REFRACTIVE SURGERY FEATURE STORY

Comparing
Femtosecond Lasers
An analysis of commercially available platforms for refractive surgery.
BY JAY S. PEPOSE, MD, P H D, AND HOLGER LUBATSCHOWSKI, P H D

ith the increasing popularity and expanding

W
A B C D
applications of femtosecond lasers in oph-
thalmology,1,2 refractive surgery in particular,
a common question among practitioners is,
how do the platforms differ? Currently commercially avail-
able in the United States are the IntraLase FS (Advanced
Medical Optics, Inc., Santa Ana, CA), Femto LDV (Ziemer
Ophthalmic Systems Group, Port, Switzerland), Femtec
(20/10 Perfect Vision AG, Heidelberg, Germany), and
VisuMax femtosecond laser system (Carl Zeiss Meditec,
Inc., Dublin, CA). A meaningful comparison requires some
basic concepts of femtosecond laser physics and tissue
interactions,3-5 important aspects of which are reviewed in
this article.
Figure 1. The course of a photodisruptive process is shown.Due
BASIC PRINCIPLES to multiphoton absorption in the focus of the laser beam,plasma
How short is ultrashort? The definition of a femtosec- develops (A).Depending on the laser parameter,the diameter
ond is 10-15 seconds (ie, one millionth of a billionth of a varies between 0.5 µm to several micrometers.The expanding
second). Putting that information into comprehensible plasma drives as a shock wave,which transforms after a few
terms, it takes 1.2 seconds for light to travel from the microns to an acoustic transient (B).In addition to the shock
moon to an earthbound observer’s retinas. In 100 fem- wave’s generation,the expanding plasma has pushed the sur-
toseconds, light traverses 30 µm—around one-third the rounding medium away from its center,which results in a cavita-
thickness of a human hair. During that time, laser pulses tion bubble (C).The maximum diameter of the cavitation bubble
can carry energies of some nano- to microJoules, which can reach 10 to 100 µm.Its lifetime is only a few microseconds.
leads to peak power equivalent to that produced at After the collapse of the cavitation bubble,a gas bubble is left
nuclear power plants (mega- to gigawatts). behind,containing carbon dioxide and other gas molecules (D).
Most ophthalmologists are familiar with the linear
absorption of light energy, which leads to the process which expands at supersonic speed, slows down, and
known as photoablation that is produced by excimer then implodes. A gas bubble subsequently forms that is
lasers. Femtosecond lasers produce a different tissue composed of carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and other
interaction, however, known as photodisruption (Figure 1). elements.
The application of many photons of laser energy at the The effect of photodisruption on tissue varies as infra-
same place and time leads to a nonlinear absorption of red laser energy decreases from the level of micro- to
femtosecond laser energy. Due to the multiphoton effect, nanoJoules (Figure 2). Nd:YAG lasers are used to pro-
as well as the electron avalanche phenomenon, energy duce posterior capsulotomies at milliJoule energies
absorption by tissue eventually exceeds the threshold for (10-nanosecond pulse duration). Femtosecond lasers
optical breakdown. This process of photodisruption cre- can cut LASIK flaps at microJoule energy (approximately
ates plasma. It also produces an acoustic shockwave, 930-femtosecond pulse duration), LASIK flaps almost
some thermal energy, and then a cavitation bubble, without bubbles at 100 nanoJoules (200-femtosecond

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 REFRACTIVE SURGERY FEATURE STORY

A B A B

C D

Figure 3. Higher pulse energy (A) allows the use of greater

spacing between spots, because the cutting process is driven
primarily by expanding cavitation and residual gas bubbles.
Lower pulse energy (B) and smaller spot size and volume re-
Figure 2. Typical applications of photodisruption and their quire substantially more spots with tighter spacing and
effects as a function of pulse energy. Nd:YAG lasers (10-ns pulse greater overlap, as the cutting process here is driven primari-
duration) are used to produce posterior capsulotomies at milli- ly by the plasma itself. To deliver this many spots in a reason-
Joule energies (A); femtosecond lasers can cut LASIK flaps with able time frame requires a very-high-frequency engine.
a microJoule of energy (approximately 930 femtoseconds) (B);
almost bubbleless LASIK flaps at 100 nanoJoules (200 fem- ting process (Figure 3). Because overly wide spacing can
toseconds) (C); and cutting of mitochondria within a living cell result in uncut areas or bridges of tissue, surgeons must
with femto-scissors at 1 nanoJoule (90 femtoseconds) with a factor both energy and spacing into the treatment plan.
very high numerical aperture lens is shown(D). Lower-energy pulses and smaller spot sizes and volumes
require the use of substantially more spots placed closer
pulse duration), and chromosome cutting with fem- together, because the plasma itself is the primary driver
toscissors at 1 nanoJoule (90-femtosecond pulse dura- of the cutting process. To deliver this many spots in a rea-
tion) with a lens that has a very high numerical aperture. sonable timeframe requires a very-high-frequency engine.
The threshold for optical breakdown (photodisrup- Although the energy per pulse is lower (nanoJoule vs
tion) is inversely related to the laser’s intensity. The microJoule range), the total energy delivered to the
shorter the pulse’s duration and the smaller the diame- cornea is actually higher, reflecting the far greater total
ter (and volume) of the spot, the lower the energy need- number of pulses. Because this energy delivery is dis-
ed for photodisruption. A lens with a higher numerical persed over time and space, however, the thermal effect
aperture will create a more focal laser spot in terms of its on the cornea is minimal (~∆2ºC, which is less thermal
diameter and volume, which enhances the depth accura- change than with eye closure), and the precise placement
cy and overall precision of the lamellar cut. This strategy in the z-plane obviates the delivery of laser energy to
of a higher numerical aperture lens is employed by the proximal ocular tissues.
Ziemer and Visumax systems. Lower pulse energy is gen-
erally associated with fewer unwanted side effects, such DIFFERENTIATING FEATURES
as an opaque bubble layer, collateral thermal damage, Table 1 outlines some of the major differences be-
and possibly diffuse lamellar keratitis as well as transient tween the commercially available femtosecond lasers
light sensitivity. for refractive surgery. The Femto LDV is the only mobile
unit, and, like the VisuMax, it is less sensitive than the
BASIC DIFFERENCES other lasers to environmental variations such as in tem-
There are two basic paradigms in the photodisruptive perature and humidity. The Femto LDV system is small-
process. One employs high-energy (microJoule) pulses er and has a faster startup than the Femtec or IntraLase
and a low-frequency pulse engine (kHz). The other relies FS, in part because it utilizes an industrial laser head
on low-energy (nanoJoule), high-frequency (MHz) puls- based on the concept of an oscillator rather than an
es. The current IntraLase FS and Femtec systems use amplifier. The unit’s articulating arm fits under the ex-
higher-energy, lower-frequency pulses than the Femto cimer laser (similar to a mechanical microkeratome),
LDV laser. The VisuMax falls somewhere in the middle. which obviates the need to move the patient or the bed
Higher-energy pulses allow greater spacing between (although this may be required under the Visx Star S4
spots, because the expanding gas bubbles drive the cut- Laser System [Advanced Medical Optics, Inc.]).

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TABLE 1. TECHNICAL FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL FEMTOSECOND LASERS

IntraLase FS Femtec VisuMax Femto LDV

Concept Amplifier Amplifier Fiber amplifier Oscillator

Wavelength 1,040 nm 1,040 nm 1,040 nm 1,040 nm

Pulse width >500 femtoseconds >500 femtoseconds 220 to 580 femto- ~250 femtoseconds
seconds

Spot size >1 µm >1 µm ~1 µm <1 µm

Repetition rate 60 to150 kHz ~10 to 80 kHz ~200 kHz ~MHz

Pulse energy ~0.8 to 1.0 microJoules >1.0 microJoules <1.0 microJoules some microJoules

Operation speed Between 8 and 30 seconds 1 minute Between 20 and <40 seconds
(at 9.5 mm) 60 seconds

Surface quality Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent

Cutting geometry/ Very high High Very high Limited

flexibility

Size, mobility Bulky, fixed Bulky, fixed Very bulky, fixed Very small, mobile

Environmental Constant temperature/ Constant temperature/ Room temperature/ Room temperature/

requirements humidity humidity humidity can vary humidity can vary

Clinical experience >1 million eyes Not available ~5,000 eyes ~5,000 eyes

A comparative disadvantage of the Femto LDV unit is shield determines the depth of the cut.
that, as with a mechanical microkeratome, surgeons can- Whereas the IntraLase FS uses manual suction for
not visualize the cornea during the flap’s creation, al- corneal applanation and the Femto LDV features com-
though they can halt the process and move the prism to puter-controlled suction and applanation with glass,
view the progress of the midcut. The unit also has the the Femtec and VisuMax utilize computer-controlled
fewest programmable features (such as the flap’s diame- vacuum and spherical suction interfaces with the cor-
ter, centration, hinge, and side-cut angle). Although it can nea. As a result, the Femtec and VisuMax minimize
produce a larger-diameter flap than the IntraLase FS, the corneal distortion and allow patients to visualize a fix-
current Femto LDV is the only femtosecond laser system ation light throughout the entire procedure. The
that does not create a vertical cut (although future itera- VisuMax system optically measures the thickness of
tions may incorporate a servomotor that could accom- the various sizes of curved contact interfaces prior to
plish this). Thus, it produces a planar flap with a tapered each procedure, in an effort to minimize potential out-
edge, which may be easier to lift if a retreatment is need- liers in flap thickness. This technique is performed
ed than the “manhole cover” edge or selectable rim because variations in optical or physical spacers used
angles produced by other femtosecond devices. With the in the different femtosecond lasers may still fall within
Femto LDV, an optical spacing element called an inter- a manufacturer’s specifications. Rather than the differ-

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REFRACTIVE SURGERY FEATURE STORY

ent raster patterns used by the IntraLase and Femto studies of lenticular extraction with the femtosecond laser.
LDV, the Femtec employs a 3D spiraling laser pattern, This involves making two lamellar cuts with a femtosecond
which allows any of the opaque bubbles created to laser to create an intrastromal lenticle of defined shape,
move to the periphery and quickly dissipate. The which the surgeon removes. Ophthalmologists have used
IntraLase permits surgeons to program a pocket to the VisuMax in this fashion for myopic treatments. They cre-
facilitate the egress of the opaque bubble layer, which ate a huge optical zone and a slightly prolate cornea without
may interfere with eye tracking by the excimer laser. any need for the excimer laser ablation of tissue.
The lower energy of the VisuMax and Femto LDV sys- Luis A. Ruiz, MD, in Bogotá, Colombia, took this pro-
tems generally does not create an opaque bubble layer. cedure one step further with the Femtec laser. With a
single intrastromal ablation, he performed a presbyopic
EXPANDING APPLICATIONS treatment based on the refractive properties as well as
Whereas the first-generation Femto LDV functions the individual biomechanical and geometrical corneal
primarily as a femto-based flap maker, the other units properties predicted by finite element analysis of the
with more programmable features and flexible cutting cornea.7 Additional (and potentially less invasive) appli-
in the z-plane represent a more versatile corneal work- cations of femtosecond lasers for glaucoma and cataract
station. The IntraLase and Femtec have expanded appli- surgery as well as presbyopic lens surgery are likely in
cations, including the creation of tunnels for intrastro- the future. ■
mal ring segments. The IntraLase has also been used to
obtain corneal biopsies in cases of infectious keratitis Jay S. Pepose, MD, PhD, is Professor of Clinical
and to create flaps with edges that resemble a top hat. Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences at the
The latter reportedly facilitate wound healing and mini- Washington University School of Medicine, and
mize postoperative astigmatism after corneal transplan- he is Director of the Pepose Vision Institute in
tation.6 The VisuMax and Femtec also now have appli- St. Louis. He acknowledged no financial interest
cations in femto-assisted lamellar and penetrating ker- in the products or companies mentioned herein.
atoplasty as well as forms of endothelial keratoplasty. Dr. Pepose may be reached at (636) 728-0111;
Carl Zeiss Meditec, Inc., pioneered preliminary clinical jpepose@peposevision.com.
Holger Lubatschowski, PhD, is Head of
Biomedical Optics Department, Laser Zentrum
Hannover e.V., Hannover, Germany. He receives
research funds from Ziemer Ophthalmic
Systems Group but acknowledged no financial
interest in any of the products or other companies men-
tioned herein. Professor Lubatschowski may be reached at
+49 511 2788 279; h.lubatschowski@lzh.de.

1. Sugar A. Ultrafast (femtosecond) laser refractive surgery. Curr Opin Ophthalmol.

2002;13:246-249.
2. Lubatschowski H. Overview of commercially available femtosecond lasers in refractive sur-
gery. J Refract Surg. 2008;24:S102-S107.
3. Heisterkamp A, Ripken T, Mamom T, et al. Nonlinear side effects of fs-pulses inside corneal
tissue during photodisruption. Appl Phys B. 2004;74:1-7.
4. Lubatschowski H, Maatz G, Heisterkamp A, et al. Application of ultrashort laser pulses for
intrastromal refractive surgery. Graefe’s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2000;238:33-39.
5. Binder PS, Sarayba M, Ignacio T, Juhasz T, et al. Characterization of submicrojoule fem-
tosecond laser corneal tissue dissection. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2008;34:146-152.
6. Seitz B, Brünner H, Viestenz A, Hofmann-Rummelt C, et al. Inverse mushroom-shaped
nonmechanical penetrating keratoplasty using a femtosecond laser. Am J Ophthalmol.
2005;139:941-944.
7. Ruiz LA. Preliminary clinical results of non-invasive, intrastromal correction of presbyopia
using the FEMTEC femtosecond laser system. Paper presented at the Royal Hawaii Eye
Meeting; January 23, 2008; Hawaii.