri dish
Procedure
Examine the external features of the mollusks (Figure 8.1a) :

1. Obtain a specimen of Class Gastropoda (snail), Class Bivalvia (clam), and Class
Cephalopoda (squid). Put your specimen side by side and examine their external
morphology.
2. Draw the external view of each specimen and label the parts of the body.
Examine the bivalve anatomy (Figure 8.1b) :

1. Obtain a preserved freshwater bivalve, Anodonta, and located the anterior, posterior,
hinge, and umbo of the shell.
2. Open the shell by carefully cutting the anterior and posterior adductor muscles.
3. As you pry the shell open, loosen the mantle from the surface of the left valve.
4. Examine the mantle. Remove half of the mantle to expose the visceral mass.
5. Locate the gills, foot, and labial palps.

6. Cut into the foot to find the stomach and digestive tract.
7. Trace the flow of water and food through your dissecting specimen.
8. When you complete your observations, disposed of the preserved tissue and shells in
appropriate containers.
Post-lab Questions:
1. What is the texture of the mantle of Anodonta?
2. How does the foot of a bivalve differ from snails?
3. What are the functions of tentacles of a squid?
4. The four major classes of mollusks are Polyplacophora, Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and
Cephalopoda. With examples, describe the main characteristics of each class.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1 (a) Representative classes of mollusks.

(b) Morphology of the freshwater clam, Anodonta.

Experiment 2 : Segmented Worms (phylum Annelida)
Introduction
Annelids include earthworms, leeches, and many less familiar marine and freshwater species.
The most distinctive characteristic of this phylum is segmentation. The body is divided into
repetitive segments (sometimes called metameres) arranged on a longitudinal axis and divided
by septa. Each segment contains parts of the circulatory, digestive, nervous, and excretory
system. The circulatory system of annelids is closed. Annelids also have setae, which are small,
bristle-like appendages often occurring in pairs on lateral and ventral surfaces. The degree of
setae development is distinctive for each of the three classes of annelids: Class Oligochaeta,
Class Polychaeta, and Class Hirudinea
Materials
Living and preserved specimens of Dissecting microscope

earthworms and leeches Complete dissecting set
Prepared slide of an earthworm (c.s) Scalpel and dissecting needles
Glass Petri dish
Procedure
Examine the external features of annelids :

1. Obtain a living or preserved specimen of earthworm and leech. Put your specimen in
glass petri dish and examine their external morphology. Notice their segmentation.
2. Use the dissecting microscope to determine the absent/present of setae, the number and
arrangement of these setae (if present).
3. Locate the mouth and anus of your specimens.
4. Draw the external view of each specimen and label the parts of the body.
Examine locomotion in earthworm :

1. Watch a living earthworm move on the hard surface (such as a sand paper).
2. Movement of oligochaete is not undulatory - rather, movement involved extension,
anchoring, and contraction. These motions occur by alternating contractions of circular
and longitudinal muscles against hydrostatics pressure within each segment.

Examine the internal features of an earthworm :

1. Follow the procedure for dissecting earthworm below: (Figure 8.2a).
2. After finish, observe the internal anatomy of earthworms. Draw and labels your
observations. When you have completed your observations, dispose of your specimen in
an appropriate container.
3. Examine a prepared slide of a cross section of an earthworm. Locate the cuticle,
epidermis, intestinal wall, typhlosole, circular muscle, longitudinal muscle, coelom,
nephridium, blood vessel (dorsal/ventral), and ventral nerve cord. Draw and labels your
observations (Figure 8.2b).
Post-lab Questions:
1. Lists the function of setae for the annelids.
2. Leeches are highly specialized annelids, which have anterior and posterior suckers.
Explain the function of these structures.
3. Why the oligochetes and hirudinea are called ‘hermaphroditic’? What is the difference
between their reproductive?
4. The three major lasses of annelids are Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, and Hirudinea. With
examples, describe the main characteristics of each Class.

Figure 8.2a Procedure for dissecting earthworm.
Figure 8.2b Cross section through segment of earthworm.

Topic 4 : Joint-Legged Animals (phylum Arthropoda)
Introduction
The phylum Arthropoda is the largest of all animal phyla. The arthropods are characterized by
their rigid chitinous body covering, called an exoskeleton. The body is segmented externally
and internally to varying degrees, depending on the species, and the appendages are jointed and
highly modified for a large variety of functions.
The classification of Arthropoda is quite complex because of its large number of species
and the tremendous diversity in form among its members. It is divided into three subphyla,
which are subdivided into classes. Some of the major classes included Class Arachnida, Class
Crustacea, Class Insecta, Class Chilopoda and Class Diplopoda.
Materials
Living or preserved specimens of spider, Dissecting microscope

crayfish and grasshopper Complete dissecting set
Prepared slide of a whole mount of Dissection pan
grasshopper mouthparts
Procedure
Examine the external features of spider (Class Arachnida) :

1. Obtain a living spider. Locate the external features shown in Figure 8.3a.
2. Draw the external view of your specimen and label the parts of the body.
3. Examine the parts of spider’s head. How many eyes does spider have? Are they paired
and similar in size?
Examine the external features of crayfish (Class Crustacea) :

1. Obtain a living or preserved specimen of crayfish. Locate the external features shown in
Figure 8.3b (dorsal/ventral view). Which body region of a crayfish is most obvious
segmented?
2. Draw the external view of your specimen and label the parts of the body.
3. To appreciate the arrangement of appendages in crayfish, use forceps to remove them
beginning with the first antennae at the anterior end.
4. Tape the removed appendages to a sheet of paper and arrange them in order from
anterior to posterior. Examine the appendages you’ve removed and note which ones are
biramous?

Examine the external features of grasshopper (Class Insecta) :

1. Obtain a specimen of grasshopper and locate the external features shown in Figure 8.3c.
2. Draw the external view of grasshopper and label the parts of the body.
3. Examine the head and find simple eyes called ocelli as well as compound eyes (Figure
8.3d). How many ocelli does a grasshopper have?
4. Remove the labrum and locate the remaining mouthparts. Identify the mouthparts and
their functions.
5. Spread the wings of grasshopper to show fore and hind wings. Do they all have the same
shape and consistency?
Post-lab Questions:
1. Complete the table below to compare the characteristics of some classes of Arthropods.
Features Class Class Class

Arachnida Crustacea Insecta
Name of body regions
Number of legs
Arrangement of legs
Segmentation
Number of antennae
Name of major sensory organs
Name of major mouthparts
2. Other classes of Arthropods are Class Chilopoda (Centipedes) and Class Diplopoda
(Millipedes). Explain the common habitat for each Class.
3. With examples, describe the main characteristics of class Chilopoda and Diplopoda.
4. Lists some of the importance of Arthropods in our life.

Figure 8.3a External view of spider.
Figure 8.3b A generalized malacostracan (lateral view) and a thoracic appendage.

Figure 8.3c External structure of a female grasshopper.
Figure 8.3d Grasshopper head (A) and mouthparts(B).

Topic 5 : Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates
Objectives
i. describe the morphology of Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates.

ii. identify the characteristics of organisms of Echinoderms (sea stars, brittle star, sea
urchins and sea cucumbers).
iii. identify the invertebrate chordates (subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata).
Experiment 1 : Echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata)
Introduction
Echinoderms consist of mostly marine, bottom-dwelling animals commonly known as sea stars,
sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers and sea lilies. The phylum is so named because of the
presence of spiny plates (calcareous ossicles), which form a dermal skeleton. Echinoderms are
typically radially symmetrical, and they have true coeloms arising as outpocketings from
embryonic mesoderm of the gut. A unique feature of the echinoderms is a derivative of the
coelom known as the water vascular system, a system of a tube that is filled with a watery fluid.
This system functions in movement, attachment, respiration, excretion, food handling, and
sensory perception.
Materials
Preserved specimens of sea stars, sea Compound microscope

urchins and sea cucumbers Dissecting microscope
Prepared slides of a sea star arm (ray) c.s and Complete dissecting set
whole mount of bipinnaria larvae
Procedure
Examine a sea star :

1. Obtain a preserved specimen of sea star (Class Asteroidea) and locate the external and
internal features shown in Figure 9.1.
2. With a dissection microscope, examine the spines on the aboral surface and many small
pincerlike structures, the pedicellaria. Note the soft,hollow skin gills among the base of
the spines.
3. Touch the madreporite (the sieve plate) with a probe, and feel its consistency. Can you
trace the path of water from the madreporite to the tube feet?
4. Locate the mouth on the oral side. Note that ambulacral groove extends from the mouth
down the middle of the oral side of each arm. Numerous tube feet extend from the
water-vascular system and occupy this grove. Look at the suckers!

The tube foot, along with the skin gills, functions in movement, respiration and
excretion.
5. Examine a prepared slide of an arm (c.s) and identify the coelom, digestive gland,
dermal endoskeletal plates, tube feet and gonad.
6. Examine the prepared slide of bipinnaria larvae, and identify the mouth, anus, intestine,
esophagus and stomach. Draw and label your observation.
Examine a sea urchin :

1. Obtain a preserved sea urchin (Class Echinoidea). Observe the structure of their test,
spines and long tube foot. These spines and long tube feet control locomotion of sea
urchin.
2. Locate the oral surface. Examine the mouth which contains five ossified plates, or teeth
called Aristotle’s lantern.
Examine a sea cucumber :

1. Obtain a preserved sea cucumber (Class Holothuroidea). Examine the anterior and
posterior of their body.
2. Find the mouth; it is surrounded by modified tube feet called tentacles which secrete a
mucus. What is the function of this secretion?
Figure 9.1 Asterias (a) External features of the oral and aboral surfaces, and (b) spines,
pedicellariae and skin gills.

Topic 6 : Invertebrate Chordates
Introduction
Invertebrate Chordates (Phylum Chordata) include two Subphyla: Urochordata and

Cephalochordata. The urochordates (tunicates) are a group of exclusively marine and sessile
organisms that are covered by a firm tunic (a cellulose sac), from which they get the common
name tunicates. They are having a larval stage in which chordate characteristics are present, the
neural tube and notochord being lost in the sedentary adult, although it does posses a primitive
circulatory system.
The ceplalochordates (lancelets) is a small, fishlike, marine chordates that burrow in

sand or mud. They are having a well-developed coelom, a circulatory system without a discrete
heart, and a fusiform body that has prominent muscle segments (myotomes).
Materials
Preserved specimens of tunicates and Compound microscope

lancelets Dissecting microscope
Prepared slide of larval tunicates Complete dissecting set
Procedure
Examine the tunicates (Figure 9.2a & 9.2b) :

1. Obtain a preserved specimen of adult tunicates. Put your specimen in glass petri dish
and examine their external morphology.
2. Use the dissecting microscope to determine the incurrent siphon, excurrent siphon and
tunic.
3. A larval tunicates has bilateral symmetry, a dorsal nerve cord, and a notochord, but loses
these features when it settles for adult life. Examine a prepared slide of larval tunicates.
Examine the lancelets (Figure 9.2c) :

1. Obtain a preserved specimen of lancelets. Examine the external structure of your
specimen.
2. Use the dissecting microscope to determine the buccal cavity with tentacles, atriopore
and anus. Notice that the anus is not terminal.
Post-lab Questions:
1. Distinguish some of the features between sea star and sea urchin.
2. Sea cucumber lack arms, spines and long tube feet. How do they move?
3. Explain the function of gill silts in invertebrate chordates.

(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9.2 External anatomy of the (a) adult tunicate; (b) larval tunicate; and (c) lancelet.

Topic 7 : Vertebrates
Objectives
i. describe the basic characteristics of members of subphylum Vertebrata.

ii. identify representatives of vertebrate classes: Agnatha, Chondrichthyes,
Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mamalia.
Introduction
The Vertebrata is by far the largest and most important of the chordate subphyla. The
vertebrates are characterized by an endoskeleton that includes a vertebral column, or backbone,
composed of a series of vertebrae. Vertebral column replace the notochord in adults and
surround the dorsal nerve cord. Vertebrates also have a distinct head. There are seven classes of
living vertebrates, three of them fishes and four of them terrestrial tetrapods. The seven classes
of vertebrates are Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and
Mamalia.
Class Agnatha include the hagfishes and lampreys. They are also called cyclostomes
(round mouth) and without jaws. All hagfishes are marine, whereas lampreys inhabit both
marine and freshwater.
Class Chondrichthyes include sharks, skates and rays. They are abundant in oceans as
predators and scavengers. This class is characterized by skeletons that lack bones but are instead
made of a softer, more flexible material, called cartilage. The skin is covered by small, pointed
scales made of plates of dentine covered by enamel, which structurally resemble vertebrate
teeth. The anterior gill arches are modified into jaws.
Class Osteichthyes, a bony fish, are the most diverse class of vertebrates (about 20 000
species). Advanced features of bony fish include a bony endoskeleton, modified gill arches, and
internal air bladders for balance and buoyancy.
Class Amphibia include toads, frogs, and salamander. Most amphibian adults are
terrestrial, but they lay eggs in water. The eggs are fertilized externally and each hatches into an
aquatic larval stage called a tadpole. Tadpoles undergo a dramatic metamorphosis of body
shapes as they become adults.
Class Reptilia include some of the most interesting and diverse chordates, such as the
turtles, snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and alligators. They are ectothermic, most covered with
scales or bony plates, and they respire by means of lungs. They are the first vertebrates to
evolve that adapted to living in dry places, the dry skin and scales retarding moisture loss from
the body and allowing the animal to occupy rough land surfaces.

Class Aves (birds) most easily recognized because they have feathers and are capable of
flying. Represent on the feet are with scales, reminiscent of their reptilian heritage. They are
endothermic vertebrates, capable of maintaining relatively high core-body temperatures
physiologically.
Class Mammalia, often called the “highest” animals, include such as rodents, monkeys,
bats, horses, whales, cows, deer, and human being. All are covered to varying degrees with hair
and are warm-blooded. They are called mammals because the young are nourished by milk from
the mammary glands of the female. They live in all kinds of habitat, able to move into these
niches and survive, because of the wide diversity in their morphological, physiological, and
behavioral features.
Materials
Living specimens of fish, frog and tadpole. Dissecting microscope

Preserved specimens of sea lamprey, Complete dissecting set
dogfish shark, snake, bird and mouse. Glass Petri dish
Prepared slide of an ammocoete (the larva
of a lamprey).
Procedure
Class Agnatha (Figure 10.1) :

1. Examine a preserved lamprey, Petromyzon. Identify the external morphology of this
species.
2. Most lampreys are parasites. They attach their buccal funnel to the side of a prey.
Examine the sucking mouth and teeth used to feed on their preys.
3. Examine a prepared slide of an ammocoete, the larva of a lamprey.
Class Chondrichthyes (Figure 10.2) :

1. Examine a preserved dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias. Identify the external
morphology of this species.
2. Most sharks are predators. They have large jaws and powerful to attack their preys.
Examine the mouth parts of given specimen.
Class Osteichthyes (Figure 10.3) :

1. Obtain a living bony fish. Identify the external morphology of a specimen given.
2. Observe their swimming and breathing. Does the power for movement by a fish come
from the tail or from other fins?
3. Examine a bony fish gills. Gills are protected by a moveable gill cover called an
operculum. Draw and labels your observation.

Class Amphibia (Figure 10.4) :

1. Examine a living frog. Identify the external morphology of this species.
2. Examine a larval stage of frog (a tadpole). Identify the body parts of tadpole.
3. Observe the legs of the frog. How are the legs of a frog different from the fins of a fish
to allow movement on land?
Class Reptilia (Figure 10.5) :

1. Examine preserved reptiles. Note their morphological structure and its functions.
2. Reptiles have a dry skin covered with scales. What is the adaptive significance of these
structures.
Class Aves (Figure 10.6) :

1. Examine specimens of birds. Identify their structure.
2. Examine a feather given. Identify barbs, shaft and quil. Using dissecting microscope,
look at the barbules and hook (hamulus).
3. Draw and labels your observations.
Class Mamalia (Figure 10.7) :

1. Examine a preserved specimen of mouse. Identify the external morphology of this
species.
2. Mammary glands are specialized to secrete milk following the birth of young. Obtain
female mouse and observe the structure of mammary gland.
3. As you examine display mammals, search for common structures, such as hair
distribution, body orientation, and structures for locomotion.
Post-lab Questions
1. Define the terms internal fertilization and external fertilization. What is the adaptive
significance of internal fertilization?
2. What is the advantage of retaining the embryo in the uterus during its development?
3. What advantage is there in nourishin the young with milk from the mammary gland
rather than with the food in the yolk of a reptilian egg.

Figure 10.1 The external morphology of sea lamprey.
Figure 10.2 The external morphology of dogfish shark.

Figure 10.3 Representative bony fish.
Figure 10.4 Representative amphibians.

Figure 10.5 Representative reptiles. Figure 10.6 Representative birds.

Figure 10.7 Representative mammals.

REFERENCES
1. Enger, E.D. & F.C. Ross. 2003. Laboratory Manual: Concepts in Biology (10th Edition).
USA: McGraw-Hill.
2. Hill, J.B., H.W. Popp & A.R. Grove. 1967. Botany: A Textbook for Colleges (4th
Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3. Lytle, C.F. 1987. Laboratory Guide to Biology (4th Edition). USA: Contemporary
Publishing Company.
4. Perry, J.W., D. Morton & J.B. Perry. 2002. Laboratory Manual for Starr and Taggart’s
Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life and Starr’s Biology: Concepts and
Applications. Canada: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.
5. Pough, F.H., Heiser, J.B. & Farland, W.N. 1990. Vertebrate Life (3th Edition). New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
6. Ruppert, E.E. & Barnes, R.D.. 1994. Invertebrate Zoology (6th Edition). New York:
Saunders College Publishing.
7. Strete, D. & Vodopich, D. 2002. Photo Atlas for General Biology. USA: McGraw-Hill
Higher Education.
8. Vadopich, D.S. & R. Moore. 1996. Biology Laboratory Manual (4th Edition). USA:
Times Mirror Higher Education Group, Inc.
9. Sylvia, S.M. 2001. Biology (7th Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
10. Sylvia, S.M. 2009. Concepts of Biology (1st Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.

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BIO320 / MARCH – AUGUST 2022

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM)

At the end of this lab, students should be able to:

i. define parasite, saprobe, mutualist, gametagium, hypha, mycelium, multinucleate,

Faculty of Applied Sciences, UiTM

i) Phylum Chytridiomycota - Allomyces gametophyte

ii) Phylum Zygomycota - Rhizopus sporangis

iii) Phylum Ascomycota (Sac fungi) - Aspergillus conidiophores

iv) Phylum Basidiomycota (Club fungi) - Coprinus mushroom

v) Imperfect fungi - Penicillium conidia

Post lab Questions :

1. Which characteristics best define fungi?

Faculty of Applied Sciences, UiTM

At the end of this lab, students should be able to:

Experiment 1 : Seedless Non-Vascular Plant: Bryophytes

As primitive plants, bryophytes lack vascular tissue. Bryophytes divisions include

Living or preserved Compound microscope

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The liverworts (Marchantia sp.) (Figure 4.1) :

The mosses (Polytricum sp.) (Figure 4.2) :

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Experiment 2 : Seedless Vascular Plants (Fern Allies and Ferns)

Living or preserved Compound microscope

The spike mosses (Selaginella sp.) :

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The true ferns (Dryopteris sp.) (Figure 4.3) :

3. Describe the difference between a sporophyte and a gametophyte.

4. Young fern sporophyte (attached to the gametophyte) will grow up to mature

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Figure 4.1 Life cycle of Marchantia, a thallose liverwort.

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Figure 4.2 Life cycle of representative moss.

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Figure 4.3 Life cycle of the fern.

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At the end of this lab, students should be able to:

Living or preserved specimens of Compound microscope

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A pine (Figure 5.1) :

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Living specimens of angiosperms Compound microscope

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Flowers (Figure 5.2) :

Fruits and seeds :

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1. How to distinguish between a male and female cone of pine?

2. Explain the characteristics of gymnosperm seeds to aid in dispersal.

3. List some uses for conifers.

4. Lists the common characteristics of seeds plants.

6. Discuss the features of plant flowering fruits and seeds.

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Figure 5.1 Life cycle of Pinus sp.

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Figure 5.2 Life cycle of flowering plant.

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At the end of this lab, students should be able to:

i. state the fundamental characteristics of members of phylum Porifera and phylum

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Preserved specimens of Compound microscope